PRAXIS STUDY SESSION 1:ESL Theory and Language Acquisition

Amy CuleyNorthwest Middle School

amculey@kckps.org

Krashen Theory ofSecond Language Acquisition

• The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis• The Natural Order Hypothesis• The Monitor Hypothesis• The Input Hypothesis• The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Stephen Krashen

1. Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis• There are two independent systems of second

language performance– The Acquired System (Acquisition): an intuitive,

subconscious process very similar to how a child acquires their first language. Requires meaningful interactions in the target language. The emphasis is on the act of communication.

– The Learned System (Learning): a product of formal instruction; a conscious learning process where learners focus on the form and rules of a language, resulting in a conscious knowledge base of language

• According to Krashen’s theory, learning is less important than acquisition.

2. Natural Order Hypothesis• This hypothesis is based on research findings that

suggest the acquisition of the grammatical structures of a language follow a predictable natural order. This order is independent of a learner’s age, L1 background, exposure, etc.

• Krashen states that the implication here is not that language teaching materials should be arranged according to this sequence, but rather than acquisition is subconscious and free from conscious intervention.

3. Monitor Hypothesis• Stephen Krashen’s theory is based on the belief that

fluency in a second language comes from what we have “acquired”, not what we have “learned”. In order to communicate effectively therefore, the focus should be more on acquiring language and less on learning it.

• Krashen’s Monitor hypothesis is connected to the process of learning, rather than acquisition. The monitor edits and makes correction during the production of language and according to Krashen, should have a minor role in achieving fluency. It requires time and a focus on how something is said, rather than its meaning.

4. Input Hypothesis• This hypothesis is related to acquisition, not learning.

Krashen theorizes that people acquire language best by being exposed to materials that are slightly beyond their current level of competence. He uses the phrase comprehensible input (i +1) to explain this. The i stands for the student’s current level of language input and the +1 for their next stage of language acquisition.

• As students are not necessarily on the same level at all times, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is key to ensuring that each learner is exposed to some language input (i +1) that is appropriate for his/her current stage of acquisition.

Group Conversations

• How can we meet the i + 1?

• How do we adapt for students of different levels and still meet the i + 1?

• What does Krashen mean when he says that “natural communicative input” is necessary?

5. Affective Filter Hypothesis• Krashen believes that a number of “affective

variables” can play a significant role in second language acquisition. These include motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, among others.

• Krashen states that learners with high motivation, self-confidence and low anxiety are better equipped to experience success in second langauge acquisition, as their affective filter is low, thus making them more open to the input language and are thus able to interact with greater confidence.

• Similarly, low self-esteem, lack of motivation, and high anxiety or stress can raise the affective filter, thus impeding language acquisition.

Group Conversations

• How can we lower the affective filter for our students?

Noam Chomsky’s Theories• According to Chomsky, language development in

children occurs as the result of genetics and an innate understanding of language and grammar. He theorizes that children have a “Language Acquisition Device” (LAD) in their brains that is pre-programmed to recognize and learn the rules that govern a language.

• Chomsky also identifies a critical period during which children acquire language, which spans from birth to puberty. If children are therefore, exposed to multiple languages during this critical period, they will usually develop multilingual skills.

Communicative Language Theory

• The communicative language approach is based on the idea that language learners will acquire language faster in real-life scenarios.

• This teaching methodology involves providing students with real-life situations that require communication by the participants..

• Classroom activities are student-focused, with student performance as the goal. Teachers will act more as facilitators and will talk less, allowing students more opportunities for participation.

Cognitive Theory

• This theory sees second language acquisition as a conscious, reasoned thinking process involving the deliberate use of learning strategies.

• As learners build up knowledge of a language and practice the use of that language, they will be able to access certain parts of their knowledge very quickly. This use will eventually become automatic and learners then are able to focus on other aspects of the language.

Behavioral Theory

• B.F. Skinner, main theorist• According to Skinner, language is a process of

imitation and reinforcement.• He believed that children were a clean slate and

that language learning occurred as language habits were printed upon these slates. Language acquisition, therefore, is a process of experience, a conditioned behavior.

• Language was acquired through stimulus, response, feedback, and reinforcement.

Stages of Second Language Acquisition

Stage & Approximate Time Frame* Characteristics

Preproduction0-6 months in school

• Minimal comprehension• Non-verbal responses

Early Production6 months – 1 year in school

• Limited comprehension• One or two word responses

Low Intermediate / Speech Emergence1-3 years in school

• Speaking in short phrases, simple sentences• Frequent mistakes in grammar, word order

and usageHigh Intermediate Fluency / Int. Flueny3-5 years in school

• Developing academic & figurative language• Excellent comprehension• Makes fewer grammar mistakes

Advanced Fluency5-7 years in school

• Near-native level of speech• Advanced skills in cognitive & academic

language

*Research shows that lack of L1 skills and/or previous schooling can cause these time frames to lengthen significantly.

Stages of SpellingStage Characteristics

Precommunicative Spelling

EX: OpIF = eagle

• Uses letters, but are random• May use both upper and lowercase letters• Does not write necessarily from left to right

Semiphonetic Spellers

EX: E = eagle

• Understands letter-sound correspondence• Letters used correspond with a sound heard• Often use abbreviated spellings with letters

for initial and/or final sounds heardPhonetic Spellers

EX: EGL = eagle

• Spells words the way they sound• Spelling may be unconventional• Spelling represents all sounds heard

Transitional Spellers

EX: EGIL = eagle

• Moves to assimilated conventions• Uses memory of spelling patterns

Conventional Spellers • Develop over years of study and writing• Spelling skills reflect the level of study of the

writer (e.g., a 4th grader is able to spell words an average 4th grader can spell.)

Jim Cummins• BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills)– Language skills necessary for social situations– Day-to-day language needed to interact socially with

others– ELLs use BIC skills while on the playground, in the lunch

room, etc. Social interactions are context embedded and occur in a meaningful social context.

– BIC skills are not very demanding cognitively as the language required is not specialized.

– BICS usually develop within six months to two years after arrival in the U.S.

– Problems occur when teachers and administrators mistake a student’s social language proficiency for evidence that the student has also achieved Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

Jim Cummins cont.• CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency)– Academic language skills necessary to succeed in school.

Includes listening, speaking, reading and writing about subject area content material.

– In addition to vocabulary, CALP includes the abilities to compare, classify, synthesize, evaluate and infer.

– As students grow, the context of academic tasks become reduced. The language also becomes more demanding cognitively. New ideas, concepts and vocabulary are presented to the student at the same time.

– CALP takes significantly longer than BICS to develop – typically between 5-7 years. However, research shows that if a child has no prior school or has no support in native language development, it may take seven to ten years for ELLs to catch up with their peers.

Jim Cummins cont.• CUP (Common Underlying Proficiency)– L1 and L2 processes do not function independently of each

other; they each operate from the same system– Previous schooling, academic knowledge and literacy skills in L!

are strong determiners for proficiency in L2

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)• Vygotsky developed this theory. While Vygotsky

never used this word, ZPD is synonymous with scaffolding. This theory involves teaching the child at a level directly above their independent level.

VOCAB TERMS• CODE SWITCHING – alternating between two or

more languages, dialects or registers in a single conversation. EX: Mi abuelita is coming to visit manana.

• NEGATIVE TRANSFER – applying the rules of syntax (the rules surrounding the arrangement of words in a sentence) from the first language to the second language. EX: I have a car blue.

• FOSSILIZATION – the point past which language learners cannot progress without exceptional effort.

Laws / Legal Cases

• Castaneda v. Pickard – 1978 Texas– Segregation of ELLs only permissed when the

benefits of eliminating language barriers outweigh the adverse effects of segregation

• Lau v. Nichols – 1974 California– Cannot discriminate based on language and must

provide appropriate educational accommodations to non-English speakers. Sued under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act

Laws / Legal Cases cont.• Title VI – Civil Rights Act - 1964– If a program receives federal funds, that program

may not exclude from participation, deny benefits, or otherwise subject to discrimination any individual based on their race, color or national origin

– Prohibits denial of equal access because of limited English proficiency. Specifically prohibits programs that don’t teach English as soon as possible and Dead End Track programs

– Requires that parents receive information in a language they understand

– Prohibits SPED classification based solely on inability to speak English

Laws / Legal Cases cont.• Equal Education Opportunities Act of 1974– Requires schools to design language programs that will

work toward eliminating language barriers in schools, thus ensuring equal participation by all students

• Plyler v. Doe -1982– Prohibits states from denying a free public education

to undocumented children.– Prohibits schools from requesting documentation of

legal status (K-12)– Some states are now allowed to pass statutes denying

undocumented students eligibility for in-state tuition, scholarships, etc. Some even bar these students from enrollment at public colleges and universities.

Laws / Legal Cases cont.• No Child Left Behind / Title III– NCLB consolidated the Bilingual Education Act and the

Emergency Immigrant Education program (formerly under Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act) into the new Title III, titled English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act. Title III is part of the NCLB Act of 2001.

– This act specifically targets Limited English Proficient students, requiring that they • Develop and reach English language proficiency• Attain high levels of academic achievement in core content

areas• Meet the same academic and achievement standards that

other students are expected to meet