PraiseforGrit:ThePowerofPassionandPerseverance

“Profoundlyimportant.Foreons,we’vebeentrappedinsidethemythofinnatetalent.AngelaDuckworthshinesabrightlightintoatruerunderstandingofhowweachieve.Weoweheragreatdebt.”

—DavidShenk,authorofTheGeniusinAllofUs:NewInsightsintoGenetics,Talent,andIQ

“Enlightening...Gritteachesthatlife’shighpeaksaren’tnecessarilyconqueredby the naturally nimble but, rather, by those willing to endure, wait out thestorm,andtryagain.”

—EdViesturs,seven-timeclimberofMountEverestandauthorofNoShortcutstotheTop

“Masterful...Gritoffersatrulysaneperspective:thattruesuccesscomeswhenwedevoteourselvestoendeavorsthatgiveusjoyandpurpose.”

—AriannaHuffington,authorofThrive

“Readable,compelling,and totallypersuasive.The ideas in thisbookhave thepotential to transform education, management, and the way its readers live.AngelaDuckworth’sGritisanationaltreasure.”

—LawrenceH.Summers,formersecretaryofthetreasuryandPresidentEmeritusatHarvardUniversity

“Fascinating. Angela Duckworth pulls together decades of psychologicalresearch,inspiringsuccessstoriesfrombusinessandsports,andherownuniquepersonal experience and distills it all into a set of practical strategies tomakeyourselfandyourchildrenmoremotivated,morepassionate,andmorepersistentatworkandatschool.”

—PaulTough,authorofHowChildrenSucceed

“Athoughtfulandengagingexplorationofwhatpredictssuccess.Grit takesonwidespreadmisconceptions and predictors ofwhatmakes us strive harder andpushfurther...Duckworth’sownstory,woundthroughoutherresearch,endsupdemonstratinghertheorybest:passionandperseverancemakeupgrit.”

—ToryBurch,chairman,CEOanddesignerofToryBurch

“An important book . . . In these pages, the leading scholarly expert on thepowerofgrit(whatmymomcalled‘stick-to-it-iveness’)carrieshermessagetoa

wider audience, using apt anecdotes and aphorisms to illustrate how we canusefullyapplyherinsightstoourownlivesandthoseofourkids.”

—RobertD.Putnam,professorofpublicpolicyatHarvardUniversityandauthorofBowlingAloneandOurKids

“Empowering . . . Angela Duckworth compels attention with her idea thatregularindividualswhoexerciseself-controlandperseverancecanreachashighas thosewhoarenaturally talented—thatyourmindset is as importantasyourmind.”

—SoledadO’Brien,chairmanofStarfishMediaGroupandformercoanchorofCNN’sAmericanMorning

“Invaluable . . . In aworldwhere access to knowledge is unprecedented, thisbook describes the key trait of thosewhowill optimally take advantage of it.Gritwillinspireeveryonewhoreadsittosticktosomethinghardthattheyhaveapassionfor.”

—SalKhan,founderofKhanAcademy

“IloveanideathatchallengesourconventionalwisdomandGritdoesjustthat!Put aside what you think you know about getting ahead and outlasting yourcompetition, even if theyaremore talented.Getting smarterwon’thelpyou—stickingwithitwill!”

—SimonSinek,authorofStartWithWhyandLeadersEatLast

“Incrediblyimportant...Thereisdeeplyembodiedgrit,whichisbornoflove,purpose, truth to one’s core under ferocious heat, and a relentless passion forwhat can only be revealed on the razor’s edge; and there is the cool, patient,disciplined cultivation and study of resilience that can teach us all how to getthere.AngelaDuckworth’smasterpiecestraddlesbothworlds,offeringalevelofnuancethatIhaven’treadbefore.”

—JoshWaitzkin,internationalchessmaster,TaiChiPushHandsworldchampion,andauthorofTheArtofLearning

“A combination of rich science, compelling stories, crisp graceful prose, andappealingly personal examples . . . Without a doubt, this is the mosttransformative,eye-openingbookI’vereadthisyear.”

—SonjaLyubomirsky,professor,UniversityofCalifornia,RiversideandauthorofTheHowofHappiness

“Thisbookgetsintoyourhead,whichiswhereitbelongs...Foreducatorswhowantourkidstosucceed,thisisanindispensableread.”

—JoelKlein,formerchancellor,NewYorkCitypublicschools

“Grit delivers! Angela Duckworth shares the stories, the science, and thepositivitybehindsustainedsuccess...Amust-read.”

—BarbaraFredrickson,authorofPositivityandLove2.0andpresidentoftheInternationalPositivePsychologyAssociation

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CONTENTS

PREFACE

PARTI:WHATGRITISANDWHYITMATTERSCHAPTER1:SHOWINGUPCHAPTER2:DISTRACTEDBYTALENTCHAPTER3:EFFORTCOUNTSTWICECHAPTER4:HOWGRITTYAREYOU?CHAPTER5:GRITGROWS

PARTII:GROWINGGRITFROMTHEINSIDEOUTCHAPTER6:INTERESTCHAPTER7:PRACTICECHAPTER8:PURPOSECHAPTER9:HOPE

PARTIII:GROWINGGRITFROMTHEOUTSIDEINCHAPTER10:PARENTINGFORGRITCHAPTER11:THEPLAYINGFIELDSOFGRITCHAPTER12:ACULTUREOFGRITCHAPTER13:CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSRECOMMENDEDREADINGABOUTTHEAUTHORNOTESINDEX

ForJason

PREFACE

Growingup,Iheardthewordgeniusalot.Itwasalwaysmydadwhobroughtitup.Helikedtosay,aproposofnothing

at all, “Youknow, you’re no genius!”This pronouncementmight come in themiddle of dinner, during a commercial break for The Love Boat, or after hefloppeddownonthecouchwiththeWallStreetJournal.

Idon’trememberhowIresponded.MaybeIpretendednottohear.Mydad’sthoughtsturnedfrequentlytogenius,talent,andwhohadmorethan

whom. He was deeply concerned with how smart he was. He was deeplyconcernedwithhowsmarthisfamilywas.

Iwasn’t theonlyproblem.Mydaddidn’t thinkmybrother and sisterweregeniuses, either. By his yardstick, none of us measured up to Einstein.Apparently, thiswas a great disappointment.Dadworried that this intellectualhandicapwouldlimitwhatwe’deventuallyachieveinlife.

Two years ago, I was fortunate enough to be awarded a MacArthurFellowship, sometimes called the “genius grant.” You don’t apply for theMacArthur.Youdon’taskyourfriendsorcolleaguestonominateyou.Instead,asecretcommitteethatincludesthetoppeopleinyourfielddecidesyou’redoingimportantandcreativework.

When I received the unexpected call tellingme the news,my first reactionwasoneofgratitudeandamazement.Thenmy thoughts turned tomydadandhisoffhanddiagnosesofmyintellectualpotential.Hewasn’twrong;Ididn’twinthe MacArthur because I’m leagues smarter than my fellow psychologists.Instead,hehadtherightanswer(“No,she’snot”)tothewrongquestion(“Issheagenius?”).

There was about a month between the MacArthur call and its officialannouncement.Apartfrommyhusband,Iwasn’tpermittedtotellanyone.Thatgavemetimetopondertheironyofthesituation.Agirlwhoistoldrepeatedlythatshe’snogeniusendsupwinninganawardforbeingone.Theawardgoestoherbecauseshehasdiscoveredthatwhatweeventuallyaccomplishmaydepend

moreonourpassionandperseverancethanonourinnatetalent.Shehasbythenamassed degrees from some pretty tough schools, but in the third grade, shedidn’t test high enough for the gifted and talented program. Her parents areChinese immigrants,but shedidn’tget lecturedon thesalvationofhardwork.Againststereotype,shecan’tplayanoteofpianoorviolin.

Themorning theMacArthurwas announced, Iwalked over tomy parents’apartment.Mymom and dad had already heard the news, and so had several“aunties,”whowerecallinginrapidsuccessiontooffercongratulations.Finally,whenthephonestoppedringing,mydadturnedtomeandsaid,“I’mproudofyou.”

Ihadsomuchtosayinresponse,butinsteadIjustsaid,“Thanks,Dad.”Therewasnosenserehashingthepast.Iknewthat,infact,hewasproudof

me.Still,partofmewantedtotravelbackintimetowhenIwasayounggirl.I’d

tellhimwhatIknownow.Iwouldsay,“Dad,yousayI’mnogenius.Iwon’targuewiththat.Youknow

plentyofpeoplewhoaresmarterthanIam.”Icanimaginehisheadnoddinginsoberagreement.

“But letme tell you something. I’m going to growup to lovemyworkasmuchasyouloveyours.Iwon’tjusthaveajob;I’llhaveacalling.I’llchallengemyselfeveryday.WhenIgetknockeddown,I’llgetbackup.Imaynotbethesmartestpersonintheroom,butI’llstrivetobethegrittiest.”

Andifhewasstilllistening:“Inthelongrun,Dad,gritmaymattermorethantalent.”

Alltheseyearslater,Ihavethescientificevidencetoprovemypoint.What’smore, Iknowthatgrit ismutable,not fixed,andIhave insights fromresearchabouthowtogrowit.

ThisbooksummarizeseverythingI’velearnedaboutgrit.WhenIfinishedwritingit, Iwent tovisitmydad.Chapterbychapter,over

thecourseofdays,Ireadhimeveryline.He’sbeenbattlingParkinson’sdiseasefor the last decade or so, and I’m not entirely sure howmuch he understood.Still,heseemedtobelisteningintently,andwhenIwasdone,helookedatme.Afterwhatfeltlikeaneternity,henoddedonce.Andthenhesmiled.

PartI

WHATGRITISANDWHYITMATTERS

Chapter1

SHOWINGUP

BythetimeyousetfootonthecampusoftheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyatWestPoint,you’veearnedit.

TheadmissionsprocessforWestPointisatleastasrigorousasforthemostselective universities. Top scores on the SAT or ACT and outstanding highschoolgradesareamust.ButwhenyouapplytoHarvard,youdon’tneedtostartyour application in the eleventh grade, and you don’t need to secure anominationfromamemberofCongress,asenator,or thevicepresidentof theUnited States. You don’t, for that matter, have to get superlative marks in afitnessassessmentthatincludesrunning,push-ups,sit-ups,andpull-ups.

Each year, in their junior year of high school,more than 14,000 applicantsbegintheadmissionsprocess.Thispooliswinnowedtojust4,000whosucceedingettingtherequirednomination.Slightlymorethanhalfofthoseapplicants—about2,500—meetWestPoint’srigorousacademicandphysicalstandards,andfromthatselectgroupjust1,200areadmittedandenrolled.Nearlyall themenand women who come to West Point were varsity athletes; most were teamcaptains.

And yet, one in five cadets will drop out before graduation. What’s moreremarkable is that,historically, a substantial fractionofdropouts leave in theirveryfirstsummer,duringanintensiveseven-weektrainingprogramnamed,eveninofficialliterature,BeastBarracks.Or,forshort,justBeast.

Whospendstwoyearstryingtogetintoaplaceandthendropsoutinthefirsttwomonths?

Then again, these are no ordinary months. Beast is described in theWestPoint handbook for new cadets as “the most physically and emotionallydemandingpartofyourfouryearsatWestPoint...designedtohelpyoumakethetransitionfromnewcadettoSoldier.”

ATypicalDayatBeastBarracks

5:00a.m. Wake-up

5:30a.m. ReveilleFormation

5:30to6:55a.m. PhysicalTraining

6:55to7:25a.m. PersonalMaintenance

7:30to8:15a.m. Breakfast

8:30to12:45p.m. Training/Classes

1:00to1:45p.m. Lunch

2:00to3:45p.m. Training/Classes

4:00to5:30p.m. OrganizedAthletics

5:30to5:55p.m. PersonalMaintenance

6:00to6:45p.m. Dinner

7:00to9:00p.m. Training/Classes

9:00to10:00p.m. Commander’sTime

10:00p.m. Taps

The day begins at 5:00 a.m. By 5:30, cadets are in formation, standing atattention, honoring the raising of the United States flag. Then follows a hardworkout—runningorcalisthenics—followedbyanonstoprotationofmarchinginformation,classroominstruction,weaponstraining,andathletics.Lightsout,toamelancholybuglesongcalled“Taps,”occursat10:00p.m.Andonthenextdaytheroutinestartsoveragain.Oh,andtherearenoweekends,nobreaksotherthan meals, and virtually no contact with family and friends outside ofWestPoint.

Onecadet’sdescriptionofBeast:“Youarechallengedinavarietyofwaysinevery developmental area—mentally, physically, militarily, and socially. Thesystem will find your weaknesses, but that’s the point—West Point toughensyou.”

So,whomakesitthroughBeast?Itwas2004andmysecondyearofgraduateschoolinpsychologywhenIset

aboutansweringthatquestion,butfordecades,theU.S.Armyhasbeenaskingthe same thing. In fact, it was in 1955—almost fifty years before I beganworking on this puzzle—that a young psychologist named Jerry Kagan wasdraftedintothearmy,orderedtoreporttoWestPoint,andassignedtotestnewcadetsforthepurposeofidentifyingwhowouldstayandwhowouldleave.As

fatewouldhave it, Jerrywasnotonly the firstpsychologist to studydroppingoutatWestPoint,hewasalsothefirstpsychologistImetincollege.Iendedupworkingpart-timeinhislabfortwoyears.

Jerry described early efforts to separate the wheat from the chaff at WestPointasdramaticallyunsuccessful.Herecalledinparticularspendinghundredsofhoursshowingcadetscardsprintedwithpicturesandaskingtheyoungmentomake up stories to fit them. This test was meant to unearth deep-seated,unconsciousmotives,andthegeneralideawasthatcadetswhovisualizednobledeedsandcourageousaccomplishmentsshouldbetheoneswhowouldgraduateinsteadofdroppingout.Likealotofideasthatsoundgoodinprinciple,thisonedidn’tworksowellinpractice.Thestoriesthecadetstoldwerecolorfulandfuntolistento,buttheyhadabsolutelynothingtodowithdecisionsthecadetsmadeintheiractuallives.

Sincethen,severalmoregenerationsofpsychologistsdevotedthemselvestothe attrition issue, but not one researcher could say withmuch certainty whysome of themost promising cadets routinely quitwhen their training had justbegun.

Soon after learning about Beast, I found my way to the office of MikeMatthews,amilitarypsychologistwho’sbeenaWestPointfacultymemberforyears. Mike explained that the West Point admissions process successfullyidentifiedmenandwomenwhohad thepotential to thrive there. Inparticular,admissions staff calculate for each applicant something called the WholeCandidateScore,aweightedaverageofSATorACTexamscores,highschoolrank adjusted for the number of students in the applicant’s graduating class,expertappraisalsofleadershippotential,andperformanceonobjectivemeasuresofphysicalfitness.

You can think of theWholeCandidate Score asWest Point’s best guess athowmuchtalentapplicantshaveforthediverserigorsofitsfour-yearprogram.Inotherwords,it’sanestimateofhoweasilycadetswillmasterthemanyskillsrequiredofamilitaryleader.

TheWholeCandidateScoreisthesinglemostimportantfactorinWestPointadmissions,andyetitdidn’treliablypredictwhowouldmakeitthroughBeast.In fact, cadetswith thehighestWholeCandidateScoreswere just as likely todropoutas thosewith the lowest.And thiswaswhyMike’sdoorwasopen tome.

Fromhisownexperience joining theair forceasayoungman,Mikehadacluetotheriddle.Whiletherigorsofhisinductionweren’tquiteasharrowingasthose ofWest Point, therewere notable similarities. Themost importantwerechallengesthatexceededcurrentskills.Forthefirsttimeintheirlives,Mikeand

the other recruits were being asked, on an hourly basis, to do things theycouldn’t yet do. “Within two weeks,” Mike recalls, “I was tired, lonely,frustrated,andreadytoquit—aswereallofmyclassmates.”

Somedidquit,butMikedidnot.What struckMikewas that rising to theoccasionhadalmostnothing todo

withtalent.Thosewhodroppedoutoftrainingrarelydidsofromlackofability.Rather,whatmattered,Mikesaid,wasa“nevergiveup”attitude.

Aroundthattime,itwasn’tjustMikeMatthewswhowastalkingtomeaboutthiskind of hang-in-there posture toward challenge. As a graduate student justbeginning to probe the psychology of success, I was interviewing leaders inbusiness, art, athletics, journalism, academia,medicine, and law:Who are thepeople at the very top of your field?What are they like?What do you thinkmakesthemspecial?

Someofthecharacteristicsthatemergedintheseinterviewswereveryfield-specific.For instance,more thanonebusinesspersonmentionedanappetitefortakingfinancialrisks:“You’vegottobeabletomakecalculateddecisionsaboutmillionsofdollarsandstillgotosleepatnight.”Butthisseemedentirelybesidethe point for artists, who insteadmentioned a drive to create: “I likemakingstuff. I don’t knowwhy, but I do.” In contrast, athletesmentioned a differentkindofmotivation,onedrivenbythethrillofvictory:“Winnerslovetogohead-to-headwithotherpeople.Winnershatelosing.”

In addition to these particulars, there emerged certain commonalities, andthey were what interested me most. No matter the field, the most successfulpeoplewereluckyandtalented.I’dheardthatbefore,andIdidn’tdoubtit.

Butthestoryofsuccessdidn’tendthere.ManyofthepeopleItalkedtocouldalsorecounttalesofrisingstarswho,toeveryone’ssurprise,droppedoutorlostinterestbeforetheycouldrealizetheirpotential.

Apparently, itwas critically important—and not at all easy—to keep goingafter failure: “Somepeoplearegreatwhen thingsaregoingwell, but they fallapartwhen things aren’t.”High achievers described in these interviews reallystuckitout:“Thisoneguy,hewasn’tactuallythebestwriteratthebeginning.Imean,weusedtoreadhisstoriesandhavealaughbecausethewritingwasso,youknow,clumsyandmelodramatic.Buthegotbetterandbetter,andlastyearhewon aGuggenheim.”And theywere constantly driven to improve: “She’snever satisfied.You’d think shewouldbe,bynow,but she’sherownharshestcritic.”Thehighlyaccomplishedwereparagonsofperseverance.

Whywere the highly accomplished so dogged in their pursuits? Formost,therewasnorealisticexpectationofevercatchinguptotheirambitions.Intheirowneyes,theywerenevergoodenough.Theyweretheoppositeofcomplacent.And yet, in a very real sense, theywere satisfied being unsatisfied.Eachwaschasingsomethingofunparalleledinterestandimportance,anditwasthechase—asmuchasthecapture—thatwasgratifying.Evenifsomeofthethingstheyhad todowereboring,or frustrating,or evenpainful, theywouldn’tdreamofgivingup.Theirpassionwasenduring.

Insum,nomatter thedomain, thehighlysuccessfulhadakindofferociousdeterminationthatplayedoutintwoways.First,theseexemplarswereunusuallyresilientandhardworking.Second,theyknewinavery,verydeepwaywhatitwastheywanted.Theynotonlyhaddetermination,theyhaddirection.

Itwasthiscombinationofpassionandperseverancethatmadehighachieversspecial.Inaword,theyhadgrit.

Forme, the question became:How do youmeasure something so intangible?Somethingthatdecadesofmilitarypsychologistshadn’tbeenabletoquantify?Something those very successful people I’d interviewed said they couldrecognizeonsight,butcouldn’tthinkofhowtodirectlytestfor?

I sat down and looked over my interview notes. And I started writingquestions that captured, sometimes verbatim, descriptions ofwhat itmeans tohavegrit.

Half of the questionswere about perseverance.They asked howmuch youagreewith statements like“Ihaveovercomesetbacks toconqueran importantchallenge”and“IfinishwhateverIbegin.”

Theotherhalfofthequestionswereaboutpassion.Theyaskedwhetheryour“interests change from year to year” and the extent towhich you “have beenobsessedwithacertainideaorprojectforashorttimebutlaterlostinterest.”

WhatemergedwastheGritScale—atestthat,whentakenhonestly,measurestheextenttowhichyouapproachlifewithgrit.

InJuly2004,ontheseconddayofBeast,1,218WestPointcadetssatdowntotaketheGritScale.

Thedaybefore,cadetshadsaidgood-byetotheirmomsanddads(afarewellforwhichWestPointallocatesexactlyninetyseconds),gottentheirheadsshaved(just themen), changed out of civilian clothing and into the famous gray andwhite West Point uniform, and received their footlockers, helmets, and other

gear.Though theymayhavemistakenly thought they already knewhow, theywereinstructedbyafourth-yearcadetintheproperwaytostandinline(“Stepuptomyline!Notonmyline,notovermyline,notbehindmyline.Stepuptomyline!”).

Initially,Ilookedtoseehowgritscoreslinedupwithaptitude.Guesswhat?Grit scoresboreabsolutelyno relationship to theWholeCandidateScores thathad been so painstakingly calculated during the admissions process. In otherwords,howtalentedacadetwassaidnothingabouttheirgrit,andviceversa.

TheseparationofgritfromtalentwasconsistentwithMike’sobservationsofair force training,butwhen I first stumbledonto this finding it cameasa realsurprise. After all, why shouldn’t the talented endure? Logically, the talentedshouldstickaroundandtryhard,becausewhentheydo,theydophenomenallywell.AtWestPoint,forexample,amongcadetswhoultimatelymakeitthroughBeast,theWholeCandidateScoreisamarvelouspredictorofeverymetricWestPoint tracks. It not only predicts academic grades, but military and physicalfitnessmarksaswell.

Soit’ssurprising,really,thattalentisnoguaranteeofgrit.Inthisbook,we’llexplorethereasonswhy.

BythelastdayofBeast,seventy-onecadetshaddroppedout.Grit turned out to be an astoundingly reliable predictor of who made it

throughandwhodidnot.Thenextyear,IreturnedtoWestPointtorunthesamestudy.Thistime,sixty-

twocadetsdroppedoutofBeast,andagaingritpredictedwhowouldstay.In contrast, stayers and leavers had indistinguishable Whole Candidate

Scores. I looked a little closer at the individual components thatmake up thescore.Again,nodifferences.

So,whatmattersformakingitthroughBeast?Not your SAT scores, not your high school rank, not your leadership

experience,notyourathleticability.NotyourWholeCandidateScore.Whatmattersisgrit.

DoesgritmatterbeyondWestPoint?Tofindout,Ilookedforothersituationssochallengingthatalotofpeopledropout.IwantedtoknowwhetheritwasjusttherigorsofBeastthatdemandedgrit,orwhether,ingeneral,grithelpedpeoplesticktotheircommitments.

Thenextarenawhere I testedgrit’spowerwassales,aprofession inwhichdaily,ifnothourly,rejectionisparforthecourse.Iaskedhundredsofmenandwomenemployedatthesamevacationtime-sharecompanytoanswerabatteryof personality questionnaires, including the Grit Scale. Six months later, Irevisitedthecompany,bywhichtime55percentofthesalespeopleweregone.Gritpredictedwhostayedandwholeft.Moreover,noothercommonlymeasuredpersonality trait—including extroversion, emotional stability, andconscientiousness—wasaseffectiveasgritinpredictingjobretention.

Around the same time, I received a call from the Chicago Public Schools.LikethepsychologistsatWestPoint,researcherstherewereeagertolearnmoreaboutthestudentswhowouldsuccessfullyearntheirhighschooldiplomas.Thatspring, thousands of high school juniors completed an abbreviatedGrit Scale,alongwithabatteryofotherquestionnaires.Morethanayearlater,12percentofthose students failed to graduate. Students who graduated on schedule weregrittier, and gritwas amore powerful predictor of graduation than howmuchstudents cared about school, how conscientious theywere about their studies,andevenhowsafetheyfeltatschool.

Likewise, in two largeAmerican samples, I found that grittier adults weremore likely to get further in their formal schooling. Adults who’d earned anMBA,PhD,MD,JD,oranothergraduatedegreeweregrittierthanthosewho’donly graduated from four-year colleges, who were in turn grittier than thosewho’d accumulated some college credits but no degree. Interestingly, adultswho’dsuccessfullyearneddegreesfromtwo-yearcollegesscoredslightlyhigherthangraduatesoffour-yearcolleges.Thispuzzledmeatfirst,butIsoonlearnedthatthedropoutratesatcommunitycollegescanbeashighas80percent.Thosewhodefytheoddsareespeciallygritty.

Inparallel,IstartedapartnershipwiththeArmySpecialOperationsForces,better known as the Green Berets. These are among the army’s best-trainedsoldiers,assignedsomeof the toughestandmostdangerousmissions.Trainingfor theGreenBerets isagrueling,multistageaffair.ThestageIstudiedcomesafternineweeksofbootcamp,fourweeksof infantry training, threeweeksofairborne school, and four weeks of a preparation course focused on landnavigation.Allthesepreliminarytrainingexperiencesarevery,veryhard,andatevery stage there aremenwho don’tmake it through.But the Special ForcesSelectionCourseisevenharder.Inthewordsofitscommandinggeneral,JamesParker, this is “where we decide who will and who will not” enter the finalstagesofGreenBerettraining.

The Selection Course makes Beast Barracks look like summer vacation.Starting before dawn, trainees go full-throttle until nine in the evening. In

additiontodaytimeandnighttimenavigationexercises,therearefour-andsix-milerunsandmarches,sometimesunderasixty-five-poundload,andattemptsatanobstaclecourseinformallyknownas“NastyNick,”whichincludescrawlingthroughwater under barbedwire,walking on elevated logs, negotiating cargonets,andswingingfromhorizontalladders.

Just getting to the SelectionCourse is an accomplishment, but even so, 42percentof thecandidates Istudiedvoluntarilywithdrewbefore itwasover.Sowhatdistinguishedthemenwhomadeitthrough?Grit.

What else, other than grit, predicts success in the military, education, andbusiness?Insales,Ifoundthatpriorexperiencehelps—novicesarelesslikelytokeeptheirjobsthanthosewithexperience.IntheChicagopublicschoolsystem,asupportiveteachermadeitmorelikelythatstudentswouldgraduate.Andforaspiring Green Berets, baseline physical fitness at the start of training isessential.

But in eachof thesedomains,whenyou comparepeoplematchedon thesecharacteristics, grit still predicts success. Regardless of specific attributes andadvantages that help someone succeed in each of these diverse domains ofchallenge,gritmattersinallofthem.

The year I started graduate school, the documentarySpellbound was released.ThefilmfollowsthreeboysandfivegirlsastheyprepareforandcompeteinthefinalsoftheScrippsNationalSpellingBee.Togettothefinals—anadrenaline-filledthree-dayaffairstagedannuallyinWashington,DC,andbroadcastliveonESPN,whichnormallyfocusesitsprogrammingonhigh-stakessportsmatchups—thesekidsmustfirst“outspell”thousandsofotherstudentsfromhundredsofschools across the country. This means spelling increasingly obscure wordswithoutasingleerror,inroundafterround,firstbestingalltheotherstudentsinthecontestant’sclassroom,thenintheirgrade,school,district,andregion.Spellbound gotmewondering: Towhat extent is flawlessly spellingwords

likeschottische and cymotrichous amatter of precocious verbal talent, and towhatextentisgritatplay?

I called the Bee’s executive director, a dynamic woman (and formerchampionspellerherself)namedPaigeKimble.KimblewasascuriousasIwasto learnmore about thepsychologicalmakeupofwinners.She agreed to sendoutquestionnairestoall273spellersjustassoonastheyqualifiedforthefinals,whichwouldtakeplaceseveralmonthslater.Inreturnfortheprincelyrewardofa$25giftcard,abouttwo-thirdsofthespellersreturnedthequestionnairestomy

lab.Theoldestrespondentwasfifteenyearsold,theabsoluteagelimitaccordingtocompetitionrules,andtheyoungestwasjustseven.

In addition to completing the Grit Scale, spellers reported howmuch timetheydevotedtospellingpractice.Onaverage,theypracticedmorethananhouradayonweekdaysandmorethantwohoursadayonweekends.Buttherewasalotofvariationaroundtheseaverages:somespellerswerehardlystudyingatall,andsomewerestudyingasmuchasninehoursonagivenSaturday!

Separately, I contacted a subsample of spellers and administered a verbalintelligence test. As a group, the spellers demonstrated unusual verbal ability.Buttherewasafairlywiderangeofscores,withsomekidsscoringattheverbalprodigylevelandothers“average”fortheirage.

WhenESPNairedthefinalroundsofthecompetition,Iwatchedallthewaythrough to theconcludingsuspensefulmomentswhen,at last, thirteen-year-oldAnuragKashyapcorrectly spelledA-P-P-O-G-G-I-A-T-U-R-A (amusical termforakindofgracenote)towinthechampionship.

Then,withthefinalrankingsinhand,Ianalyzedmydata.Here’s what I found: measurements of grit taken months before the final

competitionpredictedhowwellspellerswouldeventuallyperform.Putsimply,grittierkidswentfurtherincompetition.Howdidtheydoit?Bystudyingmanymorehoursand,also,bycompetinginmorespellingbees.

What about talent? Verbal intelligence also predicted getting further incompetition. But there was no relationship at all between verbal IQ and grit.What’smore, verbally talented spellers did not study anymore than less ablespellers,nordidtheyhavealongertrackrecordofcompetition.

Theseparationofgritand talentemergedagain inaseparatestudyI ranonIvyLeagueundergraduates.There,SATscoresandgritwere, in fact, inverselycorrelated.Students in that select samplewhohadhigherSATscoreswere,onaverage, just slightly less gritty than their peers. Putting together this findingwith the other data I’d collected, I came to a fundamental insight that wouldguidemy futurework:Ourpotential isone thing.Whatwedowith it is quiteanother.

Chapter2

DISTRACTEDBYTALENT

Before I was a psychologist, I was a teacher. It was in the classroom—yearsbeforeI’devenheardofBeast—thatIbegantoseethattalentisnotallthereistoachievement.

Iwastwenty-sevenwhenIstartedteachingfull-time.Themonthbefore,I’dquit my job at McKinsey, a global management consulting firm whose NewYorkCityofficeoccupiedseveralfloorsofablue-glassskyscraperinmidtown.Mycolleagueswereabitbewilderedbymydecision.Whyleaveacompanythatmostofmypeersweredying to join—one regularly singledout asoneof theworld’ssmartestandmostinfluential?

Acquaintances assumed I was trading eighty-hour workweeks for a morerelaxedlifestyle,butofcourse,anyonewho’sbeenateacherknowsthatthere’snoharderjobintheworld.Sowhyleave?Insomeways,itwasconsulting,notteaching,thatwasthedetour.Throughoutcollege,I’dtutoredandmentoredkidsfromthelocalpublicschools.Aftergraduation,Istartedatuition-freeacademicenrichment program and ran it for two years. Then I went to Oxford andcompleted a degree in neuroscience, studying the neural mechanisms ofdyslexia.SowhenIstartedteaching,IfeltlikeIwasbackontrack.

Even so, the transitionwas abrupt. In a singleweek,my salarywent fromSeriously?Iactuallygetpaidthismuch?toWow!Howtheheckdoteachersinthis city make ends meet? Dinner was now a sandwich eaten hurriedly whilegradingpapers,notsushiorderedinattheclient’sexpense.Icommutedtoworkon the same subway linebut stayedon the train pastmidtown, gettingoff sixstopsfarthersouth:theLowerEastSide.Insteadofpumps,pearls,andatailoredsuit,IworesensibleshoesIcouldstandinalldayanddressesIwouldn’tmindgettingcoveredinchalk.

My studentswere twelve and thirteen years old.Most lived in the housingprojectsclusteredbetweenAvenuesAandD.Thiswasbeforetheneighborhoodsproutedhipcafésoneverycorner.ThefallIstartedteachingthere,ourschoolwas picked for the set of a movie about a rough-and-tumble school in adistressedurbanneighborhood.Myjobwas tohelpmystudents learnseventh-grade math: fractions and decimals and the rudimentary building blocks ofalgebraandgeometry.

Even that first week, it was obvious that some of my students picked upmathematical concepts more easily than their classmates. Teaching the mosttalented students in the class was a joy. They were, quite literally, “quickstudies.”Withoutmuchprompting,theysawtheunderlyingpatterninaseriesofmathproblemsthatlessablestudentsstruggledtograsp.They’dwatchmedoaproblemonceon theboardandsay,“Iget it!”and thenworkout thenextonecorrectlyontheirown.

Andyet, at theendof the firstmarkingperiod, Iwas surprised to find thatsomeoftheseveryablestudentsweren’tdoingaswellasI’dexpected.Somedidverywell, of course.Butmore than a few ofmymost talented studentswereearninglacklustergradesorworse.

Incontrast,severalofthestudentswhoinitiallystruggledwerefaringbetterthanI’dexpected.These“overachievers”wouldreliablycometoclasseverydaywith everything they needed. Instead of playing around and looking out thewindow, they tooknotesandaskedquestions.When theydidn’tgetsomethingthe first time around, they tried again and again, sometimes coming for extrahelp during their lunch period or during afternoon electives. Their hardworkshowedintheirgrades.

Apparently, aptitude did not guarantee achievement. Talent for math wasdifferentfromexcellinginmathclass.

Thiscameasa surprise.Afterall, conventionalwisdomsays thatmath is asubject in which the more talented students are expected to excel, leavingclassmateswhoaresimply“notmathpeople”behind.Tobehonest,Ibegantheschoolyearwiththatveryassumption.Itseemedasurebetthatthoseforwhomthings came easily would continue to outpace their classmates. In fact, Iexpected that the achievement gap separating the naturals from the rest of theclasswouldonlywidenovertime.I’dbeendistractedbytalent.Gradually,Ibegantoaskmyselfhardquestions.WhenItaughtalessonand

the concept failed to gel, could it be that the struggling student needed tostruggle just a bit longer?Could it be that I needed to find a differentway toexplainwhatIwas trying togetacross?Before jumpingto theconclusion that

talentwasdestiny, should Ibeconsidering the importanceofeffort?And,asateacher,wasn’titmyresponsibilitytofigureouthowtosustaineffort—boththestudents’andmyown—justabitlonger?

Atthesametime,Ibegantoreflectonhowsmartevenmyweakeststudentssounded when they talked about things that genuinely interested them. ThesewereconversationsIfoundalmostimpossibletofollow:discoursesonbasketballstatistics, the lyrics to songs they really liked, andcomplicatedplotlines aboutwhowasnolongerspeakingtowhomandwhy.WhenIgottoknowmystudentsbetter, I discovered that all of them hadmastered any number of complicatedideasintheirverycomplicateddailylives.Honestly,wasgettingxallbyitselfinanalgebraicequationallthatmuchharder?

Mystudentsweren’tequallytalented.Still,whenitcametolearningseventh-grademath, could it be that if they and Imustered sufficient effort over time,they’d get to where they needed? Surely, I thought, they were all talentedenough.

Towardtheendoftheschoolyear,myfiancébecamemyhusband.Forthesakeofhisownpost-McKinseycareer,wepackedupandmovedfromNewYorktoSanFrancisco.IfoundanewjobteachingmathatLowellHighSchool.

Compared to my Lower East Side classroom, Lowell was an alternateuniverse.

TuckedawayinaperpetuallyfoggybasinnearthePacificOcean,Lowell istheonlypublichighschoolinSanFranciscothatadmitsstudentsonthebasisofacademic merit. The largest feeder to the University of California system,Lowellsendsmanyofitsgraduatestothecountry’smostselectiveuniversities.

If,likeme,youwereraisedontheEastCoast,youcanthinkofLowellastheStuyvesantofSanFrancisco.Suchimagerymightbringtomindwhizkidswhoareleapsandboundssmarterthanthosewholackthetop-notchtestscoresandgradestogetin.

WhatIdiscoveredwasthatLowellstudentsweredistinguishedmorebytheirwork ethic than by their intelligence. I once asked students inmy homeroomhowmuch theystudied.The typical answer?Hoursandhours.Not inaweek,butinasingleday.

Still, like at any other school, therewas tremendous variation in how hardstudentsworkedandhowwelltheyperformed.

Just as I’d found in New York, some of the students I expected to excel,becausemath came so easy to them, did worse than their classmates. On the

other hand, some of my hardest workers were consistently my highestperformersontestsandquizzes.

OneoftheseveryhardworkerswasDavidLuong.Davidwas inmy freshman algebra class. Therewere two kinds of algebra

classesatLowell:theacceleratedtrackledtoAdvancedPlacementCalculusbysenioryear,andtheregulartrack,whichIwasteaching,didn’t.Thestudentsinmy class hadn’t scored high enough onLowell’smath placement exam to getintotheacceleratedtrack.

Daviddidn’t standoutat first.Hewasquietandsat toward thebackof theroom.Hedidn’traisehishandalot;herarelyvolunteeredtocometotheboardtosolveproblems.

ButIsoonnoticedthateverytimeIgradedanassignment,Davidhadturnedin perfect work. He aced my quizzes and tests. When I marked one of hisanswersasincorrect,itwasmoreoftenmyerrorthanhis.And,wow,hewasjustsohungrytolearn.Inclass,hisattentionwasrapt.Afterclass,he’dstayandask,politely,forharderassignments.

Ibegantowonderwhattheheckthiskidwasdoinginmyclass.OnceIunderstoodhowridiculousthesituationwas,ImarchedDavidintothe

officeofmydepartmentchair.Itdidn’ttakelongtoexplainwhatwasgoingon.Fortunately, the chair was awise andwonderful teacherwho placed a highervalueonkidsthanonbureaucraticrules.SheimmediatelystartedthepaperworktoswitchDavidoutofmyclassandintotheacceleratedtrack.

My losswas thenext teacher’sgain.Ofcourse, therewereupsanddowns,and not all of David’s math grades were A’s. “After I left your class, andswitchedintothemoreadvancedone,Iwasalittlebehind,”Davidlatertoldme.“Andthenextyear,math—itwasgeometry—continuedtobehard.Ididn’tgetanA.IgotaB.”Inthenextclass,hisfirstmathtestcamebackwithaD.

“Howdidyoudealwiththat?”Iasked.“Ididfeelbad—Idid—butIdidn’tdwellonit.Iknewitwasdone.IknewI

hadtofocusonwhattodonext.SoIwenttomyteacherandaskedforhelp.Ibasicallytriedtofigureout,youknow,whatIdidwrong.WhatIneededtododifferently.”

Bysenioryear,DavidwastakingtheharderofLowell’stwohonorscalculuscourses.Thatspring,heearnedaperfect5outof5ontheAdvancedPlacementexam.

After Lowell, David attended Swarthmore College, graduating with dualdegrees inengineeringandeconomics. I satwithhisparentsathisgraduation,remembering the quiet student in the back of my classroom who ended upprovingthataptitudetestscangetalotofthingswrong.

Twoyearsago,DavidearnedaPhDinmechanicalengineeringfromUCLA.Hisdissertationwasonoptimalperformancealgorithmsforthethermodynamicprocesses in truckengines. InEnglish:Davidusedmath tohelpmakeenginesmore efficient. Today, he is an engineer at the Aerospace Corporation. Quiteliterally,theboywhowasdeemed“notready”forharder,fastermathclassesisnowa“rocketscientist.”

Duringthenextseveralyearsofteaching,Igrewlessandlessconvincedthattalent was destiny and more and more intrigued by the returns generated byeffort.Intentonplumbingthedepthsofthatmystery,Ieventuallyleftteachingtobecomeapsychologist.

WhenIgottograduateschool,Ilearnedthatpsychologistshavelongwonderedwhy some people succeed and others fail. Among the earliest was FrancisGalton,whodebatedthetopicwithhishalfcousin,CharlesDarwin.

Byallaccounts,Galtonwasachildprodigy.Byfour,hecouldreadandwrite.By six, he knew Latin and long division and could recite passages fromShakespearebyheart.Learningcameeasy.

In 1869, Galton published his first scientific study on the origins of highachievement.Afterassemblinglistsofwell-knownfiguresinscience,athletics,music, poetry, and law—among other domains—he gathered whateverbiographicalinformationhecould.Outliers,Galtonconcluded,areremarkableinthreeways:theydemonstrateunusual“ability”incombinationwithexceptional“zeal”and“thecapacityforhardlabor.”

AfterreadingthefirstfiftypagesofGalton’sbook,Darwinwrotealettertohis cousin, expressing surprise that talent made the short list of essentialqualities. “You have made a convert of an opponent in one sense,” wroteDarwin.“ForIhavealwaysmaintainedthat,exceptingfools,mendidnotdiffermuchinintellect,onlyinzealandhardwork;andIstillthinkthisisaneminentlyimportantdifference.”

Ofcourse,DarwinhimselfwasthesortofhighachieverGaltonwastryingtounderstand.Widely acknowledged as one of the most influential scientists inhistory,Darwinwasthefirsttoexplaindiversityinplantandanimalspeciesasaconsequenceofnaturalselection.Relatedly,Darwinwasanastuteobserver,notonly of flora and fauna, but also of people. In a sense, his vocation was toobserveslightdifferencesthatlead,ultimately,tosurvival.

So it’s worth pausing to considerDarwin’s opinion on the determinants ofachievement—that is, his belief that zeal and hard work are ultimately moreimportantthanintellectualability.

On thewhole,Darwin’s biographers don’t claim he possessed supernaturalintelligence. He was certainly intelligent, but insights didn’t come to him inlightning flashes.Hewas, in a sense, a plodder.Darwin’s own autobiographycorroborates thisview:“Ihavenogreatquicknessof apprehension [that] is soremarkable in some clevermen,” he admits. “Mypower to follow a long andpurelyabstracttrainofthoughtisverylimited.”Hewouldnothavemadeaverygoodmathematician,hethinks,noraphilosopher,andhismemorywassubpar,too: “So poor in one sense is my memory that I have never been able torememberformorethanafewdaysasingledateoralineofpoetry.”

PerhapsDarwinwastoohumble.Buthehadnoproblempraisinghispowerofobservationandtheassiduousnesswithwhichheappliedittounderstandingthelawsofnature:“IthinkIamsuperiortothecommonrunofmeninnoticingthings which easily escape attention, and in observing them carefully. Myindustryhasbeennearly asgreat as it couldhavebeen in theobservationandcollectionof facts.What is farmore important,my loveofnaturalsciencehasbeensteadyandardent.”

One biographer describesDarwin as someonewho kept thinking about thesame questions long after others would move on to different—and no doubteasier—problems:

Thenormalresponsetobeingpuzzledaboutsomethingistosay,“I’llthinkaboutthislater,”andthen,ineffect,forgetaboutit.WithDarwin,onefeelsthathedeliberatelydidnotengageinthiskindofsemi-willfulforgetting.He kept all the questions alive at the back of his mind, ready to beretrievedwhenarelevantbitofdatapresenteditself.

Fortyyearslater,ontheothersideoftheAtlantic,aHarvardpsychologistnamedWilliam James took up the question of how people differ in their pursuit ofgoals.Towardtheendofhislonganddistinguishedcareer,JameswroteanessayonthetopicforScience(thenandnowthepremieracademicjournal,notjustforpsychology but for all of the natural and social sciences). It was titled “TheEnergiesofMen.”

Reflectingon theachievementsandfailuresofclosefriendsandcolleagues,andhowthequalityofhisowneffortsvariedonhisgoodandbaddays,Jamesobserved:

Comparedwithwhatweoughttobe,weareonlyhalfawake.Ourfiresaredamped,ourdraftsarechecked.Wearemakinguseofonlyasmallpartof

ourpossiblementalandphysicalresources.

There is a gap, James declared, between potential and its actualization.Withoutdenyingthatourtalentsvary—onemightbemoremusicalthanathleticormoreentrepreneurialthanartistic—Jamesassertedthat“thehumanindividuallivesusuallyfarwithinhislimits;hepossessespowersofvarioussortswhichhehabituallyfailstouse.Heenergizesbelowhismaximum,andhebehavesbelowhisoptimum.”

“Ofcoursetherearelimits,”Jamesacknowledged.“Thetreesdon’tgrowintothe sky.” But these outer boundaries of where we will, eventually, stopimproving are simply irrelevant for the vast majority of us: “The plain factremainsthatmentheworldoverpossessamountsofresource,whichonlyveryexceptionalindividualspushtotheirextremesofuse.”

Thesewords,writtenin1907,areastruetodayasever.So,whydoweplacesuchemphasisontalent?Andwhyfixateontheextremelimitsofwhatwemightdowhen,infact,mostofusareattheverybeginningofourjourney,sofar,faraway from those outer bounds? And why do we assume that it is our talent,ratherthanoureffort,thatwilldecidewhereweendupintheverylongrun?

For years, several national surveys have asked: Which is more important tosuccess—talent or effort? Americans are about twice as likely to single outeffort. The same is true when you ask Americans about athletic ability. Andwhen asked, “If you were hiring a new employee, which of the followingqualities would you think is most important?” Americans endorse “beinghardworking”nearlyfivetimesasoftenastheyendorse“intelligence.”

The results of these surveys are consistent with questionnaires thatpsychologist Chia-Jung Tsay has given to musical experts, who, when asked,reliably endorse effortful training as more important than natural talent. Butwhen Chia probes attitudes more indirectly, she exposes a bias that tips inexactlytheoppositedirection:welovenaturals.

InChia’sexperiments,professionalmusicianslearnabouttwopianistswhosebiographiesareidenticalintermsofpriorachievements.Thesubjectslistentoashort clip of these individuals playing piano; unbeknownst to the listeners, asinglepianistis,infact,playingdifferentpartsofthesamepiece.Whatvariesisthatonepianistisdescribedasa“natural”withearlyevidenceofinnatetalent.Theotherisdescribedasa“striver”withearlyevidenceofhighmotivationandperseverance.Indirectcontradictiontotheirstatedbeliefsabouttheimportance

ofeffortversustalent,musiciansjudgethenaturaltobemorelikelytosucceedandmorehirable.

Asafollow-upstudy,Chiatestedwhetherthissameinconsistencywouldbeevidentinaverydifferentdomainwherehardworkandstrivingarecelebrated:entrepreneurship. She recruited hundreds of adults with varying levels ofexperienceinbusinessandrandomlydividedthemintotwogroups.Halfofherresearchsubjectsreadtheprofileofa“striver”entrepreneur,describedashavingachievedsuccessthroughhardwork,effort,andexperience.Theotherhalfreadthe profile of a “natural” entrepreneur, described as having achieved successthroughinnateability.Allparticipantslistenedtothesameaudiorecordingofabusiness proposal and were told the recording was made by the specificentrepreneurthey’dreadabout.

Asinherstudyofmusicians,Chiafoundthatnaturalswereratedhigherforlikelihoodof successandbeinghirable,and that theirbusinessproposalswerejudgedsuperiorinquality.Inarelatedstudy,Chiafoundthatwhenpeoplewereforcedtochoosebetweenbackingoneoftwoentrepreneurs—oneidentifiedasastriver,theotheranatural—theytendedtofavorthenatural.Infact,thepointofindifferencebetweena striverandanaturalwasonly reachedwhen thestriverhad four more years of leadership experience and $40,000 more in start-upcapital.

Chia’sresearchpullsbackthecurtainonourambivalencetowardtalentandeffort.Whatwesaywecareaboutmaynotcorrespondwithwhat—deepdown—weactuallybelievetobemorevaluable.It’salittlelikesayingwedon’tcareatallaboutphysicalattractivenessinaromanticpartnerandthen,whenitcomestoactuallychoosingwhomtodate,pickingthecuteguyovertheniceone.

The“naturalnessbias” is ahiddenprejudice against thosewho’ve achievedwhat they have because theyworked for it, and a hidden preference for thosewhomwe thinkarrivedat theirplace in lifebecause they’renaturally talented.Wemaynotadmittoothersthisbiasfornaturals;wemaynotevenadmitit toourselves.Butthebiasisevidentinthechoiceswemake.

Chia’s own life is an interesting example of the natural versus striverphenomenon.NowaprofessoratUniversityCollegeLondon,shepublishesherscholarly work in the most prestigious of academic journals. As a child, sheattended classes at Juilliard,whose pre-college program invites students “whoexhibitthetalent,potential,andaccomplishmenttopursueacareerinmusic”toexperience“anatmospherewhereartisticgiftsandtechnicalskillscanflourish.”

ChiaholdsseveraldegreesfromHarvard.Herfirstwasabachelor’sdegreeinpsychology;shegraduatedmagnacumlaudewithhighesthonors.Shealsohastwo master’s degrees: one in the history of science and the other in socialpsychology.And, finally,whilecompletingherPhDinorganizationalbehaviorandpsychologyatHarvard,shealsopickedupasecondaryPhDinmusic.

Impressed? If not, letme add thatChia also has degrees from thePeabodyConservatoryinpianoperformanceandpedagogy—andyes,she’sperformedatCarnegieHall, not tomentionLincolnCenter, theKennedyCenter, and at thepalacerecitalcommemoratingthepresidencyoftheEuropeanUnion.

Ifyouonly sawhercredentials,youmight leap to theconclusion thatChiawasbornmoregiftedthananyoneyouknow:“Mygod!Whatanextraordinarilytalentedyoungwoman!”And,ifChia’sresearchisright,thatexplanationwouldembellishheraccomplishmentswithmore luster,moremystery,andmoreawethan thealternative:“Mygod!Whatanextraordinarilydedicated,hardworkingyoungwoman!”

And thenwhat would happen? There’s a vast amount of research onwhathappenswhenwe believe a student is especially talented.We begin to lavishextraattentiononthemandholdthemtohigherexpectations.Weexpectthemtoexcel,andthatexpectationbecomesaself-fulfillingprophecy.

I’veaskedChiawhatshemakesofherownmusicalaccomplishments.“Well,IguessImayhavesometalent,”Chiasaid.“ButIthink,morethanthat,Ilovedmusic somuch I practiced four to six hours a day all throughout childhood.”Andincollege,despiteapunishingscheduleofclassesandactivities,shemadetime to practice almost as much. So, yes, she has some talent—but she’s astriver,too.

WhydidChiapracticesomuch?Iwondered.Wasitforcedonher?Didshehaveanychoiceinthematter?

“Oh, itwasme. Itwaswhat Iwanted. Iwanted togetbetterandbetterandbetter.WhenIpracticedpiano,Ipicturedmyselfonstageinfrontofacrowdedaudience.Iimaginedthemclapping.”

Theyear I leftMcKinsey for teaching, threeof the firm’spartnerspublishedareportcalled“TheWarforTalent.”Thereportwaswidelyreadandeventuallybecame a best-selling book. The basic argument was that companies in themoderneconomyriseandfalldependingontheirabilitytoattractandretain“Aplayers.”

“What do we mean by talent?” the McKinsey authors ask in the book’sopeningpages.Answeringtheirownquestion:“Inthemostgeneralsense,talent

is the sumof a person’s abilities—his or her intrinsic gifts, skills, knowledge,experience,intelligence,judgment,attitude,character,anddrive.Italsoincludeshisorherabilitytolearnandgrow.”That’salonglist,anditrevealsthestrugglemostofushavewhenwetrytodefinetalentwithanyprecision.Butitdoesn’tsurprisemethat“intrinsicgifts”arementionedfirst.

WhenFortunemagazineputMcKinseyon itscover, the leadarticlebegan:“When in the presence of a young McKinsey partner, one gets the distinctimpression that if pliedwith a cocktail or two, hemightwell lean across thetableandsuggestsomethingawkward,likecomparingSATscores.”It’salmostimpossible,thejournalistobserved,tooverestimate“thepremiumplacedwithinthe McKinsey culture on analytic ability, or as its denizens say, on being‘bright.’ ”

McKinsey is famous for recruitingand rewarding smartmenandwomen—somewithMBAsfromplaceslikeHarvardandStanford,andtherest,likeme,whopossesssomeothercredentialthatsuggestswemusthaveverybigbrains.

My interviews with McKinsey unfolded as most do, with a series ofbrainteasersdesigned to testmyanalyticmettle.One interviewer satmedownandintroducedhimself,thenasked:“HowmanytennisballsaremanufacturedintheUnitedStatesperyear?”

“I guess there are twoways to approach that question,” I responded. “Thefirstwayistofindtherightperson,ormaybetradeorganization,totellyou.”Myinterviewer nodded, but gaveme a look that said hewanted the other kind ofanswer.

“Or you could take some basic assumptions and do some multiplying tofigureitout.”

Myinterviewersmiledbroadly.SoIgavehimwhathewanted.“Okay,assumethereareabouttwohundredfiftymillionpeopleintheUnited

States.Let’s say themostactive tennisplayersarebetween theageof tenandthirty.That’sgot tobe,roughlyspeaking,one-fourthof thepopulation.Iguessthatgivesyoualittleoversixtymillionpotentialtennisplayers.”

Now my interviewer was really excited. I continued the logic game,multiplying and dividing by numbers according tomy completely uninformedestimatesofhowmanypeopleactuallyplaytennis,andhowoftentheyplayonaverage,andhowmanyballstheywoulduseinagame,andthenhowoftentheywouldneedtoreplacedeadorlostones.

Igottosomenumber,whichwasprobablywildlyoff,becauseateverystepIwasmakinganotheruninformedassumptionthatwas,tosomedegreeoranother,incorrect.Finally, I said:“Themathhere isn’t thathard forme. I’m tutoringalittle girlwho is practicingher fractions right now, andwedo a lot ofmental

mathtogether.ButifyouwanttoknowwhatI’dreallydoifIneededtoknowthe answer to that question, I’ll tell you: I’d just call someone who actuallyknows.”

Moresmiling,andthenanassurancethathe’dlearnedallheneededtofromourinteraction.Andalsofrommyapplication—includingmySATscores,whichMcKinsey heavily relies on to do their early sorting of candidates. In otherwords,iftheadvicetocorporateAmericaistocreateaculturethatvaluestalentaboveallelse,McKinseypracticeswhatitpreaches.

OnceIacceptedtheoffer to join theNewYorkCityoffice, Iwas told thatmyfirstmonthwouldbespentinafancyhotelinClearwater,Florida.ThereIjoinedaboutthreedozenothernewhireswho,likeme,lackedanytraininginbusiness.Instead,eachofushadearnedsomeotheracademicbadgeofhonor.IsatnexttoaguywithaPhDinphysics,forexample.Onmyothersidewasasurgeon,andbehindmeweretwolawyers.

Noneofusknewmuchaboutmanagementingeneral,oraboutanyindustryin particular. But that was about to change: in a single month, we wouldcompleteacrashcoursecalledthe“mini-MBA.”Sincewewereallvettedtobesuperfast learners, therewas no question thatwewould successfullymaster amassiveamountofinformationinaveryshortamountoftime.

Newly equipped with a casual acquaintance with cash flow, the differencebetweenrevenueandprofit,andsomeotherrudimentaryfactsaboutwhatInowknewtocall“theprivatesector,”wewereshippedofftoourdesignatedofficesaround the world, where we would join teams of other consultants and bematched upwith corporate clients to solvewhatever problems they threw ourway.

IsoonlearnedthatMcKinsey’sbasicbusinesspropositionisstraightforward.Foraverylargesumofmoneypermonth,companiescanhireaMcKinseyteamtosolveproblemstoothornytobesolvedbythefolkswhoarealreadyworkingonthem.Attheendofthis“engagement,”asitwascalledinthefirm,weweresupposedtoproduceareportthatwasdramaticallymoreinsightfulthananythingtheycouldhavegeneratedin-house.

It occurred to me, as I was putting together slides summarizing bold,sweeping recommendations for a multibillion-dollar medical productsconglomerate, that, really, I hadno ideawhat Iwas talkingabout.Therewereseniorconsultantsontheteamwhomayhaveknownmore,buttherewerealsomore junior consultantswho, having just graduated fromcollege, surelyknewevenless.

Whyhireus,then,atsuchanexorbitantcost?Well,foronething,wehadtheadvantageofanoutsider’sperspectiveuntaintedbyinsiderpolitics.Wealsohadamethod for solving business problems that was hypothesis and data driven.There were probably lots of good reasons CEOs brought in McKinsey. Butamongthem,I think,wasthatweweresupposedtobesharperthanthepeoplewho were already on-site. HiringMcKinsey meant hiring the very “best andbrightest”—asifbeingthebrightestalsomadeusthebest.

According to The War for Talent, the companies that excel are those thataggressively promote the most talented employees while just as aggressivelyculling the least talented. In suchcompanies,hugedisparities in salaryarenotonly justified but desirable. Why? Because a competitive, winner-take-allenvironmentencouragesthemosttalentedtostickaroundandtheleast talentedtofindalternativeemployment.

Duff McDonald, the journalist who’s done the most in-depth research onMcKinseytodate,hassuggestedthatthisparticularbusinessphilosophywouldbemoreaptlytitledTheWaronCommonSense.McDonaldpointsout that thecompanies highlighted in the original McKinsey report as exemplars of theirendorsedstrategydidn’tdosowellintheyearsafterthatreportwaspublished.

Journalist Malcolm Gladwell has also critiqued the The War for Talent.Enron,hepointsout,epitomizedthe“talentmindset”approachtomanagementadvocatedbyMcKinsey.Asweallknow,theEnronstorydoesn’thaveahappyending.Onceoneof the largest energy tradingcompanies in theworld,EnronwasnamedAmerica’sMostInnovativeCompanybyFortunemagazinesixyearsinarow.Yet,bytheendof2001,whenthebusinessfiledforbankruptcy,ithadbecome clear that the company’s extraordinary profits were attributable tomassiveandsystematicaccountingfraud.WhenEnroncollapsed, thousandsofitsemployees,whohadnohandatallinthewrongdoing,losttheirjobs,healthinsurance, and retirement savings. At the time, it was the largest corporatebankruptcyinU.S.history.

Youcan’tblametheEnrondebacleonasurfeitofIQpoints.Youcan’tblameit on a lack of grit, either. But Gladwell argues convincingly that demandingEnronemployeesprovethattheyweresmarterthaneveryoneelseinadvertentlycontributed to a narcissistic culture, with an overrepresentation of employeeswhowerebothincrediblysmuganddrivenbydeepinsecuritytokeepshowingoff. It was a culture that encouraged short-term performance but discouragedlong-termlearningandgrowth.

The same point comes through in the postmortem documentary on Enroncalled, appropriately enough, The Smartest Guys in the Room. During thecompany’sascendency,itwasabrashandbrilliantformerMcKinseyconsultantnamed JeffSkillingwhowasEnron’sCEO.Skillingdeveloped a performancereview system for Enron that consisted of grading employees annually andsummarily firing the bottom 15 percent. In otherwords, nomatter what yourabsolutelevelofperformance,ifyouwereweak,relativetoothers,yougotfired.InsideEnron,thispracticewasknownas“rank-and-yank.”Skillingconsidereditone of themost important strategies his company had. But ultimately, it mayhave contributed to a work environment that rewarded deception anddiscouragedintegrity.

Is talent a bad thing?Are we all equally talented?No and no. The ability toquicklyclimbthelearningcurveofanyskillisobviouslyaverygoodthing,and,likeitornot,someofusarebetteratitthanothers.

Sowhy,then,isitsuchabadthingtofavor“naturals”over“strivers”?What’sthedownsideoftelevisionshowslikeAmerica’sGotTalent,TheXFactor,andChildGenius?Whyshouldn’tweseparatechildrenasyoungas sevenoreightintotwogroups:thosefewchildrenwhoare“giftedandtalented”andthemany,manymorewhoaren’t?Whatharmisthere,really,inatalentshowbeingnameda“talentshow”?

Inmyview,thebiggestreasonapreoccupationwithtalentcanbeharmfulissimple:Byshiningourspotlightontalent,weriskleavingeverythingelseintheshadows.Weinadvertentlysendthemessagethattheseotherfactors—includinggrit—don’tmatterasmuchastheyreallydo.

Consider,forexample,thestoryofScottBarryKaufman.Scott’sofficeisjusttwodoorsdownfrommine,andhe’salotliketheotheracademicpsychologistsIknow:Hespendsmostofhiswakinghoursreading,thinking,collectingdata,doingstatistics,andwriting.Hepublisheshisresearchinscientificjournals.Heknows a lot of polysyllabic words. He has degrees from Carnegie Mellon,CambridgeUniversity,andYale.Heplaysthecelloforfun.

But as a child, Scott was considered a slow learner—which was true.“Basically,Igotalotofearinfectionsasakid,”Scottexplains.“Andthatledtothisproblemwithprocessinginformationfromsoundinrealtime.Iwasalwaysastepor twobehind theotherkids inmyclass.”Sohaltingwashisacademicprogress, in fact, that hewas placed in special education classes.He repeatedthirdgrade.Aroundthesametime,hemetwithaschoolpsychologisttotakeanIQ test. In an anxiety-ridden test session he describes as “harrowing,” Scott

performed so poorly that he was sent to a special school for children withlearningdisabilities.

ItwasnotuntilagefourteenthatanobservantspecialeducationteachertookScott aside and askedwhy hewasn’t inmore challenging classes.Until then,Scotthadneverquestionedhisintellectualstatus.Instead,he’dassumedthathislackoftalentwouldputaverylowceilingonwhathemightdowithhislife.

Meetingateacherwhobelievedinhispotentialwasacriticalturningpoint:apivot from This is all you can do toWho knows what you can do? At thatmoment, Scott started wondering, for the very first time:Who am I? Am I alearningdisabledkidwithnorealfuture?Ormaybesomethingelse?

And then, to find out, Scott signed up for just about every challenge hisschoolhadtooffer.Latinclass.Theschoolmusical.Choir.Hedidn’tnecessarilyexcel ineverything,buthe learned inall.WhatScott learned is thathewasn’thopeless.

Something that Scott found he did learn fairly easily was the cello. HisgrandfatherhadbeenacellistinthePhiladelphiaOrchestrafornearlyfiftyyears,andScotthadtheideathathisgrandfathercouldgivehimlessons.Hedid,andthesummerthatScottfirstpickedupthecello,hebeganpracticingeightorninehours a day.Hewas fiercely determined to improve, and not only because heenjoyed the cello: “Iwas so driven to just show someone, anyone, that Iwasintellectuallycapableofanything.AtthispointIdidn’tevencarewhatitwas.”

Improvehedid,andbythefall,heearnedaseatinhishighschoolorchestra.If the story ended there and then, itmight not be about grit. But here’swhathappenednext.Scottkeptup—andevenincreased—hispracticing.Heskippedlunchtopractice.Sometimesheskippedclasses topractice.Bysenioryear,hewassecondchair—hewasthesecond-bestcellist intheorchestra—andhewasinthechoir,too,andwinningallkindsofawardsfromthemusicdepartment.

He also started doingwell in his classes,many ofwhichwere nowhonorsclasses.Almost allofhis friendswere in thegiftedand talentedprogram,andScottwantedtojointhem.HewantedtotalkaboutPlatoanddomentalpuzzlesandlearnmorethanhewasalreadylearning.Ofcourse,withhisIQscoresfromchildhood,therewasnosuchpossibility.Herememberstheschoolpsychologistdrawing a bell-shaped curve on the back of a napkin and pointing to its peak—“Thisisaverage”—thenmovingtotheright—“Thisiswhereyou’dhavetobefor gifted and talented classes”—and then moving to the left—“And this iswhereyouare.”

“Atwhatpoint,”Scottasked,“doesachievementtrumppotential?”TheschoolpsychologistshookhisheadandshowedScottthedoor.

Thatfall,Scottdecidedhewantedtostudythisthingcalled“intelligence”andcome to his own conclusions.He applied to the cognitive science program atCarnegieMellonUniversity.And hewas rejected. The rejection letter did notspecify why, of course, but given his stellar grades and extracurricularaccomplishments, Scott could only conclude that the impedimentwas his lowSATscores.

“Ihad thisgrit,”Scott recalls.“Isaid, ‘I’mgoing todo it. Idon’tcare. I’mgoingtofindawaytostudywhatIwanttostudy.’ ”AndthenScottauditionedforCarnegieMellon’soperaprogram.Why?Becausetheoperaprogramdidn’tlook very hard at SAT scores, focusing instead on musical aptitude andexpression.Inhisfirstyear,Scotttookapsychologycourseasanelective.Soonafter,headdedpsychologyasaminor.Next,hetransferredhismajorfromoperatopsychology.AndthenhegraduatedPhiBetaKappa.

LikeScott,ItookanIQtestearlyinmyschoolingandwasdeemedinsufficientlybrighttobenefitfromgiftedandtalentedclasses.Forwhateverreason—maybeateacheraskedthatIberetested—Iwasevaluatedagainthefollowingyear,andImadethecut.IguessyoucouldsayIwasborderlinegifted.

Oneway to interpret these stories is that talent is great, but tests of talentstink.There’scertainlyanargumenttobemadethattestsoftalent—andtestsofanythingelsepsychologistsstudy,includinggrit—arehighlyimperfect.

Butanotherconclusionisthatthefocusontalentdistractsusfromsomethingthatisatleastasimportant,andthatiseffort.Inthenextchapter,I’llarguethat,asmuchastalentcounts,effortcountstwice.

Chapter3

EFFORTCOUNTSTWICE

NotadaygoesbythatIdon’treadorhearthewordtalent.Ineverysectionofthe newspaper—from the sports page to the business section, fromprofiles ofactorsandmusiciansintheweekendsupplement,tofront-pagestoriesofrisingstars in politics—allusions to talent abound. It seems that when anyoneaccomplishes a feat worthwriting about, we rush to anoint that individual asextraordinarily“talented.”

If we overemphasize talent, we underemphasize everything else. In theextreme,it’sasif,deepdown,weholdthefollowingtobetrue:

For instance, I recently listened to a radio commentatordrawa comparisonbetween Hillary and Bill Clinton. He observed that both are unusually goodcommunicators.Butwhileherhusband,Bill,isagiftedpolitician,Hillaryhastocontortherselfintotherole.Billisanatural;Hillarymerelyastriver.Theunsaidbutobviousimplicationisthatshe’llneverquitebehisequal.

I’vecaughtmyselfdoingit,too.Whensomeonereally,reallyimpressesme,Imightreflexivelysaytomyself:Whatagenius! I shouldknowbetter. Ido.Sowhat’sgoingon?Whydoesanunconsciousbiastowardtalentpersist?

Afewyearsago,Ireadastudyofcompetitiveswimmerstitled“TheMundanityof Excellence.” The title of the article encapsulates its major conclusion: the

most dazzling human achievements are, in fact, the aggregate of countlessindividualelements,eachofwhichis,inasense,ordinary.

Dan Chambliss, the sociologist who completed the study, observed:“Superlative performance is really a confluence of dozens of small skills oractivities,eachonelearnedorstumbledupon,whichhavebeencarefullydrilledintohabitand thenarefitted together inasynthesizedwhole.There isnothingextraordinaryorsuperhumaninanyoneofthoseactions;onlythefactthattheyaredoneconsistentlyandcorrectly,andalltogether,produceexcellence.”

Butmundanity isahardsell.Whenfinishinguphisanalyses,Dansharedafewchapterswith a colleague. “You need to jazz it up,” his friend said. “Youneedtomakethesepeoplemoreinteresting....”

When I calledDan to probe a few of his observations, I learned that he’dbecomefascinatedwiththeideaoftalent—andwhatwereallymeanbyit—asaswimmer himself and, for several years afterward, as a part-time coach.As ayoung assistant professor,Dan decided to do an in-depth, qualitative study ofswimmers. In total, Dan devoted six years to interviewing, watching, andsometimeslivingandtravelingwithswimmersandcoachesatall levels—fromthelocalswimclubtoaneliteteammadeupoffutureOlympians.

“Talent,” he observed, “is perhaps the most pervasive lay explanation wehaveforathleticsuccess.”Itisasiftalentweresomeinvisible“substancebehindthe surface reality of performance,which finally distinguishes the best amongourathletes.”Andthesegreatathletesseemblessed“withaspecialgift,almosta‘thing’ inside of them, denied to the rest of us—perhaps physical, genetic,psychological, or physiological. Some have ‘it,’ and some don’t. Some are‘naturalathletes,’andsomearen’t.”

IthinkDanisexactlyright.Ifwecan’texplainhowanathlete,musician,oranyone else has done something jaw-droppingly amazing, we’re inclined tothrowupourhandsandsay,“It’sagift!Nobodycan teachyou that.” Inotherwords,whenwecan’teasilyseehowexperienceandtraininggotsomeonetoalevelofexcellencethatissoclearlybeyondthenorm,wedefaulttolabelingthatpersona“natural.”

Dan points out that the biographies of great swimmers revealmany,manyfactors that contribute to their ultimate success. For instance, the mostaccomplished swimmers almost invariably had parentswhowere interested inthesportandearnedenoughmoneytopayforcoaching, travel toswimmeets,and not the least important: access to a pool. And, crucially, there were thethousands of hours of practice in the pool over years and years—all spentrefining the many individual elements whose sum create a single flawlessperformance.

Though it seemswrong to assume that talent is a complete explanation fordazzlingperformance,it’salsounderstandable.“It’seasytodo,”Danexplained,“especially ifone’sonlyexposure to topathletes comesonceevery fouryearswhile watching the Olympics on television, or if one only sees them inperformancesratherthaninday-to-daytraining.”

Another point he makes is that the minimal talent needed to succeed inswimmingislowerthanmostofusthink.

“I don’t think youmean to say that any of us could beMichael Phelps,” Isaid.“Doyou?”

“No,ofcoursenot,”Danreplied.“Tobeginwith,therearecertainanatomicaladvantagesthatyoureallycan’ttrainfor.”

“And,” I continued, “wouldn’t you say that some swimmers improvemorethanothers,evenifthey’retryingequallyhardandgettingthesamecoaching?”

“Yes,butthemainthingisthatgreatnessisdoable.Greatnessismany,manyindividualfeats,andeachofthemisdoable.”

Dan’s point is that if you had a time-lapse film of the hours and days andweeks and years that produced excellence, you could seewhat he saw: that ahighlevelofperformanceis,infact,anaccretionofmundaneacts.Butdoestheincrementalmastery ofmundane individual components explain everything? Iwondered.Isthatallthereis?

“Well,wealllovemysteryandmagic,”hesaid.“Ido,too.”ThenDan toldme about thedayhegot towatchRowdyGaines andMark

Spitzswimlaps.“Spitzwonsevengoldmedalsinthe’72Olympicsandwasthebig thing before Michael Phelps,” he explained. “In ’84, twelve years afterretirement,Spitzshowedup.He’sinhismid-thirties.AndhegetsintothewaterwithRowdyGaines,whoatthattimeheldtheworldrecordintheonehundredfree.Theydidsomefifties—inotherwords,twolengthsofthepool,justsprints,like little races.Gaineswonmostof them,butby the time theywerehalfwaythrough,theentireteamwasstandingaroundtheedgeofthepooljusttowatchSpitzswim.”

Everyone on the team had been training with Gaines, and they knew howgoodhewas.TheyknewhewasfavoredtowinOlympicgold.Butbecauseoftheagegap,nobodyhadswumwithSpitz.

One swimmer turned to Dan and said, pointing to Spitz, “My god. He’s afish.”

I could hear the wonder in Dan’s voice. Even a student of mundanity, itseems,iseasilylulledintotalentexplanations.Ipressedhimabit.Wasthatsortofmajesticperformancesomethingdivine?

DantoldmetogoreadNietzsche.

Nietzsche? The philosopher? What would a nineteenth-century Germanphilosopher have to say that might explain Mark Spitz? As it turns out,Nietzsche,too,hadthoughtlongandhardaboutthesamequestions.

“Witheverythingperfect,”Nietzschewrote,“wedonotaskhowitcametobe.”Instead,“werejoice in thepresentfactas thoughitcameoutof thegroundbymagic.”

When I read that passage, I thoughtof theyoung swimmerswatching theiriconSpitzexhibitformthatalmostdidn’tseemhuman.

“Noonecanseeintheworkoftheartisthowithasbecome,”Nietzschesaid.“Thatisitsadvantage,forwhereveronecanseetheactofbecomingonegrowssomewhatcool.”Inotherwords,wewanttobelievethatMarkSpitzwasborntoswiminawaythatnoneofuswereandthatnoneofuscould.Wedon’twanttositonthepooldeckandwatchhimprogressfromamateurtoexpert.Wepreferourexcellencefullyformed.Weprefermysterytomundanity.

Butwhy?What’s the reason for foolingourselves into thinkingMarkSpitzdidn’tearnhismastery?

“Ourvanity,ourself-love,promotes thecultof thegenius,”Nietzschesaid.“Forifwethinkofgeniusassomethingmagical,wearenotobligedtocompareourselvesandfindourselveslacking....Tocallsomeone‘divine’means:‘herethereisnoneedtocompete.’ ”

Inotherwords,mythologizingnaturaltalentletsusalloffthehook.Itletsusrelaxintothestatusquo.That’swhatundoubtedlyoccurredinmyearlydaysofteachingwhen Imistakenly equated talent and achievement, and by doing so,removedeffort—bothmystudents’andmyown—fromfurtherconsideration.

Sowhat is the realityofgreatness?Nietzschecame to the sameconclusionDan Chambliss did. Great things are accomplished by those “people whosethinking is active in one direction, who employ everything as material, whoalwayszealouslyobserve theirown inner lifeand thatofothers,whoperceiveeverywhere models and incentives, who never tire of combining together themeansavailabletothem.”

Andwhat about talent?Nietzsche imploredus to consider exemplars tobe,aboveallelse,craftsmen:“Donottalkaboutgiftedness,inborntalents!Onecanname great men of all kinds who were very little gifted. They acquiredgreatness, became ‘geniuses’ (as we put it). . . . They all possessed thatseriousness of the efficient workman which first learns to construct the partsproperly before it ventures to fashion a greatwhole; they allowed themselves

time for it, because they took more pleasure in making the little, secondarythingswellthanintheeffectofadazzlingwhole.”

Inmysecondyearofgraduateschool,Isatdowntoaweeklymeetingwithmyadvisor,MartySeligman.Iwasmorethanalittlenervous.Martyhasthateffectonpeople,especiallyhisstudents.

Theninhissixties,Martyhadwonjustabouteveryaccoladepsychologyhasto offer. His early research led to an unprecedented understanding of clinicaldepression. More recently, as president of the American PsychologicalAssociation, he christened the field of Positive Psychology, a discipline thatappliesthescientificmethodtoquestionsofhumanflourishing.

Marty is barrel-chested and baritone-voiced. He may study happiness andwell-being,butcheerfulisnotawordI’dusetodescribehim.

InthemiddleofwhateveritwasIwassaying—areportonwhatI’ddoneinthepastweek,Isuppose,orthenextstepsinoneofourresearchstudies—Martyinterrupted.“Youhaven’thadagoodideaintwoyears.”

I staredathim,openmouthed, trying toprocesswhathe’d just said.Then Iblinked.Twoyears?Ihadn’tevenbeeningraduateschoolfortwoyears!Silence.Thenhecrossedhisarms,frowned,andsaid:“Youcandoallkindsoffancy

statistics.Yousomehowgeteveryparentinaschooltoreturntheirconsentform.You’vemade a few insightful observations.But you don’t have a theory.Youdon’thaveatheoryforthepsychologyofachievement.”Silence.“What’sa theory?” I finallyasked,havingabsolutelynoclueas towhathe

wastalkingabout.Silence.“Stopreadingsomuchandgothink.”Ilefthisoffice,wentintomine,andcried.Athomewithmyhusband,Icried

more. I cursedMarty undermy breath—and aloud aswell—for being such ajerk.WhywashetellingmewhatIwasdoingwrong?Whywasn’thepraisingmeforwhatIwasdoingright?Youdon’thaveatheory....Thosewords rattled around inmymind for days.Finally, I driedmy tears,

stoppedmycursing,andsatdownatmycomputer.Iopenedthewordprocessorandstaredat theblinkingcursor,realizingIhadn’tgottenfarbeyondthebasicobservation that talentwasnot enough to succeed in life. I hadn’tworkedouthow,exactly,talentandeffortandskillandachievementallfittogether.

Atheory isanexplanation.A theory takesablizzardof factsandobservationsandexplains,inthemostbasicterms,whattheheckisgoingon.Bynecessity,atheoryisincomplete.Itoversimplifies.Butindoingso,ithelpsusunderstand.

Iftalentfallsshortofexplainingachievement,what’smissing?I have been working on a theory of the psychology of achievement since

Martyscoldedmefornothavingone.Ihavepagesandpagesofdiagrams,fillingmorethanadozenlabnotebooks.Aftermorethanadecadeofthinkingaboutit,sometimesalone,andsometimes inpartnershipwithclosecolleagues, I finallypublishedanarticleinwhichIlaydowntwosimpleequationsthatexplainhowyougetfromtalenttoachievement.

Heretheyare:

Talent is how quickly your skills improve when you invest effort.Achievementiswhathappenswhenyoutakeyouracquiredskillsandusethem.Ofcourse,youropportunities—forexample,havingagreatcoachor teacher—matter tremendously, too, andmaybemore thananythingabout the individual.My theory doesn’t address these outside forces, nor does it include luck. It’sabout the psychology of achievement, but because psychology isn’t all thatmatters,it’sincomplete.

Still, I think it’s useful. What this theory says is that when you considerindividuals in identicalcircumstances,whateachachievesdependson just twothings, talent and effort. Talent—how fast we improve in skill—absolutelymatters. But effort factors into the calculations twice, not once. Effort buildsskill.Attheverysametime,effortmakesskillproductive.Letmegiveyouafewexamples.

There’sacelebratedpotternamedWarrenMacKenziewho lives inMinnesota.Now ninety-two years old, he has been at his craft, without interruption, fornearlyhisentireadultlife.Earlyon,heandhislatewife,alsoanartist,triedalotof different things: “You know, when you’re young, you think you can do

anything,andwethought,oh,we’llbepotters,we’llbepainters,we’llbetextiledesigners,we’ll be jewelers,we’ll be a little of this, a little of that.Weweregoingtobetherenaissancepeople.”

It soon became clear that doing one thing better and bettermight bemoresatisfyingthanstayinganamateuratmanydifferentthings:“Eventuallybothofus gave up the drawing and painting, gave up the silk-screening, gave up thetextile design, and concentrated on ceramicwork, because thatwaswherewefeltourtrueinterestlay.”

MacKenzietoldme“agoodpottercanmakefortyorfiftypotsinaday.”Outofthese,“someofthemaregoodandsomeofthemaremediocreandsomeofthemarebad.”Onlyafewwillbeworthselling,andofthose,evenfewer“willcontinuetoengagethesensesafterdailyuse.”

Ofcourse, it’snot just thenumberofgoodpotsMacKenziemakes thathasbrought the art world to his door. It’s the beauty and form of the pots: “I’mstrivingtomakethingswhicharethemostexcitingthingsIcanmakethatwillfitinpeople’shomes.”Still,asasimplification,youmightsaythatthenumberofenduringlybeautiful,exquisitelyusefulpotsMacKenzieisabletoproduce,intotal,willbewhatheaccomplishesasanartist. Itwouldnot satisfyhim tobeamongthemostmasterfulpottersbutonlyproduce,say,oneortwopiecesinhislifetime.

MacKenziestillthrowsclayonthewheeleveryday,andwithefforthisskillhasimproved:“Ithinkbacktosomeofthepotswemadewhenwefirststartedourpottery,andtheywereprettyawfulpots.Wethoughtat thetimetheyweregood;theywerethebestwecouldmake,butourthinkingwassoelementalthatthe pots had that quality also, and so they don’t have a richness about themwhichIlookforinmyworktoday.”

“Thefirst10,000potsaredifficult,”hehassaid,“andthenitgetsalittlebiteasier.”

As things got easier, and asMacKenzie improved, he producedmore goodpotsaday:

talentxeffort=skill

At the same time, the number of good pots he’s brought into the worldincreased:

skillxeffort=achievement

With effort, MacKenzie has gotten better and better at making “the mostexciting things I canmake thatwill fit in people’s homes.”At the same time,withthesameinvestedeffort,hehasbecomemoreaccomplished.

“Garpwasanaturalstoryteller.”ThisisalinefromJohnIrving’sfourthnovel,TheWorldAccordingtoGarp.

Like that novel’s fictional protagonist, Irving tells a great story. He has beenlauded as “the great storyteller of American literature today.” To date, he’swrittenmorethanadozennovels,mostofwhichhavebeenbestsellersandhalfofwhichhavebeenmade intomovies.TheWorldAccording toGarpwon theNationalBookAward,andIrving’sscreenplayforTheCiderHouseRuleswonanAcademyAward.

ButunlikeGarp,Irvingwasnotanatural.WhileGarp“couldmakethingsup,onerightaftertheother,andtheyseemedtofit,”Irvingrewritesdraftafterdraftof his novels.Ofhis early attempts atwriting, Irvinghas said, “Most of all, Irewroteeverything...Ibegantotakemylackoftalentseriously.”

IrvingrecallsearningaC–inhighschoolEnglish.HisSATverbalscorewas475outof800,whichmeansalmosttwo-thirdsofthestudentswhotooktheSATdid better than him. He needed to stay in high school an extra year to haveenoughcredits tograduate.Irvingrecalls thathis teachers thoughthewasboth“lazy”and“stupid.”

Irvingwasneither lazynor stupid.Buthewasseverelydyslexic:“Iwasanunderdog....Ifmyclassmatescouldreadourhistoryassignmentinanhour,Iallowedmyselftwoorthree.IfIcouldn’tlearntospell,Iwouldkeepalistofmymost frequently misspelled words.” When his own son was diagnosed withdyslexia, Irving finally understood why he, himself, had been such a poorstudent.Irving’ssonreadnoticeablyslowerthanhisclassmates,“withhisfingerfollowing the sentence—as I read, as Istill read.Unless I’vewritten it, I readwhatever‘it’isveryslowly—andwithmyfinger.”

Since reading and writing didn’t come easily, Irving learned that “to doanythingreallywell,youhavetooverextendyourself....Inmycase,IlearnedthatIjusthadtopaytwiceasmuchattention.Icametoappreciatethatindoingsomething over and over again, something that was never natural becomesalmostsecondnature.Youlearnthatyouhavethecapacityfor that,andthat itdoesn’tcomeovernight.”

Do the precociously talented learn that lesson? Do they discover that thecapacitytodosomethingoverandoveragain,tostruggle,tohavepatience,canbemastered—butnotovernight?

Somemight.Butthosewhostruggleearlymaylearnitbetter:“OnereasonIhaveconfidenceinwritingthekindofnovelsIwrite,”Irvingsaid,“isthatIhaveconfidenceinmystaminatogooversomethingagainandagainnomatterhowdifficult it is.”After his tenth novel, Irvingobserved, “Rewriting iswhat I dobestasawriter.IspendmoretimerevisinganovelorscreenplaythanItaketowritethefirstdraft.”

“It’sbecomeanadvantage,”Irvinghasobservedofhis inability toreadandspellasfluentlyasothers.“Inwritinganovel,itdoesn’thurtanybodytohavetogoslowly.Itdoesn’thurtanyoneasawritertohavetogooversomethingagainandagain.”

Withdailyeffort,Irvingbecameoneofthemostmasterfulandprolificwritersinhistory.Witheffort,hebecameamaster,andwitheffort,hismasteryproducedstoriesthathavetouchedmillionsofpeople,includingme.

GrammyAward–winningmusician andOscar-nominated actorWill Smith hasthought a lot about talent, effort, skill, and achievement. “I’ve never reallyviewedmyself as particularly talented,” he once observed. “Where I excel isridiculous,sickeningworkethic.”

Accomplishment, in Will’s eyes, is very much about going the distance.Askedtoexplainhisascendancytotheentertainmentelite,Willsaid:

Theonly thing that I see that isdistinctlydifferent aboutme is: I’mnotafraid to die on a treadmill. Iwill not be outworked, period.Youmighthavemore talent thanme, youmight be smarter thanme, youmight besexierthanme.Youmightbeallofthosethings.Yougotitonmeinninecategories. But if we get on the treadmill together, there’s two things:You’regettingofffirst,orI’mgoingtodie.It’sreallythatsimple.

In 1940, researchers at Harvard University had the same idea. In a studydesigned to understand the “characteristics of healthy youngmen” in order to“helppeoplelivehappier,moresuccessfullives,”130sophomoreswereaskedtorunonatreadmillforuptofiveminutes.Thetreadmillwassetatsuchasteepangleandcrankeduptosuchafastspeedthattheaveragemanheldonforonlyfourminutes.Somelastedforonlyaminuteandahalf.

By design, the Treadmill Test was exhausting. Not just physically butmentally. By measuring and then adjusting for baseline physical fitness, theresearchersdesignedtheTreadmillTesttogauge“staminaandstrengthofwill.”Inparticular,Harvardresearchersknewthatrunninghardwasnotjustafunction

ofaerobiccapacityandmusclestrengthbutalsotheextenttowhich“asubjectiswillingtopushhimselforhasatendencytoquitbeforethepunishmentbecomestoosevere.”

Decadeslater,apsychiatristnamedGeorgeVaillantfollowedupontheyoungmen in the original Treadmill Test. Then in their sixties, thesemen had beencontactedbyresearcherseverytwoyearssincegraduatingfromcollege,andforeach there was a corresponding file folder at Harvard literally bursting withquestionnaires, correspondence, and notes from in-depth interviews. Forinstance, researchersnoted foreachmanhis income,careeradvancement, sickdays,socialactivities,self-reportedsatisfactionwithworkandmarriage,visitstopsychiatrists, and use of mood-altering drugs like tranquilizers. All thisinformationwent into composite estimates of themen’s overall psychologicaladjustmentinadulthood.

It turns out that run time in the Treadmill Test at age twenty was asurprisingly reliable predictor of psychological adjustment throughoutadulthood.Georgeandhisteamconsideredthatstayingonthetreadmillwasalsoa function of how physically fit these men were in their youth, and that thisfindingmerelyindicatedthatphysicalhealthpredictedlaterpsychologicalwell-being.However,theyfoundthatadjustingforbaselinephysicalfitness“hadlittleeffectonthecorrelationofrunningtimewithmentalhealth.”

Inotherwords,WillSmithisontosomething.Whenitcomestohowwefareinthemarathonoflife,effortcountstremendously.

“Howlongwouldyouhavestayedonthetreadmill?”IaskedGeorgerecently.Iwantedtoknowbecause,inmyeyes,Georgeishimselfaparagonofgrit.Earlyin his career, not long after completing his residency in psychiatry, Georgediscovered the treadmill data, alongwith all theother informationon themencollected to that point. Like a baton, the study had been handed from oneresearchteamtoanother,withdwindlinginterestandenergy.Untilitgottohim.

Georgerevivedthestudy.Hereestablishedcontactwiththemenbymailandphoneand,inaddition,interviewedeachinperson,travelingtoallcornersoftheworldtodoso.Nowinhiseighties,Georgehasoutlivedmostofthemenintheoriginal study.He is currentlywriting his fourth book onwhat is by now thelongestcontinuousstudyofhumandevelopmenteverundertaken.

In answer to my question about his own treadmill perseverance, Georgereplied, “Oh, I’m not all that persistent.When I do crossword puzzles on theairplane,IalwayslookattheanswerswhenIamalittlebitfrustrated.”

So,notverygrittywhenitcomestocrosswordpuzzles.“Andwhensomethingisbrokeninthehouse,Iturnitovertomywife,and

shefixesit.”

“Soyoudon’tthinkyou’regritty?”Iasked.“The reason why the Harvard study works is that I have been doing it

constantlyandpersistently. It’s theoneball I’vekeptmyeyeon.Because I’mtotallyfascinatedbyit.Thereisnothingmoreinterestingthanwatchingpeoplegrow.”

Andthen,afterashortpause,Georgerecalledhisdaysatprepschool,where,asavarsitytrackathlete,hecompetedinpolevaulting.Toimprove,heandtheothervaultersdidpull-ups,whichhecalls“chins,”becauseyoustartbyhangingoffabarand thenpullyourselfup towhereyourchinhovers justabove, thenyoudropdownagain,andrepeat.

“Icoulddomorechinsthananyone.Anditwasn’tbecauseIwasveryathletic—Iwasn’t.ThereasonisthatIdidalotofchin-ups.Ipracticed.”

TheprolificwriteranddirectorWoodyAllen,whenaskedabouthisadviceforyoungartists,oncesaid:

My observation was that once a person actually completed a play or anovel he was well on his way to getting it produced or published, asopposedtoavastmajorityofpeoplewhotellmetheirambitionistowrite,butwhostrikeoutontheveryfirstlevelandindeedneverwritetheplayorbook.

Or, in Allen’s snappier formulation, “Eighty percent of success in life isshowingup.”

Back in the 1980s, bothGeorgeH.W.Bush andMarioCuomo frequentlyrepeated this bit of wisdom in speech after speech, turning the saying intosomethingofameme.So,whiletheseleadersoftheRepublicanandDemocraticparties must have disagreed on a great many things, they were in completeconsensusontheimportanceoffollowingthroughonwhatonehasstarted.

ItoldGeorgeVaillantthat,ifI’dbeenontheHarvardresearchteamin1940,Iwouldhavemadea suggestion. Iwouldhaveallowed theyoungmen tocomebackthenextday,iftheywanted,andtrytheTreadmillTestagain.Isuspectthatsomewouldhavecomebacktoseeiftheycouldstayonlonger,whereasotherswouldhavebeencontentwiththeirfirsttimedeffort.Maybesomewouldasktheresearcherswhethertheyknewofanystrategies,physicalormental,inordertolastlonger.Andmaybethesefellowswouldevenbeinterestedinathirdtry,anda fourth. . . .Then Iwouldcreate agrit scorebasedonhowmany timesmenvoluntarilyreturnedtoseeiftheycouldimprove.

Stayingonthetreadmillisonething,andIdothinkit’srelatedtostayingtruetoourcommitmentsevenwhenwe’renotcomfortable.Butgettingbackonthetreadmillthenextday,eagertotryagain,isinmyviewevenmorereflectiveofgrit.Becausewhenyoudon’tcomebackthenextday—whenyoupermanentlyturn your back on a commitment—your effort plummets to zero. As aconsequence, your skills stop improving, and at the same time, you stopproducinganythingwithwhateverskillsyouhave.

Thetreadmill is, infact,anappropriatemetaphor.Bysomeestimates,about40percentofpeoplewhobuyhomeexerciseequipmentlatersaytheyendedupusing it less than they’d expected. How hard we push ourselves in a givenworkoutmatters,ofcourse,butIthinkthebiggerimpedimenttoprogressisthatsometimeswestopworkingoutaltogether.Asanycoachorathletewilltellyou,consistencyofeffortoverthelongruniseverything.

Howoftendopeoplestartdownapathandthengiveuponitentirely?Howmany treadmills, exercise bikes, and weight sets are at this very momentgathering dust in basements across the country?Howmany kids go out for asportandthenquitevenbeforetheseasonisover?Howmanyofusvowtoknitsweatersforallofourfriendsbutonlymanagehalfasleevebeforeputtingdownthe needles?Ditto for home vegetable gardens, compost bins, and diets.Howmanyofusstartsomethingnew,fullofexcitementandgoodintentions,andthengiveup—permanently—whenweencounterthefirstrealobstacle,thefirstlongplateauinprogress?

Manyofus,itseems,quitwhatwestartfartooearlyandfartoooften.Evenmorethantheeffortagrittypersonputsinonasingleday,whatmattersisthattheywakeupthenextday,andthenext,readytogetonthattreadmillandkeepgoing.

IfIhavethemathapproximatelyright,thensomeonetwiceastalentedbuthalfas hardworking as another personmight reach the same level of skill but stillproducedramaticallylessovertime.Thisisbecauseasstriversareimprovinginskill, they are also employing that skill—to make pots, write books, directmovies,giveconcerts.If thequalityandquantityofthosepots,books,movies,and concerts arewhat count, then the striverwho equals the personwho is anaturalinskillbyworkingharderwill,inthelongrun,accomplishmore.

“The separation of talent and skill,”Will Smith points out, “is one of thegreatestmisunderstood concepts for peoplewhoare trying to excel,whohavedreams, who want to do things. Talent you have naturally. Skill is onlydevelopedbyhoursandhoursandhoursofbeatingonyourcraft.”

Iwouldadd that skill isnot thesame thingasachievement,either.Withouteffort, your talent is nothing more than your unmet potential.Without effort,yourskillisnothingmorethanwhatyoucouldhavedonebutdidn’t.Witheffort,talentbecomesskilland,attheverysametime,effortmakesskillproductive.

Chapter4

HOWGRITTYAREYOU?

I recently gave a lecture on grit to undergraduates at theWharton School ofBusiness. Even before I’d cleared my notes from the podium, an aspiringentrepreneurrushedtointroducehimself.

He was charming—full of the energy and enthusiasm that makes teachingyoungpeoplesorewarding.Breathlessly,he toldmeastorymeant to illustratehisownprodigiousgrit.Earlierthatyear,he’draisedthousandsofdollarsforhisstart-up,goingtoheroiclengthstodoso,andpullingseveralall-nightersintheprocess.

Iwas impressed and said so.But I hastened to add that grit ismore aboutstamina than intensity. “So, if you’re working on that project with the sameenergyinayearortwo,emailme.Icansaymoreaboutyourgritthen.”

Hewaspuzzled.“Well, Imightnotbeworkingon thesame thing ina fewyears.”

Goodpoint.Lotsofventuresthatseempromisingatthestartturnoutbadly.Lotsofoptimisticbusinessplansendupinthediscardbin.

“Okay, somaybe thisparticular start-upwon’tbewhatyou’reworkingon.But if you’re not working in the same industry, if you’re on to some totallyunrelatedpursuit,thenI’mnotsureyourstoryillustratesgrit.”

“Youmean,stayinonecompany?”heasked.“Notnecessarily.Butskippingaroundfromonekindofpursuittoanother—

fromoneskillsettoanentirelydifferentone—that’snotwhatgrittypeopledo.”“But what if I move around a lot and, while I’m doing that, I’mworking

incrediblyhard?”“Gritisn’tjustworkingincrediblyhard.That’sonlypartofit.”Pause.“Why?”

“Well, for one thing, there are no shortcuts to excellence. Developing realexpertise,figuringoutreallyhardproblems,italltakestime—longerthanmostpeople imagine. And then, you know, you’ve got to apply those skills andproduce goods or services that are valuable to people.Romewasn’t built in aday.”

Hewaslistening,soIcontinued.“Andhere’s the really important thing.Grit is aboutworkingon something

youcareaboutsomuchthatyou’rewillingtostayloyaltoit.”“It’sdoingwhatyoulove.Igetthat.”“Right,it’sdoingwhatyoulove,butnotjustfallinginlove—stayinginlove.”

Howgritty are you?Below is a version of theGrit Scale I developed formystudy atWest Point andwhich I used in other studies described in this book.Readeachsentenceand,ontheright,checkofftheboxthatmakessense.Don’toverthinkthequestions.Instead,justaskyourselfhowyoucompare—notjusttoyourcoworkers,friends,orfamily—butto“mostpeople.”

Notatalllikeme

Notmuchlikeme

Somewhatlikeme

Mostlylikeme

Verymuchlikeme

1.Newideasandprojectssometimesdistractmefrompreviousones.

5 4 3 2 1

2.Setbacksdon’tdiscourageme.Idon’tgiveupeasily.

1 2 3 4 5

3.Ioftensetagoalbutlaterchoosetopursueadifferentone.

5 4 3 2 1

4.Iamahardworker.

1 2 3 4 5

5.Ihavedifficultymaintainingmyfocusonprojects

5 4 3 2 1

thattakemorethanafewmonthstocomplete.

6.IfinishwhateverIbegin.

1 2 3 4 5

7.Myinterestschangefromyeartoyear.

5 4 3 2 1

8.Iamdiligent.Inevergiveup.

1 2 3 4 5

9.Ihavebeenobsessedwithacertainideaorprojectforashorttimebutlaterlostinterest.

5 4 3 2 1

10.Ihaveovercomesetbackstoconqueranimportantchallenge.

1 2 3 4 5

To calculate your total grit score, add up all the points for the boxes youchecked and divide by 10. Themaximum score on this scale is 5 (extremelygritty),andthelowestpossiblescoreis1(notatallgritty).

You can use the chart below to see how your scores compare to a largesampleofAmericanadults.I

Percentile GritScore

10% 2.5

20% 3.0

30% 3.3

40% 3.5

50% 3.8

60% 3.9

70% 4.1

80% 4.3

90% 4.5

95% 4.7

99% 4.9

Keepinmindthatyourscoreisareflectionofhowyouseeyourselfrightnow.Howgrittyyouareatthispointinyourlifemightbedifferentfromhowgrittyyouwerewhenyouwereyounger.AndifyoutaketheGritScaleagainlater,youmightget a different score.As this bookwill continue to show, there is everyreasontobelievethatgritcanchange.

Grithastwocomponents:passionandperseverance.Ifyouwanttodigalittledeeper,youcancalculateseparatescoresforeachcomponent:Foryourpassionscore,addupyourpointsfortheodd-numbereditemsanddivideby5.Foryourperseverancescore,addupyourpointsfortheeven-numbereditemsanddivideby5.

Ifyouscoredhighonpassion,youprobablyscoredhighonperseverance,too.Andviceversa.Still,I’lltakeaguessthatyourperseverancescoreisaweebithigher than your passion score. This isn’t true for all people, but it’s true formost people I’ve studied. For instance, I took the scale while writing thischapter, and I scored 4.6 overall. My perseverance score was 5.0, and mypassionscorewasonly4.2.Strangeasitsounds,stayingfocusedonconsistentgoalsover time ismoreof a struggle forme thanworkinghard andbouncingbackfromsetbacks.

This consistent pattern—perseverance scores more often topping passionscores—isacluethatpassionandperseverancearen’texactlythesamething.Intherestofthischapter,I’llexplainhowtheydifferandshowhowtounderstandthemastwopartsofawhole.

While taking theGrit Scale, youmight have noticed that none of the passionquestionsaskedhow intenselyyou’recommitted toyourgoals.Thismayseemodd,becausethewordpassionisoftenusedtodescribeintenseemotions.Fora

lot of people, passion is synonymous with infatuation or obsession. But ininterviews about what it takes to succeed, high achievers often talk aboutcommitmentofadifferentkind.Ratherthanintensity,whatcomesupagainandagainintheirremarksistheideaofconsistencyovertime.

For instance, I’ve heard of chefs who grew up watching Julia Child ontelevision and remained fascinatedwith cooking into adulthood. I’ve heard ofinvestorswhosecuriosityaboutthefinancialmarketsisaskeenintheirfourthorfifthdecadeofinvestingasitwasontheirveryfirstdayoftrading.I’veheardofmathematicianswhoworkonaproblem—thesameproblem—dayandnightforyears,withoutoncedeciding,“Oh,toheckwiththistheorem!I’mmovingontosomethingelse.”Andthat’swhythequestionsthatgenerateyourpassionscoreaskyou to reflectonhow steadily youhold togoalsover time. Ispassion therightword todescribe sustained, enduringdevotion?Somemight say I shouldfind a better word. Maybe so. But the important thing is the idea itself:Enthusiasmiscommon.Enduranceisrare.

Consider,forexample,JeffreyGettleman.Foraboutadecade,Jeffhasbeenthe East Africa bureau chief for the New York Times. In 2012, he won thePulitzer Prize for International Reporting for his coverage of conflict in EastAfrica.He’sabitofacelebrityintheworldofinternationaljournalism,widelyadmiredforhiscouragetopursuestoriesthatputhislifeatriskand,also,forhiswillingnesstounflinchinglyreporteventsthatareunthinkablyhorrific.

ImetJeffwhenwewereinourearlytwenties.Atthetime,bothofuswerepursuing master’s degrees at Oxford University. For me, this was beforeMcKinsey,before teaching, andbeforebecomingapsychologist.For Jeff, thiswasbeforehe’dwrittenhisfirstnewsstory.Ithinkit’sfairtosaythat,backthen,neitherofusknewquitewhatwewantedtobewhenwegrewup—andwewerebothtryingdesperatelytofigureitout.

IcaughtupwithJeffonthephonerecently.HewasinNairobi,hishomebasebetween trips tootherpartsofAfrica.Every fewminutes,wehad toaskeachother if we could still be heard. After reminiscing about our classmates andtradingnewsaboutourchildren,IaskedJefftoreflectontheideaofpassionandhowithadplayedoutinhislife.

“Foraverylongtime,I’vehadaveryclearsenseofwhereIwantedtobe,”Jefftoldme.“AndthatpassionistoliveandworkinEastAfrica.”

“Oh, I didn’t know—I assumed your passionwas journalism, not a certainareaof theworld.Ifyoucouldonlybea journalistoronlyliveinEastAfrica,whichwouldyouchoose?”

IexpectedJefftopickjournalism.Hedidn’t.

“Look, journalism is a great fit for me. I’ve always gravitated towardswriting.I’vealwaysbeenokaybeinginnewsituations.Eventheconfrontationalsideofjournalism—thatspeakstomypersonality.I liketochallengeauthority.ButIthinkjournalismhasbeen,inasense,ameanstoanend.”

Jeff’spassionemergedoveraperiodofyears.Anditwasn’tjustaprocessofpassive discovery—of unearthing a little gem hidden inside his psyche—butrather of active construction. Jeff didn’t just go looking for his passion—hehelpedcreateit.

MovingtoIthaca,NewYork,fromEvanston,Illinois,Jeff,ateighteenyearsold,couldnothavepredictedhisfuturecareer.AtCornell,heendedupmajoringin philosophy, in part because “it was the easiest to fulfill the requirements.”Then,thesummerafterfreshmanyear,hevisitedEastAfrica.Andthatwasthebeginningofthebeginning:“Idon’tknowhowtoexplainit.Thisplacejustblewmymind.TherewasaspiritherethatIwantedtoconnectwith,andIwantedtomakeitapartofmylife.”

AssoonashegotbacktoCornell,JeffstartedtakingcoursesinSwahili,andaftersophomoreyear,hetookayearofftobackpackaroundtheworld.Duringthattrip,hereturnedtoEastAfrica,experiencingthesamewonderhe’dfeltthefirsttimehevisited.

Still,itwasn’tclearhowhe’dmakealifethere.Howdidhehitonjournalismasacareerpath?AprofessorwhoadmiredJeff’swritingsuggestedasmuch,andJeffremembersthinking,“ThatisthedumbestideaIhadheard...whowantstoworkforaboringnewspaper?”(Irememberthinkingthesamethingonceaboutbecomingaprofessor:Whowantstobeaboringprofessor?)Eventually,Jeffdidworkforthestudentpaper,theCornellDailySun—butasaphotographer,notawriter.

“WhenIgottoOxford,Iwasprettylostacademically.ItwasshockingtotheOxfordprofessorsthatIdidn’treallyknowwhatIwantedtodo.Theywerelike,‘Why are you here? This is a serious place.You should have a firm sense ofwhatyouwanttostudyoryoushouldn’tbehere.’ ”

My guess at the time was that Jeff would pursue photojournalism. HeremindedmeofRobertKincaid,theworldly,wisephotographerplayedbyClintEastwood inThe Bridges ofMadisonCounty, whichwas released around thetime we became friends. In fact, I can still remember the photographs Jeffshowedme twenty years ago. I thought theywere fromNationalGeographic,buthe’dactuallytakenthemhimself.

By his second year at Oxford, he figured out that journalismwas an evenbetterfit:“OnceIlearnedmoreaboutbeingajournalistandhowthatcouldgetmebacktoAfrica,andhowthatactuallywouldbefun,andIcouldwritemore

creativelythanIfirstimaginedjournalismwas,thenIwaslike,‘Screwit,thisiswhatI’mgoingtodo.’Isetoutaverydeliberatepaththatwaspossible,becausethejournalismindustrywasveryhierarchical,anditwasclearhowtogetfromAtoBtoCtoD,etcetera.”

StepAwaswritingforOxford’sstudentnewspaper,Cherwell.StepBwasasummerinternshipatasmallpaperinWisconsin.StepCwastheSt.PetersburgTimes inFloridaontheMetrobeat.StepDwastheLosAngelesTimes.StepEwastheNewYorkTimesasanationalcorrespondentinAtlanta.StepFwasbeingsentoverseas tocoverwarstories,and in2006—justoveradecadesincehe’dsethimselfthegoal—hefinallyreachedstepG:becomingtheNewYorkTimes’EastAfricabureauchief.

“Itwasareallywindingroadthattookmetoallkindsofplaces.Anditwasdifficult, and discouraging, and demoralizing, and scary, and all the rest. Buteventually,Igothere.IgotexactlywhereIwantedtobe.”

As for so many other grit paragons, the common metaphor of passion asfireworks doesn’t make sense when you think of what passion means to JeffGettleman.Fireworks erupt in a blaze of glory but quickly fizzle, leaving justwisps of smoke and a memory of what was once spectacular. What Jeff’sjourneysuggestsinsteadispassionasacompass—thatthingthattakesyousometimetobuild,tinkerwith,andfinallygetright,andthatthenguidesyouonyourlongandwindingroadtowhere,ultimately,youwanttobe.

Seattle Seahawks coach Pete Carroll puts it this way: “Do you have a lifephilosophy?”

Forsomeofus,thequestionmakesnosense.Wemightsay:Well,IhavealotofthingsI’mpursuing.Alotofgoals.Alotofprojects.Whichdoyoumean?

Butothershavenoproblemansweringwithconviction:ThisiswhatIwant.Everythingbecomesabitclearerwhenyouunderstand the levelof thegoal

Pete is asking about.He’s not asking aboutwhat youwant to get done today,specifically,oreventhisyear.He’saskingwhatyou’retryingtogetoutoflife.Ingritterms,he’saskingaboutyourpassion.

Pete’sphilosophyis:Dothingsbetterthantheyhaveeverbeendonebefore.LikewithJeff, it tookawhile tofigureoutwhat, in thebroadersense,hewasaimingfor.Thepivotalmomentcameatalowpointinhiscoachingcareer:justaftergettingfiredasheadcoachoftheNewEnglandPatriots.ThiswasthefirstandonlyyearinhislifewhenPetewasn’tplayingorcoachingfootball.Atthatjuncture,oneofhisgoodfriendsurgedhimtoconsidersomethingmoreabstractthanwhichjobtotakenext:“You’vegottohaveaphilosophy.”

Peterealizedhedidn’thaveoneandneededto:“IfIwasevergoingtogetthechance to run an organization again, I would have to be prepared with aphilosophy that would drive all my actions.” Pete did a lot of thinking andreflecting:“Mylifeinthenextweeksandmonthswasfilledwithwritingnotesand filling binders.” At the same time, he was devouring the books of JohnWooden, the legendaryUCLA basketball coachwhowon a record-setting tennationalchampionships.

Likea lotofcoaches,PetehadalreadyreadWooden.But this time,hewasreadingWoodenandunderstanding,atamuchdeeper level,what thecoachingiconhadtosay.Andthemost important thingWoodensaidwasthat, thoughateamhas to do amillion thingswell, figuringout theoverarchingvision is ofutmostimportance.

Pete realized in that moment that particular goals—winning a particulargame, or even a seasonal championship, or figuring out this element of theoffensive lineup, or the way to talk to players—needed coordination, neededpurpose: “A clear, well-defined philosophy gives you the guidelines andboundariesthatkeepyouontrack,”hesaid.

One way to understand what Pete is talking about is to envision goals in ahierarchy.

Atthebottomofthishierarchyareourmostconcreteandspecificgoals—thetaskswehaveonourshort-termto-dolist: Iwant togetout thedoor todaybyeighta.m.Iwant tocallmybusinesspartnerback. Iwant tofinishwriting theemailIstartedyesterday.Theselow-levelgoalsexistmerelyasmeanstoends.Wewanttoaccomplishthemonlybecausetheygetussomethingelsewewant.Incontrast,thehigherthegoalinthishierarchy,themoreabstract,general,andimportantitis.Thehigherthegoal,themoreit’sanendinitself,andthelessit’smerelyameanstoanend.

In the diagram I’ve sketchedout here, there are just three levels.That’s anoversimplification.Between the lowest and the highest levelmight be severallayersofmid-level goals.For instance, gettingout thedoorby eight a.m. is alow-levelgoal.Itonlymattersbecauseofamid-levelgoal:arrivingatworkontime.Whydoyoucareabout that?Becauseyouwant tobepunctual.Whydoyoucareaboutthat?Becausebeingpunctualshowsrespectforthepeoplewithwhomyouwork.Whyisthatimportant?Becauseyoustrivetobeagoodleader.

If in the course of asking yourself these “Why?” questions your answer issimply “Just because!” then you know you’ve gotten to the top of a goalhierarchy.The top-levelgoal isnotameans toanyotherend. It is, instead,anendinitself.Somepsychologistsliketocallthisan“ultimateconcern.”Myself,Ithinkofthistop-levelgoalasacompassthatgivesdirectionandmeaningtoallthegoalsbelowit.

ConsiderHallofFamepitcherTomSeaver.Whenhe retired in1987at theageof forty-two,he’dcompiled311wins;3,640strikeouts;61shutouts;anda2.86earnedrunaverage.In1992,whenSeaverwaselectedtotheHallofFame,he received the highest-ever percentage of votes: 98.8 percent. During histwenty-year professional baseball career, Seaver aimed to pitch “the best Ipossibly can day after day, year after year.” Here is how that intention gavemeaningandstructuretoallhislower-ordergoals:

Pitching...determineswhatIeat,whenIgotobed,whatIdowhenI’mawake. It determines how I spend my life when I’m not pitching. If itmeansIhavetocometoFloridaandcan’tgettannedbecauseImightgetaburn thatwouldkeepme from throwing for a fewdays, then Inevergoshirtless in the sun. . . . If itmeans Ihave to remindmyself topetdogswithmy lefthandor throwlogson the firewithmy lefthand, thenIdothat,too.IfitmeansinthewinterIeatcottagecheeseinsteadofchocolatechipcookiesinordertokeepmyweightdown,thenIeatcottagecheese.

The lifeSeaver described soundsgrim.But that’s not howSeaver saw things:“Pitchingiswhatmakesmehappy.I’vedevotedmylifetoit....I’vemadeupmymindwhatIwanttodo.I’mhappywhenIpitchwellsoIonlydothingsthathelpmebehappy.”

WhatImeanbypassionisnotjustthatyouhavesomethingyoucareabout.WhatImeanisthatyoucareaboutthatsameultimategoalinanabiding,loyal,steady way. You are not capricious. Each day, you wake up thinking of thequestions you fell asleep thinking about. You are, in a sense, pointing in thesamedirection,evereagertotakeeventhesmalleststepforwardthantotakea

step to theside, towardsomeotherdestination.At theextreme,onemightcallyour focusobsessive.Mostofyouractionsderive their significance fromtheirallegiancetoyourultimateconcern,yourlifephilosophy.

Youhaveyourprioritiesinorder.

Gritisaboutholdingthesametop-levelgoalforaverylongtime.Furthermore,this“lifephilosophy,”asPeteCarrollmightputit,issointerestingandimportantthatitorganizesagreatdealofyourwakingactivity.Inverygrittypeople,mostmid-level and low-level goals are, in some way or another, related to thatultimategoal.Incontrast,alackofgritcancomefromhavinglesscoherentgoalstructures.

Here are a fewways a lack of grit can show itself. I’vemetmany youngpeople who can articulate a dream—for example, to be a doctor or to playbasketballintheNBA—andcanvividlyimaginehowwonderfulthatwouldbe,but they can’t point to themid-level and lower-level goals that will get themthere.Theirgoalhierarchyhasa top-levelgoalbutnosupportingmid-levelorlow-levelgoals:

ThisiswhatmygoodfriendandfellowpsychologistGabrieleOettingencalls“positivefantasizing.”Gabriele’sresearchsuggeststhatindulginginvisionsofapositivefuturewithoutfiguringouthowtogetthere,chieflybyconsideringwhatobstacles stand in theway, has short-term payoffs but long-term costs. In theshort-term,youfeelprettygreataboutyouraspirationtobeadoctor.Inthelong-term,youlivewiththedisappointmentofnothavingachievedyourgoal.

Evenmorecommon,Ithink,ishavingabunchofmid-levelgoalsthatdon’tcorrespondtoanyunifying,top-levelgoal:

Orhavingafewcompetinggoalhierarchiesthataren’tinanywayconnectedwitheachother:

Tosomeextent,goalconflictisanecessaryfeatureofhumanexistence.Forinstance, I haveonegoal hierarchy as a professional and another as amother.EvenTomSeaveradmitsthatthetravelandpracticescheduleofaprofessionalbaseballplayermadeithardtospendasmuchtimewithhiswifeandchildrenashe would have liked. So, though pitching was his professional passion, therewereothergoalhierarchiesthatobviouslymatteredtohim.

LikeSeaver,Ihaveonegoalhierarchyforwork:Usepsychologicalsciencetohelpkidsthrive.ButIhaveaseparategoalhierarchythatinvolvesbeingthebestmotherIcanbetomytwodaughters.Asanyworkingparentknows,havingtwo“ultimateconcerns”isn’teasy.Thereseemsnevertobeenoughtime,energy,orattentiontogoaround.I’vedecidedtolivewiththattension.Asayoungwoman,I considered alternatives—not havingmy career or not raising a family—anddecided that,morally, therewas no “right decision,” only a decision thatwasrightforme.

So,theideathateverywakingmomentinourlivesshouldbeguidedbyonetop-level goal is an idealized extreme that may not be desirable even for thegrittiest ofus.Still, Iwould argue that it’s possible toparedown long lists ofmid-level and low-level work goals according to how they serve a goal ofsupremeimportance.AndIthinkonetop-levelprofessionalgoal,ratherthananyothernumber,isideal.

Insum, themoreunified,aligned,andcoordinatedourgoalhierarchies, thebetter.

WarrenBuffett—theself-mademultibillionairewhosepersonalwealth,acquiredentirely within his own lifetime, is roughly twice the size of HarvardUniversity’sendowment—reportedlygavehispilot a simple three-stepprocessforprioritizing.

The story goes like this: Buffett turns to his faithful pilot and says that hemusthavedreamsgreater than flyingBuffett around towhereheneeds togo.Thepilotconfessesthat,yes,hedoes.AndthenBuffetttakeshimthroughthreesteps.

First,youwritedownalistoftwenty-fivecareergoals.Second,youdosomesoul-searchingandcirclethefivehighest-prioritygoals.

Justfive.

Third,youtakeagoodhardlookatthetwentygoalsyoudidn’tcircle.Theseyouavoidatallcosts.They’rewhatdistractyou;theyeatawaytimeandenergy,takingyoureyefromthegoalsthatmattermore.

WhenIfirstheardthisstory,Ithought,Whocouldhaveasmanyastwenty-five different career goals? That’s kind of ridiculous, isn’t it? Then I startedwritingdownonapieceoflinedpaperalloftheprojectsI’mcurrentlyworkingon. When I got to line thirty-two, I realized that I could benefit from thisexercise.

Interestingly, most of the goals I spontaneously thought of were mid-levelgoals.Peoplegenerallydefaulttothatlevelofgoalwhenthey’reaskedtowritedownanumberofgoals,notjustone.

To help me prioritize, I added columns that allowed me to sort out howinterestingandimportanttheseprojectswere.Iratedeachgoalonascalefrom1to10,fromleasttomostinterestingandthenagainfromleasttomostimportant.Imultipliedthesenumberstogethertogetanumberfrom1to100.Noneofmygoalshadan“interestximportance”ratingashighas100,butnonewereaslowas1,either.

Then I tried to take Buffett’s advice and circle just a few of the mostinteresting and important goals, relegating the rest to the avoid-at-all-costcategory.

Itried,butIjustcouldn’tdoit.After a day or so of wondering who was right—me orWarren Buffett—I

realizedthatalotofmygoalswere,infact,relatedtooneanother.Themajority,infact,weremeanstoends,settingmeuptomakeprogresstowardoneultimategoal:helpingkidsachieveandthrive.Therewereonlyafewprofessionalgoalsforwhichthiswasn’ttrue.Reluctantly,Idecidedtoputthoseontheavoid-at-all-costlist.

Now,ifIcouldeversitdownwithBuffettandgothroughmylistwithhim(whichisunlikely,sinceIdoubtmyneedsrateaplaceinhisgoalhierarchy),hewouldsurely tellme that thepointof thisexercise is to face thefact that timeandenergyarelimited.Anysuccessfulpersonhastodecidewhattodoinpartbydecidingwhatnottodo.Igetthat.AndIstillhaveawaystogoonthatcount.

But Iwouldalso say that conventionalprioritizing isn’t enough.Whenyouhavetodivideyouractionsamonganumberofverydifferenthigh-levelcareergoals, you’re extremely conflicted. You need one internal compass—not two,three,four,orfive.

FrankModell,theNewYorker,July7,1962,TheNewYorkerCollection/TheCartoonBank.

So, toBuffett’s three-stepexerciseinprioritizing,Iwouldaddanadditionalstep:Askyourself,Towhatextentdothesegoalsserveacommonpurpose?Themorethey’repartofthesamegoalhierarchy—importantbecausetheythenservethesameultimateconcern—themorefocusedyourpassion.

Ifyoufollowthismethodofprioritization,willyoubecomeaHallofFamepitcherorearnmoremoneythananyoneelseinhistory?Probablynot.Butyou’llstandabetterchanceofgettingsomewhereyoucareabout—abetterchanceofmovingclosertowhereyouwanttobe.

Whenyouseeyourgoalsorganizedinahierarchy,yourealizethatgritisnotatallaboutstubbornlypursuing—atallcostsandadinfinitum—everysinglelow-levelgoalonyour list. In fact,youcanexpect to abandona fewof the thingsyou’reworkingveryhardonatthismoment.Notallofthemwillworkout.Sure,you should try hard—even a little longer than youmight think necessary.Butdon’tbeatyourheadagainstthewallattemptingtofollowthroughonsomethingthatis,merely,ameanstoamoreimportantend.

Ithoughtabouthowimportantitistoknowhowlow-levelgoalsfitintoone’soverall hierarchy when I listened to Roz Chast, the celebrated New Yorkercartoonist,giveatalkatthelocallibrary.Shetoldusherrejectionrateis,atthisstageinhercareer,about90percent.Sheclaimedthatitusedtobemuch,muchhigher.

I called BobMankoff, the cartoon editor for theNew Yorker, to ask howtypicalthatnumberis.Tome,itseemedshockinglyhigh.BobtoldmethatRozwas indeed an anomaly.Phew! I thought. I didn’twant to think about all thecartoonistsintheworldgettingrejectedninetimesoutoften.ButthenBobtoldme that most cartoonists live with even more rejection. At his magazine,“contract cartoonists,”who have dramatically better odds of getting publishedthananyoneelse,collectivelysubmitaboutfivehundredcartoonseveryweek.Inagivenissue,thereisonlyroom,onaverage,foraboutseventeenofthem.Ididthemath:that’sarejectionrateofmorethan96percent.

“Holysmokes!Whowouldkeepgoingwhentheoddsarethatgrim?”Well,forone:Bobhimself.Bob’sstoryrevealsa lotabouthowdoggedperseverancetowarda top-level

goalrequires,paradoxicallyperhaps,someflexibilityatlowerlevelsinthegoalhierarchy.It’sasif thehighest-levelgoalgetswritteninink,onceyou’vedoneenoughlivingandreflectingtoknowwhatthatgoalis,andthelower-levelgoalsget written in pencil, so you can revise them and sometimes erase themaltogether,andthenfigureoutnewonestotaketheirplace.

Here’smynot-at-all-NewYorker–qualitydrawingtoshowwhatImean:

Thelow-levelgoalwiththeangry-lookingXthroughithasbeenblocked.It’sa rejection slip, a setback, a dead end, a failure. The gritty person will bedisappointed,orevenheartbroken,butnotforlong.

Soon enough, the gritty person identifies a new low-level goal—drawsanothercartoon,forexample—thatservesthesamepurpose.

OneofthemottosoftheGreenBeretsis:“Improvise,adapt,overcome.”Alotofusweretoldaschildren,“Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed,try,tryagain.”Soundadvice,but as they say “try, try again, then try somethingdifferent.”At lowerlevelsofagoalhierarchy,that’sexactlywhat’sneeded.

Here’sBobMankoff’sstory:LikeJeffGettleman,theNewYorkTimesEastAfricabureauchief,Bobdidn’t

alwayshaveaclearlydefinedpassion.Asachild,Boblikedtodraw,andinsteadofattendinghislocalhighschoolintheBronx,hewenttotheLaGuardiaHighSchool ofMusic and Art, later fictionalized in the movieFame. Once there,though,hegotalookatthecompetitionandwasintimidated.

“Being exposed to real drawing talent,” Bob recalls, “mademine wither. Ididn’t touch a pen, pencil, or paintbrush for three years after graduating.”Instead, he enrolled at Syracuse University, where he studied philosophy andpsychology.

In his senior year, he bought a book called Learning to Cartoon by thelegendarySydHoff,anexemplarof the“effortcounts twice”maxim.Overhis

lifetime,Hoffcontributed571cartoonstotheNewYorker,wroteandillustratedmore than sixty children’s books, drew two syndicated comic strips, andcontributed literally thousands of drawings and cartoons to other publications.Hoff’sbookopenscheerilywith“Isithardbecomingacartoonist?No,itisn’t.Andtoproveit,I’vewrittenthisbook....”Itendswithachaptercalled“HowtoSurviveRejectionSlips.”Inbetweenarelessonsoncomposition,perspective,thehumanfigure,facialexpressions,andsoon.

BobusedHoff’sadvicetocreatetwenty-sevencartoons.Hewalkedfromonemagazine to another, trying to make a sale—but not the New Yorker, whichdidn’tseecartoonists inperson.Andhewas,ofcourse,summarily rejectedbyeveryeditorhesaw.Mostaskedhimtotryagain,withmorecartoons,thenextweek.“More?”Bobwondered.“Howcouldanyonedomorethantwenty-sevencartoons?”

Before he could rereadHoff’s last chapter on rejection slips, Bob receivednoticethathewaseligibletobedraftedforcombatinVietnam.Hehadnogreatdesire togo; in fact, hehad agreat desirenot to.Sohe repurposedhimself—quickly—asagraduate student in experimentalpsychology.Over thenext fewyears,whilerunningratsinmazes,hefoundtime,whenhecould,todraw.Then,justbeforeearninghisdoctorate,hehadtherealizationthatresearchpsychologywasn’t his calling: “I remember thinking that my defining personalitycharacteristicwassomethingelse.I’mthefunniestguyyouevermet—that’sthewayIthoughtofmyself—I’mfunny.”

Forawhile,Bobconsideredtwowaysofmakinghumorhiscareer:“Isaid,okay, I’m going to do stand-up, or I’m going to be a cartoonist.” He threwhimselfintobothwithgusto:“AlldayIwouldwriteroutinesandthen,atnight,Iwoulddrawcartoons.”Butovertime,oneofthesetwomid-levelgoalsbecamemoreattractivethantheother:“Stand-upwasdifferentbackthen.Thereweren’treallycomedyclubs.I’dhavetogototheBorschtBelt,andIdidn’treallywantto. . . . I knewmyhumorwasnot going towork like Iwanted it to for thesepeople.”

SoBobdroppedstand-upcomedyanddevotedhisentireenergytocartoons.“Aftertwoyearsofsubmitting,allIhadtoshowforitwereenoughNewYorkerrejectionslipstowallpapermybathroom.”Thereweresmallvictories—cartoonssold to othermagazines—but by that timeBob’s top-level goal had become awhole lotmore specific and ambitious:He didn’t justwant to be funny for aliving, he wanted to be among the best cartoonists in the world. “The NewYorker was to cartooning what the New York Yankees were to baseball—theBestTeam,”Bobexplains.“Ifyoucouldmakethat team,you toowereoneofthebest.”

The piles of rejection slips suggested to Bob that “try, try again” was notworking.Hedecidedtodosomethingdifferent.“IwenttotheNewYorkPublicLibraryandIlookedupallthecartoonsbackto1925thathadeverbeenprintedintheNewYorker.”Atfirst,hethoughtmaybehedidn’tdrawwellenough,butitwasplaintoseethatsomeverysuccessfulNewYorkercartoonistswerethird-ratedraftsmen.ThenBob thought thatsomethingmightbeawrywith the lengthofhiscaptions—tooshortortoolong—butthatpossibilitywasn’tsupported,either.Captionsweregenerallybrief, butnot always, andanyway,Bob’sdidn’t seemunusualinthatrespect.ThenBobthoughtmaybehewasmissingthemarkwithhis type of humor.No again: some successful cartoonswerewhimsical, somesatirical,somephilosophical,andsomejustinteresting.

Theonethingallthecartoonshadincommonwasthis:theymadethereaderthink.

Andherewasanothercommonthread:everycartoonisthadapersonalstylethat was distinctively their own. There was no single “best” style. On thecontrary,whatmatteredwasthatstylewas,insomeverydeepandidiosyncraticway,anexpressionoftheindividualcartoonist.

Paging through, literally, everycartoon theNewYorker had ever published,Bobknewhecoulddoaswell.Orbetter.“Ithought,‘Icandothis,Icandothis.’Ihadcompleteconfidence.”Heknewhecoulddrawcartoonsthatwouldmakepeople think,andheknewhecoulddevelophisownstyle: “Iworked throughvarious styles. Eventually I did my dot style.” The now-famous dot style ofBob’s cartoons is called stippling, andBob had originally tried it out back inhighschool,whenhediscoveredtheFrenchimpressionistGeorgesSeurat.

AftergettingrejectedfromtheNewYorkerabouttwothousandtimesbetween1974and1977,Bobsentinthecartoon,below.Itwasaccepted.

RobertMankoff,theNewYorker,June20,1977,TheNewYorkerCollection/TheCartoonBank.

Thenextyear,hesoldthirteencartoonstotheNewYorker, then twenty-fivethe followingyear, then twenty-seven. In1981,Bob receiveda letter from themagazineaskingifhe’dconsiderbecomingacontractcartoonist.Hesaidyes.

Inhisroleaseditorandmentor,Bobadvisesaspiringcartooniststosubmittheirdrawings in batches of ten, “because in cartooning, as in life, nine out of tenthingsneverworkout.”

Indeed,givinguponlower-levelgoalsisnotonlyforgivable,it’ssometimesabsolutely necessary. You should give up when one lower-level goal can beswapped for another that ismore feasible. It alsomakes sense to switch yourpathwhenadifferent lower-levelgoal—adifferentmeans to thesameend—isjustmoreefficient,ormorefun,orforwhateverreasonmakesmoresensethanyouroriginalplan.

Onanylongjourney,detoursaretobeexpected.However, thehigher-level thegoal, themore itmakessense tobestubborn.

Personally,Itrynottogettoohunguponaparticularrejectedgrantapplication,academic paper, or failed experiment. The pain of those failures is real, but Idon’tdwellonthemfor longbeforemovingon.Incontrast, Idon’tgiveupaseasily on mid-level goals, and frankly, I can’t imagine anything that wouldchangemyultimate aim,my life philosophy, as Petemight say.My compass,once I found all the parts and put it together, keeps pointingme in the samedirection,weekaftermonthafteryear.

Longbefore I conducted the first interviews that putmeon the trail of grit, aStanford psychologist named Catharine Cox was, herself, cataloging thecharacteristicsofhighachievers.

In1926,Coxpublishedherfindings,basedonthebiographicaldetailsof301exceptionally accomplished historical figures. These eminent individualsincludedpoets,politicalandreligious leaders,scientists,soldiers,philosophers,artists, andmusicians. All lived and died in the four centuries prior to Cox’sinvestigation, and all left behind records of accomplishment worthy ofdocumentationinsixpopularencyclopedias.

Cox’sinitialgoalwastoestimatehowsmarteachoftheseindividualswere,bothrelativetooneanotherandalsocomparedtotherestofhumanity.Inpursuitof those estimates, she combed through the available evidence, searching forsigns of intellectual precocity—and from the age and superiority of theseaccomplishments she reckoned each person’s childhood IQ. The published

summaryofthisstudy—ifyoucancallabookofmorethaneighthundredpagesa summary—includes a case history for each ofCox’s 301, arranged in orderfromleasttomostintelligent.

According toCox, theverysmartest in thebunchwas thephilosopherJohnStuart Mill, who earned an estimated childhood IQ score of 190 by learningGreekatagethree,writingahistoryofRomeatagesix,andassistinghisfatherincorrectingtheproofsofahistoryofIndiaatagetwelve.TheleastintelligentinCox’sranking—whoseestimatedchildhoodIQsof100to110arejustahairabove average for humanity—included the founder of modern astronomy,Nicolaus Copernicus; the chemist and physicist Michael Faraday; and theSpanishpoetandnovelistMigueldeCervantes.IsaacNewtonrankssquarelyinthemiddle,withanIQof130—thebareminimumthatachildneedsinordertoqualifyformanyoftoday’sgiftedandtalentedprograms.

From these IQ estimates, Cox concluded that, as a group, accomplishedhistoricalfiguresaresmarterthanmostofus.Nosurprisethere.

AmoreunexpectedobservationwashowlittleIQmatteredindistinguishingthemost from the least accomplished. The average childhood IQ of themosteminentgeniuses,whomCoxdubbedtheFirstTen,was146.TheaverageIQoftheleasteminent,dubbedtheLastTen,was143.Thespreadwastrivial.Inotherwords,therelationshipbetweenintelligenceandeminenceinCox’ssamplewasexceedinglyslight.

Cox’sFirstTen(MostEminentGeniuses)

SirFrancisBaconNapoleonBonaparteEdmundBurkeJohannWolfgangvonGoetheMartinLutherJohnMiltonIsaacNewtonWilliamPittVoltaireGeorgeWashington

Cox’sLastTen(LeastEminentGeniuses)

ChristianK.J.vonBunsenThomasChalmersThomasChattertonRichardCobdenSamuelTaylorColeridgeGeorgesJ.DantonJosephHaydn

Hugues-Félicité-RobertdeLamennaisGiuseppeMazziniJoachimMurat

If intellectualtalentwasn’t thedeterminantofwhetherapersonascendedtotheFirstTenorwasrelegatedtotheLastTen,thenwhatwas?Whileporingoverthousands of pages of biographical data, Cox and her assistant also evaluatedsixty-sevendifferentpersonalitytraitsforasubsetofonehundredgeniuses.Coxdeliberatelychosearainbowoftraits—infact,shecoveredthefullrangeofwhatmodernpsychologistsconsidertobeimportant—toallowforthefullestpossibleexploration of the differences that set apart the eminent from the rest ofhumanityand,further,theFirstTenfromtheLastTen.

For most of the sixty-seven indicators, Cox found only trivial differencesbetween the eminent and the general population. For instance, eminence hadlittle todowithextroversion, cheerfulness,or senseofhumor.Andnot all thehigh achievers had earned highmarks in school. Rather,what definitively setapart the eminent from the rest of humanitywere a cluster of four indicators.Notably, these also distinguished the First Ten from the Last Ten—the super-eminentfromthemerelyeminent.Coxgroupedthesetogetherandcalledthem“persistenceofmotive.”

TwoindicatorscouldeasilyberephrasedaspassionitemsfortheGritScale.

Degree to which he works with distant objects in view (as opposed toliving from hand to mouth). Active preparation for later life. Workingtowardadefinitegoal.

Tendency not to abandon tasks from mere changeability. Not seekingsomethingfreshbecauseofnovelty.Not“lookingforachange.”

AndtheothertwocouldeasilyberewrittenasperseveranceitemsfortheGritScale.

Degreeofstrengthofwillorperseverance.Quietdeterminationtosticktoacourseoncedecidedupon.

Tendency not to abandon tasks in the face of obstacles. Perseverance,tenacity,doggedness.

In her summary comments, Cox concluded that “high but not the highestintelligence, combined with the greatest degree of persistence, will achieve

greater eminence than the highest degree of intelligence with somewhat lesspersistence.”

Howeveryou scored on theGrit Scale, I hope it prompted self-reflection. It’sprogressjustclarifyingyourgoals,andtheextenttowhichtheyare—oraren’t—aligned toward a single passion of supreme importance. It’s also progress tobetterunderstandhowwellyou’recurrentlyabletopersevereinthefaceoflife’srejectionslips.

It’sastart.Let’scontinue, in thenextchapter, toseehowgritcananddoeschange. And, then, in the rest of the book, let’s learn how to accelerate thatgrowth.

I.If,forexample,youscored4.1,you’regrittierthanabout70percentoftheadultsinoursample.

Chapter5

GRITGROWS

“Howmuchofourgritisinourgenes?”I’maskedsomeversionofthisquestionprettymuchanytimeIgiveatalkon

grit.Thenature-nurturequestionisaverybasicone.Wehaveanintuitivesensethatsomethingsaboutus—likeourheight—areprettymuchdeterminedinthegeneticlottery,whileotherthings—likewhetherwespeakEnglishorFrench—are a result of our upbringing and experience. “You can’t train height” is apopularexpressioninbasketballcoaching,andmanypeoplewholearnaboutgritwanttoknowifit’smorelikeheightormorelikelanguage.

TothequestionofwhetherwegetgritfromourDNA,thereisashortansweranda longone.The short answer is “inpart.”The longanswer is,well,morecomplicated.Inmyview,thelongeranswerisworthourattention.Sciencehasmade huge strides in figuring out how genes, experience, and their interplaymake us who we are. Fromwhat I can tell, the inherent complexity of thesescientificfactshasled,unfortunately,totheircontinuallybeingmisunderstood.

Tobegin, I can tell youwith complete conviction that every human trait isinfluencedbybothgenesandexperience.

Consider height. Height is indeed heritable: genetic differences are a bigreasonwhysomepeoplearereallytall,somereallyshort,andabunchofpeopleareofvaryingheightsinbetween.

But it’s also true that theaverage height ofmen andwomenhas increaseddramatically in justa fewgenerations.For instance,militaryrecordsshowthattheaverageBritishmanwasfivefeet five inches tallabout150yearsago,buttoday that average is five feet ten inches. Height gains have been evenmoredramatic in other countries; in the Netherlands, the average man now standsalmostsixfootone—againofmorethansixinchesoverthelast150years.IamremindedofthesedramaticgenerationalgainsinheightwheneverIgettogether

withmyDutchcollaborators.Theybenddownsolicitously,butitstillfeelslikestandinginaforestofredwoods.

It’sunlikelythatthegenepoolhaschangedallthatdramaticallyinjustafewgenerations. Instead, the most powerful height boosters have been nutrition,clean air andwater, andmodernmedicine. (Incidentally, generational gains inweight have been even more dramatic, and again, that seems to be theconsequenceofeatingmoreandmovingaroundlessratherthanchangesinourDNA.)Evenwithinageneration,youcansee the influenceofenvironmentonheight.Childrenwhoareprovidedhealthyfoodinabundancewillgrowuptaller,whereasmalnourishmentstuntsgrowth.

Likewise, traits like honesty and generosity and, yes, grit, are geneticallyinfluencedand,inaddition,influencedbyexperience.DittoforIQ,extroversion,enjoyingthegreatoutdoors,havingasweettooth,thelikelihoodthatyou’llendupachain-smoker,yourriskofgettingskincancer,andreallyanyothertraityoucanthinkof.Naturematters,andsodoesnurture.

Talents,inalltheirvarieties,arealsogeneticallyinfluenced.Someofusarebornwithgenesthatmakeiteasier tolearntocarryatune,ordunkabasketball,orsolveaquadraticequation.Butagainstintuition,talentsarenotentirelygenetic:therateatwhichwedevelopanyskillisalso,crucially,afunctionofexperience.

For instance,sociologistDanChamblissswamcompetitively inhighschoolbut stopped when it seemed clear he wasn’t going tomake it as a nationallyrankedswimmer.

“I’msmall,”heexplained,“andmyankleswon’tplantarflex.”Comeagain?“Ican’tpointmytoes.Icanonlyflexthem.It’sananatomicallimitation.Whichmeans, basically, at the elite level, I could only swimbreaststroke.”After ourexchange, I did a little research on plantar flexion. Stretching exercises canimprove your range of motion, but the length of certain bones does make adifferenceinhowflexibleyourfeetandanklesare.

Still, the biggest impediment to improvingwasn’t anatomy; it was how hewas coached: “In retrospect, I look back now and can see I had horribly badcoaches in a couple of crucial places.One ofmy high school coaches—I hadhimforfouryears—literallytaughtmezero.Nothing.Hetaughtmehowtodoabreaststroketurn,andhetaughtmeincorrectly.”

What happened when Dan did, finally, experience good coaching, in partfromhangingaroundthenationalandOlympiccoacheshewasstudying?

“Years later, I gotback into thepool,got in shapeagain, and swama two-hundred-yardindividualmedleyasfastasIdidinhighschool.”

Again,samestory.Notjustnature,andnotjustnurture.Both.

How do scientists know, with unwavering conviction, that both nature andnurtureplayaroleindeterminingthingsliketalentandgrit?Overthepastfewdecades, researchershavebeenstudying identicalandfraternal twins, raised inthesamefamilyorraisedindifferentfamilies.IdenticaltwinshaveallthesameDNA,whilefraternaltwins,onaverage,onlyshareabouthalf.Thatfact,andawholelotoffancystatistics(well,notthatfancy—moremundane,really,onceagoodteacherexplainsthemtoyou),allowsresearcherstoinfer,fromhowsimilarthetwinsgrowuptobe,theheritabilityofatrait.

Very recently, researchers in London let me know they’d administered theGritScaletomorethantwothousandpairsofteenagetwinslivingintheUnitedKingdom.This studyestimated theheritabilityof theperseverance subscale tobe37percentandthepassionsubscaletobe20percent.Theseestimatesareonpar for heritability estimates for other personality traits, and in the simplestterms, this means that some of the variation in grit in the population can beattributedtogeneticfactors,andtherestcanbeattributedtoexperience.

Ihastentoaddthat there isn’t justonegene thatexplains theheritabilityofgrit. On the contrary, dozens of research studies have shown that almost allhumantraitsarepolygenic,meaningthattraitsareinfluencedbymorethanonegene.Manymore,infact.Height,forexample,isinfluencedby,atlastcount,atleast697differentgenes.Andsomeofthegenesthatinfluenceheightinfluenceothertraitsaswell.Intotal,thehumangenomecontainsasmanyastwenty-fivethousand different genes, and they tend to interactwith one another andwithenvironmentalinfluencesincomplicated,stillpoorlyunderstood,ways.

Insum,whathavewelearned?First:grit,talent,andallotherpsychologicaltraitsrelevanttosuccessinlifeareinfluencedbygenesandalsobyexperience.Second:there’snosinglegeneforgrit,orindeedanyotherpsychologicaltrait.

I’d like to make a third, important point: heritability estimates explain whypeopledifferfromtheaverage,buttheysaynothingabouttheaverageitself.

While theheritability of height says something about variability—why in agivenpopulationsomepeoplearetallerandsomeshorter—itsaysnothingabouthowaverageheighthaschanged.Thisisimportantbecauseitprovidesevidencethattheenvironmentwegrowupinreallydoesmatter,anditmattersalot.

Here’s another striking example, and one more relevant to the science ofsuccess: the Flynn effect. Named after Jim Flynn, the New Zealand social

scientistwhodiscoveredit,theFlynneffectreferstostartlinggainsinIQscoresoverthepastcentury.Howbigarethegains?OnthemostwidelyusedIQteststoday—the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and the Wechsler AdultIntelligenceScale—gainshaveaveragedmorethanfifteenpointsinthelastfiftyyearsinthemorethanthirtycountriesthathavebeenstudied.Putanotherway,ifyou scored people a century ago against modern norms, they would have anaverageIQscoreof70—borderlineformentallyretarded.Ifyouscoredpeopletodayagainstthenormsofacenturyago,wewouldhaveanaverageIQscoreof130—thetypicalcutscoreformentallygiftedprograms.

WhenIfirstlearnedabouttheFlynneffect,Ididn’tbelieveit.Howcoulditbethatwe’reallgettingthatmuchsmartersoquickly?

I called Jim to share my incredulity—and my desire to learn more—and,globe-trotterthatheis,heactuallyflewallthewaytoPhiladelphiatomeetwithmeandgiveatalkonhiswork.Atourfirstencounter,IrememberthinkingthatJim looked like a caricature of an academic: tall, a little bony, wire-rimmedglasses,andaratherunrulyheadofcurlysteel-grayhair.

FlynnbeganhistalkwiththebasicfactsonIQchange.DiggingthroughtherawscoresofIQteststakenovertheyears,hefoundthattheimprovementsonsome tests were much bigger than others. He went to the chalkboard andsketchedoutasteeplineindicatingthatscoreshadclimbedmostsharplyforIQtestsassessingabstractreasoning.Forinstance,manyyoungchildrentodaycananswer the question “Dogs and rabbits:How are they alike?”Theymight tellyou that both dogs and rabbits are alive, or that they’re both animals. In thescoringmanual,theseanswersonlyearnahalfcredit.Somechildrenmightgosofarastosaythatthey’rebothmammals,andforthatinsight,they’dearnafullcredit. Incontrast,youngchildrenacenturyagomight lookatyouquizzicallyandsay,“Dogschaserabbits.”Zeropoints.

Asaspecies,we’regettingbetterandbetteratabstractreasoning.BywayofexplainingmassivegainsincertainIQsubtestsbutnotinothers,

Flynn told a story about basketball and television. Basketball, at all levels ofcompetition,hasgottenmorecompetitiveover the lastcentury.Flynnplayedalittleballhimselfasastudentandremembersthegamechangingevenwithinafewyears.Whathappened?

According to Flynn,what happenedwas television. Basketballwas a greatgame to watch on the small screen and the exposure fueled the game’spopularity. Once television became a household fixture, more kids startedplaying the game, trying left-handed layups, crossover dribbles, graceful hookshots, andother skills that seemed routine among star players.Andbygettingbetter,eachkidinadvertentlyenrichedthelearningenvironmentforthekidshe

orshewasplayingagainst.Becauseonethingthatmakesyoubetteratbasketballisplayingwithkidswhoarejustalittlemoreskilled.

Flynn called this virtuous cycle of skill improvement the social multipliereffect, and he used the same logic to explain generational changes in abstractreasoning.Moreandmore,overthepastcentury,ourjobsanddailylivesaskustothinkanalytically,logically.Wegotoschoolforlonger,andinschool,we’reasked,moreandmore,toreasonratherthanrelyonrotememorization.

Eithersmallenvironmentaldifferences,orgeneticones,cantriggeravirtuouscycle. Eitherway, the effects aremultiplied socially, through culture, becauseeachofusenrichestheenvironmentofallofus.

HereisagraphshowinghowGritScalescoresvarybyage.ThesearedatafromalargesampleofAmericanadults,andyoucanseefromthehorizontalaxisthatthegrittiestadultsinmysamplewereintheirlatesixtiesorolder;theleastgrittywereintheirtwenties.

Oneexplanationforthisdataisthatthere’sasortof“reverseFlynneffect”forgrit. For instance, it’s possible that adults in their seventh decade of life aregrittierbecausetheygrewupinaverydifferentculturalera,perhapsonewhosevaluesandnormsemphasizedsustainedpassionandperseverancemorethanhasbeenthecaserecently.Inotherwords,itcouldbethattheGreatestGenerationisgrittier than the millennials because cultural forces are different today thanyesterday.

Thisexplanationforwhygritandagegohandinhandwassuggestedtomebyanoldercolleaguewho,lookingovermyshoulderatthesamegraph,shookhisheadand said, “Iknew it! I’vebeen teaching the sameundergraduates thesamecourseatthesameuniversityfordecades.AndI’lltellyou,theyjustdon’twork as hard these days as they used to!” My dad, who gave his entireprofessionallifeasachemisttoDuPontandquiteliterallyretiredwiththegoldwatch, might say the same of theWharton entrepreneur who approached meafter my lecture. Even while pulling all-nighters for his present venture, theyoungmanhalfexpectedtobeontosomethingentirelynewwithinafewyears.

Alternatively,it’spossibletheseagetrendshavenothingtodowithgenerationalchanges in grit. Instead,what the datamay be showing is howpeoplematureover time. My own experience, and the stories of grit paragons like JeffGettlemanandBobMankoffsuggestthat,indeed,gritgrowsaswefigureoutourlife philosophy, learn to dust ourselves off after rejection and disappointment,andlearntotellthedifferencebetweenlow-levelgoalsthatshouldbeabandonedquicklyandhigher-levelgoalsthatdemandmoretenacity.Thematurationstoryisthatwedevelopthecapacityforlong-termpassionandperseveranceaswegetolder.

Todistinguishbetweentheserivalexplanations,weneedadifferentkindofstudy.Togenerate thedata I justshowedyou, Iaskedpeopleofdifferentagesabouttheircurrentlevelofgrit.WhatIgotwasasnapshotofgritinyoungerandolderadults. Ideally,I’dfollowthesepeoplefor therestof their lives, thewaypsychologist George Vaillant followed the Harvardmen. Since the Grit Scalehasn’tbeenaroundverylong,Ican’tplayyouatime-lapsemovieofgritoverthelifecourse.WhatIwantisthatmovie.WhatIhaveisasnapshot.

Fortunately, many other aspects of personality have been examinedlongitudinally. In dozens of studies that have followed people over years anddecades,thetrendsareclear.Mostofusbecomemoreconscientious,confident,caring,andcalmwithlifeexperience.Alotofthatchangehappensbetweentheagesof twenty and forty, but, in fact, there’s no epoch in thehuman life spanwhere personality stops evolving. Collectively, these data demonstrate whatpersonalitypsychologistsnowcall“thematurityprinciple.”

Wegrowup.Oratleast,mostofusdo.To some extent, these changes are preprogrammed and biological. Puberty

andmenopausearethingsthatchangeourpersonalities,forexample.Butonthewhole,personalitychangeismoreafunctionoflifeexperience.

Exactlyhowdolifeexperienceschangepersonality?

One reason we change is that we learn something we simply didn’t knowbefore. For instance, we might learn through trial and error that repeatedlyswapping out one career ambition for another is unfulfilling. That’s certainlywhathappened tome inmytwenties.After runninganonprofit, thenpursuingneuroscienceresearch,thenmanagementconsulting,thenteaching,Ilearnedthatbeinga“promisingbeginner”isfun,butbeinganactualexpertisinfinitelymoregratifying. Ialso learned thatyearsofhardworkareoftenmistaken for innatetalent,andthatpassionisasnecessaryasperseverancetoworld-classexcellence.

Likewise,we learn, as novelist John Irving did, that “to do anything reallywell,youhavetooverextendyourself,”toappreciatethat,“indoingsomethingoverandoveragain, something thatwasnevernaturalbecomesalmostsecondnature,”and finally, that thecapacity todowork thatdiligently“doesn’tcomeovernight.”

Otherthaninsightsaboutthehumancondition,whatelseistherethatchangeswithage?

Whatchanges,Ithink,areourcircumstances.Aswegrowolder,we’rethrustintonewsituations.Wegetour first job.Wemaygetmarried.Ourparentsgetolder,andwefindourselvestheircaretakers.Often,thesenewsituationscallonus to act differently than we used to. And, because there’s no species on theplanetmoreadaptablethanours,wechange.Werisetotheoccasion.

In other words, we change when we need to. Necessity is the mother ofadaptation.

Here’satrivialexample.Somehow,myyoungestdaughter,Lucy,reachedtheageof threewithout learningtousethepotty.MyhusbandandIhaddoneourbesttobribe,cajole,andtrickherintoleavingdiapersbehind.We’dreadallthebooksaboutalltherightthingstodo,andwe’dtriedtodoallthosethings—oratleastwetriedasenergeticallyasispossibleforworkingparentswithotherthingsontheirto-dolists.Tonoavail.Lucy’swillprovedstrongerthanours.

Soonafterher thirdbirthday,Lucychangedpreschoolclassrooms: from thetoddlerclassroom,wherealmostallthechildrenwerestillindiapers,tothe“bigkid”classroom,whichdidn’tevenhaveachangingtable.ThefirstdayIdroppedher off in the new room, her eyes widened to saucers, scanning this newenvironment—a little bit afraid, I think, andmore likely than notwishing shecouldstayinheroldroom,whereshe’dgrowncomfortable.

I’ll never forget pickingLucy up that afternoon. She smiled atme proudlyandannouncedshe’dused thepotty.Andthen, insomanywords,she toldmeshewas donewith diapers.And shewas. Potty training happened in a singlemomentintime.How?Becausewhenachildlinesupforthepottywithallthe

otherchildrenandseesthatshe’sexpectedtotakeherturn,shedoesexactlythat.Shelearnstodowhatsheneedstodo.

BernieNoe,theheadmasteroftheLakesideSchoolinSeattle,recentlysharedthefollowingstoryabouthisowndaughter.ItillustratesthematurityprincipletoaT.Noe’s family livesoncampus,andasa teenager,hisdaughterwas late toschoolalmosteveryday.Onesummer,hisdaughtergotajobfoldingclothesatthelocalAmericanEagle.Onherfirstday,thestoremanagersaid,“Oh,bytheway, the first time you’re late, you’re fired.” She was stunned. No secondchances?Allherlife,there’dbeenpatience,understanding,andsecondchances.

Sothenwhathappened?“It was amazing,” Noe remembered. “Quite literally, it was the most

immediate behavior change I’ve ever seen hermake.” Suddenly, his daughterwassetting twoalarms tomakesureshewason time,orearly, toa jobwherebeing latewas simply not tolerated.As a headmaster taskedwith shepherdingyoung people along toward maturity, Noe considers his power to do sosomewhat limited. “If you’re a business, you don’t care whether a kid thinksthey’respecial.Whatyoucareabout is ‘Canyoudeliver? Ifyoucan’tdeliver,hey,wedon’thaveanyuseforyou.’ ”

Lecturesdon’thavehalftheeffectofconsequences.What thematurity principle comes down to, I think, is this.Over time,we

learn life lessons we don’t forget, and we adapt in response to the growingdemands of our circumstances. Eventually, new ways of thinking and actingbecome habitual. There comes a day when we can hardly remember ourimmatureformerselves.We’veadapted,thoseadaptationshavebecomedurable,and, finally, our identity—the sort of person we see ourselves to be—hasevolved.We’vematured.

Takentogether,thedataI’vecollectedongritandageareconsistentwithtwodifferentstories.Onestorysaysthatourgritchangesasafunctionoftheculturalera inwhichwe grow up. The other story says thatwe get grittier aswe getolder. Both could be true, and I have a suspicion that bothare, at least to anextent.Eitherway,thissnapshotrevealsthatgritisnotentirelyfixed.Likeeveryaspectofyourpsychologicalcharacter,gritismoreplasticthanyoumightthink.

Ifgritcangrow,howdoesthathappen?I get emails and letters almost every day from people who wish they had

moregrit.Theylamentthattheyneverstuckwithanythinginordertogetreallygoodat it.Theyfeel they’vesquandered their talents.Theydesperatelywantalong-termgoal,andtheywanttopursuethatgoalwithpassionandperseverance.

Buttheydon’tknowwheretobegin.Agoodplace tostart is tounderstandwhereyouare today. Ifyou’renotas

grittyasyouwanttobe,askyourselfwhy.Themostobviousanswerpeoplecomeupwithgoessomething like this:“I

guessI’mjustlazy.”Here’sanother:“I’mjustaflake.”Or:“I’mcongenitallyincapableofstickingwiththings.”Alloftheseanswers,Ithink,arewrong.Infact,whenpeopledropoutofthings,theydosoforareason.Actually,they

dosofordifferentreasons.Anyofthefollowingfourthoughtsmightgothroughyourheadrightbeforeyouquitwhatyou’redoing:

“I’mbored.”“Theeffortisn’tworthit.”“Thisisn’timportanttome.”“Ican’tdothis,soImightaswellgiveup.”

There’snothingwrong—morallyorotherwise—withthoughtslikethese.AsItriedtoshowinthischapter,paragonsofgritquitgoals,too.Butthehigherthelevelofthegoalinquestion,themorestubborntheyareaboutseeingitthrough.Most important, paragonsof grit don’t swap compasses:when it comes to theone, singularly important aim that guides almost everything else they do, theverygrittytendnottoutterthestatementsabove.

AlotofwhatI’velearnedabouthowgritgrowscomesfrominterviewingmenand women who epitomize the qualities of passion and perseverance. I’veincludedsnippetsof thoseconversations throughout thisbookso thatyou, too,canpeer inside themindandheartofagritparagonandseewhether there’sabelief,attitude,orhabitworthemulating.

These stories of grit are one kind of data, and they complement the moresystematic, quantitative studies I’ve done in places like West Point and theNational Spelling Bee. Together, the research reveals the psychological assetsthatmatureparagonsofgrithaveincommon.Therearefour.Theycountereachof thebuzz-killers listed above, and they tend to develop, over theyears, in aparticularorder.

Firstcomesinterest.Passionbeginswithintrinsicallyenjoyingwhatyoudo.EverygrittypersonI’vestudiedcanpointtoaspectsoftheirworktheyenjoylessthanothers,andmosthavetoputupwithatleastoneortwochorestheydon’t

enjoyatall.Nevertheless, they’recaptivatedbytheendeavorasawhole.Withenduring fascination and childlike curiosity, they practically shout out, “I lovewhatIdo!”

Nextcomes thecapacity topractice.One formofperseverance is thedailydisciplineof trying todo thingsbetter thanwedidyesterday.So, afteryou’vediscoveredanddevelopedinterestinaparticulararea,youmustdevoteyourselftothesortoffocused,full-hearted,challenge-exceeding-skillpracticethatleadstomastery.Youmustzeroinonyourweaknesses,andyoumustdosooverandoveragain,forhoursaday,weekaftermonthafteryear.Tobegrittyistoresistcomplacency.“Whateverittakes,Iwanttoimprove!”isarefrainofallparagonsof grit, no matter their particular interest, and no matter how excellent theyalreadyare.

Third is purpose. What ripens passion is the conviction that your workmatters.Formostpeople,interestwithoutpurposeisnearlyimpossibletosustainfor a lifetime. It is therefore imperative that you identify your work as bothpersonally interesting and, at the same time, integrally connected to thewell-being of others. For a few, a sense of purpose dawns early, but formany, themotivationtoserveothersheightensafterthedevelopmentofinterestandyearsofdisciplinedpractice.Regardless,fullymatureexemplarsofgritinvariablytellme,“Myworkisimportant—bothtomeandtoothers.”

And,finally,hope.Hopeisarising-to-the-occasionkindofperseverance.Inthis book, I discuss it after interest, practice, and purpose—but hope does notdefine the laststageofgrit. Itdefinesevery stage.From theverybeginning totheveryend,itisinestimablyimportanttolearntokeepgoingevenwhenthingsare difficult, even when we have doubts. At various points, in big ways andsmall, we get knocked down. If we stay down, grit loses. If we get up, gritprevails.

Withoutthemeddlingofapsychologistlikeme,youmayhavefiguredgritoutall on your own. Youmay already have a deep and abiding interest, a readyappetite for constant challenge, an evolved sense of purpose, and buoyantconfidence in your ability to keep going that no adversity could sink. If so,you’reprobablycloseto5outof5ontheGritScale.Iapplaudyou!

If,ontheotherhand,you’renotasgrittyasyouwishyouwere,thenthere’ssomethingforyouinthechaptersthatfollow.Likecalculusandpiano,youcanlearn the psychology of grit on your own, but a little guidance can be atremendoushelp.

Thefourpsychologicalassetsofinterest,practice,purpose,andhopearenotYouhave itoryoudon’t commodities.Youcan learn todiscover,develop,anddeepenyourinterests.Youcanacquirethehabitofdiscipline.Youcancultivateasenseofpurposeandmeaning.Andyoucanteachyourselftohope.

Youcangrowyourgritfromtheinsideout.Ifyou’dliketoknowhow,readon.

PartII

GROWINGGRITFROMTHEINSIDEOUT

Chapter6

INTEREST

Follow your passion is a popular theme of commencement speeches. I’ve satthroughmyfairshare,bothasastudentandprofessor.I’dwagerthatatleasthalfofallspeakers,maybemore,underscoretheimportanceofdoingsomethingyoulove.

Forinstance,WillShortz,long-timeeditoroftheNewYorkTimescrosswordpuzzle, told students at IndianaUniversity: “My advice for you is, figure outwhatyouenjoydoingmostinlife,andthentrytodoitfull-time.Lifeisshort.Followyourpassion.”

JeffBezos toldPrincetongraduates thestoryof leavingahigh-salary,high-statusManhattanfinancejobtostartAmazon:“Aftermuchconsideration,Itookthelesssafepathtofollowmypassion.”Hehasalsosaid,“Whateverit is thatyouwanttodo,you’llfindinlifethatifyou’renotpassionateaboutwhatit isyou’reworkingon,youwon’tbeabletostickwithit.”

Andit’snotjustonhotJunedaysinourcapandgownthatwegetthisadvice.I hear the same thing—over and over again, nearly verbatim—from the gritparagonsIinterview.

SodoesHesterLacey.Hester is a British journalist who has been interviewing achievers of the

caliber ofShortz andBezos—oneperweek—since 2011.Her column appearsweekly in the Financial Times. Whether they’re fashion designers (NicoleFarhi),authors(SalmanRushdie),musicians(LangLang),comedians(MichaelPalin),chocolatiers(ChantalCoady),orbartenders(ColinField),Hesterasksthesamequestions, including: “What drives youon?” and “If you lost everythingtomorrow,whatwouldyoudo?”

I asked Hester what she’s learned from talking to more than two hundred“megasuccessful”people,asshedescribedthemduringourconversation.

“Onethingthatcomesuptimeandtimeagainis:‘I lovewhatIdo.’Peoplecouchitdifferently.Quiteoften,theysayjustthat:‘IlovewhatIdo.’Buttheyalso say things like ‘I’m so lucky, I get up everymorning looking forward towork, I can’t wait to get into the studio, I can’t wait to get onwith the nextproject.’Thesepeoplearedoingthingsnotbecausetheyhavetoorbecauseit’sfinanciallylucrative....”

FollowyourpassionwasnotthemessageIheardgrowingup.Instead,Iwastoldthatthepracticalrealitiesofsurviving“intherealworld”

werefarmoreimportantthananyyoungpersonlivinga“shelteredlife”suchasmyowncould imagine. Iwaswarned thatoverly idealisticdreamsof“findingsomething I loved” could in fact be a breadcrumb trail into poverty anddisappointment.Iwasremindedthatcertainjobs,likebeingadoctor,werebothhigh-incomeandhigh-status,andthatthesethingswouldmattermoretomeinthelongrunthanImightappreciateinthemoment.

Asyoumighthaveguessed,theindividualprofferingthisadvicewasmydad.“So,why’dyoubecomeachemist?”Ionceasked.“Becausemy father toldme to,”heansweredwithout ahintof resentment.

“When Iwas a boy, historywasmy favorite subject.”He then explained thathe’denjoyedmathandscience,too,buttherewasreallynochoicewhenitcameto what he’d study in college. The family business was textiles, and mygrandfatherdispatchedeachofhissonstostudytradesrelevanttoonestageoranotheroftextileproduction.“Ourbusinessneededachemist,notahistorian.”

Asitturnedout,theCommunistRevolutioninChinabroughtaprematureendtothefamilytextilebusiness.NotlongafterhesettledhereintheUnitedStates,my dad went to work for DuPont. Thirty-five years later, he retired as thehighest-rankingscientistinthecompany.

Given how absorbedmy dad was in his work—often lost in reverie aboutsomescientificormanagementproblem—andhowsuccessfulhewasover thearc of his career, it seems worth considering the possibility that it’s best tochoosepracticalityoverpassion.

Justhowridiculous is it toadviseyoungpeople togooutanddowhat theylove?Withinthelastdecadeorso,scientistswhostudyinterestshavearrivedatadefinitiveanswer.

First, research shows that people are enormously more satisfied with theirjobs when they do something that fits their personal interests. This is theconclusion of a meta-analysis that aggregated data from almost a hundreddifferent studies that collectively included working adults in just about every

conceivableprofession.For instance,peoplewhoenjoythinkingaboutabstractideasarenothappymanagingtheminutiaeoflogisticallycomplicatedprojects;they’dratherbesolvingmathproblems.Andpeoplewhoreallyenjoyinteractingwithpeoplearenothappywhentheirjobistoworkaloneatacomputerallday;they’remuchbetteroffinjobslikesalesorteaching.What’smore,peoplewhosejobsmatch theirpersonal interestsare, ingeneral,happierwith their livesasawhole.

Second, people perform better at work when what they do interests them.Thisis theconclusionofanothermeta-analysisofsixtystudiesconductedoverthepastsixtyyears.Employeeswhose intrinsicpersonal interests fitwith theiroccupationsdotheirjobsbetter,aremorehelpfultotheircoworkers,andstayattheir jobs longer. College students whose personal interests align with theirmajorearnhighergradesandarelesslikelytodropout.

It’scertainlytruethatyoucan’tgetajobjustdoinganythingyouenjoy.It’stoughtomakealivingplayingMinecraft,nomatterhowgoodyougetatit.Andtherearealotofpeopleintheworldwhosecircumstancesprecludetheluxuryofchoosingamongabroadarrayofoccupationaloptions.Likeitornot,thereareveryrealconstraintsinthechoiceswecanmakeabouthowweearnaliving.

Nevertheless, asWilliamJames foretolda centuryago, thesenewscientificfindingsaffirmcommencementspeechwisdom:the“castingvote”forhowwellwecanexpecttodoinanyendeavoris“desireandpassion,thestrengthof[our]interest....”

Ina2014Galluppoll,morethantwo-thirdsofadultssaidtheywerenotengagedatwork,agoodportionofwhomwere“activelydisengaged.”

Thepictureisevenbleakerabroad.Inasurveyof141nations,Gallupfoundthat every countrybutCanadahas evenhighernumbersof “not engaged” and“actively disengaged” workers than the United States. Worldwide, only 13percentofadultscallthemselves“engaged”atwork.

Soitseemsthatveryfewpeopleenduplovingwhattheydoforaliving.It’sdifficulttoreconcilethestraightforwarddirectivesofferedininspirational

speecheswith epidemic levels of indifference towardwork.When it comes toliningupouroccupationswithwhatweenjoy,howcomesomanyofusmissthemark? And does my dad’s success offer a counterexample to the passionargument?Whatshouldwemakeofthefactthat,bythetimeIcamealong,myfather’swork reallywas his passion? Shouldwe stop telling people to followyourpassionand,instead,tellthemtofollowourorders?

Idon’tthinkso.

Infact,IseeWillShortzandJeffBezosasterrificinspirationsforwhatworkcanbe.Whileit’snaivetothinkthatanyofuscouldloveeveryminuteofwhatwe do, I believe the thousands of data points in those meta-analyses, whichconfirmthecommonsenseintuitionthatinterestmatters.Nobodyisinterestedineverything, and everyone is interested in something. Somatching your job towhat captures your attention and imagination is a good idea. It may notguaranteehappinessandsuccess,butitsurehelpstheodds.

That said, I don’t thinkmost young people need encouragement to followtheir passion.Mostwould do exactly that—in a heartbeat—if only they had apassion in the firstplace. If I’mever invited togiveacommencement speech,I’llbeginwiththeadvicetofosterapassion.AndthenI’llspendtherestofmytimetryingtochangeyoungmindsabouthowthatactuallyhappens.

WhenIfirststartedinterviewinggritparagons,Iassumedthey’dallhavestoriesabout the singularmomentwhen, suddenly, they’ddiscovered theirGod-givenpassion.Inmymind’seye,thiswasafilmableevent,withdramaticlightinganda soundtrack of rousing orchestral music commensurate with its monumental,life-changingimport.

In theopeningsceneofJulie&Julia,ayoungerJuliaChild thananyofuswatchedon television isdining ina fancyFrench restaurantwithherhusband,Paul.Juliatakesonebiteofhersolemeunière—beautifullysearedandperfectlydebonedbythewaitermomentsbeforeandnownappedinasauceofNormandybutter, lemon, andparsley.She swoons.She’snever experiencedanything likethisbefore.Shealwayslikedtoeat,butsheneverknewfoodcouldbethisgood.

“Thewholeexperiencewasanopeningupofthesoulandspiritforme,”Juliasaidmanyyearslater.“Iwashooked,andforlife,asitturnedout.”

SuchcinematicmomentswerewhatIexpectedfrommygritparagons.AndIthink this isalsowhatyounggraduates—roasting in theircapsandgowns, thehardedgeofthefoldingchairbitingintotheirthighs—imagineitmustbeliketodiscover your life’s passion. Onemoment, you have no ideawhat to dowithyourtimeonearth.Andthenext,it’sallclear—youknowexactlywhoyouweremeanttobe.

But, in fact, most grit paragons I’ve interviewed told me they spent yearsexploringseveraldifferentinterests,andtheonethateventuallycametooccupyalloftheirwaking(andsomesleeping)thoughtswasn’trecognizablytheirlife’sdestinyonfirstacquaintance.

Olympic gold medalist swimmer Rowdy Gaines, for example, told me:“When Iwas a kid, I loved sports.When I got to high school, Iwent out for

football, baseball, basketball, golf, and tennis, in that order, before Iwent forswimming.Ikeptpluggingaway.IfiguredI’djustkeepgoingfromonesporttothenextuntilIfoundsomethingthatIcouldreallyfallinlovewith.”Swimmingstuck,butitwasn’texactlyloveatfirstsight.“ThedayItriedoutfortheswimteam,IwenttotheschoollibrarytocheckouttrackandfieldbecauseIkindofhadafeelingIwasgoingtogetcut.IfiguredI’dtryoutfortrackandfieldnext.”

Asateenager,JamesBeardAward–winningchefMarcVetriwasasinterestedinmusicashewasincooking.Aftercollege,hemovedtoLosAngeles.“Iwenttoamusicschooloutthereforayear,andIworkednightsinrestaurantstomakemoney.Later,whenIwasinaband,IworkedmorningsinrestaurantssoIcoulddo themusic thingatnight.Then itwas like, ‘Well, I’mmakingmoney in therestaurants, and I’m really starting to like it, and I’m notmaking anything inmusic.’AndthenIhadanopportunitytogotoItaly,andthatwasit.”It’shardformetopicturemyfavoritechefplayingtheguitarinsteadofmakingpasta,butwhen I askedwhathe thoughtabout the roadnot taken,he said, “Well,musicand cooking—they’re both creative industries. I’mglad Iwent thisway, but IthinkIcouldhavebeenamusicianinstead.”

As for Julia Child, that ethereal morsel of sole meunière was indeed arevelation.But her epiphanywas that classical French cuisinewas divine,notthatshewouldbecomeachef,cookbookauthor,and,eventually,thewomanwhowould teachAmerica tomake coq au vin in their very own kitchens. Indeed,Julia’s autobiography reveals that this memorable meal was followed by asuccessionofinterest-stimulatingexperiences.Anincompletelistwouldincludecountlessdeliciousmeals in thebistrosofParis; conversationsand friendshipswithfriendlyfishmongers,butchers,andproducevendorsinthecity’sopen-airmarkets;encounterswithtwoencyclopedicFrenchcookbooks—thefirstloanedto her by her French tutor and the second a gift from her ever-supportivehusband,Paul;hoursofcookingclassesatLeCordonBleuunderthetutelageofthemarvelouslyenthusiasticyetdemandingChefBugnard;andtheacquaintanceoftwoParisianwomenwhohadtheideaofwritingacookbookforAmericans.

What would have happened if Julia—who once dreamed of becoming anovelistand,asachild,possessed,assheputit,“zerointerestinthestove”—hadreturnedhometoCaliforniaafter that fatefulbiteofperfectlycookedfish?Wecan’tknowfor sure,butclearly in Julia’s romancewithFrench food, that firstbiteofsolewas just the firstkiss.“Really, themore Icook, themore I like tocook,” she later toldher sister-in-law.“To think ithas takenme fortyyears tofindmytruepassion(catandhusbandexcepted).”

So, while we might envy those who love what they do for a living, weshouldn’t assume that they started from a different place than the rest of us.

Chancesare,theytookquitesometimefiguringoutexactlywhattheywantedtodowith their lives.Commencement speakersmay say about their vocation, “Ican’t imaginedoinganythingelse,”but, infact, therewasatimeearlier inlifewhentheycould.

Afewmonthsago,IreadapostonReddittitled“FleetingInterestinEverything,NoCareerDirection”:

I’minmyearlythirtiesandhavenoideawhattodowithmyself,career-wise.Allmy life I’ve been one of those peoplewho has been told howsmartIam/howmuchpotentialIhave.I’minterestedinsomuchstuffthatI’m paralyzed to try anything. It seems like every job requires aspecialized certificate or designation that requires long-term time andfinancialinvestment—beforeyoucaneventrythejob,whichisabitofadrag.

Ihavea lotofsympathyfor the thirty-somethingwhowrote thispost.Asacollegeprofessor,Ialsohavealotofsympathyforthetwenty-somethingswhocometomeforcareeradvice.

MycolleagueBarrySchwartzhasbeendispensingcounseltoanxiousyoungadults for much longer than I have. He’s been teaching psychology atSwarthmoreCollegeforforty-fiveyears.

Barry thinks that what prevents a lot of young people from developing aseriouscareerinterestisunrealisticexpectations.“It’sreallythesameproblemalot of young people have finding a romantic partner,” he said. “They wantsomebody who’s really attractive and smart and kind and empathetic andthoughtful and funny. Try telling a twenty-one-year-old that you can’t find aperson who is absolutely the best in every way. They don’t listen. They’reholdingoutforperfection.”

“Whataboutyourwonderfulwife,Myrna?”Iasked.“Oh, she is wonderful. More wonderful than I am, certainly. But is she

perfect?IsshetheonlypersonIcouldhavemadeahappylifewith?AmI theonlymanintheworldwithwhomshecouldhavemadeawonderfulmarriage?Idon’tthinkso.”

A related problem,Barry says, is themythology that falling in lovewith acareershouldbesuddenandswift:“Therearealotofthingswherethesubtletiesandexhilarationscomewithstickingwithitforawhile,gettingelbow-deepintosomething. A lot of things seem uninteresting and superficial until you start

doing them and, after a while, you realize that there are so many facets youdidn’t know at the start, and you never can fully solve the problem, or fullyunderstandit,orwhathaveyou.Well,thatrequiresthatyoustickwithit.”

After a pause,Barry said, “Actually, finding amate is the perfect analogy.Meetingapotentialmatch—nottheone-and-onlyperfectmatch,butapromisingone—isonlytheverybeginning.”

There’salotwedon’tknowaboutthepsychologyofinterest.Iwishweknew,forexample,whysomeofus(includingme)findcookingafascinatingsubject,whilemany others couldn’t care less.Why isMarcVetri attracted to creativeendeavors, and why does Rowdy Gaines like sports? Aside from the rathervague explanation that interests are, like everything else about us, partlyheritableandpartlyafunctionoflifeexperience,Ican’ttellyou.Butscientificresearchon theevolutionof interestshasyieldedsome important insights.Mysenseisthat,unfortunately,thesebasicfactsaren’tcommonlyunderstood.

Whatmostofus thinkofwhenwethinkofpassion isasudden,all-at-oncediscovery—that firstbiteofsolemeunière bringingwith it thecertaintyof theyearsyou’llspendinthekitchen. . .slippingintothewateratyourfirstswimmeet and getting out with the foreknowledge that you’ll one day be anOlympian...gettingtotheendofTheCatcherintheRyeandrealizingyou’redestinedtobeawriter.Butafirstencounterwithwhatmighteventuallyleadtoalifelongpassion is exactly that—just theopening scene in amuch longer, lessdramaticnarrative.

Tothethirty-somethingonRedditwitha“fleetinginterestineverything”and“nocareerdirection,”here’swhatsciencehastosay:passionforyourworkisalittlebitofdiscovery, followedbya lotofdevelopment, and thena lifetimeofdeepening.

Letmeexplain.Firstofall,childhoodisgenerallyfartooearlytoknowwhatwewanttobe

whenwe grow up. Longitudinal studies following thousands of people acrosstime have shown that most people only begin to gravitate toward certainvocational interests, and away from others, around middle school. This iscertainly the pattern I’ve seen in my interview research, and it’s also whatjournalistHesterLaceyhasfoundinherinterviewswiththe“megasuccessful.”Keepinmind,however,thataseventhgrader—evenafutureparagonofgrit—isunlikelytohaveafullyarticulatedpassionat thatage.Aseventhgraderis justbeginningtofigureouthergenerallikesanddislikes.

Second, interestsarenot discovered through introspection. Instead, interestsare triggered by interactions with the outside world. The process of interestdiscoverycanbemessy,serendipitous,andinefficient.Thisisbecauseyoucan’treally predict with certaintywhatwill capture your attention andwhatwon’t.Youcan’tsimplywillyourselftolikethings,either.AsJeffBezoshasobserved,“Oneof thehugemistakespeoplemake is that they try to forcean interestonthemselves.”Without experimenting, you can’t figure outwhich interestswillstick,andwhichwon’t.

Paradoxically,theinitialdiscoveryofaninterestoftengoesunnoticedbythediscoverer. In otherwords,when you just start to get interested in something,youmaynoteven realize that’swhat’shappening.Theemotionofboredom isalwaysself-conscious—youknowitwhenyoufeelit—butwhenyourattentionisattracted toanewactivityorexperience,youmayhavevery little reflectiveappreciationofwhat’shappeningtoyou.Thismeansthat,at thestartofanewendeavor,askingyourselfnervouslyeveryfewdayswhetheryou’vefoundyourpassionispremature.

Third,whatfollowstheinitialdiscoveryofaninterestisamuchlengthierandincreasingly proactive period of interest development. Crucially, the initialtriggering of a new interest must be followed by subsequent encounters thatretriggeryourattention—againandagainandagain.

For instance, NASA astronautMikeHopkins toldme that it was watchingspace shuttle launches on television in high school that initially inspired hislifelonginterestinspacetravel.Butitwasn’tjustonelaunchthathookedhim.Itwasseveralshowninsuccessionoveraperiodofyears.Soonenough,hestarteddigging formore information onNASA, and “onepieceof information led toanotherandanother.”

Formaster potterWarrenMacKenzie, ceramics class in college—which heonlytook,initially,becauseallthepaintingclasseswerefull—wasfollowedbythediscoveryofAPotter’sBookby thegreatBernardLeach,and thenayear-longinternshipwithLeachhimself.

Finally, interests thrive when there is a crew of encouraging supporters,including parents, teachers, coaches, and peers. Why are other people soimportant?Foronething,theyprovidetheongoingstimulationandinformationthat is essential to actually liking something more and more. Also—moreobviously—positivefeedbackmakesusfeelhappy,competent,andsecure.

TakeMarcVetri as an example.There are few things I enjoy readingmorethan his cookbooks and essays about food, but he was a solid-C studentthroughout school. “I never worked hard at academics,” he told me. “I wasalways just like, ‘This is kind of boring.’ ” In contrast,Marc spent delightful

Sundayafternoons at hisSiciliangrandmother’shouse inSouthPhilly. “She’dmakemeatballsandlasagnaandallthatstuff,andIalwayslikedtoheaddownearlytohelpherout.BythetimeIwaselevenorso,Istartedwantingtomakethatstuffathome,too.”

Asateenager,Marchadapart-timejobwashingdishesinalocalrestaurant.“And I loved that. Iworkedhard.”Why?Makingmoneywasonemotivation,butanotherwasthecamaraderieofthekitchen.“AroundthattimeIwassortofasocialoutcast.Iwaskindofawkward.Ihadastutter.EveryoneatschoolthoughtIwasweird.Iwaslike,‘Oh,hereIcanwashdishes,andIcanwatchtheguysontheline[cooking]whileI’mwashing,andIcaneat.Everyoneisnice,andtheylikeme.’ ”

If you readMarc’s cookbooks, you’ll be struck by howmany friends andmentorshe’smadein theworldoffood.PagethroughandlookforpicturesofMarc alone, and you’ll be hard-pressed to find many. And read theacknowledgmentsofIlViaggioDiVetri.Itrunstotwopageswiththenamesofpeople who made his journey possible, including this note: “Mom and Dad,you’vealwaysletmefindmyownwayandhelpedguidemethroughit.You’llneverknowhowmuchIappreciateit.I’llalwaysneedyou.”

Isit“adrag”thatpassionsdon’tcometousallatonce,asepiphanies,withoutthe need to actively develop them? Maybe. But the reality is that our earlyinterests are fragile, vaguely defined, and in need of energetic, years-longcultivationandrefinement.

Sometimes, when I talk to anxious parents, I get the impression they’vemisunderstoodwhatImeanbygrit.Itellthemthathalfofgritisperseverance—inresponse,Igetappreciativeheadnods—butIalsotellthemthatnobodyworksdoggedly on something they don’t find intrinsically interesting. Here, headsoftenstopnoddingand,instead,cocktotheside.

“Just becauseyou love somethingdoesn’tmeanyou’ll begreat,” says self-proclaimedTigerMomAmyChua.“Notifyoudon’twork.Mostpeoplestinkatthe things they love.” I couldn’t agreemore.Even in thedevelopmentofyourinterests, there is work—practicing, studying, learning—to be done. Still, mypointisthatmostpeoplestinkevenmoreatwhattheydon’tlove.

So,parents,parents-to-be,andnon-parentsofallages,Ihaveamessageforyou:Beforehardworkcomesplay.Beforethosewho’veyettofixonapassionarereadytospendhoursadaydiligentlyhoningskills,theymustgoofaround,triggering and retriggering interest. Of course, developing an interest requirestimeandenergy,andyes,somedisciplineandsacrifice.Butatthisearlieststage,

novicesaren’tobsessedwithgettingbetter.They’renotthinkingyearsandyearsintothefuture.Theydon’tknowwhattheirtop-level,life-orientinggoalwillbe.Morethananythingelse,they’rehavingfun.

Inotherwords,eventhemostaccomplishedofexpertsstartoutasunseriousbeginners.

ThisisalsotheconclusionofpsychologistBenjaminBloom,whointerviewed120peoplewhoachievedworld-classskillsinsports,arts,orscience—plustheirparents, coaches, and teachers.AmongBloom’s important findings is that thedevelopment of skill progresses through three different stages, each lastingseveralyears.InterestsarediscoveredanddevelopedinwhatBloomcalled“theearlyyears.”

Encouragement during the early years is crucial because beginners are stillfiguringoutwhether theywant tocommitorcutbait.Accordingly,Bloomandhisresearchteamfoundthatthebestmentorsatthisstagewereespeciallywarmandsupportive:“Perhapsthemajorqualityoftheseteacherswasthattheymadetheinitiallearningverypleasantandrewarding.Muchoftheintroductiontothefieldwasasplayfulactivity,andthelearningatthebeginningofthisstagewasmuchlikeagame.”

Adegreeofautonomyduringtheearlyyearsisalsoimportant.Longitudinalstudies tracking learners confirm that overbearing parents and teachers erodeintrinsicmotivation.Kidswhoseparentsletthemmaketheirownchoicesaboutwhattheylikearemorelikelytodevelopinterestslateridentifiedasapassion.So, while my dad in Shanghai in 1950 didn’t think twice about his fatherassigninghimacareerpath,mostyoungpeopletodaywouldfinditdifficulttofully“own”interestsdecidedwithouttheirinput.

Sports psychologist Jean Côté finds that shortcutting this stage of relaxed,playful interest, discovery, and development has dire consequences. In hisresearch,professional athletes likeRowdyGaineswho, as children, sampled avarietyofdifferentsportsbeforecommittingtoone,generallyfaremuchbetterinthelongrun.Thisearlybreadthofexperiencehelpstheyoungathletefigureoutwhichsportfitsbetterthanothers.Samplingalsoprovidesanopportunityto“cross-train”muscles and skills thatwill eventually complementmore focusedtraining.While athleteswho skip this stage often enjoy an early advantage incompetitionagainstlessspecializedpeers,Côtéfindsthatthey’remorelikelytobecomeinjuredphysicallyandtoburnout.

We’ll discusswhat Bloom calls “themiddle years” in the next chapter, onpractice. Finally, we’ll plumb “the later years” in chapter 8 when we discusspurpose.

Fornow,whatIhopetoconveyis thatexpertsandbeginnershavedifferentmotivational needs. At the start of an endeavor, we need encouragement andfreedom to figureoutwhatweenjoy.Weneed smallwins.Weneedapplause.Yes,wecanhandleatinctureofcriticismandcorrectivefeedback.Yes,weneedto practice. But not too much and not too soon. Rush a beginner and you’llbludgeontheirbuddinginterest.It’svery,veryhardtogetthatbackonceyoudo.

Let’sreturntoourcommencementspeakers.They’recasestudiesinpassion,sothere’ssomethingtobelearnedfromhowtheyspenttheirearlyyears.New York Times puzzle editorWill Shortz toldme that his mother was “a

writerandaloverofwords,”andthathermother,inturn,hadbeenacrosswordfan.Aninclinationtowardlanguage,Shortzspeculated,couldverywellbeinhisgenes.

But theuniquepathhewalkedwasnot justamatterofgeneticdestiny.Notverylongafterhelearnedtoreadandwrite,Shortzcameacrossapuzzlebook.“Iwasjustentrancedbyit,”herecalls.“Ijustwantedtomakemyown.”

Predictably, that firstpuzzlebook—the initial trigger forhiscuriosity—wasfollowedbyaslewofothers.“Wordpuzzles,mathpuzzles,youname it. . . .”Soonenough,Shortzknewallof themajorpuzzlemakersbyname, acquiringthecompleteDoverBookscollectionofhisheroSamLoyd,aswellastheworksof a half-dozenother puzzlemakerswhosenames are as familiar toShortz astheyareforeigntome.

Whoboughtallthosebooks?Hismother.Whatelsedidshedo?“IrememberwhenIwasveryyoungmymomhadabridgeclubover,andto

keepmequietfortheafternoonshetookapieceofpaper,ruleditintosquares,and showedmehow to enter longwords across andup anddown.And Iwashappy all afternoon making my little puzzles.When the bridge club left, mymother came in and numbered the grid for me and showedme how to writeclues.Sothatwasmyfirstcrossword.”

AndthenShortz’smotherdidwhatfewmothers—includingme—wouldhavetheinitiativeorknow-howtodo:“Mymomencouragedmetosellmypuzzlesonce I started making them, because as a writer, she submitted articles forpublicationtomagazinesandnewspapers.OnceshesawthisinterestthatIhad,sheshowedmehowtosubmitmywork.

“I sold my first puzzle when I was fourteen, and I became a regularcontributortoDellpuzzlemagazineswhenIwassixteen.”

Shortz’smotherwas clearly on the lookout forwhatmight pique her son’sinterest:“Mymomdidalotofgreatthings,”hetoldme.“Forinstance,Ilovedlistening to radioandpopmusic and rockmusicwhen Iwasakid.When shesaw this interest, she got a guitar from a neighbor and set it on the bunk bedabovemybed.Ihadtheopportunity,ifIwantedit,topickuptheguitarandstartplaying.”

But the desire tomakemusicwas nothing compared to the desire tomakepuzzles. “After ninemonths,when I had never touched the guitar, she took itback.IguessIlikedlisteningtomusic,butIhadnointerestinplayingit.”

WhenShortzenrolledat IndianaUniversity, itwashismomwhofound theindividualizedprogramthatenabledShortztoinventhisownmajor:tothisday,Shortz remains the only person in the world to hold a college degree inenigmatology—thestudyofpuzzles.

WhataboutJeffBezos?Jeff’s unusually interest-filled childhood has a lot to dowith his unusually

curiousmother,Jackie.JeffcameintotheworldtwoweeksafterJackie turnedseventeenyearsold.

“So,”shetoldme,“Ididn’thavealotofpreconceivednotionsaboutwhatIwassupposedtodo.”

She remembers beingdeeply intriguedby Jeff andhis younger brother andsister:“Iwasjustsocuriousabouttheselittlecreaturesandwhotheywereandwhattheyweregoingtodo.Ipaidattentiontowhatinterestedeachone—theywerealldifferent—andfollowedtheirlead.Ifeltitwasmyresponsibilitytoletthemdodeepdivesintowhattheyenjoyed.”

Forinstance,atthree,Jeffaskedmultipletimestosleepina“bigbed.”Jackieexplainedthateventuallyhewouldsleepina“bigbed,”butnotyet.Shewalkedintohis room thenextdayand foundhim, screwdriver inhand,disassemblinghis crib. Jackiedidn’t scoldhim. Instead, she saton the floor andhelped. Jeffsleptina“bigbed”thatnight.

By middle school, he was inventing all sorts of mechanical contraptions,including an alarm on his bedroom door that made a loud buzzing soundwheneveroneofhissiblingstrespassedacrossthethreshold.“Wemadesomanytrips to RadioShack,” Jackie said, laughing. “Sometimes we’d go back fourtimesinadaybecauseweneededanothercomponent.

“Once, he took string and tied all the handles of the kitchen cupboardstogether,andthen,whenyouopenedone,allofthemwouldpopopen.”

Itriedtopicturemyselfinthesesituations.Itriedtopicturenotfreakingout.ItriedtoimaginedoingwhatJackiedid,whichwastonoticethatheroldestsonwasblooming intoaworld-classproblemsolver, and thenmerrilynurture thatinterest.

“Mymoniker at the house was ‘Captain of Chaos,’ ” Jackie toldme, “andthat’sbecausejustaboutanythingthatyouwantedtodowouldbeacceptableinsomefashion.”

JackieremembersthatwhenJeffdecidedtobuildaninfinitycube,essentiallyamotorized set ofmirrors that reflect one another’s imagesback and forth adinfinitum,shewassittingonthesidewalkwithafriend.“Jeffcomesuptousandis tellingus all the sciencebehind it, and I listen andnodmyhead and ask aquestion every once in a while. After he walked away, my friend asked if Iunderstood everything. And I said, ‘It’s not important that I understandeverything.It’simportantthatIlisten.’ ”

By high school, Jeff had turned the family garage into a laboratory forinventingandexperimentation.Oneday,JackiegotacallfromJeff’shighschoolsayinghewasskippingclassesafter lunch.Whenhegothome,sheaskedhimwhere he’d been going in the afternoons. Jeff told her he’d found a localprofessorwhowaslettinghimexperimentwithairplanewingsandfrictionanddrag, and—“Okay,” Jackie said. “I got it.Now, let’s see ifwe cannegotiate alegalwaytodothat.”

Incollege, Jeffmajored incomputerscienceandelectricalengineering,andafter graduating, applied his programming skills to the management ofinvestment funds. Several years later, Jeff built an Internet bookstore namedafter the longest river in theworld:Amazon.com.(Healsoregistered theURLwww.relentless.com;typeitintoyourbrowserandseewhereittakesyou....)

“I’malwayslearning,”WillShortztoldme.“I’malwaysstretchingmybraininanewway, tryingtofindanewclueforaword,searchoutanewtheme.Ireadonce—awriter said that ifyou’reboredwithwriting, thatmeansyou’reboredwithlife.Ithinkthesameistrueofpuzzles.Ifyou’reboredwithpuzzles,you’reboredwithlife,becausethey’resodiverse.”

PrettymucheverygritparagonI’vetalkedto,includingmyowndad,saysthesamething.Andinexaminingonelarge-scalestudyafteranother,Ifindthatthegrittieranindividualis,thefewercareerchangesthey’relikelytomake.

In contrast,we all knowpeoplewhohabitually throw themselves headlongintoanewproject,developinga fierce interest,only tomoveonafter threeorfour or five years to something entirely different. There seems no harm in

pursuing a variety of different hobbies, but endlessly dating new occupations,andneversettlingdownwithjustone,isamoreseriousmatter.

“Icallthemshort-termers,”JaneGoldentoldme.JanehasbeenpromotingpublicartinmyhomecityofPhiladelphiaformore

thanthirtyyearsasthedirectorofthereveredMuralArtsProgram.Atlastcount,she’shelpedconvertthewallsofmorethan3,600buildingsintomurals;hersisthesinglelargestpublicartprograminthecountry.Mostpeoplewhoknowherwould describe her commitment tomural arts as “relentless,” and Janewouldagree.

“Short-termerscomeworkhereforalittlewhileandthentheymoveon,andthen they go somewhere else, and then somewhere else again, and so on. I’malwayssortoflookingatthemlikethey’refromanotherplanetbecauseI’mlike,‘How’sthat?Howdoyounotlockintosomething?’ ”

Ofcourse,it’sJane’sunwaveringfocusthatneedsexplaining,notthelimitedattention spans of the short-termers who come and go. Fundamentally, theemotion of boredom, after doing something for a while, is a very naturalreaction.Allhumanbeings, even from infancy, tend to lookaway from thingsthey’ve already seen and, instead, turn their gaze to things that are new andsurprising. In fact, the word interest comes from the Latin interesse, whichmeans“todiffer.”Tobe interesting is, literally, tobedifferent.Weare,byournatures,neophiles.

Even though getting tired of things after a while is common, it’s notinevitable.Ifyourevisit theGritScale,you’llseethathalftheitemsaskabouthowconsistentyourinterestsareoverlongstretchesoftime.Thislinksbacktothefactthatgritparagonsdon’tjustdiscoversomethingtheyenjoyanddevelopthatinterest—theyalsolearntodeepenit.

As a youngwoman, Jane thought she’d become a painter.Now she battlesbureaucraticred tapeandraisesmoneyanddealswithneighborhoodpolitics. Iwondered whether she’d sacrificed her life to a cause she felt was moremeaningfulbutlessinteresting.Iwonderedifshe’dgivenupnovelty.

“When I stopped painting, itwas very difficult,” Jane toldme. “But then Idiscovered thatgrowing theMuralArtsProgramcouldbeacreativeendeavor.Andthatwasgreat,becauseI’maverycuriousperson.

“From the outside, you might see my life as mundane: ‘Jane, you’re justrunning theMuralArtsProgramandyou’vebeendoing that forever.’ Iwouldsay, ‘No, listen, today I went to a maximum security prison. I was in NorthPhilly. I went to church. I was in a boardroom. I met with a deputycommissioner.Imetwithacitycouncilperson.Iworkedatanartists’residencyprogram.Isawkidsgraduating.’ ”

ThenJaneusedapainter’sanalogy:“I’mlikeanartistwholooksat theskyeverymorning and sees a variety of really brilliant colorswhere other peoplewould just see blue or gray. I’m seeing in the course of a single day thistremendous complexity and nuance. I see something that is ever evolving andrich.”

For help understanding the ever-deepening interests of experts, I turned to thepsychologistPaulSilvia.

Paul is a leading authority on the emotion of interest. He began ourconversation by pointing out that babies know just about zilch when they’reborn.Unlikeotheranimals,whichhave strong instincts toact incertainways,babiesneedtolearnalmosteverythingfromexperience.Ifbabiesdidn’thaveastrongdrive fornovelty, theywouldn’t learn asmuch, and thatwouldmake itless likely they’d survive. “So, interest—the desire to learn new things, toexploretheworld,toseeknovelty,tobeonthelookoutforchangeandvariety—it’sabasicdrive.”

How,then,doweexplaintheenduringinterestsofgritparagons?Likeme,Paulhasfoundthatexpertsoftensaythingslike“ThemoreIknow,

thelessIunderstand.”SirJohnTempleton,forexample,whopioneeredtheideaof diversified mutual funds, made the motto of his philanthropic foundation“Howlittleweknow,howeagertolearn.”

Thekey,Paulexplained,isthatnoveltyforthebeginnercomesinoneform,andnoveltyfortheexpertinanother.Forthebeginner,noveltyisanythingthathasn’tbeenencounteredbefore.Fortheexpert,noveltyisnuance.

“Takemodernart,”Paulsaid.“Alotofpiecescouldseemverysimilar toanovice that seemverydifferent toanexpert.Novicesdon’thave thenecessarybackgroundknowledge.Theyjustseecolorsandshapes.They’renotsurewhatit’sallabout.”Buttheartexperthascomparativelyenormousunderstanding.Heorshehasdevelopedasensitivitytodetailsthattherestofuscan’tevensee.

Here’s another example. Ever watch the Olympics? Ever listen to thecommentatorssaythings,inrealtime,like“Oh!Thattriplelutzwasjustalittleshort!”“Thatpush-offwasperfectlytimed”?Yousitthereandwonderhowthesecommentatorscanperceivesuchmicroscopicdifferencesintheperformanceofoneathleteversusanotherwithoutwatchingthevideoplaybackinslowmotion.Ineedthatvideoplayback.Iaminsensitivetothosenuances.ButanexperthastheaccumulatedknowledgeandskilltoseewhatI,abeginner,cannot.

Ifyou’dliketofollowyourpassionbuthaven’tyetfosteredone,youmustbeginatthebeginning:discovery.

Askyourselfa fewsimplequestions:Whatdo I like to thinkabout?Wheredoesmymindwander?WhatdoIreallycareabout?Whatmattersmosttome?Howdo Ienjoyspendingmy time?And, incontrast,whatdo I findabsolutelyunbearable?Ifyoufindithardtoanswerthesequestions,tryrecallingyourteenyears,thestageoflifeatwhichvocationalinterestscommonlysprout.

Assoonasyouhaveevenageneraldirectioninmind,youmusttriggeryournascentinterests.Dothisbygoingoutintotheworldanddoing something.Toyounggraduateswringingtheirhandsoverwhat todo, Isay,Experiment!Try!You’llcertainlylearnmorethanifyoudon’t!

Atthisearlystageofexploration,hereareafewrelevantrulesofthumbtakenfromWillShortz’sessay“HowtoSolvetheNewYorkTimesCrosswordPuzzle”:

Beginwiththeanswersyou’resurestofandbuildfromthere.Howeverill-definedyour interests, therearesome thingsyouknowyou’dhatedoingforaliving,andsomethingsthatseemmorepromisingthanothers.That’sastart.

Don’tbeafraidtoguess.Likeitornot,there’sacertainamountoftrialanderror inherent in theprocessof interest discovery.Unlike the answers tocrosswordpuzzles,thereisn’tjustonethingyoucandothatmightdevelopintoapassion.Therearemany.Youdon’thavetofindthe“right”one,oreven the “best” one—just a direction that feels good. It can also bedifficulttoknowifsomethingwillbeagoodfituntilyoutryitforawhile.

Don’tbeafraidtoeraseananswerthatisn’tworkingout.Atsomepoint,youmaychoosetowriteyourtop-levelgoalinindelibleink,butuntilyouknowforsure,workinpencil.

If, on the other hand, you already have a good sense of what you enjoyspending your time doing, it’s time to develop your interest. After discoverycomesdevelopment.

Remember that interestsmust be triggered again and again and again.Findways to make that happen. And have patience. The development of intereststakes time.Keepaskingquestions, and let the answers to thosequestions leadyou tomorequestions.Continue todig.Seekoutotherpeoplewhoshareyourinterests.Sidleuptoanencouragingmentor.Whateveryourage,overtimeyourroleasalearnerwillbecomeamoreactiveandinformedone.Overaperiodof

years, your knowledge and expertise will grow, and along with it yourconfidenceandcuriositytoknowmore.

Finally, if you’ve been doing something you like for a few years and stillwouldn’t quite call it a passion, see if you can deepen your interests. Sincenovelty iswhatyourbraincraves,you’llbe tempted tomoveon to somethingnew,andthatcouldbewhatmakesthemostsense.However,ifyouwanttostayengagedformorethanafewyearsinanyendeavor,you’llneedtofindawaytoenjoythenuancesthatonlyatrueaficionadocanappreciate.“Theoldinthenewiswhatclaimstheattention,”saidWilliamJames.“Theoldwithaslightlynewturn.”

Insum,thedirectivetofollowyourpassionisnotbadadvice.Butwhatmaybeevenmoreusefulistounderstandhowpassionsarefosteredinthefirstplace.

Chapter7

PRACTICE

Inoneofmyearliest researchstudies, I found thatgrittierkidsat theNationalSpellingBeepracticedmorethantheirlessgrittycompetitors.Theseextrahoursofpractice,inturn,explainedtheirsuperiorperformanceinfinalcompetition.

This finding made a lot of sense. As a math teacher, I’d observed a hugerangeineffortamongmystudents.Somekidsspent,quiteliterally,zerominutesaweekon theirhomework;others studied forhoursaday.Consideringall thestudiesshowingthatgrittypeopletypicallystickwiththeircommitmentslongerthanothers,itseemedlikethemajoradvantageofgritwas,simply,moretimeontask.

Atthesametime,Icouldthinkofalotofpeoplewho’drackedupdecadesofexperienceintheirjobsbutneverthelessseemedtostagnateatamiddlinglevelof competence. I’m sure you can, too. Think about it. Do you know anyonewho’s been doing something for a long, long time—maybe their entireprofessional lives—and yet the best you can say of their skill is that they’reprettymuchokayandnotbadenough to fire?Asacolleagueofmine likes tojoke:somepeoplegettwentyyearsofexperience,whileothersgetoneyearofexperience...twentytimesinarow.KaizenisJapaneseforresistingtheplateauofarresteddevelopment.Itsliteral

translation is: “continuous improvement.” A while back, the idea got sometraction inAmericanbusiness culturewhen itwas touted as the coreprinciplebehind Japan’s spectacularly efficient manufacturing economy. Afterinterviewing dozens and dozens of grit paragons, I can tell you that they allexudekaizen.Therearenoexceptions.

Likewise,inherinterviewswith“megasuccessful”people,journalistHesterLaceyhasnoticedthatallofthemdemonstrateastrikingdesiretoexcelbeyondtheir already remarkable levelof expertise: “Anactormight say, ‘Imaynever

playaroleperfectly,butIwanttodoitaswellasIpossiblycan.Andineveryrole, Iwant tobringsomethingnew.Iwant todevelop.’Awritermightsay, ‘IwanteverybookIdotobebetterthanthelast.’

“It’sapersistentdesire todobetter,”Hesterexplained.“It’s theoppositeofbeingcomplacent.But it’sapositive stateofmind,notanegativeone. It’snotlooking backward with dissatisfaction. It’s looking forward and wanting togrow.”

Myinterviewresearchmademewonderwhethergritisnotjustaboutquantityoftimedevotedtointerests,butalsoqualityoftime.Notjustmoretimeontask,butalsobettertimeontask.

IstartedreadingeverythingIcouldabouthowskillsdevelop.Soon enough, this ledme to the doorstep of cognitive psychologistAnders

Ericsson.Ericssonhasspenthiscareerstudyinghowexpertsacquireworld-classskills. He’s studied Olympic athletes, chess grandmasters, renowned concertpianists, prima ballerinas, PGA golfers, Scrabble champions, and expertradiologists.Thelistgoeson.

Putitthisway:Ericssonistheworldexpertonworldexperts.Below, I’vedrawnagraph that summarizeswhatEricsson’s learned. Ifyou

track the development of internationally renowned performers, you invariablyfindthattheirskillimprovesgraduallyoveryears.Astheygetbetter,theirrateofimprovementslows.Thisturnsouttobetrueforallofus.Themoreyouknowaboutyourfield,theslighterwillbeyourimprovementfromonedaytothenext.

That there’s a learning curve for skill development isn’t surprising.But thetimescale onwhich that development happens is. In oneofEricsson’s studies,the very best violinists at a German music academy accumulated about tenthousand hours of practice over ten years before achieving elite levels ofexpertise.Bycomparison,lessaccomplishedstudentsaccumulatedabouthalfasmuchpracticeoverthesameperiod.

Perhapsnotsocoincidentally, thedancerMarthaGrahamdeclared,“It takesabout ten years to make a mature dancer.” More than a century ago,psychologists studying telegraph operators observed that reaching completefluency in Morse code was rare because of the “many years of hardapprenticeship” required. How many years? “Our evidence,” the researchersconcluded, “is that it requires ten years tomake a thoroughly seasoned pressdispatcher.”

Ifyou’vereadEricsson’soriginalresearch,youknowthattenthousandhoursofpracticespreadovertenyearsisjustaroughaverage.Someofthemusicianshestudiedreachedthehigh-watermarkofexpertisebeforethat,andsomeafter.But there’sagoodreasonwhy“the ten-thousand-hour rule”and“the ten-year-rule”havegoneviral.Theygiveyouavisceralsenseofthescaleoftherequiredinvestment.Not a fewhours,notdozens,not scores,nothundreds.Thousandsandthousandsofhoursofpracticeoveryearsandyearsandyears.

Thereallycrucial insightofEricsson’sresearch, though, isnot thatexpertslogmorehoursofpractice.Rather,it’sthatexpertspracticedifferently.Unlikemostofus,expertsareloggingthousandsuponthousandsofhoursofwhatEricssoncallsdeliberatepractice.

I suspected Ericsson could provide answers as to why, if practice is soimportant,experiencedoesn’talwaysleadtoexcellence.SoIdecidedtoaskhimaboutit,usingmyselfasaprimeexample.

“Look, Professor Ericsson, I’ve been jogging about an hour a day, severaldaysaweek,sinceIwaseighteen.AndI’mnotasecondfasterthanIeverwas.I’verunforthousandsofhours,anditdoesn’t looklikeI’manywhereclosetomakingtheOlympics.”

“That’sinteresting,”hereplied.“MayIaskyouafewquestions?”“Sure.”“Doyouhaveaspecificgoalforyourtraining?”“Tobehealthy?Tofitintomyjeans?”“Ah,yes.Butwhenyougoforarun,doyouhaveatargetintermsofthepace

you’dliketokeep?Oradistancegoal?Inotherwords,isthereaspecificaspect

ofyourrunningyou’retryingtoimprove?”“Um,no.Iguessnot.”ThenheaskedwhatIthoughtaboutwhileIwasrunning.“Oh,youknow,IlistentoNPR.SometimesIthinkaboutthethingsIneedto

getdonethatday.Imightplanwhattomakefordinner.”Then he verified that I wasn’t keeping track ofmy runs in any systematic

way.Nodiaryofmypace,ormydistance,ortheroutesItook,myendingheartrate,orhowmanyintervalsI’dsprintedinsteadofjogged.WhywouldIneedtodothat?Therewasnovarietytomyroutine.Everyrunwaslikethelast.

“Iassumeyoudon’thaveacoach?”Ilaughed.“Ah,”hepurred.“IthinkIunderstand.Youaren’timprovingbecauseyou’re

notdoingdeliberatepractice.”

Thisishowexpertspractice:First, they set a stretch goal, zeroing in on just one narrow aspect of their

overall performance. Rather than focus onwhat they already dowell, expertsstrive to improve specific weaknesses. They intentionally seek out challengestheycan’tyetmeet.OlympicgoldmedalswimmerRowdyGaines,forexample,said, “At everypractice, Iwould try tobeatmyself. Ifmycoachgaveme ten100sonedayandaskedmetohold1:15,thenthenextdaywhenhegavemeten100s,I’dtrytohold1:14.”IVirtuosoviolistRobertoDíazdescribes“workingtofind yourAchilles’ heel—the specific aspect of themusic that needs problemsolving.”

Then,withundividedattentionandgreateffort, experts strive to reach theirstretch goal. Interestingly, many choose to do so while nobody’s watching.BasketballgreatKevinDuranthassaid,“Iprobablyspend70percentofmytimebymyself,workingonmygame, just trying to fine-tuneevery singlepieceofmygame.”Likewise,theamountoftimemusiciansdevotetopracticingaloneisamuchbetterpredictorofhowquicklytheydevelopthantimespentpracticingwithothermusicians.

As soon as possible, experts hungrily seek feedback on how they did.Necessarily,muchofthatfeedbackisnegative.Thismeansthatexpertsaremoreinterestedinwhattheydidwrong—sotheycanfixit—thanwhattheydidright.Theactiveprocessingofthisfeedbackisasessentialasitsimmediacy.

Here’showUlrikChristensenlearnedthislesson.Christensenisaphysician-turned-entrepreneur whose adaptive learning software is designed around theprinciplesofdeliberatepractice.Oneofhisearlyprojectswasavirtual reality

game that teaches doctors the proper handling of urgent, complex cardiacconditions such as strokes and heart attacks. During one training session, hefoundhimselfalonewithaphysicianwhoseemedunabletofinish.

“Icouldn’t figure itout,”Christensen toldme.“Thisguywasn’tstupid,butafterhoursofdetailedfeedbackonwhathe’ddonewrong,hestillwasn’tgettingthe right answers. Everyone else had gone home, and there we were, stuck.”Exasperated, Christensen stopped him just before he got the next round offeedback.“Time-out,”Christensensaid.“Whatyoujustdid,treatingthispatient,is thereanythingyoudid justnowwhereyouwere indoubt?Anythingwhereyouweren’tsureitmetthenewguidelines?”

The doctor thought a moment and then listed decisions he’d been certainabout; then he named a few choices about which he was less sure. In otherwords,hereflectedforamomentonwhatheknewandwhathedidn’t.

Christensennodded, listening,andwhenthedoctorwasfinished,helethimseethecomputerscreenwiththesamefeedbackthathadbeendisplayedadozentimesbefore.Onthenexttrial,thedoctorexecutedtheprocedurecorrectly.

Andafterfeedback,thenwhat?Thenexpertsdoitalloveragain,andagain,andagain.Untiltheyhavefinally

masteredwhattheysetouttodo.Untilwhatwasastrugglebeforeisnowfluentandflawless.Untilconsciousincompetencebecomesunconsciouscompetence.

Inthestoryofthedoctorwhofinallytookamomenttothinkaboutwhathewas doing,Christensen kept the practice going until the doctorwas doing theprocedure without any errors at all. After four consecutive, perfectly correctrepetitions,Christensensaid,“Goodjob.We’redonewiththisfortheday.”

And...thenwhat?Whatfollowsmasteryofastretchgoal?Thenexpertsstartalloveragainwithanewstretchgoal.Onebyone,thesesubtlerefinementsadduptodazzlingmastery.

Deliberatepracticewasfirststudiedinchessplayersandtheninmusiciansandathletes. If you’re not a chess player, musician, or athlete, you might bewonderingwhetherthegeneralprinciplesofdeliberatepracticeapplytoyou.

Without hesitation, I can tell you the answer:YES.Even themost complexand creativeof human abilities canbebrokendown into its component skills,eachofwhichcanbepracticed,practiced,practiced.

For example, deliberate practice is how Benjamin Franklin describedimproving his writing. In his autobiography, Franklin describes collecting thevery best essays in his favorite magazine, the Spectator. He read and rereadthem, taking notes, and then he hid the originals in a drawer. Next, Franklin

rewrotetheessays.“ThenIcomparedmySpectatorwiththeoriginal,discoveredsomeofmyfaults,andcorrectedthem.”Likethemodern-dayexpertsEricssonstudies,Franklinzeroedinonspecificweaknessesanddrilledthemrelentlessly.For instance, to improvehisability tomakelogicalarguments,Franklinwouldjumble his notes on essays and then attempt to put them in a sensible order:“Thiswastoteachmemethodinthearrangementofthethoughts.”Likewise,toenhancehiscommandoflanguage,Franklinpracticed,overandoveragain,thetranslationofproseintopoetryandpoetryintoprose.

Franklin’s witty aphorisms make it hard to believe he wasn’t a “natural”writerfromtheverystart.ButperhapsweshouldletFranklinhimselfhavethelastwordonthematter:Therearenogainswithoutpains.

Butwhatifyou’renotawriter,either?Ifyou’reinbusiness,listentowhatmanagementguruPeterDruckersaidafter

a lifetimeof advisingCEOs.Effectivemanagement “demandsdoingcertain—andfairlysimple—things.Itconsistsofasmallnumberofpractices....”

If you’re a surgeon, consider what Atul Gawande has said: “People oftenassumethatyouhavetohavegreathandstobecomeasurgeon,butit’snottrue.”What’smostimportant,Gawandesaid,is“practicingthisonedifficultthingdayandnightforyearsonend.”

Ifyouwanttobreakaworldrecord,asmagicianDavidBlainedidwhenheheld his breath underwater for seventeenminutes,watch hisTED talk.At theveryend,themanwhocancontroleveryaspectofhisphysiologybreaksdown,sobbing: “Asamagician, I try to show things topeople that seem impossible.AndIthinkmagic,whetherI’mholdingmybreathorshufflingadeckofcards,is pretty simple. It’s practice, it’s training, and it’s”—he sobs—“experimenting”—hesobsagain—“whilepushingthroughthepain tobe thebestthatIcanbe.Andthat’swhatmagicistome....”

Aftergettingtoknoweachotheralittlebetter,EricssonandIdesignedastudytodiscoverhow,exactly,grittykidstriumphattheNationalSpellingBee.

Ialreadyknewthatgrittierspellersaccumulatedmorepracticeandperformedbetter than their less gritty competitors. What I didn’t know was whetherdeliberatepracticewasdrivingtheseskillimprovements,andwhetheritwasgritthatenabledspellerstodomoreofit.

WiththehelpofEricsson’sstudents,webeganbyinterviewingspellingbeefinalists to learn what sorts of things they did to prepare for competition. Inparallel,weporedthroughpublishedbooksonthetopic,includingHowtoSpellLikeaChampbythebee’sownnationaldirector,PaigeKimble.

Welearnedthattherearebasicallythreetypesofactivitiesrecommendedbyexperiencedspellers, theirparents,andcoaches:First, readingforpleasureandplayingwordgameslikeScrabble.Second,gettingquizzedbyanotherpersonoracomputerprogram.Third,unassistedandsolitary spellingpractice, includingmemorizing new words from the dictionary, reviewing words in a spellingnotebook, and committing to memory Latin, Greek, and other word origins.Onlythisthirdcategoryofactivitymetthecriteriafordeliberatepractice.

Several months before the final competition, spellers were mailedquestionnaires.InadditiontotheGritScale,weaskedthemtocompletealoginwhich they estimated the hours per week they spent on various spellingactivities.Wealsoaskedthemtoratehowitfelttodotheseactivities—intermsofenjoymentandeffort—inthemomenttheyweredoingthem.

That May, when the finals aired on ESPN, Anders Ericsson and I werewatching.

Who took home the trophy?A thirteen-year-old girl namedKerryClose. Itwasherfifthconsecutiveyearofcompetition,andfromthelogshecompletedinourstudy,Iestimateshe’daccumulatedatleastthreethousandhoursofspellingpractice. Kerry’s triumphant last words at the microphone, articulated withconfidenceandasmile,were:“Ursprache.U-R-S-P-R-A-C-H-E.Ursprache.”

“I’mstudyingashardas Ican formy lastyear—togo for it,”Kerry toldajournalistwho’dbeen trackingherpreparations.“I’m trying to learnwordsofftheregularlist,tolearnmoreobscurewordsthathaveachanceofcomingup.”Theyearbefore,thesamejournalistmadetheobservationthatKerry“doesmorewordstudybyherself.Sheworkswithnumerousspellingstudyguides,makeslists of interesting words from her reading, and labors her way through thedictionary.”

When we analyzed our data, we first confirmed what I’d found the yearbefore: grittier spellers practiced more than less gritty spellers. But the mostimportant finding was that the type of practice mattered tremendously.Deliberate practice predicted advancing to further rounds in final competitionfarbetterthananyotherkindofpreparation.

When I share these findingswith parents and students, I hasten to add thattherearemany,manylearningbenefitstobeingquizzed.Shiningalightonwhatyou think you know butactually haven’t yetmastered is one. Indeed, winnerKerryCloselatertoldmethatsheusedquizzingtodiagnoseherweaknesses—toidentifycertainwordsortypesofwordssheconsistentlymisspelledsothatshecouldfocushereffortsonmasteringthem.Inasense,quizzingmayhavebeenanecessarypreludetodoingmoretargeted,moreefficient,deliberatepractice.

Whataboutreadingforfun?Nada.PrettymuchallofthekidsintheNationalSpelling Bee are interested in language, but there wasn’t even a hint of arelationship between reading for fun, which they all enjoyed, and spellingprowess.

If you judge practice by how much it improves your skill, then deliberatepracticehasnorival.Thislessonseemedtobecomeincreasinglycleartospellersas they spentmore time competing.With each successive year of experience,they spent more time practicing deliberately. The same trend was even morepronouncedinthemonthbeforetheactualfinals,whentheaveragespellerwasdevotingtenhoursperweektodeliberatepractice.

If, however, you judge practice bywhat it feels like, youmight come to adifferent conclusion. On average, spellers rated deliberate practice assignificantlymoreeffortful,andsignificantly lessenjoyable, thananythingelsethey did to prepare for competition. In contrast, spellers experienced readingbooks for pleasure and playingword games like Scrabble as effortless and asenjoyableas“eatingyourfavoritefood.”

A vivid—if somewhat melodramatic—firsthand description of whatdeliberatepracticecan feel likecomes fromdancerMarthaGraham:“Dancingappears glamorous, easy, delightful. But the path to the paradise of thatachievementisnoteasierthananyother.Thereisfatiguesogreatthatthebodycrieseven in itssleep.Thereare timesofcompletefrustration.Therearedailysmalldeaths.”

Not everyone would describe working outside their comfort zone in suchextreme terms, but Ericsson generally finds that deliberate practice isexperiencedassupremelyeffortful.Asevidencethatworkingatthefaredgeofour skills with complete concentration is exhausting, he points out that evenworld-classperformersatthepeakoftheircareerscanonlyhandleamaximumofonehourofdeliberatepracticebeforeneedingabreak,andintotal,canonlydoaboutthreetofivehoursofdeliberatepracticeperday.

It’salsorelevantthatmanyathletesandmusicianstakenapsaftertheirmostintensive training sessions. Why? Rest and recovery may seem an obviousnecessity for athletes. But nonathletes say much the same about their mostintenseexertions,suggestingthatitisthementalwork,asmuchasthephysicalstresses, thatmakes deliberate practice so strenuous. For instance, here’s howdirector Judd Apatow describes making a film: “Every day is an experiment.Everyscenemightnotworkandsoyou’reconcentrating—Isitworking?ShouldIgetanextralineforediting?WhatwouldIchangeifIhadto,ifIhatedthisin

three months, why would I hate it? And you’re concentrating and you’reexhausted....It’sprettyintense.”

And,finally,world-classperformerswhoretiretendnottokeepupnearlythesame deliberate practice schedule. If practice was intrinsically pleasurable—enjoyableforitsownsake—you’dexpectthemtokeepdoingit.

TheyearafterEricssonandIbeganworkingtogether,MihalyCsikszentmihalyiIIspenthissummeratmyuniversityasascholarinresidence.Csikszentmihalyiisas eminent a psychologist as Ericsson, and both have devoted their careers tostudying experts.But their accounts ofworld-class expertise couldn’t bemoredifferent.

ForCsikszentmihalyi, the signatureexperienceofexperts is flow, a stateofcomplete concentration “that leads to a feeling of spontaneity.” Flow isperforming at high levels of challenge and yet feeling “effortless,” like “youdon’thavetothinkaboutit,you’rejustdoingit.”

Forexample,anorchestraconductortoldCsikszentmihalyi:

You are in an ecstatic state to such a point that you feel as though youalmost don’t exist. . . . My hand seems devoid of myself, and I havenothingtodowithwhat’shappening.Ijustsittherewatchinginastateofaweandwonderment.And[themusic]justflowsoutbyitself.

Andacompetitivefigureskatergavethisdescriptionoftheflowstate:

It was just one of those programs that clicked. I mean everything wentright,everythingfeltgood. . . it’sjustsucharush,likeyoucouldfeel itcouldgoonandonandon,likeyoudon’twantittostopbecauseit’sgoingso well. It’s almost as though you don’t have to think, everything goesautomaticallywithoutthinking....

Csikszentmihalyihasgathered similar first-person reports fromhundredsofexperts.Ineveryfieldstudied,optimalexperienceisdescribedinsimilarterms.

Ericsson is skeptical thatdeliberatepracticecouldever feel asenjoyableasflow. In his view, “skilled people can sometimes experience highly enjoyablestates (‘flow’ as described by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) during theirperformance. These states are, however, incompatible with deliberatepractice....”Why?Becausedeliberatepracticeiscarefullyplanned,andflowisspontaneous. Because deliberate practice requires working where challenges

exceedskill,andflowismostcommonlyexperiencedwhenchallengeandskillareinbalance.And,mostimportant,becausedeliberatepracticeisexceptionallyeffortful,andflowis,bydefinition,effortless.

Csikszentmihalyihaspublishedacontraryopinion:“Researcherswhostudythedevelopmentoftalentshaveconcludedthat tolearnanycomplexskillwelltakesabout10,000hoursofpractice. . . .And thepracticecanbeveryboringandunpleasant.Whilethisstateofaffairsisalltoooftentrue,theconsequencesare by no means self-evident.” Csikszentmihalyi goes on to share a personalstory thathelpsexplainhisperspective. InHungary,wherehegrewup,on thetallwoodengateattheentrancetothelocalelementaryschool,hungasignthatread:The roots of knowledge are bitter, but its fruits are sweet. This alwaysstruckhimasdeeplyuntrue:“Evenwhenthelearningishard,”hewrites,“itisnot bitter when you feel that it is worth having, that you can master it, thatpracticingwhatyoulearnedwillexpresswhoyouareandhelpyouachievewhatyoudesire.”

Sowho’sright?As fate would have it, the same summer Csikszentmihalyi was visiting,

Ericssonwasalso in town. Iarrangedfor themtodebate the topicof“passionandworld-classperformance”beforeanaudienceofabouteightyeducators.

Whentheysatdownatthetableinthefrontofthelecturehall,Irealizedthatthetwomenarenear-perfectdoppelgängers.Botharetallandsolidlybuilt.BothareEuropeanbybirth,withslightaccentsthatsomehowmakethemseemevenmoreeminentandscholarly.Bothsportclose-croppedbeards,and thoughonlyCsikszentmihalyi’shasgoneallwhite,eithermanwouldbeagoodchoiceifyouwerelookingforsomeonetoplaySantaClaus.

On the day of the panel, Iwas a little anxious. I don’t like conflict—evenwhenit’snotmine.

It turns out I had nothing to worry about. The proponents of deliberatepracticeversusflowbehavedasperfectgentlemen.Noinsultswereexchanged.Therewasn’tevenahintofdisrespect.

Instead,EricssonandCsikszentmihalyisatshouldertoshoulder,eachtakingthemicrophonewhenitwastheirturn,eachmethodicallysummarizingdecadesofresearchsupportingstarklycontrastingperspectives.Whenonewasspeaking,the other appeared to listen intently. And then the microphone would changehands.Soitwentforninetyminutes.Doexpertssuffer,Iwantedtoknow.Oraretheyecstatic?

Somehow,thedialogueIhopedwouldresolvethisconundrumplayedoutastwoseparatepresentations—oneondeliberatepracticeandtheotheronflow—splicedtogether.

Whenitwasallover,Ifoundmyselfalittledisappointed.Itwasn’tthedramathatImissed,itwastheresolution.Istilldidn’thaveananswertomyquestion:Is expert performance a matter of arduous and not-so-fun-in-the-momentexertion,orcanitbeeffortlessandjoyous?

For years after that anticlimactic summit, I read and thought about the issue.Finally,becauseIneverdevelopedtheconvictionthatmightpromptmetorejectonesideandtaketheother,Idecidedtocollectsomedata.Iaskedthousandsofadultswho’dtakentheGritScaleonlinetotakeasecondquestionnaireassessingflow. The participants in this study included men and women of all agesrepresenting all manner of professions: actors, bakers, bank tellers, barbers,dentists,doctors,policeofficers,secretaries,teachers,waiters,andwelders...tonamejustafew.

Across thesediverseoccupations,grittier adults reportedexperiencingmoreflow,notless.Inotherwords,flowandgritgohandinhand.

Putting together what I learned from this survey, the findings on NationalSpelling Bee finalists, and a decadelong inspection of the relevant researchliterature, I’ve come to the following conclusion: Gritty people do moredeliberatepracticeandexperiencemoreflow.There’snocontradictionhere,fortworeasons.First,deliberatepractice isabehavior,and flow isanexperience.AndersEricsson is talking aboutwhat expertsdo;MihalyCsikszentmihalyi istalking about howexperts feel. Second, you don’t have to be doing deliberatepractice and experiencing flow at the same time.And, in fact, I think that formostexperts,theyrarelygotogether.

Moreresearchisneededtosettlethequestion,andinthenextfewyears,I’mhopingthatEricsson,Csikszentmihalyi,andIcancollaboratetodoexactlythat.

Currently, my view is that the primary motivation for doing effortfuldeliberate practice is to improve your skill.You’re concentrating one hundredpercent,andyou’vedeliberatelysetthelevelofchallengetoexceedyourcurrentlevelofskill.You’rein“problemsolving”mode,analyzingeverythingyoudotobring it closer to the ideal—the goal you set at the beginning of the practicesession.You’regettingfeedback,andalotofthatfeedbackisaboutwhatyou’redoingwrong,andyou’reusingthatfeedbacktomakeadjustmentsandtryagain.

The motivation that predominates during flow, in contrast, is entirelydifferent. The flow state is intrinsically pleasurable. You don’t care whether

you’re improving some narrow aspect of your skill set. And though you’reconcentratingonehundredpercent,you’renotatallin“problemsolving”mode.You’re not analyzing what you’re doing; you’re just doing. You’re gettingfeedback, but because the level of challenge justmeets your current level ofskill, that feedback is telling you that you’re doing a lot right. You feel likeyou’reincompletecontrol,becauseyouare.You’refloating.Youlosetrackoftime.Nomatterhowfastyou’rerunningorhowintenselyyou’rethinking,whenyou’reinflow,everythingfeelseffortless.

In other words, deliberate practice is for preparation, and flow is forperformance.

Let’sreturntoswimmerRowdyGaines.Gaines toldmeheonce tabulatedhowmuchpractice it took todevelop the

stamina,technique,confidence,andjudgmenttowinanOlympicgoldmedal.Intheeight-yearperiodleadinguptothe1984games,heswam,inincrementsoffifty-yardlaps,atleasttwentythousandmiles.Ofcourse,ifyouaddintheyearsbeforeandafter,theodometergoesevenhigher.

“I swam around theworld,” he toldmewith a soft laugh, “for a race thatlastedforty-nineseconds.”

“Didyouenjoythosemiles?”Iasked.“Imean,didyoulovepracticing?”“I’mnotgoing to lie,”hereplied.“Ineverreallyenjoyedgoing topractice,

and I certainly didn’t enjoy it while I was there. In fact, there were briefmoments,walkingtothepoolatfourorfour-thirtyinthemorning,orsometimeswhenIcouldn’ttakethepain,whenI’dthink,‘God,isthisworthit?’ ”

“Sowhydidn’tyouquit?”“It’sverysimple,”Rowdysaid.“It’sbecauseIlovedswimming....Ihada

passionforcompeting,fortheresultoftraining,forthefeelingofbeinginshape,for winning, for traveling, for meeting friends. I hated practice, but I had anoverallpassionforswimming.”

Olympicgoldmedalist rowerMadsRasmussenofferedasimilaraccountofhismotivation:“It’sabouthardwork.Whenit’snotfun,youdowhatyouneedtodoanyway.Becausewhenyouachieveresults,it’sincrediblyfun.Yougettoenjoythe‘Aha’attheend,andthatiswhatdragsyoualongalotoftheway.”

Theideaofyearsofchallenge-exceeding-skillpracticeleadingtomomentsofchallenge-meeting-skill flow explains why elite performance can look soeffortless:inasense,itis.Here’sanexample.Eighteen-year-oldswimmerKatieLedecky recently broke her own world record in the 1,500-meter freestyle.Improbably, historywasmade during a preliminary round at a competition inKazan,Russia.“Tobehonest,itfeltprettyeasy,”shesaidafterward.“Iwasso

relaxed.”But it’snot flow towhichLedeckycreditsher speed:“Breaking thatrecordistestamenttotheworkIhaveputinandtheshapeIaminrightnow.”

Indeed, Ledecky has been swimming since shewas six. She’s developed areputationforworkingfiercelyhardateverysinglepractice,sometimestrainingwithmale swimmers foraddedchallenge.Threeyearsago,Ledeckydescribedblanking out a little bit in the race thatwon her the goldmedal in the eight-hundred-meter freestyle. “One thing in terms of swimming that people don’treallyknow,”shelatersaid,“isthattheworkyouputin[during]practiceshowsoffinthemeet.”

Here’smyownstoryofhoursofeffortfuldeliberatepracticeleadingtomomentsofeffortlessflow.Afewyearsago,aproducernamedJulietBlakecalledtoaskif I’d be interested in giving a six-minute TED talk. “Sure,” I said. “Soundsfun!”

“Wonderful!Afteryouhaveyour talk ready,we’ll haveavideoconferencewhere we watch you give it, and we’ll give you some feedback. You know,somethinglikearehearsal.”Hmmm,“feedback”yousay?Somethingotherthanapplause?Moreslowly,I

said,“Sure...thatsoundsfine.”IpreparedatalkandontheappointeddayconnectedwithJulietandherboss,

theleaderofTED,ChrisAnderson.Staringintothewebcam,Ideliveredmytalkintheallottedtime.ThenIwaitedformyeffusivepraise.

Iftherewasany,Imissedit.Instead,whatIgotwasChristellingmehe’dgottenlostinallmyscientific

jargon. Too many syllables. Too many slides. And not enough clear,understandableexamples.Further,howI’dcometothiswholelineofresearch—my road from teacher to psychologist—was unclear and unsatisfying. Julietagreed.SheaddedthatI’dmanagedtotellastorywithabsolutelyzerosuspense.ThewayI’ddesignedmytalkwasliketellingthepunchlineofajokeattheverybeginning.

Ouch!Thatbad,huh?JulietandChrisarebusypeople,andIknewIwouldn’tgetasecondchanceatgettingcoached.SoIforcedmyselftolisten.Afterward,Iponderedwhoknewbetterhowtogiveagreattalkongrit:themorme?

Itdidn’ttakelongtorealizethattheyweretheexperiencedstorytellers,andIwasthescientistwhoneededfeedbacktomakehertalkbetter.

SoIrewrotethetalk,practicedinfrontofmyfamily,andgotmorenegativefeedback. “Why do you say ‘Um’ all the time?”my older daughter,Amanda,

asked.“Yeah,whydoyoudothat,Mom?”myyoungerdaughter,Lucy,chimedin.“Andyoubiteyourlipwhenyou’renervous.Don’tdothat.It’sdistracting.”

Morepractice.Morerefinements.Thenthefatefuldayarrived.Igaveatalkthatboreonlyaweakresemblance

totheoneI’doriginallyproposed.Itwasbetter.Alotbetter.Watchthattalkandyou’llseemeinflow.SearchYouTubeforthemanyrehearsalsthatprecededit—or, for that matter, footage of anyone doing effortful, mistake-ridden,repetitivedeliberatepractice—andmyguessisyou’llcomeupempty.

Nobodywantstoshowyouthehoursandhoursofbecoming.They’drathershowthehighlightofwhatthey’vebecome.

Afteritwasallover,Irushedtomeetmyhusbandandmother-in-law,who’dbeen in the audience that day to cheer me on. As soon as they were withinearshot, I calledoutpreemptively: “Just theeffusivepraise,please!”And theydelivered.

Lately,I’vebeenaskinggrittyperformersandtheircoachesindiversefieldstoelaborate on how it feels to do deliberate practice. Many agree with dancerMartha Graham that attempting to do what you cannot yet do is frustrating,uncomfortable,andevenpainful.

However, some have suggested that, in fact, the experience of deliberatepracticecanbeextremelypositive—notjustinthelong-termbutinthemoment.Fun isn’tquite theword theyuse todescribedeliberatepractice,butneither isbitter. And, too, top performers point out that the alternative to deliberatepractice—mindlessly “going through themotions” without improvement—canbeitsownformofsuffering.

Ipuzzledovertheseobservationsforawhile,andthenIdecidedtolookbackatthediarydatathatEricssonandIhadcollectedfromtheNationalSpellingBeefinalists. While I knew that spellers rated deliberate practice as especiallyeffortful and unenjoyable, I also recalled that therewas quite a spread aroundtheseaverages.Inotherwords,notallspellershadthesameexactexperience.

I looked to see how grittier competitors experienced deliberate practice.Comparedtotheirlesspassionate,lessperseveringcompetitors,grittierspellersnot only loggedmore hours of deliberate practice, they rated it as bothmoreenjoyableandmoreeffortful.That’sright.Grittierkidsreportedworkingharderthanotherkidswhendoingdeliberatepracticebut,at thesame time,said theyenjoyeditmorethanotherkids,too.

It’shardtoknowforsurewhattomakeofthisfinding.Onepossibilityisthatgrittierkidsspendmoretimedoingdeliberatepractice,andthat,overtheyears,

theydevelopatasteforhardworkastheyexperiencetherewardsoftheirlabor.This is the“learnto lovetheburn”story.Alternatively, itcouldbe thatgrittierkidsenjoythehardworkmore,andthatgetsthemtodomoreofit.Thisisthe“somepeopleenjoyachallenge”story.

Ican’ttellyouwhichoftheseaccountsisaccurate,andifIhadtoguess,I’dsay there’s some truth to both. As we’ll learn in chapter 11, there’s solidscientificevidencethatthesubjectiveexperienceofeffort—whatitfeelsliketoworkhard—cananddoeschangewhen,forexample,effortisrewardedinsomeway. I’vewatchedmy own daughters learn to enjoyworking hardmore thantheyusedto,andIcansaythesameformyself.

Ontheotherhand,KatieLedecky’scoach,BruceGemmell,saysshe’salwaysrelishedatoughchallenge.

“There’salittlevideoclipthatKatie’sparentshaveofoneofherfirstswimmeets,”Brucetoldme.“It’sjustonelap.She’ssixyearsold.Sheswimsafewstrokes and thengrabson to the lane line.She swims a fewmore strokes andgrabsontothelanelineagain.Finally,shegetstotheendofthepoolandgetsout of thewater.Dad’s filming it, andhe asks, ‘Tellme about your first race.Howwasit?’Shegoes,‘Great!’Afewsecondslater,sheadds,‘Thatwashard!’Andshe’sbeaming—asmilefromeartoear.Thatsaysitallrightthere.Shehasthatattitudewitheverythingwedo.”

In the same conversation, Bruce told me that Katie willingly does moredeliberate practice than anyone he’s ever met. “We’ll try a drill that she’shorrible at—somethingwhere she’ll start off in the poorest third of the groupdoingit.ThenI’llcatchhersneakingpracticetimetogetbetteratit,sowithinsomeperiodoftime,she’soneofthebestinthegroup.Someotherswimmers,well, they try and they fail at it, and I have to cajole and beg them to try itagain.”

Ifdeliberatepracticecanbe“awesome,”caniteverfeellikeeffortlessflow?WhenIaskedspellingchampKerryCloseifshe’deverexperiencedthestate

offlowduringdeliberatepractice,shesaid,“No,theonlytimeIcouldsaythatIwas in flow was when I wasn’t being challenged.” At the same time, shedescribed deliberate practice as gratifying in its ownway: “Someofmymostrewarding studying,” she told me, “was on my own, forcing myself to breakdownabigtaskintomultiplepartsandgettingitdone.”

Asofnow,thereisn’tenoughresearchtosaywhetherdeliberatepracticecanbe experienced as effortless flow.My guess is that deliberate practice can bedeeply gratifying, but in a different way than flow. In other words, there aredifferentkindsofpositiveexperience:thethrillofgettingbetter isone,andtheecstasyofperformingatyourbestisanother.

Otherthangettingyourselfaterrificcoach,mentor,orteacher,howcanyougetthemostoutofdeliberatepracticeand—becauseyou’veearned it—experiencemoreflow?

First,knowthescience.Eachofthebasicrequirementsofdeliberatepracticeisunremarkable:

•Aclearlydefinedstretchgoal•Fullconcentrationandeffort•Immediateandinformativefeedback•Repetitionwithreflectionandrefinement

Buthowmanyhoursofpracticedomostpeopleaccomplish thatchecksallfour of these boxes?My guess is that many people are cruising through lifedoingpreciselyzerohoursofdailydeliberatepractice.

Evensupermotivatedpeoplewho’reworkingtoexhaustionmaynotbedoingdeliberatepractice.Forinstance,whenaJapaneserowingteaminvitedOlympicgold medalist Mads Rasmussen to come visit, he was shocked at how manyhours of practice their athletes were logging. It’s not hours of brute-forceexhaustionyou’reafter,hetoldthem.It’shigh-quality,thoughtfultraininggoalspursued,justasEricsson’sresearchhasshown,forjustafewhoursaday,tops.

Noa Kageyama, a performance psychologist on the faculty of the JuilliardSchoolofMusic,sayshe’sbeenplayingtheviolinsincehewastwobutdidn’treallystartpracticingdeliberatelyuntilhewastwenty-two.Whynot?Therewasno lack ofmotivation—at one point, youngNoawas taking lessonswith fourdifferentteachersand,literally,commutingtothreedifferentcitiestoworkwiththem all. Really, the problem was just that Noa didn’t know better. Once hediscovered there was an actual science of practice—an approach that wouldimprove his skills more efficiently—both the quality of his practice and hissatisfactionwithhisprogressskyrocketed.He’snowdevotedhimselftosharingthatknowledgewithothermusicians.

Afewyearsago,mygraduatestudentLaurenEskreis-WinklerandIdecidedto teach kids about deliberate practice. We put together self-guided lessons,complete with cartoons and stories, illustrating key differences betweendeliberate practice and less effective ways of studying.We explained that nomatter their initial talent, great performers in every domain improve throughdeliberate practice. We let students know that hidden behind every effortlessperformance on YouTube are hours and hours of unrecorded, invisible-to-outsiders, challenging, effortful, mistake-ridden practice. We told them thattryingtodothingstheycan’tyetdo,failing,andlearningwhattheyneedtodo

differentlyisexactly thewayexpertspractice.Wehelpedthemunderstand thatfeelingsof frustrationaren’tnecessarily a sign they’reon thewrong track.Onthe contrary, we told them that wishing they did things better is extremelycommonduringlearning.Wethentestedthisinterventionagainstdifferentkindsofplacebocontrolactivities.

Whatwefoundisthatstudentscanchangethewaytheythinkaboutpracticeandachievement.Forinstance,askedwhatadvicethey’dgivetoanotherstudenton how to succeed in school, students who learned about deliberate practiceweremore likely to recommend“focusonyourweaknesses”and“concentrateone hundred percent.” Given the choice between doing deliberate practice inmath versus entertaining themselves with social media and gaming websites,they elected to domore deliberate practice. And, finally, in the case of thosewho’d been performing at a below-average level in class, learning aboutdeliberatepracticeincreasedtheirreportcardgrades.

Which leads tomysecond suggestion forgetting themostoutofdeliberatepractice:Makeitahabit.

By this Imean, figure outwhen andwhere you’remost comfortable doingdeliberatepractice.Onceyou’vemadeyourselection,dodeliberatepracticethenand there every day.Why?Because routines are a godsendwhen it comes todoing something hard.Amountain of research studies, including a fewofmyown,showthatwhenyouhaveahabitofpracticingatthesametimeandinthesameplaceeveryday,youhardlyhave to thinkaboutgetting started.You justdo.

ThebookDailyRitualsbyMasonCurreydescribesaday in the lifeofonehundred sixty-one artists, scientists, and other creators. If you look for aparticularrule,likeAlwaysdrinkcoffee,orNeverdrinkcoffee,orOnlyworkinyourbedroom,orNeverworkinyourbedroom,youwon’tfindit.Butifinsteadyouask,“Whatdothesecreatorshaveincommon?”you’llfindtheanswerrightinthetitle:dailyrituals.Intheirownparticularway,alltheexpertsinthisbookconsistentlyput inhoursandhoursofsolitarydeliberatepractice.Theyfollowroutines.They’recreaturesofhabit.

Forinstance,cartoonistCharlesSchulz,whodrewalmosteighteenthousandPeanuts comic strips in his career, rose at dawn, showered, shaved, and hadbreakfast with his children. He then drove his kids to school andwent to hisstudio,where heworked through lunch (a ham sandwich and a glass ofmilk)untilhischildren returned fromschool.WriterMayaAngelou’s routinewas toget up and have coffeewith her husband, and then, by seven in themorning,deliverherselftoa“tinymean”hotelroomwithnodistractionsuntiltwointheafternoon.

Eventually,ifyoukeeppracticinginthesametimeandplace,whatoncetookconscious thought to initiate becomes automatic. “There is nomoremiserablehumanbeing,”observedWilliamJames,thantheoneforwhom“thebeginningofeverybitofwork”mustbedecidedaneweachday.

I myself learned that lesson quickly. I now know what Joyce Carol Oatesmeantwhenshelikenedcompletingthefirstdraftofabookto“pushingapeanutacross a very dirty kitchen floorwith your nose.” Sowhat’d I do?Here’s thesimpledailyplanthathelpedmegetgoing:Whenit’seightinthemorningandI’minmyhomeoffice,Iwillrereadyesterday’sdraft.Thishabitdidn’tmakethewritingeasier,perse,butitsuremadeiteasiertogetstarted.

My third suggestion for getting the most out of deliberate practice is tochangethewayyouexperienceit.

Around the time I was revisiting my National Spelling Bee data anddiscovering howmuchmore enjoyable the experience of deliberate practice isfor grittier competitors, I called up a swimming coach namedTerryLaughlin.Terryhascoachedevery levelof swimmer, fromcompletenewbie toOlympicchampion,andbrokenrecordshimselfinopen-waterMastersswimming.Iwasparticularly interested in his perspective because he’s long advocatedwhat hecallsa“totalimmersion”approachtoswimming—essentiallyarelaxed,mindfulapproachtoglidingthroughthewater.

“Deliberatepracticecanfeelwonderful,”Terrytoldme.“Ifyoutry,youcanlearntoembracechallengerather thanfear it.Youcandoall the thingsyou’resupposedtododuringdeliberatepractice—acleargoal,feedback,allofit—andstillfeelgreatwhileyou’redoingit.

“It’s all about in-the-moment self-awareness without judgment,” hecontinued.“It’saboutrelievingyourselfofthejudgmentthatgetsinthewayofenjoyingthechallenge.”

AfterhangingupwithTerry,Ibegantothinkaboutthefactthatinfantsandtoddlersspendmostoftheirtimetryingtodothingstheycan’t,againandagain—andyettheydon’tseemespeciallyembarrassedoranxious.Nopain,nogainisarulethatdoesn’tseemtoapplytothepreschoolset.

Elena Bodrova and Deborah Leong, psychologists who’ve devoted theircareers to studying how children learn, agree that learning from mistakes issomethingbabiesandtoddlersdon’tmindatall.Watchababystruggletositup,oratoddlerlearntowalk:you’llseeoneerrorafteranother,failureafterfailure,alotofchallengeexceedingskill,alotofconcentration,alotoffeedback,alotof learning. Emotionally? Well, they’re too young to ask, but very youngchildrendon’tseemtorturedwhilethey’retryingtodothingstheycan’tyetdo.

And then . . . somethingchanges.According toElenaandDeborah,aroundthe time children enter kindergarten, they begin to notice that their mistakesinspirecertainreactions ingrown-ups.Whatdowedo?Wefrown.Ourcheeksflush a bit. We rush over to our little ones to point out that they’ve donesomethingwrong.Andwhat’sthelessonwe’reteaching?Embarrassment.Fear.Shame.CoachBruceGemmellsaysthat’sexactlywhathappenstomanyofhisswimmers: “Between coaches and parents and friends and themedia, they’velearnedthatfailingisbad,sotheyprotectthemselvesandwon’tsticktheirneckoutandgivetheirbesteffort.”

“Shamedoesn’thelpyoufixanything,”Deborahtoldme.Sowhat’stobedone?ElenaandDeborahaskteacherstomodelemotion-freemistakemaking.They

actuallyinstructteacherstocommitanerroronpurposeandthenletstudentsseethemsay,withasmile,“Oh,gosh,Ithoughttherewerefiveblocksinthispile!Letmecountagain!One...two...three...four...five...six!Therearesixblocks!Great!IlearnedIneedtotoucheachblockasIcount!”

Whetheryoucanmakedeliberatepracticeasecstaticasflow,Idon’tknow,butIdothinkyoucantrysayingtoyourself,andtoothers,“Thatwashard!Itwasgreat!”

I.Thismeansswimmingonehundredmetersinoneminuteandfifteenseconds,andthentryingtodothesameinoneminuteandfourteenseconds,andsoon.

II.Pronouncedcheeks-sent-me-high.Andforyears,Mihalyhasgoneby“Mike.”

Chapter8

PURPOSE

Interest is one source of passion. Purpose—the intention to contribute to thewell-beingofothers—isanother.Thematurepassionsofgrittypeopledependonboth.

For some, purpose comes first. This is the only way I can understand aparagon of grit likeAlex Scott. Ever sinceAlex could remember, she’d beensick.Herneuroblastomahadbeendiagnosedwhenshewasayearold.Shortlyafterherfourthbirthday,Alextoldhermother,“WhenIgetoutofthehospital,Iwanttohavea lemonadestand.”Andshedid.Sheoperatedherfirst lemonadestandbeforesheturnedfive,raisingtwothousanddollarsforherdoctorsto“helpotherkids,liketheyhelpedme.”WhenAlexpassedawayfouryearslater,she’dinspired somanypeople tocreate theirown lemonade stands that she’d raisedmorethanamilliondollars.Alex’sfamilyhascontinuedherlegacy,andtodate,Alex’sLemonadeStandFoundationhas raisedmore thanonehundredmilliondollarsforcancerresearch.

Alexwasextraordinary.Butmostpeoplefirstbecomeattractedtothingstheyenjoyandonly laterappreciatehow thesepersonal interestsmightalsobenefitothers. In other words, the more common sequence is to start out with arelativelyself-orientedinterest, thenlearnself-disciplinedpractice,and,finally,integratethatworkwithanother-centeredpurpose.

ThepsychologistBenjaminBloomwasamong the first tonotice this three-phaseprogression.

Thirty years ago, when Bloom set out to interview world-class athletes,artists,mathematicians,andscientists,heknewhe’dlearnsomethingabouthowpeople reach the top of their fields. What he didn’t foresee was that he’ddiscover a general model of learning that applied to all the fields he studied.Despite superficial differences in their upbringing and training, all the

extraordinary people in Bloom’s study had progressed through three distinctperiodsof development.WediscussedwhatBloomcalled the “earlyyears” inchapter6oninterestand“themiddleyears”inchapter7onpractice.We’venowcome to the third, final, and longest phase in Bloom’s model—the “lateryears”—when, as he put it, “the larger purpose andmeaning” ofwork finallybecomesapparent.

When I talk to grit paragons, and they tellme thatwhat they’re pursuing haspurpose, theymean somethingmuch deeper thanmere intention. They’re notjustgoal-oriented;thenatureoftheirgoalsisspecial.

When I probe, asking, “Canyou tellmemore?What doyoumean?” theresometimes follows an earnest, stumbling struggle to put how they feel intowords. But always—always—those next sentences mention other people.Sometimesit’sveryparticular(“mychildren,”“myclients,”“mystudents”)andsometimes quite abstract (“this country,” “the sport,” “science,” “society”).Howevertheysayit,themessageisthesame:thelongdaysandeveningsoftoil,thesetbacksanddisappointmentsandstruggle,thesacrifice—allthisisworthitbecause,ultimately,theireffortspaydividendstootherpeople.

Atitscore,theideaofpurposeistheideathatwhatwedomatterstopeopleotherthanourselves.

Aprecociousaltruist likeAlexScott isaneasy-to-fathomexampleofother-centeredpurpose.

SoisartactivistJaneGolden,thegritparagonwemetinchapter6.InterestinartledJanetobecomeamuralistinLosAngelesaftergraduatingfromcollege.Inherlatetwenties,Janewasdiagnosedwithlupusandtoldshedidn’thavelongto live. “The news came as such a shock,” she told me. “It gave me a newperspective on life.” When Jane recovered from the disease’s most acutesymptoms, she realized she would outlive the doctors’ initial predictions, butwithchronicpain.

Movingback to her hometownofPhiladelphia, she took over a small anti-graffitiprograminthemayor’sofficeand,overthenextthreedecades,grewitintooneofthelargestpublicartprogramsintheworld.

Nowinherlatefifties,Janecontinuestoworkfromearlymorningtolateintheevening,sixorsevendaysaweek.Onecolleaguelikensworkingwithhertorunning a campaign office the night before an election—except Election Daynevercomes.ForJane,thosehourstranslateintomoremuralsandprograms,andthat means more opportunities for people in the community to create andexperienceart.

WhenIaskedJaneaboutherlupus,sheadmitted,matter-of-factly,thatpainisa constant companion.Sheonce told a journalist: “There aremomentswhen Icry.IthinkIjustcan’tdoitanymore,pushthatboulderupthehill.Butfeelingsorryformyselfispointless,soIfindwaystogetenergized.”Why?Becauseherworkisinteresting?That’sonlythebeginningofJane’smotivation.“EverythingI do is in a spirit of service,” she told me. “I feel driven by it. It’s a moralimperative.”Puttingitmoresuccinctly,shesaid:“Artsaveslives.”

Othergritparagonshave top-levelgoals that arepurposeful in lessobviousways.

Renowned wine critic Antonio Galloni, for instance, told me: “Anappreciation for wine is something I’m passionate about sharing with otherpeople.WhenIwalkintoarestaurant,Iwanttoseeabeautifulbottleofwineoneverytable.”

Antonio says hismission is “to help people understand their own palates.”Whenthathappens,hesays,it’slikealightbulbgoesoff,andhewants“tomakeamillionlightbulbsgooff.”

So,whileinterestforAntoniocamefirst—hisparentsownedafoodandwineshopwhilehewasgrowingup,andhe“wasalwaysfascinatedbywine,evenatayoung age”—his passion is verymuch enhanced by the idea of helping otherpeople: “I’mnot abrain surgeon, I’mnot curingcancer.But in thisone smallway,IthinkI’mgoingtomaketheworldbetter.Iwakeupeverymorningwithasenseofpurpose.”

Inmy“gritlexicon,”therefore,purposemeans“theintentiontocontributetothewell-beingofothers.”

After hearing, repeatedly, from grit paragons how deeply connected they felttheir work was to other people, I decided to analyze that connection moreclosely. Sure, purposemight matter, but howmuch does it matter, relative tootherpriorities?Itseemedpossiblethatsingle-mindedfocusonatop-levelgoalis,infact,typicallymoreselfishthanselfless.

Aristotlewasamongthefirsttorecognizethatthereareatleasttwowaystopursue happiness. He called one “eudaimonic”—in harmony with one’s good(eu)innerspirit(daemon)—andtheother“hedonic”—aimedatpositive,in-the-moment,inherentlyself-centeredexperiences.Aristotleclearlytookasideontheissue, deeming the hedonic life primitive and vulgar, and upholding theeudaimoniclifeasnobleandpure.

But, in fact, both of these two approaches to happiness have very deepevolutionaryroots.

Ononehand,humanbeingsseekpleasurebecause,byand large, the thingsthat bring us pleasure are those that increase our chances of survival. If ourancestors hadn’t craved food and sex, for example, they wouldn’t have livedverylongorhadmanyoffspring.Tosomeextent,allofusare,asFreudputit,drivenbythe“pleasureprinciple.”

Ontheotherhand,humanbeingshaveevolvedtoseekmeaningandpurpose.In themost profoundway,we’re social creatures.Why?Because the drive toconnect with and serve others also promotes survival. How? Because peoplewhocooperatearemorelikelytosurvivethanloners.Societydependsonstableinterpersonalrelationships,andsocietyinsomanywayskeepsusfed,sheltersusfrom the elements, and protects us from enemies. The desire to connect is asbasicahumanneedasourappetiteforpleasure.

Tosomeextent,we’reallhardwiredtopursuebothhedonicandeudaimonichappiness.Buttherelativeweightwegivethesetwokindsofpursuitscanvary.Someofuscareaboutpurposemuchmorethanwecareaboutpleasure,andviceversa.

To probe the motivations that underlie grit, I recruited sixteen thousandAmericanadultsandasked them tocomplete theGritScale.Aspartofa longsupplementaryquestionnaire,studyparticipantsreadstatementsaboutpurpose—forinstance,“WhatIdomatterstosociety”—andindicatedtheextenttowhicheachappliedtothem.Theydidthesameforsixstatementsabouttheimportanceofpleasure—forinstance,“Forme, thegoodlife is thepleasurablelife.”Fromtheseresponses,wegeneratedscoresrangingfrom1to5fortheirorientationstopurposeandpleasure,respectively.

Below,I’veplottedthedatafromthislarge-scalestudy.Asyoucansee,grittypeople aren’t monks, nor are they hedonists. In terms of pleasure-seeking,they’re just like anyone else; pleasure ismoderately important nomatter howgrittyyouare.Insharpcontrast,youcanseethatgrittierpeoplearedramaticallymore motivated than others to seek a meaningful, other-centered life. HigherscoresonpurposecorrelatewithhigherscoresontheGritScale.

Thisisnottosaythatallgritparagonsaresaints,butrather,thatmostgrittypeople see their ultimate aims as deeply connected to the world beyondthemselves.

Myclaimhere is that, formostpeople,purpose isa tremendouslypowerfulsourceofmotivation.Theremaybeexceptions,buttherarityoftheseexceptionsprovestherule.

WhatamImissing?Well, it’s unlikely thatmy sample includedmany terrorists or serial killers.

Andit’struethatIhaven’tinterviewedpoliticaldespotsorMafiabosses.IguessyoucouldarguethatI’moverlookingawholepopulationofgritparagonswhosegoalsarepurelyselfishor,worse,directedatharmingothers.

On this point, I concede. Partly. In theory, you can be a misanthropic,misguided paragon of grit. Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler, for instance, weremostcertainlygritty.Theyalsoprovethattheideaofpurposecanbeperverted.How many millions of innocent people have perished at the hands ofdemagogues whose stated intention was to contribute to the well-being ofothers?

In other words, a genuinely positive, altruistic purpose is not an absoluterequirement of grit.And I have to admit that, yes, it is possible to be a grittyvillain.

But,onthewhole,ItakethesurveydataI’vegathered,andwhatparagonsofgrit tellme in person, at face value. So,while interest is crucial to sustainingpassionoverthelong-term,so,too,isthedesiretoconnectwithandhelpothers.

Myguess is that, if you take amoment to reflect on the times in your lifewhen you’ve really been at your best—when you’ve risen to the challengesbeforeyou,findingstrengthtodowhatmighthaveseemedimpossible—you’llrealizethatthegoalsyouachievedwereconnectedinsomeway,shape,orformtothebenefitofotherpeople.

In sum, theremaybe gritty villains in theworld, butmy research suggeststherearemanymoregrittyheroes.

Fortunate indeed are those who have a top-level goal so consequential to theworld that it imbueseverything theydo,nomatterhowsmallor tedious,withsignificance.Considertheparableofthebricklayers:

Threebricklayersareasked:“Whatareyoudoing?”Thefirstsays,“Iamlayingbricks.”Thesecondsays,“Iambuildingachurch.”Andthethirdsays,“IambuildingthehouseofGod.”Thefirstbricklayerhasajob.Thesecondhasacareer.Thethirdhasacalling.Manyofuswouldliketobelikethethirdbricklayer,butinsteadidentifywith

thefirstorsecond.YalemanagementprofessorAmyWrzesniewskihas found thatpeoplehave

notroubleatalltellingherwhichofthethreebricklayerstheyidentifywith.Inaboutequalnumbers,workersidentifythemselvesashaving:

a job (“I viewmy job as just a necessityof life,much likebreathingorsleeping”),

acareer(“Iviewmyjobprimarilyasastepping-stonetootherjobs”),oracalling(“Myworkisoneofthemostimportantthingsinmylife”).

UsingAmy’smeasures, I, too, have found that only aminority ofworkersconsider their occupations a calling. Not surprisingly, those who do aresignificantly grittier than those who feel that “job” or “career” more aptlydescribestheirwork.

Thosefortunatepeoplewhodoseetheirworkasacalling—asopposedtoajoboracareer—reliablysay“myworkmakestheworldabetterplace.”Andit’sthesepeoplewhoseemmostsatisfiedwiththeir jobsandtheir livesoverall.Inonestudy,adultswhofelttheirworkwasacallingmissedatleastathirdfewerdaysofworkthanthosewithajoboracareer.

Likewise,arecentsurveyof982zookeepers—whobelongtoaprofessioninwhich 80 percent ofworkers have college degrees and yet on average earn a

salary of $25,000—found that those who identified their work as a calling(“Working with animals feels like my calling in life”) also expressed a deepsense of purpose (“The work that I do makes the world a better place”).Zookeeperswithacallingwerealsomorewillingtosacrificeunpaidtime,afterhours, to care for sick animals. And it was zookeepers with a calling whoexpressedasenseofmoralduty(“Ihaveamoralobligationtogivemyanimalsthebestpossiblecare”).

I’llpointouttheobvious:there’snothing“wrong”withhavingnoprofessionalambition other than tomake an honest living.Butmost of us yearn formuchmore. This was the conclusion of journalist Studs Terkel, who in the 1970sinterviewedmorethanahundredworkingadultsinallsortsofprofessions.

Notsurprisingly,Terkelfoundthatonlyasmallminorityofworkersidentifiedtheir work as a calling. But it wasn’t for lack of wanting. All of us, Terkelconcluded,arelookingfor“dailymeaningaswellasdailybread...forasortofliferatherthanaMondaythroughFridaysortofdying.”

Thedespairof spending themajorityofourwakinghoursdoing somethingthat lackspurpose isvividlyembodied in the storyofNoraWatson, a twenty-eight-year-oldstaffwriter foran institutionpublishinghealth-care information:“Most of us are looking for a calling, not a job,” she told Terkel. “There’snothing I would enjoy more than a job that was so meaningful to me that Ibroughtithome.”Andyet,sheadmittedtodoingabouttwohoursofrealworkadayandspendingtherestofthetimepretendingtowork.“I’mtheonlypersoninthewholedamnbuildingwithadesk facing thewindow insteadof thedoor. IjustturnmyselfaroundfromallthatIcan.

“Idon’tthinkIhaveacalling—atthismoment—excepttobeme,”Norasaidtowardtheendofherinterview.“Butnobodypaysyouforbeingyou,soI’mattheInstitution—forthemoment....”

Inthecourseofhisresearch,Terkeldidmeeta“happyfewwhofindasavorintheirdailyjob.”Fromanoutsider’spointofview,thosewithacallingdidn’talways labor in professionsmore conducive to purpose thanNora.Onewas astonemason, another a bookbinder. A fifty-eight-year-old garbage collectornamed Roy Schmidt told Terkel that his job was exhausting, dirty, anddangerous.Heknewmostotheroccupations, includinghispreviousoffice job,wouldbeconsideredmoreattractivetomostpeople.Andyet,hesaid:“Idon’tlookdownonmyjobinanyway....It’smeaningfultosociety.”

ContrastNora’sclosingwordswiththeendingofRoy’sinterview:“Iwastoldastoryonetimebyadoctor.Yearsago,inFrance...ifyoudidn’tstandinfavor

withtheking,they’dgiveyouthelowestjob,ofcleaningthestreetsofParis—whichmust have been amess in those days. One lord goofed up somewherealongtheline,sotheyputhiminchargeofit.Andhedidsuchawonderfuljobthathewascommendedforit.TheworstjobintheFrenchkingdomandhewaspattedon thebackforwhathedid.Thatwas the first story Ieverheardaboutgarbagewhereitreallymeantsomething.”

In the parable of the bricklayers, everyone has the same occupation, but theirsubjective experience—how they themselves viewed their work—couldn’t bemoredifferent.

Likewise,Amy’sresearchsuggeststhatcallingshavelittletodowithformaljobdescriptions.Infact,shebelievesthatjustaboutanyoccupationcanbeajob,career, or calling. For instance, when she studied secretaries, she initiallyexpectedveryfewtoidentifytheirworkasacalling.Whenherdatacameback,shefoundthatsecretariesidentifiedthemselvesashavingajob,career,orcallingin equal numbers—just about the same proportion she’d identified in othersamples.

Amy’s conclusion is that it’s not that some kinds of occupations arenecessarilyjobsandothersarecareersandstillothersarecallings.Instead,whatmattersiswhetherthepersondoingtheworkbelievesthatlayingdownthenextbrickisjustsomethingthathastobedone,orinsteadsomethingthatwillleadtofurther personal success, or, finally, work that connects the individual tosomethingfargreaterthantheself.

Iagree.Howyouseeyourworkismoreimportantthanyourjobtitle.And thismeans that you can go from job to career to calling—allwithout

changingyouroccupation.“What do you tell people,” I recently askedAmy, “when they ask you for

advice?”“Alotofpeopleassumethatwhattheyneedtodois find theircalling,”she

said.“Ithinkalotofanxietycomesfromtheassumptionthatyourcallingislikeamagicalentitythatexistsintheworld,waitingtobediscovered.”

That’salsohowpeoplemistakenlythinkaboutinterests,Ipointedout.Theydon’trealizetheyneedtoplayanactiveroleindevelopinganddeepening theirinterests.

“A calling is not some fully formed thing that you find,” she tells adviceseekers.“It’smuchmoredynamic.Whateveryoudo—whetheryou’reajanitorortheCEO—youcancontinuallylookatwhatyoudoandaskhowitconnectsto

otherpeople,howitconnectstothebiggerpicture,howitcanbeanexpressionofyourdeepestvalues.”

Inotherwords,abricklayerwhoonedaysays,“Iamlayingbricks”mightatsomepointbecome thebricklayerwhorecognizes“Iambuilding thehouseofGod.”

Amy’s observation that the same individual in the same occupation can atdifferenttimesthinkofitasajob,career,orcallingbroughttomindJoeLeader.

Joe isaseniorvicepresidentatNYCTransit.Basically,he’s theNewYorkCity subway’s lead engineer. It’s a task of almost unimaginable proportions.Annually,morethan1.7billiontripsaretakenonthecity’ssubways,makingitthebusiestsubwaysystemintheUnitedStates.Thereare469stations.Laidendtoend,thetracksforthesubwaysystemwouldreachallthewaytoChicago.

Asayoungman,Leaderwasn’tlookingforacalling.Hewaslookingtopaybackstudentloans.

“WhenIwascomingoutofcollege,”he toldme,“mybiggestconcernwasjustgettingajob.Anyjob.Transitcametoourcampustorecruitengineers,andIgothired.”

Asanintern,Leaderwasassignedtoworkonthetracks.“Ithrewinrails,Iwaspullingties,Iwasdoingcableworkforthethirdrail.”

Noteveryonewouldfindthatworkinteresting,butJoedid.“Itwasfun.WhenIwasfirstonthe job,andallmybuddieswerebusinessorcomputerguys,weusedtogoout,andonthewayhomefromthebarsintheevening,theyusedtorunupanddownaplatformandsay,‘Joe,what’sthis,what’sthis?’Iusedtotellthem:that’sathird-railinsulator,that’saninsulatedjoint.Tome,itwasfun.”

So,interestwastheseedofhispassion.Joesoonendedupdoingalotofplanningwork,whichhealsoenjoyed.As

his interests and expertise deepened, and he started to distinguish himself, hebegantoseetransitengineeringasalong-termcareer.“Onmydaysoff,Iwentdowntothelaundromattodothelaundry.Youknowthosebigtablesforfoldingyour clothes? Well, all the women used to laugh because I’d bring myengineeringdrawingsand lay themoutandworkon them. I really fell in lovewiththatpartofthejob.”

Withinayear,Joesaidhebegantolookathisworkdifferently.Sometimes,he’dlookataboltorrivetandrealizethatsomefellowhadputthatindecadesago, and here it was, still in the same place, still making the trains run, stillhelpingpeopletogetwheretheyneededtobe.

“Ibegantofeel likeIwasmakingacontributiontosociety,”he toldme.“IunderstoodIwas responsible formovingpeopleeverysingleday.AndwhenIbecameaprojectmanager,Iwouldwalkawayfromthesebiginstallationjobs—youknow, a hundred panels or awhole interlocking [of signals]—and I knewthatwhatwe’ddonewasgoingtolastforthirtyyears.ThatwaswhenIfeltIhadavocation,orIwouldsay,acalling.”

TohearJoeLeadertalkabouthisworkmightmakeyouwonderif,afterayearofnot finding your work to be a calling, you should give up hope. Among herMBAstudents,AmyWrzesniewskifindsthatmanygivetheirjobonlyacoupleofyearsbeforeconcludingthatitcouldn’tpossiblybetheirlife’spassion.

ItmaycomfortyoutoknowthatittookMichaelBaimemuchlonger.Baimeisaprofessorofinternalmedicineat theUniversityofPennsylvania.

You might think his calling is to heal and to teach. That’s only partly right.Michael’s passion is well-being through mindfulness. It took him years tointegratehispersonalinterestinmindfulnesswiththeother-centeredpurposeofhelping people lead healthier, happier lives. Only when interest and purposemeldeddidhefeellikehewasdoingwhathe’dbeenputonthisplanettodo.

IaskedMichaelhowhegotinterestedinmindfulness,andhetookmeallthewayback tohisboyhood.“Iwas lookingupat thesky,”he toldme.“Andthestrangestthinghappened.IfeltlikeIwasactuallygettinglostinthesky.Ifeltitasasortofopening,likeIwasbecomingmuchlarger.ItwasthemostwonderfulexperienceI’veeverhad.”

Later, Michael found that he could make the same thing happen just bypayingattentiontohisownthoughts.“Ibecameobsessed,”hetoldme.“Ididn’tknowwhattocallit,butIwoulddoitallthetime.”

Several years later, Michael was browsing in a bookstore with his motherwhenhecameuponabookthatdescribedhisexperienceexactly.ThebookwasbyAlanWatts, aBritish philosopherwhowrote aboutmeditation forWesternaudienceslongbeforeitbecamefashionable.

With his parents’ encouragement, Michael took classes in meditationthroughouthighschoolandcollege.Asgraduationapproached,hehadtodecidewhattodonext.Professionalmeditatorwasnotanactualfull-timeoccupation.Hedecidedtobecomeadoctor.

Severalyearsintomedicalschool,Michaelconfessedtooneofhismeditationteachers,“Thisisn’treallywhatIwanttodo.Thisisn’trightforme.”Medicinewasimportant,butitdidn’tmatchupwithhisdeepestpersonalinterests.“Stay,”saidtheteacher.“You’llhelpmorepeopleifyoubecomeadoctor.”

Michaelstayed.After finishing his coursework,Michael says, “I didn’t really knowwhat I

wanted to do. To kind of tread water, I just signed up for the first year ofinternship.”

To his surprise, he enjoyed practicing medicine. “It was a fine way to behelpful to people. It wasn’t like medical school, which isn’t so much abouthelping people as cutting apart cadavers and memorizing the Krebs cycle.”Rapidly, he progressed from intern to fellow to running themedical clinic tobecomingtheassistantdirectorofresidencyand,finally,chiefofgeneralinternalmedicine.

Still,medicinewasn’tquitewhatMichaelwouldconsideracalling.“As Ipracticed, I realized that the thingmanyofmypatients reallyneeded

wasn’tanotherprescriptionorX-ray,butactuallywhatI’dbeendoingformyselfsinceIwasakid.Whatmanypatientsneededwastostopandbreatheandfullyconnectwiththeirlivedexperience.”

That realization led Michael to create a meditation class for patients withserious health conditions. That was in 1992. Since then, he’s expanded theprogramand,justthisyear,takenitonasafull-timeoccupation.Todate,aboutfifteenthousandpatients,nurses,andphysicianshavebeentrained.

Recently, I asked Michael to give a lecture on mindfulness for localschoolteachers.Onthedayofhistalk,hesteppeduptothepodiumandlookedintently at his audience. One by one, he made eye contact with each of theseventyeducatorswho’dgivenuptheirSundayafternoontohearwhathehadtosay.Therewasalongpause.

And then,with a smile I can only describe as radiant, he began: “I have acalling.”

Iwas twenty-onewhen I firstexperienced thepowerofapurposeful top-levelgoal.

Inthespringofmyjunioryearincollege,Iwenttothecareerservicescentertofindsomething todo thatsummer.Turning thepagesofanenormous three-ring binder labeled SUMMER PUBLIC SERVICE, I came across a program calledSummerbridge. The program was looking for college students to design andteachsummerenrichmentclassesformiddleschoolstudentsfromdisadvantagedbackgrounds.Teachingkidsforasummersoundslikeagoodidea,Ithought.Icouldteach

biologyandecology.I’llshowthemhowtomakeasolarovenoutoftinfoilandcardboard.We’llroasthotdogs.It’llbefun.

Ididn’tthink,Thisexperienceisgoingtochangeeverything.Ididn’tthink,Sure,you’repremednow,butnotforlong.Ididn’tthink,Holdontight—you’reabouttodiscoverthepowerofpurpose.Tobehonest,Ican’ttellyoumuchaboutthatsummer.Thedetailsescapeme.

IdoknowIwokelongbeforedawneachday,includingweekends,toprepareformyclasses. IdoknowIworked long into thenight. I rememberspecifickids,andcertainmoments.Butitwasn’tuntilIreturnedhomeandhadamomenttoreflect that I realized what had happened. I’d glimpsed the possibility that achild’sconnectionwithateachercanbelife-changing—forboth.

WhenIreturnedtocampusthatfall,Isoughtoutotherstudentswho’dtaughtatSummerbridgeprograms.Oneofthesestudents,PhilipKing,happenedtolivein the same dorm. Like me, he felt a palpable urgency to start anotherSummerbridgeprogram.Theideawastoocompelling.Wecouldn’tnottry.

Wehadnomoney,no ideahowtostartanonprofit,noconnections,and,inmycase,nothingbut skepticismandworry fromparents convinced thiswasacatastrophicallystupidwaytouseaHarvardeducation.

Philipand Ihadnothingand,yet,wehadexactlywhatweneeded.Wehadpurpose.

Asanyonewhohasstartedanorganizationfromscratchcantellyou,thereareamillion tasks, big and small, and no instructionmanual for any of them. IfPhilipandIweredoingsomethingthatwasmerelyinteresting,wecouldn’thavedoneitatall.Butbecausecreatingthisprogramwasinourminds—andinourhearts—sooverwhelminglyimportantforkids,itgaveusacourageandenergyneitherofushadeverknownbefore.

Becauseweweren’taskingforourselves,PhilipandIfoundthegumptiontoknock on the doors of just about every small business and restaurant inCambridge, asking for donations. We found the patience to sit in countlesswaiting rooms of powers-that-be.Wewaited andwaited, sometimes hours onend, until these authority figures had time to see us. Then we found thestubbornnesstokeepaskingandaskinguntilwesecuredwhatweneeded.

Andsoitwentforeverythingwehadtodo—becauseweweren’tdoingitforourselves,weweredoingitforagreatercause.

TwoweeksafterPhilipandIgraduated,weopenedthedoorstotheprogram.Thatsummer,sevenhighschoolandcollegestudentsdiscoveredwhatitwasliketobeateacher.Thirtyfifth-gradeboysandgirlsdiscoveredwhatitwasliketospend their summervacation learning, studying,workinghard, and—though itmayhaveseemedimpossiblebeforetheyactuallydidit—havingfunatthesametime.

That was more than twenty years ago. Now called Breakthrough GreaterBoston, the program has grown far beyond what Philip and I could haveimagined,providingtuition-free,year-roundacademicenrichmentforhundredsof students everyyear.Todate,more than a thousandyoungmen andwomenhave taught in the program,many ofwhom have gone on to pursue full-timecareersineducation.

Summerbridge ledme to pursue teaching. Teaching ledme to an enduringinterest in helping children do somuchmorewith their lives than theymighteverdreampossible.

Andyet...Forme,teachingwasn’tenough.Stillunfulfilledwasthelittlegirlinmewho

lovedscience,whowasfascinatedbyhumannature,who,whenshewassixteenandhadachancetotakeasummerenrichmentclass,picked—ofallthecoursesinthecatalog—psychology.

Writing this book made me realize that I’m someone who had an inklingabout my interests in adolescence, then some clarity about purpose in mytwenties,andfinally,inmythirties,theexperienceandexpertisetosaythatmytop-level, life-organizing goal is, and will be until my last breath: Usepsychologicalsciencetohelpkidsthrive.

OnereasonmydadwassoupsetaboutSummerbridge is thathe lovesme.Hethought Iwould sacrificemywelfare for thewell-being of other peoplewho,frankly,hedidn’tloveasmuchashisowndaughter.

Indeed,theconceptsofgritandpurposemight,inprinciple,seemtoconflict.How is it possible to staynarrowly focusedonyour own top-level goalwhilealso having the peripheral vision toworry about anyone else? If grit is abouthaving a pyramid of goals that all serve a single personal objective, how dootherpeoplefitintothepicture?

“Mostpeoplethinkself-orientedandother-orientedmotivationsareoppositeendsofacontinuum,”saysmycolleagueandWhartonprofessorAdamGrant.“Yet,I’veconsistentlyfoundthatthey’recompletelyindependent.Youcanhaveneither,andyoucanhaveboth.”Inotherwords,youcanwant tobea topdogand,atthesametime,bedriventohelpothers.

Adam’s research demonstrates that leaders and employees who keep bothpersonalandprosocialinterestsinminddobetterinthelongrunthanthosewhoare100percentselfishlymotivated.

For instance, Adam once asked municipal firefighters, “Why are youmotivatedtodoyourwork?”Hethentrackedtheirovertimehoursoverthenext

twomonths, expecting firefighterswhoweremoremotivated tohelpothers todemonstratethegreatestgrit.Butmanyofthosewhoweredriventohelpothersworkedfewerovertimehours.Why?

Asecondmotivationwasmissing:interestintheworkitself.Onlywhentheyenjoyed the work did the desire to help others result in more effort. In fact,firefighters who expressed prosocial motives (“Because I want to help othersthroughmywork”) and intrinsic interest in their work (“Because I enjoy it”)averagedmorethan50percentmoreovertimeperweekthanothers.

WhenAdamaskedthesamequestion—“Whyareyoumotivated todoyourwork?”—of 140 fund-raisers at a call center for a public university, he foundnearly identicalresults.Only thefund-raiserswhoexpressedstrongerprosocialmotivesandwhofoundtheworkintrinsicallyengagingmademorecallsand,inturn,raisedmoremoneyfortheuniversity.

DevelopmentalpsychologistsDavidYeagerandMattBundickfindthesamepatternof results inadolescents.Forexample, inonestudy,David interviewedaboutahundredadolescents,askingthemtotellhim,intheirownwords,whattheywantedtobewhentheygrewup,andwhy.

Sometalkedabouttheirfutureinpurelyself-orientedterms(“Iwanttobeafashiondesignerbecauseit’safunthingtodo....What’simportant...isthatyoureallyenjoy[yourcareer]”).

Othersonlymentionedother-orientedmotives(“Iwanttobeadoctor.Iwanttohelppeopleout...”).

And, finally, some adolescents mentioned both self- and other-orientedmotives: “If I was a marine biologist, I would push [to] keep everythingclean.. . .Iwouldpickacertainplaceandgohelpthatplaceout,likethefishandeverything....I’vealwayslovedhavingfishtanksandfishbecausetheygettoswimandit’s,like,free.It’slikeflyingunderwaterorsomething.”

Twoyearslater,youngpeoplewho’dmentionedbothself-andother-orientedmotives rated their schoolworkasmorepersonallymeaningful thanclassmateswho’dnamedeithermotivealone.

For many of the grit paragons I’ve interviewed, the road to a purposeful,interestingpassionwasunpredictable.

Aurora and Franco Fonte are Australian entrepreneurs whose facilitiesservicescompanyhas2,500employeesandgeneratesmorethan$130millioninannualrevenue.

Twenty-seven years ago,Aurora and Francowere newlymarried and deadbroke.Theygot the idea tostarta restaurantbutdidn’thaveenoughmoneyto

launch one. Instead, they began cleaning shopping malls and small officebuildings—notoutofanysenseofcalling,butbecauseitpaidthebills.

Soon enough, their career ambitions took a turn.They could see a brighterfutureinbuildingmaintenancethaninhospitality.Theybothworkedferociouslyhard, putting in eighty-hour weeks, sometimes with their infant children incarriers strapped across their chests, scrubbing the bathroom tiles in theircustomers’buildingsasiftheyweretheirown.

Throughalltheupsanddowns—andthereweremany—Francotoldme:“Wealwayspersevered.Wedidn’tgiveintoobstacles.Therewasnowayweregoingtoletourselvesfail.”

I confessed toAurora and Franco that it was hard forme to imagine howcleaning bathrooms—or even building a multimillion-dollar corporation thatcleansbathrooms—couldfeellikeacalling.

“It’s not about the cleaning,” Aurora explained, her voice tightening withemotion.“It’saboutbuildingsomething.It’saboutourclientsandsolvingtheirproblems.Mostofall,it’sabouttheincrediblepeopleweemploy—theyhavethebiggestsouls,andwefeelahugeresponsibilitytowardthem.”

AccordingtoStanforddevelopmentalpsychologistBillDamon,suchabeyond-the-self orientation can and should be deliberately cultivated.Now in the fifthdecade of his distinguished career, Bill studies how adolescents learn to leadlivesthatarepersonallygratifyingand,atthesametime,beneficialtothelargercommunity.Thestudyofpurpose,hesays,ishiscalling.

InBill’swords,purposeisafinalanswertothequestion“Why?Whyareyoudoingthis?”

WhathasBilllearnedabouttheoriginsofpurpose?“In data set after data set,” he toldme, “there’s a pattern. Everyone has a

spark.Andthat’stheverybeginningofpurpose.Thatsparkissomethingyou’reinterestedin.”

Next,youneed toobservesomeonewho ispurposeful.Thepurposeful rolemodelcouldbeafamilymember,ahistoricalfigure,apoliticalfigure.Itdoesn’treallymatterwhoitis,anditdoesn’tevenmatterwhetherthatpurposeisrelatedto what the child will end up doing. “What matters,” Bill explained, “is thatsomeone demonstrates that it’s possible to accomplish something on behalf ofothers.”

Infact,hecan’trememberasinglecaseinwhichthedevelopmentofpurposeunfoldedwithouttheearlierobservationofapurposefulrolemodel.“Ideally,”he

said, “the child really gets to see how difficult a life of purpose is—all thefrustrationsandtheobstacles—butalsohowgratifying,ultimately,itcanbe.”

Whatfollowsisarevelation,asBillputit.Thepersondiscoversaproblemintheworldthatneedssolving.Thisdiscoverycancomeinmanyways.Sometimesfrom personal loss or adversity. Sometimes from learning about the loss andadversityconfrontingothers.

But seeing that someoneneedsour help isn’t enough,Bill hastened to add.Purposerequiresasecondrevelation:“Ipersonallycanmakeadifference.”Thisconviction,thisintentiontotakeaction,hesays,iswhyit’ssoimportanttohaveobservedarolemodelenactpurposeintheirownlife.“Youhavetobelievethatyoureffortswillnotbeinvain.”

KatColeissomeonewhohadarolemodelforpurpose-drivengrit.ImetKatwhen shewas the thirty-five-year-old president of the Cinnabon

bakerychain.Ifyoulistentoherstorywithoutreflectingmuchonit,youmightdubit“ragstoriches,”butifyouleaninandpayattentionyou’llhearadifferenttheme:“frompovertytopurpose.”

KatgrewupinJacksonville,Florida.Hermother,Jo,workedupthecouragetoleaveKat’salcoholicfatherwhenKatwasnine.JoworkedthreejobstomakeenoughmoneytosupportKatandhertwosisters,andyetstillfoundtimetobeagiver. “She’d be baking for someone, running an errand for someone—sheintuitivelysaweverysmallopportunitytodosomethingforothers.Everyoneshegot to know, whether they were coworkers or just people in the community,becamefamilytoher.”

Kat emulated both her mother’s work ethic and her profound desire to behelpful.

BeforewegettoKat’smotivation,though,let’sconsiderherunlikelyascentupthecorporateladder.Kat’srésumébeginswithastint,atagefifteen,sellingclothesatthelocalmall.Ateighteen,shewasoldenoughtowaitress.Shegotajob as a “Hooters girl” and one year later was asked to help open the firstHooters restaurant inAustralia.Ditto forMexicoCity, theBahamas, and thenArgentina.Bytwenty-two,shewasrunningadepartmentoften.Bytwenty-six,shewasvicepresident.Asamemberoftheexecutiveteam,KathelpedexpandtheHootersfranchisetomorethanfourhundredsitesintwenty-eightcountries.Whenthecompanywasboughtbyaprivateequityfirm,Kat,atagethirty-two,had such an impressive track record that Cinnabon recruited her to be itspresident.UnderKat’swatch,Cinnabonsalesgrewfasterthantheyhadinmorethanadecade,andwithinfouryearsexceededonebilliondollars.

Nowlet’sconsiderwhatmakesKattick.One time early in Kat’s waitressing days at Hooters, the cooks quit in the

middleof their shift.“So,”she toldmematter-of-factly,“Iwentbackwith themanagerandhelpedcookthefoodsoallthetablesgotserved.”

Why?“First of all, Iwas survivingoff tips.That’show Ipaidmybills. If people

didn’tgettheirfood,theywouldn’tpaytheircheck,andtheycertainlywouldn’tleaveatip.Second,IwassocurioustoseeifIcoulddoit.Andthird,Iwantedtobehelpful.”

Tips and curiosity are pretty self-oriented motivations, but wanting to behelpful is,quite literally,other-oriented.Herewasanexampleofhowa singleaction—jumpingbehindthestovetomakefoodforallthosewaitingcustomers—benefitedtheindividualandthepeoplearoundher.

ThenextthingKatknew,shewastrainingkitchenemployeesandhelpingoutwith the back-office operations. “Then one day, the bartender needed to leaveearly,andthesamethinghappened.Anotherday,themanagerquit,andIlearnedhow to run a shift. In the course of sixmonths, I’d worked every job in thebuilding.NotonlydidIworkthosejobs,Ibecamethetrainer tohelpteachallthoserolestootherpeople.”

Jumping into the breach and being especially helpful wasn’t a calculatedmovetogetaheadinthecorporation.Nevertheless,thatbeyond-the-call-of-dutyperformanceledtoaninvitationtohelpopeninternationallocations,whichledtoacorporateexecutiveposition,andsoon.

Notsocoincidentally,it’sthesortofthinghermother,Jo,wouldhavedone.“Mypassionistohelppeople,”Jotoldme.“Nomatteratbusiness,orawayfrombusiness,ifyouneedsomebodytocomeoverandbuildsomething,orhelpoutinsomeway, I’mthatpersonwhowants tobe there foryou.Tome,anysuccessI’vehad,it’sbecauseIlovetoshare.There’snoreserveinme—whateverIhave,I’mwillingtogivetoyouoranyoneelse.”

Katattributesherphilosophytohermother,whoraisedher“toworkhardandgiveback.”Andthatethicstillguideshertoday.

“Gradually,IbecamemoreandmoreawarethatIwasverygoodatgoingintonewenvironmentsandhelpingpeoplerealizethey’recapableofmorethantheyknow.Iwasdiscoveringthatthiswasmything.AndIstartedtorealizethatifIcouldhelppeople—individuals—dothat,thenIcouldhelpteams.IfIcouldhelpteams,Icouldhelpcompanies.IfIcouldhelpcompanies,Icouldhelpbrands.IfIcouldhelpbrands,Icouldhelpcommunitiesandcountries.”

Not longago,Katpostedanessayonherblog, titled“SeeWhat’sPossible,andHelpOthersDo theSame.” “When I amaroundpeople,”Katwrote, “my

heartandsoulradiatewiththeawarenessthatIaminthepresenceofgreatness.Maybe greatness unfound, or greatness underdeveloped, but the potential orexistenceofgreatnessnevertheless.Youneverknowwhowillgoontodogoodorevengreat thingsorbecomethenextgreat influencerintheworld—sotreateveryoneliketheyarethatperson.”

Whatever your age, it’s never too early or late to begin cultivating a sense ofpurpose.Ihavethreerecommendations,eachborrowedfromoneofthepurposeresearchersmentionedinthischapter.

DavidYeagerrecommendsreflectingonhowtheworkyou’realreadydoingcanmakeapositivecontributiontosociety.

In several longitudinal experiments, David Yeager and his colleague DavePauneskuaskedhighschoolstudents,“Howcouldtheworldbeabetterplace?”andthenaskedthemtodrawconnectionstowhattheywerelearninginschool.Inresponse,oneninthgraderwrote,“Iwould like togeta jobassomesortofgenetic researcher. Iwoulduse this job tohelp improve theworldbypossiblyengineeringcropstoproducemorefood....”Anothersaid,“Ithinkthathavinganeducationallowsyoutounderstandtheworldaroundyou. . . . Iwillnotbeabletohelpanyonewithoutfirstgoingtoschool.”

This simple exercise, which took less than a class period to complete,dramatically energized student engagement. Compared to a placebo controlexercise, reflectingonpurpose led students todouble the amountof time theyspent studying for an upcoming exam,work harder on tediousmath problemswhen given the option towatch entertaining videos instead, and, inmath andscienceclasses,bringhomebetterreportcardgrades.

AmyWrzesniewskirecommendsthinkingabouthow,insmallbutmeaningfulways,youcanchangeyourcurrentworktoenhanceitsconnectiontoyourcorevalues.

Amycallsthisidea“jobcrafting,”andit’saninterventionshe’sbeenstudyingwithfellowpsychologistsJaneDutton,JustinBerg,andAdamGrant.Thisisnota Pollyanna, every-job-can-be-nirvana idea. It is, simply, the notion thatwhatever your occupation, you can maneuver within your job description—adding, delegating, and customizingwhat you do tomatch your interests andvalues.

Amy and her collaborators recently tested this idea at Google. Employeesworkinginpositionsthatdon’timmediatelybringthewordpurposetomind—insales, marketing, finance, operations, and accounting, for example—wererandomly assigned to a job-crafting workshop. They came up with their own

ideas for tweaking their daily routines, each employeemaking a personalized“map” for what would constitute more meaningful and enjoyable work. Sixweeks later, managers and coworkers rated the employees who attended thisworkshopassignificantlyhappierandmoreeffective.

Finally, Bill Damon recommends finding inspiration in a purposeful rolemodel.He’dlikeyoutorespondinwritingtosomeofthequestionsheusesinhis interview research, including, “Imagine yourself fifteen years from now.Whatdoyouthinkwillbemostimportanttoyouthen?”and“Canyouthinkofsomeonewhoselifeinspiresyoutobeabetterperson?Who?Why?”

WhenIcarriedoutBill’sexercise,Irealizedthatthepersoninmylifewho,more than anyone, has shownme the beauty of other-centered purpose ismymom.Sheis,withoutexaggeration,thekindestpersonI’veevermet.

Growingup,Ididn’talwaysappreciateMom’sgenerousspirit.Iresentedthestrangers who shared our table every Thanksgiving—not just distant relativeswho’d recently emigrated from China, but their roommates, and theirroommates’ friends. Pretty much anyone who didn’t have a place to go whohappenedtorunintomymominthemonthofNovemberwaswarmlywelcomedintoourhome.

Oneyear,MomgaveawaymybirthdaypresentsamonthafterI’dunwrappedthem, and another, she gave awaymy sister’s entire stuffed animal collection.We threw tantrumsandwept and accusedherofnot lovingus. “But there arechildrenwho need themmore,” she said, genuinely surprised at our reaction.“Youhavesomuch.Theyhavesolittle.”

When I told my father I wouldn’t be taking theMCAT exam for medicalschool and, instead, would devote myself to creating the Summerbridgeprogram, hewas apoplectic. “Why do you care about poor kids? They’re notfamily!Youdon’t evenknow them!” I now realizewhy.Allmy life, I’d seenwhatoneperson—mymother—coulddotohelpmanyothers.I’dwitnessedthepowerofpurpose.

Chapter9

HOPE

There’s an old Japanese saying:Fall seven, rise eight. If Iwere ever to get atattoo,I’dgetthesefoursimplewordsindeliblyinked.

Whatishope?Onekindofhopeistheexpectationthattomorrowwillbebetterthantoday.

It’sthekindofhopethathasusyearningforsunnierweather,orasmootherpathahead.Itcomeswithouttheburdenofresponsibility.Theonusisontheuniversetomakethingsbetter.

Gritdependsonadifferentkindofhope.Itrestsontheexpectationthatourowneffortscanimproveourfuture.Ihaveafeelingtomorrowwillbebetter isdifferent from I resolve tomake tomorrow better. The hope that gritty peoplehavehasnothingtodowithluckandeverythingtodowithgettingupagain.

Inthespringsemesterofmyfirstyearofcollege,Ienrolledinneurobiology.I would come to each class early and sit in the front row,where I’d copy

everyequationanddiagramintomynotebook.Outsideof lecture, Ididall theassignedreadingsandrequiredproblemsets.Going into the firstquiz, Iwasalittleshakyinafewareas—itwasatoughcourse,andmyhighschoolbiologycourseworkleftalottobedesired—butonthewholeIfeltprettyconfident.

Thequizstartedoutfinebutquicklybecamemoredifficult.Ibegantopanic,thinkingoverandover:I’mnotgoingtofinish!IhavenoideawhatI’mdoing!I’mgoing to fail!This,ofcourse,wasaself-fulfillingprophecy.Themoremymind was crowded by those heart-palpitating thoughts, the less I couldconcentrate.TimeranoutbeforeI’devenreadthelastproblem.

A few days later, the professor handed back the quiz. I looked downdisconsolately atmymiserable grade and, shortly thereafter, shuffled into theofficeofmyassigned teachingassistant. “Youshould reallyconsiderdropping

this course,” he advised. “You’re just a freshman.Youhave threemore years.Youcanalwaystaketheclasslater.”

“ItookAPBioinhighschool,”Icountered.“Howdidyoudo?”“IgotanA,butmy teacherdidn’t teachusmuch,which isprobablywhyI

didn’ttaketheactualAPexam.”ThisconfirmedhisintuitionthatIshoulddropthecourse.

Virtually the same scenario repeated itselfwith themidterm, forwhich I’dstudiedmadly,andafterwhich,Ifoundmyselfintheteachingassistant’sofficeonceagain.Thistimehistonewasmoreurgent.“Youdonotwantafailinggradeon your transcript. It’s not too late to withdraw from the course. If you do,nothingwillgetfactoredintoyourGPA.”

I thankedhimforhis timeandclosedthedoorbehindme.In thehallway,Isurprisedmyselfbynotcrying.Instead,Ireviewedthefactsofthesituation:twofailuresandonlyonemoreexam—thefinal—before theendof thesemester. Irealized I shouldhave startedout ina lower-level course, andnow,more thanhalfway through the semester, it was obvious my energetic studying wasn’tprovingsufficient.IfIstayed,therewasagoodchanceI’dchokeonthefinalandendupwithanFonmytranscript.IfIdroppedthecourse,I’dcutmylosses.

I curledmyhands into fists, clenchedmy jaw, andmarched directly to theregistrar’soffice.Atthatmoment,I’dresolvedtostayenrolledin—and,infact,majorin—neurobiology.

Lookingbackonthatpivotalday,IcanseethatI’dbeenknockeddown—or,more accurately, tripped on my own two feet and fell flat on my face.Regardless,itwasamomentwhenIcouldhavestayeddown.Icouldhavesaidtomyself:I’manidiot!NothingIdoisgoodenough!AndIcouldhavedroppedtheclass.

Instead,myself-talkwasdefiantlyhopeful:Iwon’tquit!Icanfigurethisout!Fortherestofthesemester,Inotonlytriedharder,ItriedthingsIhadn’tdone

before.Iwenttoeveryteachingassistants’officehours.Iaskedforextrawork.Ipracticeddoingthemostdifficultproblemsundertimepressure—mimickingtheconditionsunderwhichIneededtoproduceaflawlessperformance.Iknewmynervesweregoingtobeaproblematexamtime,soIresolvedtoattainalevelofmastery where nothing could surprise me. By the time the final exam camearound,IfeltlikeIcouldhavewrittenitmyself.

Iacedthefinal.MyoverallgradeinthecoursewasaB—thelowestgradeI’dgetinfouryears,but,ultimately,theonethatmademetheproudest.

LittledidIknowwhenIwasfounderinginmyneurobiologyclassthatIwasre-creatingtheconditionsofafamouspsychologyexperiment.

Let me wind back the clock to 1964. Two first-year psychology doctoralstudentsnamedMartySeligmanandSteveMaierareinawindowlesslaboratory,watchingacageddogreceiveelectricshockstoitsbackpaws.Theshockscomerandomly and without warning. If the dog does nothing, the shock lasts fiveseconds,butifthedogpushesitsnoseagainstapanelatthefrontofthecage,theshockendsearly.Inaseparatecage,anotherdogisreceivingthesameshocksatexactlythesameintervals,butthere’snopaneltopushon.Inotherwords,bothdogsget theexactsamedosageofshockat theexactsame times,butonly thefirstdogisincontrolofhowlongeachshocklasts.Aftersixty-fourshocks,bothdogs go back to their home cages, and new dogs are brought in for the sameprocedure.

Thenextday,onebyone,allthedogsareplacedinadifferentcagecalledashuttlebox.Inthemiddle,there’salowwall,justhighenoughthatthedogscanleap thebarrier if they try.Ahigh-pitched toneplays, heralding an impendingshock,whichcomes through the floorof thehalfof the shuttleboxwhere thedog is standing. Nearly all the dogs who had control over the shocks thepreviousdaylearntoleapthebarrier.Theyhearthetoneandjumpoverthewalltosafety.Incontrast,two-thirdsofthedogswhohadnocontrolovertheshocksthe previous day just lie down whimpering, passively waiting for thepunishmentstostop.

This seminal experimentproved for the first time that it isn’t suffering thatleadstohopelessness.It’ssufferingyouthinkyoucan’tcontrol.

Many years after deciding tomajor in the subject I was failing, I sat in agraduate student cubicle a fewdoorsdown fromMarty’soffice, readingaboutthisexperimentonlearnedhelplessness.Iquicklysawtheparallelstomyearlierexperience.Thefirstneurobiologyquizbroughtunexpectedpain.Istruggledtoimprovemy situation, but when themidterm came, I got shocked again. Theshuttle box was the rest of the semester. Would I conclude from my earlierexperiencethatIwashelplesstochangemysituation?Afterall,myimmediateexperiencesuggestedthattwodisastrousoutcomeswouldbefollowedbyathird.

Or would I be like the few dogs who, despite recent memories ofuncontrollablepain,heldfasttohope?WouldIconsidermyearliersufferingtobetheresultofparticularmistakesIcouldavoidinthefuture?WouldIexpandmyfocusbeyondtherecentpast,rememberingthemanytimesI’dshruggedofffailureandeventuallyprevailed?

As it turns out, I behaved like the one-third of dogs inMarty and Steve’sstudythatpersevered.Igotupagainandkeptfighting.

In thedecade following that1964experiment, additionalexperiments revealedthatsufferingwithoutcontrolreliablyproducessymptomsofclinicaldepression,including changes in appetite and physical activity, sleep problems, and poorconcentration.

WhenMartyandStevefirstproposedthatanimalsandpeoplecanlearnthatthey are helpless, their theory was considered downright absurd by fellowresearchers.Nobody at the time took seriously the possibility that dogs couldhave thoughts that then influenced their behavior. In fact, few psychologistsentertained the possibility that people had thoughts that influenced theirbehavior. Instead, the received wisdom was that all living animals simplyrespondmechanicallytopunishmentsandrewards.

After a mountain of data had accumulated, ruling out every conceivablealternativeexplanation,thescientificcommunitywas,atlonglast,convinced.

Having thoroughly plumbed the disastrous consequences of uncontrollablestressinthelaboratory,Martygrewmoreandmoreinterestedinwhatcouldbedoneaboutit.Hedecidedtoretrainasaclinicalpsychologist.Wisely,hechoseto do so under the wing of Aaron Beck, a psychiatrist and fellow pioneer inunderstandingtherootcausesandpracticalantidotesfordepression.

What followed was a vigorous exploration of the flip side of learnedhelplessness, whichMarty later dubbed learned optimism. The crucial insightthat seededMarty’s newwork was available from the very beginning:Whiletwo-thirdsof thedogs thathadexperienceduncontrollableshock latergaveuptryingtohelpthemselves,aboutathirdremainedresilient.Despitetheirearliertrauma,theykepttryingmaneuversthatwouldbringrelieffrompain.

ItwasthoseresilientdogsthatledMartytostudytheanalogousIwon’tquitresponse to adversity in people.Optimists,Marty soon discovered, are just aslikely to encounter bad events as pessimists. Where they diverge is in theirexplanations: optimists habitually search for temporary and specific causes oftheirsuffering,whereaspessimistsassumepermanentandpervasivecausesaretoblame.

Here’s an example from the test Marty and his students developed todistinguishoptimistsfrompessimists:Imagine:Youcan’tgetall theworkdonethat others expect of you. Now imagine onemajor cause for this event.Whatleapstomind?Afteryouread thathypotheticalscenario,youwritedownyourresponse,andthen,afteryou’reofferedmorescenarios,yourresponsesareratedforhowtemporary(versuspermanent)andhowspecific(versuspervasive)theyare.

Ifyou’reapessimist,youmightsay,Iscrewupeverything.Or: I’ma loser.These explanations are all permanent; there’s notmuch you can do to changethem.They’re alsopervasive; they’re likely to influence lotsof life situations,not just your job performance. Permanent and pervasive explanations foradversityturnminorcomplicationsintomajorcatastrophes.Theymakeitseemlogical to give up. If, on the other hand, you’re an optimist, youmight say, Imismanagedmytime.Or:Ididn’tworkefficientlybecauseofdistractions.Theseexplanations are all temporary and specific; their “fixability”motivatesyou tostartclearingthemawayasproblems.

Using this test,Martyconfirmed that,compared tooptimists,pessimistsaremore likely tosuffer fromdepressionandanxiety.What’smore,optimists farebetter indomainsnotdirectly related tomentalhealth.For instance,optimisticundergraduates tend to earn higher grades and are less likely to drop out ofschool. Optimistic young adults stay healthier throughout middle age and,ultimately, live longer than pessimists.Optimists aremore satisfiedwith theirmarriages. A one-year field study of MetLife insurance agents found thatoptimists are twice as likely to stay in their jobs, and that they sell about 25percentmore insurance than their pessimistic colleagues. Likewise, studies ofsalespeople in telecommunications, real estate, office products, car sales,banking,andotherindustrieshaveshownthatoptimistsoutsellpessimistsby20to40percent.

In one study, elite swimmers, many of whom were training for the U.S.Olympictrials,tookMarty’soptimismtest.Next,coachesaskedeachswimmertoswiminhisorherbesteventandthendeliberatelytoldeachswimmerthey’dswum just a little slower thanwas actually the case.Given the opportunity torepeat their event, optimists did at least as well as in their first attempt, butpessimistsperformedsubstantiallyworse.

Howdogritparagonsthinkaboutsetbacks?Overwhelmingly,I’vefoundthatthey explain events optimistically. Journalist Hester Lacey finds the samestriking pattern in her interviewswith remarkably creative people. “What hasbeen your greatest disappointment?” she asks each of them.Whether they’reartistsorentrepreneursorcommunityactivists,theirresponseisnearlyidentical.“Well, I don’t really think in terms of disappointment. I tend to think thateverything that happens is something I can learn from. I tend to think, ‘Wellokay,thatdidn’tgosowell,butIguessIwilljustcarryon.’ ”

Around the time Marty Seligman took his two-year hiatus from laboratoryresearch, his new mentor Aaron Beck was questioning his own training in

Freudian psychoanalysis. Like most psychiatrists at the time, Beck had beentaught that all forms of mental illness were rooted in unconscious childhoodconflicts.

Beck disagreed. He had the audacity to suggest that a psychiatrist couldactually talk directly to patients about what was bothering them, and that thepatients’ thoughts—their self-talk—could be the target of therapy. ThefoundationalinsightofBeck’snewapproachwasthatthesameobjectiveevent—losingajob,gettingintoanargumentwithacoworker,forgettingtocallafriend—can lead to very different subjective interpretations. And it is thoseinterpretations—ratherthantheobjectiveeventsthemselves—thatcangiverisetoourfeelingsandourbehavior.

Cognitive behavioral therapy—which aims to treat depression and otherpsychologicalmaladiesbyhelpingpatientsthinkmoreobjectivelyandbehaveinhealthier ways—has shown that, whatever our childhood sufferings, we cangenerally learn to observe our negative self-talk and change our maladaptivebehaviors.Aswithanyotherskill,wecanpracticeinterpretingwhathappenstousandrespondingasanoptimistwould.Cognitivebehavioraltherapyisnowawidely practiced psychotherapeutic treatment for depression, and has provenlonger-lastinginitseffectsthanantidepressantmedication.

AfewyearsafterI’dgottenatoeholdingritresearch,WendyKopp,thefounderandthenCEOofTeachForAmerica,cametovisitMarty.

Then still his graduate student, I was eager to join their meeting for tworeasons. First, Teach For America was sending hundreds of recent collegegraduates intodisadvantagedschooldistrictsacross thecountry.Frompersonalexperience,Iknewteachingtobeagrit-demandingprofession,nowheremoresothanintheurbanandruralclassroomswhereTFAteachersareassigned.Second,Wendywasherselfaparagonofgrit.Famously,she’dconceivedofTFAduringhersenioryearatPrincetonand,unlikesomanyidealistswhoeventuallygiveupontheirdream,she’dstuckwithit,startingfromnothingandcreatingoneofthelargest and most influential educational nonprofits in the country. “Relentlesspursuit”wasbothacorevalueofTFAandthephraseoftenusedbyfriendsandcoworkerstodescribeWendy’sleadershipstyle.

At thatmeeting, thethreeofusdevelopedahypothesis:Teacherswhohavean optimistic way of interpreting adversity have more grit than their morepessimisticcounterparts,andgrit,inturn,predictsbetterteaching.Forinstance,an optimistic teacher might keep looking for ways to help an uncooperativestudent,whereasapessimistmightassumetherewasnothingmoretobedone.

Totestwhether thatwastrue,wedecidedtomeasureoptimismandgritbeforeteacherssetfootintheclassroomand,ayearlater,seehoweffectivelyteachershadadvancedtheacademicprogressoftheirstudents.

That August, four hundred TFA teachers completed the Grit Scale and, inaddition, Marty’s questionnaire assessing their optimism. To the extent theythought of temporary and specific causes for bad events, and permanent andpervasivecausesofgoodevents,wecodedtheirresponsesasoptimistic.Totheextenttheydidthereverse,wecodedtheirresponsesaspessimistic.

In thesamesurvey,wemeasuredonemorething:happiness.Why?Foronething,therewasasmallbutgrowingbodyofscientificevidencethathappinesswasn’t just the consequence of performing well at work, it might also be animportantcause.Also,wewerecuriousabouthowhappy thegrittiest teacherswere.Didsingle-mindedpassionandperseverancecomeatacost?Orcouldyoubegrittyandhappyatthesametime?

Oneyear later,whenTeachForAmericahad tabulatedeffectiveness ratingsforeachteacherbasedontheacademicgainsoftheirstudents,weanalyzedourdata. Just aswe’d expected, optimistic teacherswere grittier and happier, andgritandhappinessinturnexplainedwhyoptimisticteachersgottheirstudentstoachievemoreduringtheschoolyear.

Afterstaringattheseresultsforawhile,Ibeganreminiscingaboutmyownexperienceofclassroomteaching. I remembered themanyafternoons I’dgonehome exasperated and exhausted. I remembered battling catastrophic self-talkabout my own capabilities—Oh god, I really am an idiot!—and those of myyoung charges—She got it wrong again? She’ll never learn this! And IrememberedthemorningsI’dgottenupanddecided,afterall,thattherewasonemore tactic worth trying:Maybe if I bring in a Hershey bar and cut it intopieces,they’llgettheideaoffractions.MaybeifIhaveeveryonecleanouttheirlockersonMondays,they’llgetinthehabitofkeepingtheirlockersclean.

The data from this study of young teachers, along with Wendy Kopp’sintuitions, interviews with grit paragons, and a half century of psychologicalresearch all point to the same, commonsense conclusion: When you keepsearchingforwaystochangeyoursituationforthebetter,youstandachanceoffinding them. When you stop searching, assuming they can’t be found, youguaranteetheywon’t.

OrasHenryFordisoftenquotedassaying,“Whetheryouthinkyoucan,orthinkyoucan’t—you’reright.”

AroundthetimeMartySeligmanandSteveMaierwerelinkinghopelessnesstoalackofperceivedcontrol,ayoungpsychologymajornamedCarolDweckwasmaking her way through college. Carol had always been intrigued that somepeople persevere while others in identical circumstances give up. Right aftergraduation, sheenrolled inadoctoralprogram inpsychologyandpursued thisquestion.

Marty and Steve’s work had a profound influence on young Carol. Shebelieved their findings but was unsatisfied. Sure, attributing your misery tocauses beyond your control was debilitating, but where did these attributionscomefrominthefirstplace?Why,sheasked,didonepersongrowuptobeanoptimistandanotherapessimist?

In one of Carol’s first studies, sheworkedwithmiddle schools to identifyboysandgirlswho,byconsensusoftheirteachers,theschoolprincipal,andtheschoolpsychologist,wereespecially“helpless”whenconfrontedbyfailure.Herhunchwas that these childrenbelieved that a lackof intellectual ability led tomistakes,ratherthanalackofeffort.Inotherwords,shesuspecteditwasn’tjustalongstringoffailuresthatmadethesechildrenpessimistic,butrathertheircorebeliefsaboutsuccessandlearning.

Totestheridea,Caroldividedthechildrenintotwogroups.Halfthechildrenwereassigned toasuccessonlyprogram.Forseveralweeks, theysolvedmathproblemsand,attheendofeachsession,nomatterhowmanythey’dcompleted,they received praise for doing well. The other half of the children in Carol’sstudywere assigned to anattribution retraining program. These children alsosolvedmathproblems,butwereoccasionallytoldthattheyhadn’tsolvedenoughproblems during that particular session and, crucially, that they “should havetriedharder.”

Afterward, all the children were given a combination of easy and verydifficultproblemstodo.

Carolreasonedthat,ifpriorfailuresweretherootcauseofhelplessness,thesuccess only programwould boost motivation. If, on the other hand, the realproblem was how children interpreted their failures, then the attributionretrainingprogramwouldbemoreeffective.

WhatCarol found is that the children in the successonly programgave upjust as easily after encountering very difficult problems as they had beforetraining. In sharp contrast, children in theattributionretraining program triedharder after encountering difficulty. It seems as though they’d learned tointerpretfailureasacuetotryharderratherthanasconfirmationthattheylackedtheabilitytosucceed.

Overthenextfourdecades,Carolprobeddeeper.She soon discovered that people of all ages carry around in their minds

privatetheoriesabouthowtheworldworks.ThesepointsofviewareconsciousinthatifCarolasksyouquestionsaboutthem,youhaveareadyanswer.Butlikethethoughtsyouworkonwhenyougotoacognitivebehavioraltherapist,youmaynotbeawareofthemuntilyou’reasked.

HerearefourstatementsCarolusestoassessaperson’stheoryofintelligence.Readthemnowandconsiderhowmuchyouagreeordisagreewitheach:

Yourintelligenceissomethingverybasicaboutyouthatyoucan’tchangeverymuch.

Youcanlearnnewthings,butyoucan’treallychangehowintelligentyouare.

Nomatterhowmuchintelligenceyouhave,youcanalwayschangeitquiteabit.

Youcanalwayssubstantiallychangehowintelligentyouare.

If you found yourself nodding affirmatively to the first two statements butshakingyourheadindisagreementwiththelasttwo,thenCarolwouldsayyouhavemoreofafixedmindset.Ifyouhadtheoppositereaction,thenCarolwouldsayyoutendtowardagrowthmindset.

Iliketothinkofagrowthmindsetthisway:Someofusbelieve,deepdown,that people really can change. These growth-oriented people assume that it’spossible,forexample,togetsmarterifyou’regiventherightopportunitiesandsupportandifyoutryhardenoughandifyoubelieveyoucandoit.Conversely,some people think you can learn skills, like how to ride a bike or do a salespitch, but your capacity to learn skills—your talent—can’t be trained. Theproblem with holding the latter fixed-mindset view—and many people whoconsiderthemselvestalenteddo—isthatnoroadiswithoutbumps.Eventually,you’re going to hit one. At that point, having a fixed mind-set becomes atremendous liability. This is when a C–, a rejection letter, a disappointingprogress review at work, or any other setback can derail you. With a fixedmindset,you’relikelytointerpretthesesetbacksasevidencethat,afterall,youdon’thave“the right stuff”—you’renotgoodenough.Withagrowthmindset,youbelieveyoucanlearntodobetter.

Mindsetshavebeenshowntomakeadifferenceinallthesamelifedomainsasoptimism.Forinstance,ifyouhaveagrowthmindset,you’remorelikelytodowellinschool,enjoybetteremotionalandphysicalhealth,andhavestronger,morepositivesocialrelationshipswithotherpeople.

A few years ago, Carol and I asked more than two thousand high schoolseniors tocompleteagrowth-mindsetquestionnaire.We’vefoundthatstudents

with a growth mindset are significantly grittier than students with a fixedmindset.What’smore,grittierstudentsearnhigherreportcardgradesand,aftergraduation, aremore likely to enroll in and persist through college. I’ve sincemeasuredgrowthmindsetandgritinbothyoungerchildrenandolderadults,andineverysample,I’vefoundthatgrowthmindsetandgritgotogether.

When you ask Carol where ourmindsets come from, she’ll point to people’spersonal histories of success and failure and how the people around them,particularlythoseinapositionofauthority,haverespondedtotheseoutcomes.

Consider, for example, what people said to you when, as a child, you didsomethingreallywell.Wereyoupraisedforyourtalent?Orwereyoupraisedforyour effort? Either way, chances are you use the same language today whenevaluatingvictoriesanddefeats.

Praising effort and learning over “natural talent” is an explicit target ofteacher training in theKIPPschools.KIPPstandsfor theKnowledgeIsPowerProgram, and it was started in 1994 byMike Feinberg and Dave Levin, twogritty young Teach For America teachers. Today, KIPP schools serve seventythousandelementary,middle, andhighschool studentsacross thecountry.ThevastmajorityofKIPPsters,astheyproudlyrefertothemselves,comefromlow-income families. Against the odds, almost all graduate from high school, andmorethan80percentgoontocollege.

KIPP teachers get a little thesaurus during training. On one side, there areencouragementsteachersoftenusewiththebestofintentions.Ontheother,thereislanguagethatsubtlysendsthemessagethatlifeisaboutchallengingyourselfand learning to do what you couldn’t do before. See below for examplesappropriateforpeopleofanyage.Whetheryou’reaparent,manager,coach,oranyothertypeofmentor,Isuggestyouobserveyourownlanguageoverthenextfewdays,listeningforthebeliefsyourwordsmaybereinforcinginyourselfandothers.

UnderminesGrowthMindsetandGrit PromotesGrowthMindsetandGrit

“You’reanatural!Ilovethat.” “You’realearner!Ilovethat.”

“Well,atleastyoutried!” “Thatdidn’twork.Let’stalkabouthowyouapproacheditandwhatmightworkbetter.”

“Greatjob!You’resotalented!” “Greatjob!What’sonethingthatcouldhavebeenevenbetter?”

“Thisishard.Don’tfeelbadifyoucan’tdoit.” “Thisishard.Don’tfeelbadifyoucan’tdoityet.”

“Maybethisjustisn’tyourstrength.Don’tworry—youhaveotherthingstocontribute.”I

“Ihavehighstandards.I’mholdingyoutothembecauseIknowwecanreachthemtogether.”

Language is one way to cultivate hope. But modeling a growth mindset—demonstratingbyouractions thatwe trulybelievepeoplecan learn to learn—maybeevenmoreimportant.

AuthorandactivistJamesBaldwinonceputitthisway:“Childrenhaveneverbeenverygoodatlisteningtotheirelders,buttheyhaveneverfailedtoimitatethem.”ThisisoneofDaveLevin’sfavoritequotes,andI’vewatchedhimbeginmanyKIPPtrainingworkshopswithit.

Apsychologist inmylab,DaeunPark, recentlyfoundthis tobeexactly thecase. Inayearlongstudyoffirst-andsecond-gradeclassrooms,shefoundthatteachers who gave special privileges to higher-performing students andemphasized how they compared to others inadvertently inculcated a fixedmindsetamongtheyoungstudents.Overtheyear,studentsofteacherswhoactedthiswaygrewtoprefergamesandproblemsthatwereeasy,“soyoucangetalotright.”Byyear’send,theyweremorelikelytoagreethat“apersonisacertainamountsmart,andstaysprettymuchthesame.”

Similarly,Carolandhercollaboratorsarefindingthatchildrendevelopmoreofafixedmindsetwhentheirparentsreacttomistakesasthoughthey’reharmfulandproblematic.This is trueevenwhen theseparents say theyhave a growthmindset.Ourchildrenarewatchingus,andthey’reimitatingwhatwedo.

Thesamedynamicsapplyinacorporatesetting.BerkeleyprofessorJenniferChatman and her collaborators recently surveyed employees of Fortune 1000companiesaboutmindset,motivation,andwell-being.Theyfoundthat,ineachcompany, there was a consensus about mindset. In fixed-mindset companies,employeesagreedwithstatementslike“Whenitcomestobeingsuccessful,thiscompanyseemstobelievethatpeoplehaveacertainamountoftalent,andtheyreallycan’tdomuchtochangeit.”Theyfeltthatonlyafewstarperformerswerehighlyvalued and that the companywasn’t truly invested inother employees’development. These respondents also admitted to keeping secrets, cuttingcorners, and cheating to get ahead. By contrast, in growth-mindset cultures,employeeswere47percentmorelikelytosaytheircolleaguesweretrustworthy,

49percentmorelikelytosaytheircompanyfostersinnovation,and65percentmorelikelytosaytheircompanysupportsrisktaking.

Howdoyou treathighachievers?Howdoyoureactwhenothersdisappointyou?

My guess is that no matter how much you embrace the idea of growthmindset,youoftendefaulttoafixedmindset.Atleast,thisisthecaseforCarol,Marty,andme.Allofusknowhowwe’dliketoreactwhen,say,someonewe’resupervisingbringsusworkthatfallsshortofexpectations.We’dlikeourknee-jerkreflextobecalmandencouraging.WeaspiretohaveanOkay,whatistheretolearnhere?attitudetowardmistakes.

Butwe’rehuman.So,moreoftenthanwe’dlike,wegetfrustrated.Weshowourimpatience.Injudgingtheperson’sabilities,weallowaflickerofdoubttodistractusmomentarilyfromthemoreimportanttaskofwhattheycoulddonexttoimprove.

Therealityisthatmostpeoplehaveaninnerfixed-mindsetpessimistinthemright alongside their inner growth-mindset optimist. Recognizing this isimportant because it’s easy to make the mistake of changing what we saywithoutchangingourbodylanguage,facialexpressions,andbehavior.

Sowhatshouldwedo?Agoodfirststepistowatchformismatchesbetweenour words and actions. When we slip up—and we will—we can simplyacknowledgethat it’shardtomoveawayfromafixed,pessimisticviewof theworld. One of Carol’s colleagues, Susan Mackie, works with CEOs andencourages them to give names to their inner fixed-mindset characters. Thenthey can say things like “Oops. I guess I brought Controlling Claire to themeetingtoday.Letmetrythatagain.”Or:“OverwhelmedOliviaisstrugglingtodealwithallthecompetingdemands,canyouhelpmethinkthisthrough?”

Ultimately,adoptingagrittyperspectiveinvolvesrecognizingthatpeoplegetbetteratthings—theygrow.Justaswewanttocultivatetheabilitytogetupoffthefloorwhenlifehasknockedusdown,wewant togive thosearoundus thebenefitofthedoubtwhensomethingthey’vetriedisn’taragingsuccess.There’salwaystomorrow.

IrecentlycalledBillMcNabbforhisperspective.Since2008,BillhasservedastheCEOofVanguard,theworld’slargestproviderofmutualfunds.

“We’veactuallytrackedseniorleadershereatVanguardandaskedwhysomedidbetter in the longrun thanothers. Iused touse theword‘complacency’ todescribe theoneswhodidn’tworkout,but themoreI reflecton it, themoreI

realize that’s not quite it. It’s really a belief that ‘I can’t learn anymore. I amwhatIam.ThisishowIdothings.’ ”

Andwhataboutexecutiveswhoultimatelyexcelled?“The people who have continued to be successful here have stayed on a

growth trajectory. They just keep surprising you with how much they’regrowing.We’vehadpeoplewho,ifyoulookedattheirrésumécomingin,you’dsay, ‘Wow, how did that person end up so successful?’ And we’ve had otherpeople come in with incredible credentials, and you’re wondering, ‘Why didtheynotgofurther?’ ”

WhenBilldiscoveredtheresearchongrowthmindsetandgrit, itconfirmedhisintuitions—notjustasacorporateleaderbutasafather,formerhighschoolLatin teacher, rowing coach, and athlete. “I really do think people developtheoriesaboutthemselvesandtheworld,anditdetermineswhattheydo.”

Whenwegottothequestionofwhere,exactly,anyofusbeginformulatingthesetheories,Billsaid,“Believeitornot,Iactuallystartedoutwithmoreofafixedmindset.”Hechalksup thatmindset,partly, tohisparentsenrollinghim,while he was still in elementary school, in a research study at a nearbyuniversity.Herememberstakingawholebatteryofintelligencetestsand,attheend, being told, “You did really well, and you’re going to do really well inschool.”

For awhile, an authoritative diagnosis of talent, in combinationwith earlysuccess,boostedhisconfidence:“Itookgreatprideinfinishingtestsfasterthananyoneelse.Ididn’talwaysgetonehundredpercent,butIusuallycameclose,andItookgreatpleasureinnotworkingthathardtoachievewhatIdid.”

Bill attributes his switch to a growth mindset to joining the crew team incollege.“I’dneverrowedbefore,butIfoundIlikedbeingonthewater.Ilikedbeingoutside.Ilikedtheexercise.Isortoffellinlovewiththesport.”

RowingwasthefirstthingBillwantedtodowellthatdidn’tcomeeasily:“Iwasnotanatural,”hetoldme.“Ihadalotoffailuresearlyon.ButIkeptgoing,and then eventually, I startedgettingbetter.Suddenly, it began tomake sense:‘Putyourheaddownandgohard.Hardworkreally,reallymatters.’ ”Bytheendofhisfreshmanseason,Billwasinthejuniorvarsityboat.Thatdidn’tsoundsobad tome, butBill explained that, statistically, this placement suggested therewasnochanceofevermakingvarsity.Thatsummer,hestayedoncampusandrowedallsummer.

Allthatpracticepaidoff.Billwaspromotedtothe“strokeseat”ofthejuniorvarsityboat,makinghimtheonewhosetsthepacefortheothersevenrowers.During the season, one of the varsity rowers was injured, and Bill had theopportunity to show what he could do. By his account, and also the team

captain’s, he did terrificallywell. Still, when the injured rower recovered, thecoachdemotedBillagain.

“Thatcoachhadafixedmindset—hejustcouldn’tbelievethatI’dimprovedasmuchasIdid.”

There were more ups and downs, but Bill’s growth mindset kept gettingaffirmed.“BecauseI’dcomesodamnclosetoquittingandyethunginthere,andbecausethingseventuallydidworkout,IlearnedalessonI’dneverforget.Thelesson was that, when you have setbacks and failures, you can’t overreact tothem.Youneedtostepback,analyzethem,andlearnfromthem.Butyoualsoneedtostayoptimistic.”

How did that lesson help Bill later in life? “There have been times inmycareerwhereIfeltdiscouraged.I’dwatchsomeoneelsegetpromotedbeforeme.I’dwantthingstogoacertainway,andthey’dgotheopposite.Atthosepoints,I’d say tomyself, ‘Just keepworking hard and learning, and it will all workout.’ ”

“What doesn’t killmemakesme stronger,”Nietzsche once said.KanyeWestand Kelly Clarkson echo the same sentiment, and there’s a reason we keeprepeatingit.Manyofuscanrememberatimewhen,likeBillMcNabb,wewereconfrontedwithchallengeandyetemergedontheothersidemoreconfidentthanwhenwebegan.

Consider,forexample,theOutwardBoundprogram,whichsendsadolescentsoradultsintothewildernesswithexperiencedleaders,usuallyforafewweeks.Fromitsinceptionahalfcenturyago,thepremiseofOutwardBound—sonamedfor the moment a ship leaves harbor for the open seas—has been thatchallenging outdoor situations develop “tenacity in pursuit” and “undefeatablespirit.”Infact,acrossdozensofstudies,theprogramhasbeenshowntoincreaseindependence,confidence,assertiveness,andthebeliefthatwhathappensinlifeislargelyunderyourcontrol.What’smore,thesebenefitstendtoincrease,ratherthandiminish,inthesixmonthsfollowingparticipationintheprogram.

All the same, it’s undeniable thatwhat doesn’t kill us sometimesmakes usweaker.Considerthedogswhowereshockedrepeatedlywithnocontrol.Athirdofthedogswereresilienttothisadversity,buttherewasnoevidencethatanyofthedogsintheuncontrollablestressconditionbenefitedfromtheexperienceinanyway.Onthecontrary,mostweremuchmorevulnerable tosuffering in theimmediateaftermath.

So,itappearsthatsometimeswhatdoesn’tkillyoumakesyoustronger,andsometimes it does the opposite. The urgent question becomes: When? When

doesstruggleleadtohope,andwhendoesstruggleleadtohopelessness?Afewyearsago,SteveMaierandhisstudentsdesignedanexperimentnearly

identical to the one he andMartySeligmanhad conducted forty years earlier:Onegroupofratsreceivedelectricshocks,butiftheyturnedasmallwheelwiththeirfrontpaws,theycouldturnofftheshockuntilthenexttrial.Asecondgroupreceived the exact samedoseof electric shocksas the first buthadnocontrolovertheirduration.

One crucial differencewas that, in the new experiment, the ratswere onlyfiveweeksold—that’sadolescenceintheratlifecycle.Aseconddifferencewasthattheeffectsofthisexperiencewereassessedfiveweekslater,whentheratswere fullymature adults.At that point, both groups of ratswere subjected touncontrollableelectricshocksand,thenextday,observedinasocialexplorationtest.

Here’swhatStevelearned.Adolescentratswhoexperiencedstresstheycouldnotcontrolgrewuptobeadultratswho,afterbeingsubjectedtouncontrollableshocksasecondtime,behavedtimidly.Thiswasnotunusual—theylearnedtobehelpless in the sameway that anyother ratwould. In contrast, adolescent ratswhoexperiencedstresstheycouldcontrolgrewuptobemoreadventurousand,most astounding, appeared to be inoculated against learned helplessness inadulthood. That’s right—when these “resilient rats” grew up, the usualuncontrollableshockproceduresnolongermadethemhelpless.

Inotherwords,whatdidn’tkilltheyoungrats,whenbytheirowneffortstheycouldcontrolwhatwashappening,madethemstrongerforlife.

WhenIlearnedaboutSteveMaier’snewexperimentalwork,Ijusthadtotalktohiminperson.IgotonaplanetoColorado.

Steve walked me around his laboratory and showed me the special cagesequippedwithlittlewheelsthat,whenturned,cutoffthecurrenttotheelectricshock. Afterward, the graduate student who ran the experiment on adolescentrats thatI justdescribedgaveatalkonthebraincircuitsandneurotransmittersinvolved.Finally,whenSteveandI satdown together, Iaskedhim toexplain,fromthisexperimentandeverythingelsehe’ddoneinhislonganddistinguishedcareer,theneurobiologyofhope.

Stevethoughtforamoment.“Here’sthedealinafewsentences.You’vegotlots of places in the brain that respond to aversive experiences. Like theamygdala. In fact, there are a whole bunch of limbic areas that respond tostress.”

Inodded.

“Nowwhat happens is that these limbic structures are regulated by higher-orderbrainareas,liketheprefrontalcortex.Andso,ifyouhaveanappraisal,athought,abelief—whateveryouwanttocallit—thatsays,‘Waitaminute,Icandosomethingabout this!’or ‘This really isn’t sobad!’orwhatever, then theseinhibitorystructures in thecortexareactivated.Theysendamessage: ‘Cool itdownthere!Don’tgetsoactivated.There’ssomethingwecando.’ ”

Igotit.ButIstilldidn’tunderstand,fully,whyStevehadgonetothetroubleofexperimentingwithadolescentrats.

“Thelong-termstoryneedssomemoreexplanation,”hecontinued.“Wethinkthereisplasticityinthatcircuitry.Ifyouexperienceadversity—somethingprettypotent—that you overcome on your own during your youth, you develop adifferentwayofdealingwithadversitylateron.It’simportantthattheadversitybeprettypotent.Becausethesebrainareasreallyhavetowiretogetherinsomefashion,andthatdoesn’thappenwithjustminorinconveniences.”

Soyoucan’tjusttalksomeoneintobelievingtheycanmasterchallenges?“That’s right. Just telling somebody they can overcome adversity isn’t

enough.Fortherewiringtohappen,youhavetoactivatethecontrolcircuitryatthe same time as those low-level areas. That happens when you experiencemasteryatthesametimeasadversity.”

Andwhataboutalifehistoryofchallengewithoutcontrol?“Iworry a lot about kids in poverty,” Steve said. “They’re getting a lot of

helplessness experiences. They’re not getting enough mastery experiences.They’renotlearning:‘Icandothis.Icansucceedinthat.’Myspeculationisthatthoseearlierexperiencescanhavereallyenduringeffects.Youneedtolearnthatthere’s a contingency between your actions andwhat happens to you: ‘If I dosomething,thensomethingwillhappen.’ ”

Thescientificresearchisveryclearthatexperiencingtraumawithoutcontrolcanbedebilitating.ButIalsoworryaboutpeoplewhocruisethroughlife,friction-free,foralong,longtimebeforeencounteringtheirfirstrealfailure.Theyhavesolittlepracticefallingandgettingupagain.Theyhavesomanyreasonstostickwithafixedmindset.

Iseealotofinvisiblyvulnerablehigh-achieversstumbleinyoungadulthoodandstruggletogetupagain.Icallthemthe“fragileperfects.”SometimesImeetfragileperfectsinmyofficeafteramidtermorafinal.Veryquickly,itbecomesclearthatthesebrightandwonderfulpeopleknowhowtosucceedbutnothowtofail.

Lastyear,IkeptintouchwithafreshmanatPennnamedKayvonAsemani.Kayvonhasthesortofrésuméthatmightmakeyouworryhe’safragileperfect:valedictorianofhishighschoolclass,studentbodypresident,starathlete...thelistgoeson.

ButIassureyouthatKayvonistheveryembodimentofgrowthmindsetandoptimism.WemetwhenhewasaseniorattheMiltonHersheySchool,atuition-free boarding school originally established by chocolatierMilton Hershey fororphanboysand,tothisday,ahavenforchildrenfromseverelydisadvantagedbackgrounds.KayvonandhissiblingsendedupatHersheyjustbeforeKayvonenteredthefifthgrade—oneyearafterhisfathernearlystrangledhismothertodeath,leavingherinapermanentcoma.

AtHershey,Kayvonthrived.Hediscoveredapassionformusic,playingthetromboneintwoschoolbands.Andhediscoveredleadership,givingspeechestostate politicians, creating a student-run school news website, chairingcommitteesthatraisedtensofthousandsofdollarsforcharity,andinhissenioryear,servingasstudentbodypresident.

InJanuary,Kayvonemailedtoletmeknowhowhisfirstsemesterhadgone.“Ifinished thefirstsemesterwitha3.5,”hewrote.“ThreeA’sandoneC.I’mnotcompletelysatisfiedwithit.IknowwhatIdidrighttogettheA’sandIknowwhatIdidwrongtogettheC.”

Asforhispoorestgrade?“ThatC inEconomicscaughtup tomebecauseIwas in a hole frommy conflicted thoughts about this place andwhether I fitin....Icandefinitelydobetterthana3.5,anda4.0isnotoutofthequestion.Myfirst semestermentalitywas that Ihavea lot to learn from thesekids.MynewmentalityisthatIhavealottoteachthem.”

Thespringsemesterwasn’texactly smoothsailing,either.KayvonearnedabunchofA’sbutdidn’tdonearlyaswellashe’dhopedinhistwoquantitativecourses. We talked, briefly, about the option of transferring out of Wharton,Penn’shighlycompetitivebusinessschool,andIpointedout that therewasnoshameinswitchingintoadifferentmajor.Kayvonwashavingnoneofit.

Here’s an excerpt from his email to me in June: “Numbers and executingquantitative concepts have always been difficult for me. But I embrace thechallenge, and I’mgoing to apply all the grit I have to improvingmyself andmakingmyselfbetter,evenif itmeansgraduatingwithaGPAless thanwhatIwould have earned if I just majored in something that didn’t require me tomanipulatenumbers.”

I have no doubt that Kayvonwill keep getting up, time and again, alwayslearningandgrowing.

Collectively, the evidence I’ve presented tells the following story: A fixedmindsetaboutabilityleadstopessimisticexplanationsofadversity,andthat,inturn,leadstobothgivinguponchallengesandavoidingtheminthefirstplace.Incontrast, agrowthmindset leads tooptimisticwaysofexplainingadversity,andthat,inturn,leadstoperseveranceandseekingoutnewchallengesthatwillultimatelymakeyouevenstronger.

My recommendation for teaching yourself hope is to take each step in thesequenceaboveandask,WhatcanIdotoboostthisone?

Myfirstsuggestioninthatregardistoupdateyourbeliefsaboutintelligenceandtalent.

WhenCarolandhercollaboratorstrytoconvincepeoplethatintelligence,oranyothertalent,canimprovewitheffort,shestartsbyexplainingthebrain.Forinstance,sherecountsastudypublishedinthetopscientificjournalNature thattracked adolescent brain development. Many of the adolescents in this studyincreased their IQ scores from age fourteen, when the study started, to ageeighteen,whenitconcluded.Thisfact—thatIQscoresarenotentirelyfixedoveraperson’slifespan—usuallycomesasasurprise.What’smore,Carolcontinues,thesesameadolescentsshowedsizablechanges inbrainstructure:“Thosewhogotbetteratmathskillsstrengthenedtheareasofthebrainrelatedtomath,andthesamewastrueforEnglishskills.”

Carolalsoexplainsthatthebrainisremarkablyadaptive.Likeamusclethatgets strongerwith use, the brain changes itselfwhen you struggle tomaster anewchallenge.Infact,there’sneveratimeinlifewhenthebrainiscompletely“fixed.” Instead, all our lives, our neurons retain the potential to grow newconnections with one another and to strengthen the ones we already have.What’smore, throughoutadulthood,wemaintain theability togrowmyelin, asort of insulating sheath that protects neurons and speeds signals travelingbetweenthem.

Mynextsuggestionistopracticeoptimisticself-talk.Thelinkbetweencognitivebehavioraltherapyandlearnedhelplessnessledto

thedevelopmentof“resiliencetraining.”Inessence,thisinteractivecurriculumisapreventativedoseofcognitivebehavioraltherapy.Inonestudy,childrenwhocompletedthistrainingshowedlowerlevelsofpessimismanddevelopedfewersymptomsofdepressionoverthenexttwoyears.Inasimilarstudy,pessimistic

college students demonstrated less anxiety over the subsequent two years andlessdepressionoverthreeyears.

If, reading thischapter,yourecognizeyourselfasanextremepessimist,myadvice is tofindacognitivebehavioral therapist. Iknowhowunsatisfying thisrecommendationmight sound.Manyyears ago, as a teenager, Iwrote toDearAbby about a problem I was having. “Go see a therapist,” she wrote back. Irecall tearing up her letter, angry she didn’t propose a neater, faster, morestraightforward solution. Nevertheless, suggesting that reading twenty pagesabout the science of hope is enough to remove an ingrained pessimistic biaswouldbenaive.There’smuchmore to say about cognitivebehavioral therapyandresiliencetrainingthanIcansummarizehere.

Thepointisthatyoucan,infact,modifyyourself-talk,andyoucanlearntonot let it interfere with you moving toward your goals. With practice andguidance,youcanchangethewayyouthink,feel,and,mostimportant,actwhenthegoinggetsrough.

As a transition to the final section of this book, “Growing Grit from theOutsideIn,”letmeofferonefinalsuggestionforteachingyourselfhope:Askforahelpinghand.

A few years ago, I met a retired mathematician named Rhonda Hughes.NobodyinRhonda’sfamilyhadgonetocollege,butasagirl,shelikedmathawhole lot more than stenography. Rhonda eventually earned a PhD inmathematics and, after seventy-nine of her eighty applications for a facultypositionwererejected,she tooka jobat thesingleuniversity thatmadeheranoffer.

OnereasonRhondagotintouchwastotellmethatshehadanissuewithanitem on the Grit Scale. “I don’t like that item that says, ‘Setbacks don’tdiscourageme.’Thatmakesnosense. Imean,whodoesn’tgetdiscouragedbysetbacks?Icertainlydo.Ithinkitshouldsay,‘Setbacksdon’tdiscouragemeforlong.Igetbackonmyfeet.’ ”

Of course, Rhonda was right, and in so many words, I changed the itemaccordingly.

But themost important thingaboutRhonda’s story is that shealmostnevergot back up all by herself. Instead, she figured out that asking for helpwas agoodwaytoholdontohope.

Here’sjustoneofthestoriesshetoldme:“Ihadthismentorwhoknew,evenbeforeIdid,thatIwasgoingtobeamathematician.ItallstartedwhenI’ddonevery poorly on one of his tests, and I went to his office and cried. All of asudden,hejumpedupoutofhischairand,withoutaword,ranoutoftheroom.When, finally, he came back he said, ‘Young lady, you should go to graduate

schoolinmathematics.Butyou’retakingallofthewrongcourses.’Andhehadall of the courses I should have been taking mapped out, and the personalpromisesofotherfacultythatthey’dhelp.”

Abouttwentyyearsago,RhondacofoundedtheEDGEProgramwithSylviaBozeman, a fellow mathematician. EDGE stands for Enhancing Diversity inGraduateEducation,anditsmissionistosupportwomenandminoritystudentspursuing doctoral training in mathematics. “People assume you have to havesome special talent to do mathematics,” Sylvia has said. “They think you’reeitherbornwithit,oryou’renot.ButRhondaandIkeepsaying,‘Youactuallydeveloptheabilitytodomathematics.Don’tgiveup!’ ”

“Therehavebeensomany times inmycareerwhenIwanted topack it in,whenIwantedtogiveupanddosomethingeasier,”Rhondatoldme.“Buttherewasalwayssomeonewho,inonewayoranother,toldmetokeepgoing.Ithinkeveryoneneedssomebodylikethat.Don’tyou?”

I. There’s an expression in sports: “Race your strengths and train your weaknesses.” I agree with thewisdomofthisadage,butIalsothinkit’simportantthatpeoplerecognizethatskillsimprovewithpractice.

PartIII

GROWINGGRITFROMTHEOUTSIDEIN

Chapter10

PARENTINGFORGRIT

WhatcanIdotoencouragegritinthepeopleIcarefor?I’maskedthisquestionatleastonceaday.Sometimesit’sacoachwhoasks;sometimesit’sanentrepreneuroraCEO.

Lastweek,itwasafourth-gradeteacher,andtheweekbefore,amathprofessoratacommunitycollege.I’vehadarmygeneralsandnavyadmiralstossmethisquestion,too,butmostoftenit’samotherorfatherwhoworriesthattheirchildisn’tclosetorealizingtheirpotential.

Allthepeoplequizzingmearethinkingasparentswould,ofcourse—evenifthey’renotparents.ThewordparentingderivesfromLatinandmeans“tobringforth.”You’reactinginaparentlikewayifyou’reaskingforguidanceonhowtobestbringforthinterest,practice,purpose,andhopeinthepeopleyoucarefor.

WhenIturnthetablesandaskpeoplefortheirownintuitionsonhowto“parentforgrit,”Igetdifferentanswers.

Somebelievegrit is forged in thecrucibleofadversity.Othersarequick toparaphrase Nietzsche: “What doesn’t kill you makes you stronger.”I Suchinvocations conjure an image of scowling mothers and fathers dispensingendless criticism on the sidelines of games that had better be victories, orchainingtheirchildrentothepianobenchorviolinstand,orgroundingthemforthesinofanA–.

This perspective assumes that offering loving support and demanding highstandards are two ends of a continuum, with the authoritarian parents of thegrittyfartotherightofcenter.

HadIbeenaroundtoseekopinionsacenturyago,suchwouldhavebeentheperspective of John Watson, then chair of psychology at Johns HopkinsUniversity.

In his best-selling 1928 parenting guide,Psychological Care of Infant andChild,Watsonholds forthonhow to raiseachild“who loseshimself inworkand play, who quickly learns to overcome the small difficulties in hisenvironment...andwhofinallyentersmanhoodsobulwarkedwithstableworkandemotionalhabitsthatnoadversitycanquiteoverwhelmhim.”

Here’sWatson’sadvice:“Neverhugandkissthem.Neverletthemsitinyourlap. If you must, kiss them once on the forehead when they say good night.Shakehandswiththeminthemorning.Givethemapatontheheadiftheyhavemade an extraordinarily good job of a difficult task.” Watson furtherrecommendslettingchildrencopewithproblemsontheirown“almostfromthemomentofbirth,”rotatingdifferentcaregiverstopreventunhealthyattachmenttoanyoneadult,andotherwiseavoiding thecoddlingaffection thatpreventsachildfrom“conqueringtheworld.”

Occasionally,ofcourse,peopletaketheoppositestance.They’re convinced that perseverance and especially passion bloom when

childrenarelavishedwithunconditionalaffectionandsupport.Thesechampionsofkinderandgentlerparentingadvocatebighugsandlongleashesandpointoutthatchildrenarebytheirnaturechallenge-seekingcreatureswhoseinnatedesireforcompetenceneedsonlyourunconditionalloveandaffectiontorevealitself.Onceunfetteredbythedemandsofimperiousparents,childrenwillfollowtheirown intrinsic interests, and disciplined practice and resilience in the face ofsetbackswillfollow.

Onthecontinuumbetweensupportiveanddemandingparenting,proponentsofthispermissive“child-centered”approachfalltotheleftofcenter.

Sowhichisit?Isgritforgedinthecrucibleofunrelentinglyhighstandardsorisitnurturedinthewarmembraceoflovingsupport?

Asascientist,I’mtemptedtoanswerthatweneedmoreresearchonthetopic.There’salotofresearchonparenting,andsomeresearchongrit,butnoresearchyetonparentingandgrit.

Butasamotheroftwoteenagers,Idon’thavetimeforallthedatatocomein.Like theparents askingme this question, I have tomake decisions today.Mygirlsaregrowingup,andeachdayoftheirlives,myhusbandandIareparentingthem,forbetteror forworse.What’smore,asaprofessoranda labdirector, Iinteractwithdozensofyoungpeople—andI’dliketoencouragetheirgrit,too.

So,asasteptowardresolvingthedebate,I’veprobedtheevidenceforeachside. An advocate of old-fashioned, strict parenting suggested I talk to gritparagon Steve Young, the record-breaking quarterback whose Mormon

upbringing included a daily paper route, Bible classes before school, andabsolutelynocussingordrinking.Meanwhile,anadvocatewithamore liberalbent pointed me toward Francesca Martinez, the outspoken British stand-upcomicwhosewriterfatherandenvironmentalistmotherallowedhertodropoutofschoolwhenshewassixteenanddidn’tbataneyewhenshetitledhermemoirWhatthe****IsNormal?!

Let’sbeginwithSteveYoung.ThelegendaryquarterbackoftheSanFrancisco49erswastwicenamedMost

Valuable Player in the National Football League. And he was selected MostValuable Player of Super Bowl XXIX, during which he completed a record-breaking six touchdown passes. At retirement, he was the highest-ratedquarterbackinNFLhistory.

“My parents were my foundation,” Steve has said. “Good parenting issomethingIwisheveryonecouldhave.”

Here’sastorytoillustratehispoint.Though Steve had been the star of his high school football team and was

heavily recruited by colleges across the country, he entered Brigham YoungUniversity as their eighth-string quarterback. Since seven other quarterbacksstood between Steve and playing time, his coach relegated him to the“hamburger squad”—a unit composed of the least valuable players whoseprimaryrolewastorunplayssotheBYUdefensivelinecouldpractice.

“Man,Iwantedtogohome,”Steverecalled.“Iwenttoschoolmywholefirstsemesterwithmybagspacked....Iremembercalling[mydad]andjustsaying,‘Coachesdon’tknowmyname.I’mjustabigtacklingdummyforthedefense.Dad,it’shorrible.AndthisisjustnotwhatIexpected...andIthinkI’dliketocomehome.’ ”

Steve’s father,whomStevedescribesas“theultimate toughguy,” toldhim:“Youcanquit....Butyoucan’tcomehomebecauseI’mnotgoingtolivewithaquitter.You’veknownthatsinceyouwereakid.You’renotcomingbackhere.”Stevestayed.

Allseason,Stevewasfirsttopracticeandlasttoleave.Aftertheteam’slastgame,hesteppeduphisprivateworkouts:“Therewasahugenethangingatthefarendofthefieldhouse.Isquattedbehindanimaginarycenter;tookthesnap;didthethree-stepdrop,andthrewintothenet.FromthebeginningofJanuarytotheendofFebruary,Ithrewover10,000spirals.Myarmhurt.ButIwantedtobeaquarterback.”

By sophomore year, Steve moved up from number-eight quarterback tonumbertwo.Byhisjunioryear,hewasBYU’sstartingquarterback.Inhissenioryear, Steve received the Davey O’Brien award for the most outstandingquarterbackinthecountry.

There were several other times in his athletic career when his confidencefaltered.Eachtime,hewanteddesperatelytoquit.Eachtime,heappealedtohisfather—whowouldn’tlethim.

One early challenge camewhile playing baseball inmiddle school. “I wasthirteen,”Steverecalled.“Ididn’tgetahitthewholeyear,anditjustgotmoreandmoreembarrassing. . . .Gameaftergame, Icouldn’tgetahit.”When theseason ended, Steve informed his dad that he’d had it. “My dad looked mestraightintheeyeandsaid,‘Youcannotquit.Youhavetheability,soyouneedtogobackandworkthisout.’ ”SoSteveandhisdadwentbacktothefield.“Irememberitbeingreallycoldandmiserableandrainyandsleetandsnow,andhe’d be pitching the ball and I’d be hitting them.”By his senior year in highschool,ascaptainofthevarsitybaseballteam,Stevewasbatting.384.

The lesson that persistence eventually delivers rewards was one on whichStevereliedinthefouryearshesatonthebenchwiththeSanFrancisco49ers.Rather than request a trade, Steve apprenticed himself to Joe Montana, thestartingquarterbackwhocaptainedtheteamtofourSuperBowlvictories.“IfIwasevergoing to findout justhowgood I couldget, I needed to stay inSanFranciscoandlearn,evenifitwasbrutallyhardtodo....Imanytimesthoughtaboutquitting....Iheardboosduringmysleeplessnights,butIfearedcallingmydad.Iknewwhathe’dsay:‘Enduretotheend,Steve.’ ”

At this point inmy narrative of SteveYoung’s improbable ascent, youmightconcludethatparentsofgrittychildrenareauthoritarian.Youmightleaptotheconclusionthatthey’recenteredontheirownstandardsandfairlyinsensitivetotheirchildren’sparticularneeds.

Beforeyouissueafinalverdict,though,sitdownwithSteve’sparents,SherryandLeGrandeYoung.Andbeforeyoudo, takenote thatLeGrandeprefers thechildhood nickname that aptly captures his approach to life: “Grit.” “He’s allabouthardworkandbeingtoughandnotwhining,”Steve’sbrotherMikeoncesaidofhisfather.“Thenamereallyfitshim.”

As a corporate attorney, Grit Young seldommissed a day of work. Abouttwenty-fiveyearsago,GritwasworkingoutathislocalYMCAwhenafellowgym-goer challengedhim to anongoing sit-up competition.After a year, eachmancoulddoaboutathousandsit-upseach,atwhichpointthechallengerbowed

out.Bythen,Gritwascompetingagainsthimself.Hekepton,foryears,untilhecoulddotenthousandsit-upsinarow.

WhenIcalledtotalktoSteve’sparentsabouttheirfamoussonandthewaythey’draisedhim,Iexpectedsternnessandformality.ThefirstthingSherrysaidwas“We’redelightedtotalktoyou!OurSteveisagreatkid!”Gritthenjokedthat,givenmychosenfieldofstudy,hewassurprisedithadtakenmesolongtogettothem.

My shoulders softened a bit, and I sat back as each told me how they’dlearnedtoworkhardearlyinlife.“Wewereonegenerationoffthefarm,”Sherryexplained. “Therewere expectations.”Sherrywaspicking cherriesby age ten.Gritdidthesame,andtoearnmoneyforbaseballmittsandclothes,hemowedlawns, delivered newspapers on his bike to housesmiles apart, and picked upwhateverfarmworkhecould.

When it came time to raise their children, both Sherry and Grit verydeliberatelysetouttoprovidethesamechallenges.“Mygoalwastoteachthemdiscipline,”Gritsaid,“andtogoatthingshardlikeIlearnedtodo.Youhavetolearnthose things.Theydon’t justhappen.Itwas important tometo teachthekidstofinishwhatyoubegin.”

Innouncertain terms,Steveandhis siblingsweremade tounderstand that,whatever they signed up for, they had to see it through to the end. “We toldthem,you’vegottogotoallthepractices.Youcan’tsay,‘Oh,I’mtiredofthis.’Onceyoucommit,youdisciplineyourselftodoit.There’sgoingtobetimesyoudon’twanttogo,butyou’vegottogo.”

Soundsstrict,right?Itwas.Butifyoulistenclosely,you’lldiscoverthattheYoungswerealsotremendouslysupportive.

StevetellsthestoryofgettingtackledplayingPopWarnerfootballasanine-year-oldand lookingup to seehismom, still carryingherpurse, striding rightpasthimtogrababoyontheopposingteambytheshoulderpadstotellhimthathewouldnot be illegallyneck tacklingSteveagain.AsSteveandhis siblingsgot older, their home became a favorite hangout. “Our basement was alwaysfilledwithkids,”Sherrysays.

Asacorporateattorney,Grit traveledoften. “Mostguys Iknewwould stayfortheweekend,whereverwewere,becauseyouwouldn’tbefinishedwithyourbusiness onFriday, and you had to start again onMonday.Notme. I always,always did everything I could to get home for the weekend.” Occasionally,weekend tripshomewerealsodemonstrationsof thecharacter thathadearnedGrithisnickname:“OnceIwasinMontananegotiatingwithanaluminumplant.Friday night, I take a taxi down to the airport, and it’s all fogged in. All theflightswerecanceled.”

IconsideredwhatImightdointhesamesituation,andthenblushedabitasIlistenedtotherestofthestory.Gritrentedacar,drovetoSpokane,tookaflighttoSeattle,thenasecondflighttoSanFrancisco,andfinallyathirdflight—ared-eyethatarrivedatJFKthenextmorningatdawn.Hethengotinanotherrentalcaranddroveback toGreenwich,Connecticut.“I’mnotpattingmyselfon theback,”Gritsaid.“It’sjustthatIthoughtitwasimportanttobewiththekids,tosupportthem,whetheritwasathleticactivitiesoranythingelse.”

SherryandGritwerealsoattunedtotheirchildren’semotionalneeds.Steve,forexample,wasespeciallyanxious.“Wenoticedtherewerethingshewouldn’tdo,”Gritsaid.“Whenhewasinsecondgrade,herefusedtogotoschool.Whenhe was twelve, he wouldn’t go to Boy Scout camp. He never slept over atanotherkid’shouse.Hejustwouldn’tdoit.”

It was hard for me to square the image of Steve Young, fearless all-starquarterback, with the timid boy Sherry and Grit were describing. Likewise,neither Sherry nor Grit had any idea what to make of their oldest son’sfearfulness.One time,Grit says,hewent topickupSteve fromschool to takehim tohis uncle and aunt’s house for theday, andSteve simply couldn’t stopsobbing. He was petrified to be away from his own home. Grit wasflabbergasted.IwaitedtohearhowheandSherryreacted.Didtheytelltheirsontomanup?Didtheyremovesomeofhisprivileges?

No and no. Grit’s description of the talk he had with his son when Steverefused togo to schoolmakes it clearGrit didmorequestioning and listeningthan lecturingandcriticizing:“Isaid, ‘Well, issomebodypickingonyou?’Hesays,‘No.’Doyoulikeyourteacher?‘Ilovemyteacher.’Well,whydon’tyougotoschool?‘Idon’tknow.Ijustdon’twanttogotoschool.’ ”

SherryendedupsittinginSteve’ssecond-gradeclassroomforweeksuntil,atlonglast,Stevefeltcomfortablegoingtoschoolbyhimself.

“It was separation anxiety,” Sherry toldme. “At the time,we didn’t knowwhat tocall it.Butwecould tellhewasall tight inside, andweknew thatheneededtoworkthroughallthat.”

Later,whenIaskedStevetoelaborateonhisfirsttroubledsemesteratBYU,Ipointed out that, if someone heard only that anecdote and nothing else, theymight conclude that his father, Grit, was a tyrant.What kind of parent couldrefuseasonhispleatoreturnhome?

“Okay,”Stevesaid.“Allright.Everythingiscontextual,right?”Ilistened.“The context was thatmy dad knew me. He knew all I wanted to do was

sprinthome,andheknewthatifheletmedothat,itwouldbelettingmegiveintomyfears.

“Itwasalovingact,”Steveconcluded.“Itwastough,butitwasloving.”But it’s a fine line between tough love and bullying, isn’t it? What’s the

difference?“Iknewthedecisionwasmine,”Stevesaid.“AndIknewmydaddidn’twant

metobehim.Numberone,aparentneedstosetastagethatprovestothechild,‘I’mnottryingtojusthaveyoudowhatIsay,controlyou,makeyoubelikeme,make you do what I did, ask you to make up for what I didn’t do.’My dadshowedmeearlythatitwasn’tabouthimandwhatheneeded.Ittrulywas‘I’mgivingyouallIgot.’

“Therewasanunderlyingselflessnesstothetoughlove,”Stevecontinued.“Ithinkthat’svital.Ifanyofthetoughloveisabouttheparentjusttryingtocontrolyou, well, kids smell it out. In every way possible, I knewmy parents weresaying,‘We’relookingtoseeyoursuccess.We’veleftourselvesbehind.’ ”

If getting to know the Youngs helps you understand that “tough love” isn’tnecessarily a contradiction in terms, hold that thought—and meet FrancescaMartinezandherparents,TinaandAlex.

Namedby theObserver asoneof the funniestcomics inBritain,Francescaperformstosold-outaudiencesaroundtheworld.Inatypicalroutine,shebreakstheno-cussingruleoftheYoungfamily,andaftertheshow,she’ssuretoviolatethedrinkingprohibition.Likeherparents,Francescaisalifelongvegetarian,notreligious,andpolitically,somewheretotheleftofprogressive.

Francescawasdiagnosedwithcerebralpalsyatagetwo.Shepreferstheterm“wobbly.”Told that theirbrain-damageddaughterwould“never leadanormallife,” Tina and Alex quickly decided that no doctor could foretell who theirdaughtermight become.Achieving comedic stardom takes grit nomatterwhoyou are, but perhapsmore sowhen it’s a challengemerely to enunciate yourconsonantsorwalk to the stage.So, likeother aspiring comics,Francescahasenduredfour-hourdrives(eachway)toperformfortenminutesfornopayandmadecountlesscoldcallstoimpassiveandbusytelevisionproducers.Butunlikemost of her peers, she needs to do breathing and voice exercises before eachshow.

“Idon’ttakecreditformyhardworkandpassion,”shetoldme.“Ithinkthesequalitiescame frommy family,whichwas very loving and very stable. Theiroverwhelmingsupportandpositivityarewhythereisnolimittomyambition.”

Not surprisingly, counselors at Francesca’s school were doubtful ofentertainment as a career path for a girl who struggled to walk and talk at anormalcadence.Theywereevenmorewaryofherdroppingoutofhighschool

todoso.“Oh,Francesca,”they’dsaywithasigh,“thinkaboutsomethingmoresensible.Likecomputers.”ThethoughtofanofficejobwasaboutashorribleafateasFrancescacouldimagine.Sheaskedherparentswhatsheshoulddo.

“Goandfollowyourdreams,”Alextoldhisdaughter,“andiftheydon’tworkout,thenyoucanreassess.”

“My mum was just as encouraging,” Francesca said. Then, with a smile:“Basically,theywerehappyformetoleaveformaleducationatsixteentoactontelevision.They letme spendmyweekends clubbingwith friends, surroundedbyleerymenandcocktailswithsexuallyexplicitnames.”

I askedAlex about his “follow your dream” advice. Before explaining, heremindedme that Francesca’s brother Raoul was also allowed to drop out ofhighschool—toapprenticehimselftoarenownedportraitpainter.“Weneverputpressureoneitherofthemtobecomedoctorsorlawyersoranythinglikethat.Itrulybelieve thatwhenyoudo somethingyou reallywant todo, it becomesavocation.Francesca andher brother are incredibly hardworkers, but they feelpassionatelyabouttheirsubjects,sotothemit’snotatalloppressive.”

Tinaagreedentirely:“I’vealwayshadaninstinctivesensethatlifeandnatureandevolutionhaveplantedinchildrentheirowncapabilities—theirowndestiny.Like a plant, if they’re fed and watered in the right way, they will grow upbeautifulandstrong.It’sjustaquestionofcreatingtherightenvironment—asoilthat isnurturing, that is listeningand responsive to theirneeds.Childrencarrywithinthemtheseedsoftheirownfuture.Theirowninterestswillemergeifwetrustthem.”

Francescaconnectstheunconditionalsupportthather“absurdlycool”parentslavished on her to the hope shemaintained evenwhenhope seemed lost: “Somuchofstickingwiththingsisbelievingyoucandoit.Thatbeliefcomesfromself-worth.Andthatcomesfromhowothershavemadeusfeelinourlives.”

Sofar,AlexandTinaseemtheepitomeofpermissiveparenting.Iaskedthemwhethertheyseethemselvesassuch.

“Actually,”Alexsaid,“IthinkI’mallergictospoiledchildren.Childrenmustbelovedandaccepted,butthen,withoutcomplications,theyneedtobetaught:‘No,youcannothityoursisterontheheadwiththatstick.Yes,youmustshare.No, you don’t get to have everything you want when you want it.’ It’s no-nonsenseparenting.”

Asanexample,AlexpushedFrancesca todo thephysical therapyexercisesprescribedbyherdoctors.Shehatedthem.Foryears,sheandherfatherbattled.Francesca couldn’t understand why she couldn’t simply work around herlimitations,andAlexbelievedhisresponsibilitywastostandfirm.Asshesaysinherbook:“Thoughhappyinmanyways,thenextfewyearswerepunctuated

with intense rows replete with door-banging and tears and the throwing ofobjects.”

Whethertheseskirmishescouldhavebeenhandledmoreskillfullyisanopenquestion—Alexbelieveshecouldhavedoneabetterjobexplainingtohisyoungdaughterwhy hewas so insistent. Thatmay be so, butwhat really strikesmeabout this aspect of Francesca’s childhood is the notion that an affectionate,follow-your-dreamsparentcanneverthelessfeelcompelledtolaydownthelawonmattersofdiscipline.Suddenly, theone-dimensionalviewofAlexandTinaashippy-dippyparentsseemsincomplete.

Itwastelling,forexample,tohearAlex,whoisawriter,talkabouttheworkethichemodeledforhischildren:“Tofinishthings,youhavetoputtheworkin.WhenIwasyounger,I’dmeetmanypeoplewhowerewritingstuff.They’dsaytome,‘Ohyeah,IamawriteraswellbutI’veneverfinishedanything.’Well,inthatcase,youarenotawriter.Youarejustsomebodywhositsdownandwritesthingsonabitofpaper.Ifyou’vegotsomethingtosay,goaheadandsayitandfinishit.”

Tina agrees that as much as children need freedom, they also need limits.She’s a tutor aswell as an environmental activist, and she’swatched a lot ofparents engage inwhat she calls begging-and-pleading negotiationswith theirchildren. “We taught our children to live by clear principles and moralguidelines,”shesaid.“Weexplainedourreasoning,buttheyalwaysknewwheretheboundarieswere.

“Andtherewasnotelevision,”sheadded.“Ifeltitwasahypnoticmedium,andIdidn’twantittoreplaceinteractionswithpeople.Sowesimplydidn’thaveatelevision.Ifthechildrenwantedtowatchsomethingspecial,theywouldwalkovertotheirgrandparents’.”

What canwe learn from the stories of SteveYoung and FrancescaMartinez?Andwhatcanwegleanfromhowothergritparagonsdescribetheirparents?

Infact,I’venoticedapattern.Forthoseofuswhowanttoparentforgrit,thepattern is ahelpfulblueprint, aguide formaking themanydecisionswemustgrapplewithwhileraisingourchildren.

Before I saymore, letme repeat the caveat that, as a scientist, I’d like tocollectmanymoredatapointsbeforecomingtofirmconclusions.Inadecade,Ishould know a lot more about parenting for grit than I do now. But becausethere’snopausebuttonforparentingthepeoplewecareabout,I’llgoaheadandtellyoumyhunches.Inlargepart,I’mencouragedtodosobecausethepatternI’veobservedmatchesupwithdozensofcarefullyexecutedresearchstudieson

parenting(butnotgrit).Thepatternalsomakessense,givenwhat’sbeenlearnedabout human motivation since John Watson dispensed hisDon’t Coddle ’emadvice.And,finally,thepatternIseematchesupwiththeinterviewsofworld-classathletes,artists,andscholarscompletedbypsychologistBenjaminBloomandhisteamthirtyyearsago.ThoughparentingwasnottheexplicitfocusoftheBloom study—parents were originally included as “observers to verify”biographicaldetails—theimportanceofparentingendedupasoneof itsmajorconclusions.

HereiswhatIsee.Firstandforemost,there’snoeither/ortrade-offbetweensupportiveparenting

and demanding parenting. It’s a commonmisunderstanding to think of “toughlove” as a carefully struck balance between affection and respect on the onehand, and firmly enforced expectations on the other. In actuality, there’s noreasonyoucan’tdoboth.Veryclearly,thisisexactlywhattheparentsofSteveYoungandFrancescaMartinezdid.TheYoungsweretough,buttheywerealsoloving. TheMartinezes were loving, but they were also tough. Both familieswere“child-centered”inthesensethattheyclearlyputtheirchildren’sinterestsfirst,butneitherfamilyfeltthatchildrenwerealwaysthebetterjudgeofwhattodo,howhardtowork,andwhentogiveuponthings.

Below is a figure representing how many psychologists now categorizeparentingstyles.Insteadofonecontinuum,therearetwo.Intheupperright-handquadrantareparentswhoarebothdemandingandsupportive.Thetechnicaltermis “authoritative parenting,” which, unfortunately is easily confused with“authoritarian parenting.” To avoid such confusion, I’ll refer to authoritativeparentingaswiseparenting,becauseparentsinthisquadrantareaccuratejudgesofthepsychologicalneedsoftheirchildren.Theyappreciatethatchildrenneedlove,limits,andlatitudetoreachtheirfullpotential.Theirauthorityisbasedonknowledgeandwisdom,ratherthanpower.

Intheotherquadrantsarethreeothercommonparentingstyles,includingtheundemanding, unsupportive approach to raising children exemplified byneglectful parents. Neglectful parenting creates an especially toxic emotionalclimate, but I won’t say much more about it here because it’s not even aplausiblecontenderforhowparentsofthegrittyraisetheirchildren.

Authoritarianparentsaredemandingandunsupportive,exactlytheapproachJohn Watson advocated for strengthening character in children. Permissiveparents,bycontrast,aresupportiveandundemanding.

WhenpsychologistLarrySteinbergdeliveredhis2001presidentialaddresstotheSocietyforResearchonAdolescence,heproposedamoratoriumonfurtherresearchonparentingstylesbecause,ashesawit, therewassomuchevidencefor the benefits of supportive and demanding parenting that scientists couldprofitablymove on to thornier research questions. Indeed, over the past fortyyears, study after carefully designed study has found that the children ofpsychologicallywiseparentsfarebetterthanchildrenraisedinanyotherkindofhousehold.

In one of Larry’s studies, for example, about ten thousand Americanteenagerscompletedquestionnairesabouttheirparents’behavior.Regardlessofgender, ethnicity, social class, or parents’ marital status, teens with warm,respectful, and demanding parents earned higher grades in school, weremoreself-reliant, suffered from less anxiety and depression, andwere less likely toengageindelinquentbehavior.Thesamepatternreplicatesinnearlyeverynationthat’s been studied and at every stage of child development. Longitudinalresearchindicatesthatthebenefitsaremeasurableacrossadecadeormore.

One of themajor discoveries of parenting research is that whatmattersmorethanthemessagesparentsaimtodeliverarethemessagestheirchildrenreceive.

What may appear to be textbook authoritarian parenting—a no-televisionpolicy, for example, or a prohibition against swearing—may or may not becoercive.Alternatively,whatmayseempermissive—say,lettingachilddropoutof high school—may simply reflect differences in the rules parents value asimportant. In other words, don’t pass judgment on that parent lecturing theirchild in the supermarket cereal aisle. In most cases, you don’t have enoughcontext tounderstandhowthechild interprets theexchange,and,at theendoftheday,it’sthechild’sexperiencethatreallymatters.

Areyouapsychologicallywiseparent?Usetheparentingassessmentonthenextpage,developedbypsychologistandparentingexpertNancyDarling,asachecklist to find out. Howmany of these statements would your child affirmwithouthesitation?

You’llnoticethatsomeoftheitemsareitalicized.Theseare“reverse-coded”items, meaning that if your child agrees with them, you may be lesspsychologicallywisethanyouthink.

Supportive:Warm

IcancountonmyparentstohelpmeoutifIhaveaproblem.Myparentsspendtimejusttalkingtome.MyparentsandIdothingsthatarefuntogether.Myparentsdon’treallylikemetotellthemmytroubles.Myparentshardlyeverpraisemefordoingwell.

Supportive:Respectful

MyparentsbelieveIhavearighttomyownpointofview.MyparentstellmethattheirideasarecorrectandthatIshouldn’tquestionthem.Myparentsrespectmyprivacy.Myparentsgivemealotoffreedom.MyparentsmakemostofthedecisionsaboutwhatIcando.

Demanding

Myparentsreallyexpectmetofollowfamilyrules.Myparentsreallyletmegetawaywiththings.MyparentspointoutwaysIcoulddobetter.WhenIdosomethingwrong,myparentsdon’tpunishme.Myparentsexpectmetodomybestevenwhenit’shard.

Growingupwithsupport, respect,andhighstandardsconfersa lotofbenefits,one of which is especially relevant to grit—in other words, wise parenting

encourageschildrentoemulatetheirparents.To a certain extent, of course, young children imitate their mothers and

fathers.Whenwe have nothing else to go by,what other choice dowe have,really,thantomimictheaccents,habits,andattitudesofthepeoplearoundus?Wetalkliketheytalk.Weeatwhattheyeat.Weadopttheirlikesanddislikes.

Ayoungchild’sinstincttocopyadultsisverystrong.Inaclassicpsychologyexperiment conducted more than fifty years ago at Stanford University, forexample,preschoolerswatchedadultsplaywithavarietyoftoysandthenweregiventheopportunitytoplaywiththetoysthemselves.Halfoftheboysandgirlswatched an adult quietly play with Tinkertoys while ignoring a child-size,inflatabledollinthesameroom.TheotherhalfofthechildrenwatchedtheadultbeginassemblingtheTinkertoysand,afteraminute,turntoviciouslyattackthedoll.Theadultpummeledthedollwithhisfistsandthenamallet,tossedthedollup in theairand, finally,whilescreamingandyelling,aggressivelykicked thedollabouttheroom.

Whengivenanopportunitytoplaywiththesametoys,childrenwho’dseenadultsplayquietlyfollowedsuit.Incontrast,childrenwho’dwatchedadultsbeatupthedollwerelikewiseaggressive,inmanycasessocloselyimitatingviolentadults they’d seen earlier that researchers described their behavior as virtual“carboncopies.”

Andyet,there’saworldofdifferencebetweenimitationandemulation.Aswegrowolder,wedevelopthecapacitytoreflectonouractionsandpass

judgmentonwhatweadmireanddisdaininothers.Whenourparentsareloving,respectful,anddemanding,wenotonlyfollowtheirexample,werevereit.Wenotonlycomplywith their requests,weunderstandwhy they’remaking them.Webecomeespeciallyeager topursue the same interests—for instance, it’snocoincidencethatSteveYoung’sfatherwashimselfastandoutfootballplayeratBYU, or that FrancescaMartinez, like her father, developed an early love ofwriting.

Benjamin Bloom and his team noted the same pattern in their studies ofworld-class performers. Almost without exception, the supportive anddemandingparentsinBloom’sstudywere“modelsoftheworkethicinthattheywereregardedashardworkers, theydid theirbest inwhatever they tried, theybelieved thatwork shouldcomebeforeplay, and thatone shouldwork towarddistantgoals.”Further,“mostof theparentsfounditnatural toencourage theirchildren to participate in their favored activities.” Indeed, one of Bloom’ssummary conclusions was that “parents’ own interests somehow getcommunicatedtothechild....Wefoundoverandoveragainthattheparentsof

thepianistswouldsendtheirchildtothetennislessonsbuttheywouldtaketheirchildtothepianolessons.Andwefoundjusttheoppositeforthetennishomes.”

It’s indeed remarkablehowmanyparagonsofgrithave toldme,withprideandawe, that their parents are theirmost admired and influential rolemodels.And it’s just as telling that so many paragons have, in one way or another,developed very similar interests to those of their parents. Clearly, theseexemplars of grit grew up not just imitating their parents but also emulatingthem.

This logic leads to the speculative conclusion that not all children withpsychologically wise parents will grow up to be gritty, because not allpsychologically wise parents model grittiness. Though they may be bothsupportiveanddemanding,upper-right-quadrantmomsanddadsmayormaynotshowpassionandperseveranceforlong-termgoals.

Ifyouwanttobringforthgritinyourchild,firstaskhowmuchpassionandperseveranceyouhaveforyourownlifegoals.Thenaskyourselfhowlikelyitisthat your approach to parenting encourages your child to emulate you. If theanswer to thefirstquestion is“agreatdeal,”andyouranswer to thesecondis“verylikely,”you’realreadyparentingforgrit.

It’snotjustmothersandfatherswholaythefoundationforgrit.There’salargerecosystemofadultsthatextendsbeyondthenuclearfamily.

Allofusare“parents”toyoungpeopleotherthanourownchildreninthesensethat,collectively,weareresponsiblefor“bringingforth”thenextgeneration.Inthisroleofsupportivebutdemandingmentorstootherpeople’schildren,wecanhaveahugeimpact.

TechnologyentrepreneurTobiLütkeisagritparagonwhohadsuchamentorin his life. Tobi dropped out of hisGerman high schoolwhen hewas sixteenwithout anymemorably positive learning experiences. As an apprentice at anengineering company in his hometown, he met Jürgen, a programmer whoworkedinasmallroominthebasement.TobiaffectionatelydescribedJürgenas“a long-haired, fifty-something, grizzled rockerwhowould have been right athome in anyHellsAngels gang.”Under his tutelage,Tobi discovered that thelearningdisabilitieshe’dbeendiagnosedwithasafailingstudentdidnothingtohamperhisprogressasacomputerprogrammer.

“Jürgen was a master teacher,” Tobi said. “He created an environment inwhich it was not only possible but easy to move through ten years of careerdevelopmenteveryyear.”

Eachmorning,Tobiwouldarriveatworktofindaprintoutofthecodehe’dwrittenthedaybefore,coveredinredmarkerwithcomments,suggestions,andcorrections. Jürgen was unsparing in pointing out specific ways Tobi’s workcouldbebetter.“This taughtmenot to tanglemyegoup in thecode Iwrite,”Tobisaid.“Therearealwaysways to improve itandgetting this feedback isagift.”

One day, Jürgen asked Tobi to lead a software assignment for GeneralMotors. The company gave Tobi extra money to buy his first suit for thepresentationandinstallation.TobiexpectedJürgentodoallthetalking,butthedaybefore the installation,Jürgencasually turned toTobiand toldhimhehadsomewhere else to be. Tobi would be visiting General Motors alone. Full oftrepidation,Tobiwent.Theinstallationwasasuccess.

“Thispatternkeptonrepeatingitself,”Tobisaid.“Jürgensomehowknewtheextent of my comfort zone and manufactured situations which were slightlyoutside it. I overcame them through trial and error, through doing. . . . Isucceeded.”

Tobi went on to found Shopify, a software company that powers tens ofthousandsofonlinestoresandrecentlyexceeded$100millioninrevenue.

Infact,emergingresearchonteachingsuggestsuncannyparallelstoparenting.Itseemsthatpsychologicallywiseteacherscanmakeahugedifferenceinthelivesoftheirstudents.

RonFergusonisaHarvardeconomistwhohascollectedmoredatacomparingeffectiveandineffectiveteachersthananyoneIknow.Inonerecentstudy,Ronpartnered with the Gates Foundation to study students and teachers in 1,892different classrooms. He found that teachers who are demanding—whosestudentssayofthem,“Myteacheracceptsnothinglessthanourbesteffort,”and“Students in this class behave the way my teacher wants them to”—producemeasurableyear-to-yeargainsintheacademicskillsoftheirstudents.Teacherswhoare supportiveand respectful—whose students say, “My teacher seems toknow if something is botheringme,” and “My teacher wants us to share ourthoughts”—enhance students’ happiness, voluntary effort in class, and collegeaspirations.

It’s possible, Ron finds, to be a psychologically wise teacher, just as it’spossibletobepermissive,authoritarian,ornegligent.Andit’sthewiseteacherswho seem to promote competence in addition towell-being, engagement, andhighhopesforthefuture.

Recently,psychologistsDavidYeagerandGeoffCohenrananexperimenttoseewhateffectthemessageofhighexpectationsinconjunctionwithunflaggingsupporthadon students.Theyasked seventh-grade teachers toprovidewrittenfeedback on student essays, including suggestions for improvement and anywordsofencouragementtheywouldnormallygive.Perusual,teachersfilledthemarginsofthestudents’essayswithcomments.

Next, teachers passed all of the marked-up essays to researchers, whorandomlysortedthemintotwopiles.Onhalfoftheessays,researchersaffixedaPost-it note that read: I’m giving you these comments so that you’ll havefeedbackonyourpaper.Thiswastheplacebocontrolcondition.

On theotherhalf of the essays, researchers affixedaPost-it note that read:I’m giving you these comments because I have very high expectations and Iknowthatyoucanreachthem.Thiswasthewisefeedbackcondition.

Sothatteacherswouldnotseewhichstudentreceivedwhichnote,andsothatstudentswouldnotnoticethatsomeoftheirclassmateshadreceivedadifferentnotethantheyhad,researchersplacedeachessayinafolderforteacherstohandbacktothestudentsduringclass.

Studentswerethengiventheoptiontorevisetheiressaysthefollowingweek.When the essayswere collected,Daviddiscovered that about40percentof

thestudentswho’dreceivedtheplacebocontrolPost-itnotedecidedtoturninarevisedessay,comparedtoabouttwicethatnumber—80percentofthestudents—who’dreceivedthePost-itnotecommunicatingwisefeedback.

Inareplicationstudywithadifferentsample,studentswhoreceivedthewisefeedback Post-it—“I’m giving you these comments because I have very highexpectationsandIknowthatyoucanreachthem”—madetwiceasmanyeditstotheiressaysasstudentsintheplacebocontrolcondition.

Most certainly, Post-it notes are no substitute for the daily gestures,comments, and actions that communicate warmth, respect, and highexpectations.Buttheseexperimentsdoilluminatethepowerfulmotivatingeffectthatasimplemessagecanhave.

Noteverygritparagonhashadthebenefitofawisefatherandmother,buteveryoneI’veinterviewedcouldpointtosomeone intheirlifewho,at theright timeand in the rightway,encouraged themtoaimhighandprovidedbadlyneededconfidenceandsupport.

ConsiderCodyColeman.Acoupleofyearsago,Codysentmeanemail.He’dseenmyTEDtalkongrit

andwantedtoknowifwecouldtalksometime.Hethoughtperhapshispersonal

storymightbehelpful.HewasmajoringinelectricalengineeringandcomputerscienceatMITandwasonthecuspofgraduatingwithanear-perfectGPA.Fromhis perspective, talent and opportunity had very little to do with hisaccomplishments.Instead,successhadbeenallaboutpassionandperseverancesustainedoveryearsandyears.

“Sure,Isaid,“let’stalk.”Here’swhatIlearned.Codywas born thirtymiles east ofTrenton,New Jersey, at theMonmouth

CountyCorrectionalInstitution.HismotherwasdeclaredinsanebytheFBIand,whenCodycamealong,wasimprisonedforthreateningtokillasenator’schild.Codyhasnevermethisfather.Cody’sgrandmothertooklegalcustodyofCodyand his brothers, and probably saved his life by doing so. But shewas not aprototypicallywiseparent.Shemayhavewantedtobelovingandstrict,butbothher body andmindwere in decline.AsCody describes it, hewas soon doingmoreparenting—andcookingandcleaning—thanshewas.

“Wewerepoor,”Codyexplained.“Whenmyschooldidfooddrives,thefoodwent tomyfamily,becausewewere thepoorest in theneighborhood.Andtheneighborhood itself wasn’t all that great. My school district scored belowaverageineverycategoryimaginable.

“To make matters worse,” Cody continued, “I wasn’t really an athletic orsmart person. I started out in remedial English classes.Mymath scores wereaverage,atbest.”

Andthenwhathappened?“One day, my oldest brother—he was eighteen years older than me—he

comes home. It was the summer after my freshman year in high school. HedroveupfromVirginiatopickmeuptospendtwoweekswithhim,andonthedrive back to his place, he turns and asksme, ‘Where do you want to go tocollege?’ ”

Cody told him, “I don’t know. . . . I want to go to a good school.MaybesomewherelikePrinceton.”Andthenimmediately,hetookitback:“There’snowayaschoollikePrincetonwouldacceptme.”

“Why wouldn’t Princeton take you?” Cody’s brother asked him. “You’redoingallrightinschool.Ifyouworkharder,ifyoukeeppushingyourself,youcangettothatlevel.Youhavenothingtolosebytrying.”

“That’swhena switch flipped inmyhead,”Codysaid. “Iwent from‘Whybother?’ to‘Whynot?’IknewImightnotget intoareallygoodcollege,butIfigured,ifItry,Ihaveachance.IfInevertry,thenIhavenochanceatall.”

The next year, Cody threw himself into his schoolwork. By junior year hewasearningstraightAs.Asasenior,Codysetaboutfindingthebestcollegeinthecountryforcomputerscienceandengineering.Hechangedhisdreamschool

fromPrincetontoMIT.Duringthistransformativeperiod,hemetChantelSmith,anexceptionallywisemathteacherwhoallbutadoptedhim.

It was Chantel who paid for Cody’s driving lessons. It was Chantel whocollected a “college dorm fund” to pay for the supplies he’d need once hemoved. ItwasChantelwhomailed sweaters, hats, gloves, andwarm socks tohim for the cold Boston winters, who worried about him every day, whowelcomed him home each holiday break, who stood by Cody at hisgrandmother’s funeral. It was in Chantel’s home that Cody first experiencedwaking on Christmas morning to presents with his name on them, where hedecoratedEastereggsforthefirsttime,andwhere,attheageoftwenty-four,hehadhisfirstfamilybirthdayparty.

MIT wasn’t entirely smooth sailing, but the new challenges came with an“ecosystemofsupport,”asCodyputit.Deans,professors,olderstudentsinhisfraternity,roommates,andfriends—comparedtowhathe’dexperiencedgrowingup,MITwasahavenofattention.

After graduating with top honors, Cody stayed on to get his master’s inelectricalengineeringandcomputerscience,earningaperfectGPAwhiledoingso and, at the same time, fielding offers from doctoral programs and SiliconValleyrecruiters.

In deciding between an immediately lucrative career and graduate school,Codydidsomehardthinkingabouthowhe’dgottentowherehewas.Nextfall,he’ll begin a PhD program in computer science at Stanford. Here’s the firstsentence from his application essay: “Mymission is to utilizemy passion forcomputerscienceandmachinelearningtobenefitsocietyatlarge,whileservingasanexampleofsuccessthatwillshapethefutureofoursociety.”

So, Cody Coleman did not have a psychologically wise mother, father, orgrandparent.Iwishhehad.Whathedidhavewasabrotherwhosaidtherightthingattherighttime,anextraordinarilywiseandwonderfulhighschoolmathteacher,andanecosystemofother teachers,mentors, and fellowstudentswhocollectivelyshowedhimwhat’spossibleandhelpedhimtogetthere.

ChantelrefusestotakecreditforCody’ssuccess.“ThetruthisthatCodyhastouched my life more than I’ve touched his. He’s taught me that nothing isimpossibleandnogoalisbeyondreach.He’soneofthekindesthumanbeingsIhaveevermet,andIcouldn’tbeprouderwhenhecallsme‘Mom.’ ”

A local radio station recently interviewed Cody. Toward the end of theconversation, Cody was asked what he had to say to listeners struggling toovercomesimilarlifecircumstances.“Staypositive,”Codysaid.“Gopastthosenegativebeliefsinwhat’spossibleandimpossibleandjustgiveitatry.”

Cody had these final words: “You don’t need to be a parent to make adifferenceinsomeone’slife.Ifyoujustcareaboutthemandgettoknowwhat’sgoingon,youcanmakean impact.Try tounderstandwhat’sgoingon in theirlife and help them through that. That’s something I experienced firsthand. Itmadethedifference.”

I.When I hear that, I sometimes interruptwith a précis ofSteveMaier’s research showing that, in fact,findingawayoutofthesufferingiswhatdoesthestrengthening.

Chapter11

THEPLAYINGFIELDSOFGRIT

Oneday,whenshewasaboutfouryearsold,mydaughterLucysatatthekitchentable, struggling to open a little box of raisins. She was hungry. She wantedthose raisins. But the top of that box stubbornly resisted her efforts. After aminuteor so, sheputdown theunopenedboxwithasighandwanderedoff. Iwaswatchingfromanotherroom,andInearlygasped.Ohgod,mydaughterhasbeendefeatedbyaboxofraisins!Whataretheoddsshe’llgrowuptohaveanygrit?

I rushed over and encouraged Lucy to try again. I didmy best to be bothsupportiveanddemanding.Nevertheless,sherefused.

Notlongafter,Ifoundaballetstudioaroundthecornerandsignedherup.Likea lotofparents, Ihadastrong intuition thatgrit isenhancedbydoing

activities like ballet . . . or piano . . . or football . . . or really any structuredextracurricularactivity.Theseactivitiespossess two important features thatarehardtoreplicateinanyothersetting.First,there’sanadultincharge—ideally,asupportive and demanding one—who isnot the parent. Second, these pursuitsaredesignedtocultivateinterest,practice,purpose,andhope.Theballetstudio,therecitalhall,thedojo,thebasketballcourt,thegridiron—thesearetheplayingfieldsofgrit.

The evidence on extracurricular activities is incomplete. I cannot point to asingle study in which kids have been randomly assigned to play a sport ormusical instrument, compete on the debate team, hold an after-school job, orworkontheschoolnewspaper.Ifyouthinkaboutitforamoment,you’llrealizewhy.Noparentwantstovolunteertheirkidstodothings(ornot)bytheflipofacoin,andforethicalreasons,noscientistcanreallyforcekidstostayin(orout)ofactivities.

Nevertheless,asaparentandasasocialscientist,Iwouldrecommendthat,assoon as your child is old enough, you find something theymight enjoy doingoutsideofclassandsignthemup.Infact,ifIcouldwaveamagicwand,I’dhaveallthechildrenintheworldengageinatleastoneextracurricularactivityoftheirchoice,andasfor those inhighschool, I’drequire that theystickwithat leastoneactivityformorethanayear.

DoIthinkeverymomentofachild’sdayshouldbescripted?Notatall.ButIdothinkkidsthrivewhentheyspendatleastsomepartoftheirweekdoinghardthingsthatinterestthem.

LikeIsaid,theevidenceforsuchaboldrecommendationisincomplete.Buttheresearchthathasbeendoneis,inmyview,highlysuggestive.Putitalltogether,and you have a compelling case for kids learning grit at the elbow of awiseballetinstructor,footballcoach,orviolinteacher.

For starters, a few researchers have equipped kids with beepers so that,throughout theday, theycanbeprompted to reportonwhat they’redoingandhowtheyfeelat thatverymoment.Whenkidsare inclass, theyreport feelingchallenged—butespeciallyunmotivated.Hangingoutwithfriends,incontrast,isnot very challenging but super fun.Andwhat about extracurricular activities?Whenkidsareplayingsportsormusicorrehearsingfortheschoolplay,they’reboth challenged and having fun. There’s no other experience in the lives ofyoungpeople that reliablyprovides thiscombinationofchallengeand intrinsicmotivation.

Thebottomlineofthisresearchisthis:School’shard,butformanykidsit’snotintrinsicallyinteresting.Textingyourfriendsisinteresting,butit’snothard.Butballet?Balletcanbeboth.

In-the-momentexperience isone thing,butwhatabout long-termbenefits?Doextracurricularspayoffinanymeasurableway?

Therearecountlessresearchstudiesshowingthatkidswhoaremoreinvolvedinextracurricularsfarebetteronjustabouteveryconceivablemetric—theyearnbetter grades, have higher self-esteem, are less likely to get in trouble and soforth. A handful of these studies are longitudinal, meaning that researcherswaitedtoseewhathappenedtokidslaterinlife.Theselonger-termstudiescometothesameconclusion:moreparticipationinactivitiespredictsbetteroutcomes.

The same research clearly indicates that overdosing on extracurriculars ispretty rare.These days, the averageAmerican teenager reports spendingmore

thanthreehoursadaywatchingtelevisionandplayingvideogames.Additionaltime is drained away checking socialmedia feeds, texting friends links to catvideos,and tracking theKardashiansas theyfigureoutwhichoutfit towear—whichmakesithardtoarguethattimecan’tbesparedforthechessclubortheschool play, or just about any other structured, skill-focused, adult-guidedactivity.

Butwhataboutgrit?Whataboutaccomplishingsomething that takesyears,asopposedtomonths,ofwork?Ifgritisaboutstickingwithagoalforthelong-term, and if extracurricular activities are away of practicing grit, it stands toreasonthatthey’reespeciallybeneficialwhenwedothemformorethanayear.

Infact,lessonslearnedwhileworkingtoimprovefromoneseasontothenextcomeuprepeatedlyinmyinterviewswithparagonsofgrit.

Here’sanexample:Afteralacklusterpassingseasonhisjunioryearofhighschoolfootball,futureNFLHallofFamerSteveYoungwentdowntothehighschoolwoodshop and fashioned awooden footballwith tape for laces. In oneend,hescrewed inaneyehookandused that to latch the football toaweightmachineinthehighschoolgym.Then,grippingtheball,he’dmoveitbackandforth in a passing motion, the added resistance developing his forearms andshoulders.Hispassingyardagedoubledthenextyear.

Evenmoreconvincingevidenceforthebenefitsoflong-termextracurricularactivitiescomesfromastudyconductedbypsychologistMargoGardner.Margoand her collaborators at Columbia University followed eleven thousandAmerican teenagers until theywere twenty-six years old to seewhat effect, ifany, participating in high school extracurriculars for two years, as opposed tojustone,mighthaveonsuccessinadulthood.

Here’s what Margo found: kids who spend more than a year inextracurriculars are significantlymore likely to graduate from college and, asyoungadults,tovolunteerintheircommunities.Thehoursperweekkidsdevotetoextracurricularsalsopredicthavingajob(asopposedtobeingunemployedasa young adult) and earningmoremoney, butonly for kids who participate inactivitiesfortwoyearsratherthanone.

One of the first scientists to study the importance of following through withextracurricular activities—as opposed to just dabbling—was WarrenWillingham.

In1978,WillinghamwasthedirectorofthePersonalQualitiesProject.Eventoday, this study remains the most ambitious attempt ever to identify thedeterminantsofsuccessinyoungadulthood.

TheprojectwasfundedbytheEducationalTestingService.ETS,asit’smorecommonly called, occupies a sprawling campus inPrinceton,New Jersey, andemploysmorethanathousandstatisticians,psychologists,andotherscientists—alldevoted to thedevelopmentof tests thatpredict achievement in school andtheworkplace.Ifyou’vetakentheSAT,you’vetakenanETStest.DittofortheGRE,TOEFL,Praxis,andanyoneof threedozenadvancedplacementexams.Basically,ETSistostandardizedtestingwhatKleenexistotissues:Sure,thereare other organizations thatmake standardized tests, butmost of us are hard-pressedtothinkoftheirnames.

So,whatmotivatedETStolookbeyondstandardizedtests?Better than anyone, Willingham and other scientists at ETS knew that,

together, high school grades and test scores did only a half-decent job ofpredicting success later in life. It’s very often the case that two kids withidenticalgradesand test scoreswillendup faringverydifferently later in life.The simple question Willingham set out to answer wasWhat other personalqualitiesmatter?

To findout,Willingham’s team followed several thousand students for fiveyears,beginningintheirsenioryearofhighschool.

Atthestartofthestudy,collegeapplicationmaterials,questionnaires,writingsamples, interviews, and school records were collected for each student. Thisinformationwasused toproducenumerical ratings formore thanonehundreddifferent personal characteristics. These included family background variables,likeparentoccupationandsocioeconomicstatus,aswellasself-declaredcareerinterests,motivationforacollegedegree,educationalgoals,andmanymore.

Then, as the students progressed through college, objective measures ofsuccess were collected across three broad categories: First, did the studentdistinguish him or herself academically? Next, as a young adult, did thisindividual demonstrate leadership? And, finally, to what extent could theseyoungmen and women point to a significant accomplishment in science andtechnology, the arts, sports, writing and speaking, entrepreneurism, orcommunityservice?

In a sense, the Personal Qualities Project was a horse race. Each of thehundred-plus measures at the start of the study could have ended up as thestrongest predictor of later success. It’s clear from reading the first report,completed several years before the final datawere collected, thatWillinghamwasentirelydispassionateontheissue.Hemethodicallydescribedeachvariable,itsrationaleforbeingincluded,howitwasmeasured,andsoon.

But when all the data were finally in, Willingham was unequivocal andemphatic aboutwhat he’d learned.One horse didwin, and by a long stretch:

follow-through.This is how Willingham and his team put a number on it: “The follow-

through rating involved evidence of purposeful, continuous commitment tocertain types of activities (in high school) versus sporadic efforts in diverseareas.”

Studentswhoearnedatopfollow-throughratingparticipatedintwodifferenthighschoolextracurricularactivitiesforseveralyearseachand,inbothofthoseactivities, advanced significantly in some way (e.g., becoming editor of thenewspaper,winningMVPforthevolleyballteam,winningaprizeforartwork).As an example, Willingham described a student who was “on his schoolnewspaper staff for three years and becamemanaging editor, and was on thetrackteamforthreeyearsandendedupwinninganimportantmeet.”

In contrast, students who hadn’t participated in a single multiyear activityearnedthelowestpossiblefollow-throughrating.Somestudentsinthiscategorydidn’tparticipateinanyactivitiesatall inhighschool.Butmany,manyotherswere simply itinerant, joining a club or teamone year but then, the followingyear,movingontosomethingentirelydifferent.

The predictive power of follow-through was striking: After controlling forhigh school grades and SAT scores, follow-through in high schoolextracurricularspredictedgraduating fromcollegewithacademichonorsbetterthan any variable. Likewise, follow-through was the single best predictor ofholding an appointed or elected leadership position in young adulthood. And,finally, better than any of the more than one hundred personal characteristicsWillingham had measured, follow-through predicted notable accomplishmentsfor ayoungadult in alldomains, from thearts andwriting toentrepreneurismandcommunityservice.

Notably,theparticularpursuitstowhichstudentshaddevotedthemselvesinhighschooldidn’tmatter—whetheritwastennis,studentgovernment,ordebateteam.Thekeywas thatstudentshadsignedupforsomething, signedupagainthefollowingyear,andduringthattimehadmadesomekindofprogress.

IlearnedaboutthePersonalQualitiesProjectafewyearsafterIstartedstudyinggrit.WhenIgotmyhandsontheoriginalstudyreport,Ireaditcovertocover,putitdownforamoment,andthenstartedagainonpageone.

Thatnight,Icouldn’tsleep.Instead,Ilayawakethinking:Holysmokes!WhatWillinghamcalls“follow-through”soundsalotlikegrit!

Immediately—desperately—IwantedtoseeifIcouldreplicatehisfindings.Onemotivewaspractical.

Likeanyself-reportquestionnaire,theGritScaleisridiculouslyfakeable.Inresearch studies, participants have no real incentive to lie, but it’s hard toimagine using the Grit Scale in a high-stakes setting where, in fact, there’ssomething to gain by pretending that “I finishwhatever I begin.”QuantifyinggritasWillinghamhaddonewasameasurementstrategythatcouldnoteasilybegamed. Not, at least, without outright lying. In Willingham’s own words:“Lookingforclearsignsofproductive follow-through is ausefulway tominethestudent’strackrecord.”

Butthemoreimportantgoalwastoseewhetherfollow-throughwouldpredictthesameshowing-up-instead-of-dropping-outoutcomesthatarethehallmarkofgrit.

For the support of a new longitudinal study, I turned to the largestphilanthropicfunderineducation:theBillandMelindaGatesFoundation.

I soon learned that the foundation is especially interested in why collegestudents dropout in such largenumbers.At present, thedropout rate for two-and four-year colleges in theUnitedStates is among the highest in theworld.Escalatingtuitionsandthebyzantinelabyrinthoffinancialaidinthiscountryaretwocontributing factors.Woefully inadequateacademicpreparation is another.Still,studentswithsimilarfinancialcircumstancesandidenticalSATscoresdropoutatverydifferentrates.Predictingwhowillpersist throughcollegeandearntheirdegreeandwhowon’tisamongthemoststubbornproblemsinallofsocialscience.Nobodyhasaverysatisfyinganswer.

InameetingwithBillandMelindaGates,Ihadanopportunitytoexplainmyperspective in person. Learning to follow through on something hard in highschool, I said, seemed the best-possible preparation for doing the same thinglaterinlife.

In that conversation, I learned that Bill himself has long appreciated theimportanceofcompetenciesother than talent.Back in thedayswhenhehadamoredirect role inhiring softwareprogrammers atMicrosoft, for instance, hesaidhe’dgiveapplicantsaprogrammingtaskheknewwouldrequirehoursandhours of tedious troubleshooting. This wasn’t an IQ test, or a test ofprogrammingskills.Rather,itwasatestofaperson’sabilitytomusclethrough,presson,get tothefinishline.Billonlyhiredprogrammerswhofinishedwhattheybegan.

WithgeneroussupportfromtheGatesFoundation,Irecruited1,200seniorsand,justasWillinghamhaddone,askedthemtonametheirextracurricularactivities(if they had any), when they’d participated in them, and how they’d

distinguished themselves doing them, if at all.Around the lab,whileweweredoingthisstudy,webegancallingthismeasurewhatitlookslike:theGritGrid.

Directions:Pleaselistactivitiesinwhichyouspentasignificantamountoftime outside of class. They can be any kind of pursuit, including sports,extracurricular activities, volunteer activities, research/academicactivities, paid work, or hobbies. If you do not have a second or thirdactivity,pleaseleavethoserowsblank:

Activity Gradelevelsofparticipation9-10-11-12

Achievements,awards,leadershippositions,ifany

FollowingWillingham’s lead,my research teamcalculatedGritGrid scoresbyquantifyingmultiyearcommitmentandadvancementinuptotwoactivities.

Specifically, each activity students did for two years ormore earned a gritpoint; activities students did for only one year earned no points and weren’tscored further.Activities that studentspursued formultipleyearsand inwhichthey could point to some kind of advancement (for example, member of thestudentgovernmentoneyearandtreasurerthenext)eachearnedasecondpoint.Finally, when advancement could reasonably be deemed “high” versus just“moderate” (president of the student body, MVP of the basketball team,employeeofthemonth),weawardedathirdgritpoint.

Insum,studentscouldscoreanywherefromzeroontheGritGrid(ifthey’dparticipated innomultiyear commitments at all) to sixpoints (if theypursuedtwo different multiyear commitments and, in both, demonstrated highachievement).

As expected, we found that students with higher Grit Grid scores ratedthemselveshigheringrit,andsodidtheirteachers.

Thenwewaited.Aftergraduatingfromhighschool,studentsinoursampleendedupatdozens

ofcollegesthroughoutthecountry.Aftertwoyears,only34percentofthe1,200students in our studywere enrolled in a two- or four-year college. Just asweexpected,theoddsofstayinginschooldependedheavilyonGritGridscores:69percentofstudentswhoscored6outof6ontheGritGridwerestillincollege.

Incontrast,just16percentofstudentswhoscored0out6werestillontracktogettheircollegedegrees.

In a separate study, we applied the same Grit Grid scoring system to thecollegeextracurriculars of novice teachers.The resultswere strikingly similar.Teacherswho,incollege,haddemonstratedproductivefollow-throughinafewextracurricular commitments were more likely to stay in teaching and,furthermore,weremoreeffectiveinproducingacademicgainsintheirstudents.In contrast, persistence and effectiveness in teaching had absolutely nomeasurable relationship with teachers’ SAT scores, their college GPAs, orinterviewerratingsoftheirleadershippotential.

Considered together, theevidence I’vepresentedso farcouldbe interpreted intwodifferentways.I’vebeenarguingthatextracurricularactivitiesareawayforyoung people to practice, and therefore develop passion and perseverance, forlong-term goals. But it’s also possible that following through withextracurriculars is something only gritty people do. These explanations aren’tmutually exclusive: it’s entirely possible that both factors—cultivation andselection—areatplay.

Mybestguessisthatfollowingthroughonourcommitmentswhilewegrowupbothrequiresgritand,atthesametime,buildsit.

One reason I think so is that, in general, the situations to which peoplegravitatetendtoenhancetheverycharacteristicsthatbroughtusthereinthefirstplace. This theory of personality development has been dubbed thecorresponsiveprinciplebyBrentRoberts, theforemostauthorityonwhatleadstoenduringchangesinhowpeoplethink,feel,andactindifferentsituations.

WhenBrentwas a psychology graduate student at Berkeley, the prevailingviewwas that,afterchildhood,personalitiesaremoreor less“set likeplaster.”Brentandotherpersonalityresearchershavesincecollectedenoughlongitudinaldata—following, literally, thousands of people across years and decades—toshowthatpersonalitiesdo,infact,changeafterchildhood.

Brent and other personality researchers have found that a key process inpersonality development involves situations and personality traits reciprocally“calling”eachother.Thecorresponsiveprinciplesuggeststhattheverytraitsthatsteerustowardcertainlifesituationsaretheverysametraitsthatthosesituationsencourage,reinforce,andamplify.Inthisrelationshipthereisthepossibilityofvirtuousandviciouscycles.

For instance, in one study,Brent andhis collaborators followed a thousandadolescentsinNewZealandastheyenteredadulthoodandfoundjobs.Overthe

years, hostile adolescents ended up in lower-prestige jobs and reporteddifficultiespayingtheirbills.Theseconditions,inturn,ledtoincreasesinlevelsofhostility,whichfurthererodedtheiremploymentprospects.Bycontrast,moreagreeable adolescents entered a virtuous cycle of psychological development.These“nicekids”securedhigher-statusjobsofferinggreaterfinancialsecurity—outcomesthatenhancedtheirtendencytowardsociability.

Sofar,therehasn’tbeenacorresponsiveprinciplestudyofgrit.Let me speculate, though. Left to her own devices, a little girl who, after

failingtoopenaboxofraisinsandsayingtoherself,“Thisistoohard!Iquit!”mightenteraviciouscyclethatreinforcesgivingup.Shemightlearntogiveuponethingafteranother,eachtimemissingtheopportunitytoenterthevirtuouscycleofstruggle,followedbyprogress,followedbyconfidencetotrysomethingevenharder.

Butwhataboutalittlegirlwhosemothertakeshertoballet,eventhoughit’shard?Eventhoughthelittlegirldoesn’treallyfeellikeputtingonherleotardatthatmoment, because she’s a little tired.Even though, at the last practice, herballet teacher scolded her for holding her arms thewrongway,which clearlystungabit.What if that littlegirlwasnudged to tryand tryagainand,atonepractice, experienced the satisfaction of a breakthrough? Might that victoryencourage the little girl to practice other difficult things? Might she learn towelcomechallenge?

TheyearafterWarrenWillinghampublishedthePersonalQualitiesProject,BillFitzsimmonsbecamethedeanofadmissionsatHarvard.

Two years later, when I applied to Harvard, it was Bill who reviewedmyapplication.Iknowbecause,atsomepointasanundergraduate,IfoundmyselfinvolvedinacommunityserviceprojectwithBill.“Oh,MissSchoolSpirit!”heexclaimedwhenwewere introduced.And thenhe tickedoff,with remarkableaccuracy,thevariousactivitiesI’dpursuedinhighschool.

I recently called Bill to ask what he thought about extracurricular follow-through. Not surprisingly, he was intimately familiar with Willingham’sresearch.

“Ihaveitheresomewhere,”hesaid,seeminglyscanninghisbookshelf.“It’sneverfarfromreach.”

Okay, so did he agree with Willingham’s conclusions? Did Harvardadmissions really care about anything other than SAT scores and high schoolgrades?

Iwantedtoknow,becauseWillingham’sopinion,atthetimehepublishedhisfindings,wasthatcollegeadmissionsofficesweren’tweighingfollow-throughinextracurricularsasheavilyashisresearchsuggestedtheyoughttobe.

Eachyear,BillFitzsimmonsexplained,severalhundredstudentsareadmittedtoHarvardon themeritsof trulyoutstandingacademiccredentials.Theirearlyscholarlyaccomplishmentssuggesttheywillatsomepointbecomeworld-classacademics.

But Harvard admits at least as many students who, in Bill’s words, “havemadeacommitmenttopursuesomethingtheylove,believein,andvalue—and[havedone]sowithsingularenergy,discipline,andplainoldhardwork.”

Nobodyintheadmissionsofficewantsorneedsthesestudentstopursuethesameactivitieswhen theyget tocampus. “Let’s takeathleticsasanexample,”Billsaid.“Let’ssaythepersongetshurt,ordecidesnottoplay,ordoesn’tmakethe team. What we have tended to find is that all that energy, drive, andcommitment—all that grit—that was developed through athletics can almostalwaysbetransferredtosomethingelse.”

Bill assured me that, in fact, Harvard was paying the utmost attention tofollow-through. After describing our more recent research confirmingWillingham’sfindings,hetoldmetheyareusingaverysimilarratingscale:“Weaskour admissions staff to do exactlywhat it appears you’re doingwith yourGritGrid.”

Thishelpedexplainwhyhe’dmaintainedsuchaclearmemory,morethanayearafterhe’dreadmyapplication,ofhowI’dspentmytimeoutsideofclassesinhighschool. Itwas inmyactivities,asmuchasanythingelse inmyrecord,thathefoundevidencethatI’dpreparedmyselffortherigors—andopportunities—ofcollege.

“Mysense,frombeinginadmissionsforoverfortyyears,”Billconcluded,“isthat most people are born with tremendous potential. The real question iswhether they’reencouragedtoemploytheirgoodold-fashionedhardworkandtheirgrit,ifyouwill,toitsmaximum.Intheend,thosearethepeoplewhoseemtobethemostsuccessful.”

I pointed out that extracurricular follow-throughmight be amere signal ofgrit,ratherthansomethingthatwoulddevelopit.Billagreed,butreaffirmedhisjudgment that activities aren’t just a signal. His intuition was that followingthrough on hard things teaches a young person powerful, transferable lessons.“You’re learning from others, you’re finding out more and more throughexperiencewhatyourprioritiesare,you’redevelopingcharacter.

“In some cases,” Bill continued, “students get into activities becausesomebody else,maybe the parent,maybe the counselor, suggests it. Butwhat

often happens is that these experiences are actually transformative, and thestudents actually learn something very important, and then they jump in andcontribute to these activities in ways that they and their parents and theircounselorneverwould’veimagined.”

What surprised me most about my conversation with Bill was howmuch heworried about the kids who’d been denied the opportunity to practice grit inextracurricularactivities.

“Moreandmorehighschoolshavediminishedoreliminatedartsandmusicand other activities,” Bill told me, and then explained that, of course, it wasprimarilyschoolsservingpoorkidswhoweremakingthesecuts.“It’stheleastlevelplayingfieldonecouldpossiblyimagine.”

ResearchbyHarvardpolitical scientistRobertPutnamandhiscollaboratorsreveals that affluentAmerican high school students have been participating inextracurricular activities at consistentlyhigh rates for thepast fewdecades. Incontrast,participationamongpoorstudentshasbeendroppingprecipitously.

Thewideninggapinextracurricularparticipationbetweenrichandpoorhasafew contributing factors, Putnam explains. Pay-to-play sports activities liketraveling soccer teams are one obstacle to equal participation. Even whenparticipationis“free,”notallparentscanaffordtheuniforms.Notallparentsareableorwilling todrive theirkids toandfrompracticesandgames.Formusic,thecostofprivatelessonsandinstrumentscanbeprohibitive.

Just as Putnam would have predicted, there is a worrisome correlationbetween family incomeandGritGridscores.Onaverage,GritGridscores forthe high school seniors in our sample who qualified for federally subsidizedmealswereafullpointlowerthanthoseforstudentswhoweremoreprivileged.

LikeRobertPutnam,GeoffreyCanadaisaHarvard-trainedsocialscientist.Geoffisaboutasgrittyastheycome.Hispassionisenablingkidsgrowingup

inpovertytorealizetheirpotential.Recently,Geoffhasbecomesomethingofacelebrity. But for decades he toiled in relative obscurity as the director of aradically intensive education program in New York City called the HarlemChildren’sZone.Thefirstkidstomakeitallthewaythrougharenowincollege,and the program’s unusually comprehensive approach, coupledwith unusuallysuccessfulresults,hasattractednationalattention.

Afewyearsago,GeoffcametoPenntodeliverourcommencementspeech.Imanagedtoshoehornaprivatemeetingintohisbusyschedule.Givenourlimited

time,Igotstraighttothepoint.“Iknowyou’retrainedasasocialscientist,”Ibegan.“AndIknowthereare

thingswehavetonsofevidenceforandaren’tdoingineducation,andtherearethingswe have no evidence for and keep doing anyway.But Iwant to know,fromallyou’veseenanddone,whatyoureallythinkisthewaytodigkidsoutofpoverty.”

Geoffsatforwardandputhishandstogetherlikehewasabouttopray.“I’lltellyoustraight.I’mafatheroffour.I’vewatchedmany,manykidswhowerenot my own grow up. I may not have the random-assignment, double-blindstudies to prove it, but I can tell youwhat poor kids need. They need all thethingsyouandIgivetoourownchildren.Whatpoorkidsneedisalot.Butyoucansumitupbysayingthatwhattheyneedisadecentchildhood.”

Aboutayearlater,GeoffgaveaTEDtalk,andIwasluckyenoughtobeintheaudience.MuchofwhatHarlemChildren’sZonedid,Canadaexplained,wasbasedonrock-solidscientificevidence—preschooleducation,for instance,andsummer enrichment activities. But there’s one thing his program providedwithout sufficient scientific evidence to justify the expense: extracurricularactivities.

“Youknowwhy?”heasked.“BecauseIactuallylikekids.”Theaudiencelaughed,andhesaiditagain:“Iactuallylikekids.”“You’ve never read a study from MIT that says giving your kid dance

instructionisgoingtohelpthemdoalgebrabetter,”headmitted.“Butyouwillgivethatkiddanceinstruction,andyouwillbethrilledthatthatkidwantstododanceinstruction,anditwillmakeyourday.”

Geoffrey Canada is right. All the research I talked about in this chapter isnonexperimental.Idon’tknowifthere’lleverbeadaywhenscientistsfigureoutthe logistics—and ethics—of randomly assigning kids to years of ballet classandthenwaitingtoseeifthebenefittransferstomasteringalgebra.

But, in fact, scientists have done short-term experiments testing whetherdoinghardthingsteachesapersontodootherhardthings.

PsychologistRobertEisenbergerat theUniversityofHouston is the leadingauthority on this topic.He’s run dozens of studies inwhich rats are randomlyassigned todosomethinghard—likepressa lever twenty times togetasinglepelletofratchow—orsomethingeasy,likepressthatlevertwotimestogetthesame reward. Afterward, Bob gives all the rats a different difficult task. Inexperiment after experiment, he’s found the same results:Compared to rats in

the “easy condition,” rats who were previously required to work hard forrewardssubsequentlydemonstratemorevigorandenduranceonthesecondtask.

MyfavoriteofBob’sexperimentsisamonghismostclever.Henoticedthatlaboratoryratsaregenerallyfedinoneoftwoways.Someresearchersusewire-meshhoppersfilledwithchow,requiringratstognawatthefoodpelletsthroughsmallopeningsinthemesh.Otherresearchersjustscatterpelletsonthefloorofthecage.Bobfiguredthatworkingforyoursupper,sotospeak,mightteachratstoworkharderonaneffortfultrainingtask.Infact,that’sexactlywhathefound.Hebeganhisexperimentbytrainingyoungratstorundownanarrowplankforareward.Then,hedividedtheratsintotwogroups.Onegrouplivedincageswithhopper feeders,and theother incageswhere foodpelletswerescatteredaboutthe floor. After a month of working to obtain food from the hopper, ratsperformedbetterontherunwaytaskthanratswhoinsteadmerelywanderedovertotheirfoodwhentheywerehungry.

Because hiswifewas a teacher, Bob had the opportunity to try short-termversionsof the sameexperimentswith children.For instance, inone study,hegave pennies to second and third graders for counting objects, memorizingpictures, and matching shapes. For some children, Bob rapidly increased thedifficultyofthesetasksasthechildrenimproved.Otherchildrenwererepeatedlygiveneasyversionsofthesametasks.

Allthechildrengotpenniesandpraise.Afterward,thechildreninbothconditionswereaskedtodoatediousjobthat

was entirely different from the previous tasks: copying a list ofwords onto asheetofpaper.Bob’s findingswere exactly the sameaswhathe’d foundwithrats:childrenwho’d trainedondifficult (rather thaneasy) tasksworkedharderonthecopyingtask.

Bob’sconclusion?Withpractice,industriousnesscanbelearned.InhomagetotheearlierworkofSeligmanandMaieronlearnedhelplessness,

where the inability to escape punishment led animals to give up on a secondchallenging task, Bob dubbed this phenomenon learned industriousness. Hismajor conclusion was simply that the association between working hard andreward can be learned. Bob will go further and say that without directlyexperiencingtheconnectionbetweeneffortandreward,animals,whetherthey’reratsorpeople,defaulttolaziness.Calorie-burningeffortis,afterall,somethingevolutionhasshapedustoavoidwheneverpossible.

My daughter Lucy was still a baby when I first read Bob’s work on learnedindustriousness, andher sister,Amanda,wasa toddler.Withbothgirls, I soon

discovered Iwas ill-suited toplay the roleBobhad inhis experiments. Itwasdifficultformetocreatethenecessarycontingencyforlearning—inotherwords,anenvironmentinwhichtheacknowledgedrulewasIfyouworkhard,you’llberewarded.Ifyoudon’t,youwon’t.

Indeed, I struggled to provide the sort of feedback I knew my childrenneeded. I foundmyselfenthusiasticallypraising themnomatterwhat theydid.And this is one of the reasons extracurricular activities offer superior playingfields for grit—coaches and teachers are tasked with bringing forth grit inchildrenwhoarenottheirown.

AttheballetclasswhereIdroppedoffthegirlseachweek,therewasaterrificteacherwaitingtoreceivethem.Thisteacher’spassionforballetwasinfectious.She was every bit as supportive as I was, and, frankly, a heck of a lot moredemanding.Whenastudentambledinlatetoclass,theygotasternlectureabouttheimportanceofrespectingotherpeople’stime.Ifastudentforgottoweartheirleotardthatday,orlefttheirballetshoesathome,theysatandwatchedtheotherchildren for the entire class andweren’t allowed to participate.When amovewasexecutedincorrectly,therewereendlessrepetitionsandadjustmentsuntil,atlast,thisteacher’shighstandardsweresatisfied.Sometimes,theselessonswereaccompaniedbyshort lecturesonthehistoryofballet,andhoweachdancer isresponsibleforcarryingonthattradition.

Harsh?Idon’tthinkso.Highstandards?Absolutely.Andsoitwasinballetclass,morethanathome,thatLucyandAmandagot

torehearsedevelopinganinterest,diligentlypracticethingstheycouldn’tyetdo,appreciate the beyond-the-self purpose of their efforts, and, when bad dayseventuallybecamegoodones,acquirethehopetotry,tryagain.

Inourfamily,welivebytheHardThingRule.Ithasthreeparts.Thefirstisthateveryone—includingMom andDad—has to do a hard thing. A hard thing issomething that requires daily deliberate practice. I’ve told my kids thatpsychologicalresearchismyhardthing,butIalsopracticeyoga.Dadtriestogetbetterandbetteratbeingarealestatedeveloper;hedoesthesamewithrunning.Myoldest daughter,Amanda, has chosen playing the piano as her hard thing.Shedidballetforyears,butlaterquit.SodidLucy.

ThisbringsmetothesecondpartoftheHardThingRule:Youcanquit.Butyoucan’tquituntiltheseasonisover,thetuitionpaymentisup,orsomeother“natural”stoppingpointhasarrived.Youmust,atleastfortheintervaltowhichyou’vecommittedyourself,finishwhateveryoubegin.Inotherwords,youcan’tquitonadaywhenyourteacheryellsatyou,oryoulosearace,oryouhaveto

missasleepoverbecauseofarecitalthenextmorning.Youcan’tquitonabadday.

And,finally,theHardThingRulestatesthatyougettopickyourhardthing.Nobodypicksitforyoubecause,afterall,itwouldmakenosensetodoahardthingyou’renotevenvaguelyinterestedin.Eventhedecisiontotryballetcameafter a discussion of various other classes my daughters could have choseninstead.

Lucy,infact,cycledthroughahalf-dozenhardthings.Shestartedeachwithenthusiasm but eventually discovered that she didn’t want to keep goingwithballet,gymnastics,track,handicrafts,orpiano.Intheend,shelandedonviola.She’sbeenatitforthreeyears,duringwhichtimeherinteresthaswaxedratherthanwaned.Lastyear,shejoinedtheschoolandall-cityorchestras,andwhenIaskedherrecentlyifshewantedtoswitchherhardthingtosomethingelse,shelookedatmelikeIwascrazy.

Next year, Amanda will be in high school. Her sister will follow the yearafter.Atthatpoint,theHardThingRulewillchange.Afourthrequirementwillbeadded:eachgirlmustcommittoatleastoneactivity,eithersomethingneworthepianoandviolathey’vealreadystarted,foratleasttwoyears.

Tyrannical? I don’t believe it is. And if Lucy’s and Amanda’s recentcomments on the topic aren’t disguised apple-polishing, neither do mydaughters.They’dliketogrowgrittierastheygetolder,and,likeanyskill,theyknowgrittakespractice.Theyknowthey’refortunatetohavetheopportunitytodoso.

For parents who would like to encourage grit without obliterating theirchildren’scapacitytochoosetheirownpath,IrecommendtheHardThingRule.

Chapter12

ACULTUREOFGRIT

ThefirstfootballgameIeverwatchedfrombeginningtoendwasSuperBowlXLVIII. The game took place on February 2, 2014, and pitted the SeattleSeahawksagainsttheDenverBroncos.TheSeahawkswon,43–8.

The day after their victory, Seahawks head coach Pete Carroll wasinterviewedbyaformermemberoftheSanFrancisco49ers.

“Iknowwhen Iwaswith the (Forty-)Niners,” the interviewerbegan,“youwerethere....ItmeantsomethingtobeaNiner,notafootballplayer.Whenyouand JohnSchneider are looking for aplayer, tellme:What is thatphilosophy,whatdoesitmeantobeaSeahawk?”

Petechuckledsoftly.“I’mnotgoingtogiveitalltoyou,but...”“Comeon,man.Giveittome,Pete.”“Iwilltellyouthatwe’relookingforgreatcompetitors.That’sreallywhereit

starts.Andthat’stheguysthatreallyhavegrit.Themindsetthatthey’realwaysgoingtosucceed,thatthey’vegotsomethingtoprove.They’reresilient,they’renotgoingtoletsetbacksholdthemback.They’renotgoingtobedeterred,youknow,bychallengesandhurdlesandthings....It’sthatattitude—wereallyrefertoitasgrit.”

I can’t say I was surprised, either by Pete’s comments or by his team’striumphantperformancethedaybefore.

Why not? Because nine months earlier, I’d received a call from Pete.Apparently,he’djustwatchedmyTEDtalkongrit.Whatpromptedhiscallweretwourgentemotions.

First, hewas curious—eager to learnmore about grit than I’d been able toconveyinthesixminutesTEDhadallottedme.

Second,hewasannoyed.NotbymostofwhatIhadtosay.Itwasjustthepartat theend that irkedhim.Science, I’d confessed in that talk,hadat thatpoint

disappointingly little to say about building grit. Pete later toldme that he justabout jumped out of his chair, practically yelling at my on-screen image thatbuildinggritisexactlywhattheSeahawkscultureisallabout.

Weendeduptalkingforroughlyanhour:meononeendoftheline,sittingatmydesk inPhiladelphia,andPeteandhisstaffon theother,huddledaroundaspeakerphoneinSeattle.ItoldhimwhatIwaslearninginmyresearch,andPetereciprocated by telling me about what he was trying to accomplish with theSeahawks.

“Comeandwatchus.Allwedoishelppeoplebegreatcompetitors.Weteachthemhowtopersevere.Weunleashtheirpassion.That’sallwedo.”

Whetherwe realize itornot, theculture inwhichwe live,andwithwhichweidentify,powerfullyshapesjustabouteveryaspectofourbeing.

By culture, I don’tmean the geographic or political boundaries that divideone people from another as much as the invisible psychological boundariesseparatingusfromthem.Atitscore,acultureisdefinedbythesharednormsandvaluesofagroupofpeople. Inotherwords,adistinctcultureexistsanytimeagroupofpeopleareinconsensusabouthowwedothingsaroundhereandwhy.Asforhowtherestoftheworldoperates,thesharperthecontrast,thestrongerthebondsamongthoseinwhatpsychologistscallthe“in-group.”

SoitisthattheSeattleSeahawksandtheKIPPcharterschools—asmuchasany nation—are bona fide cultures. If you’re a Seahawk, you’re not just afootball player. If you’re aKIPPster, you’re not just a student. Seahawks andKIPPsters do things in a certain way, and they do so for certain reasons.Likewise,WestPointhasadistinctculture—onethatismorethantwocenturiesold,andyet,aswe’llsoondiscover,continuestoevolve.

Formanyofus,thecompaniesweworkforareanimportantculturalforceinour lives. For instance, growing up, my dad liked to refer to himself as aDuPonter. All the pencils in our house were company-issued, embossed withphrases like Safety First, and my dad would light up every time a DuPontcommercialcameontelevision,sometimesevenchiminginwiththevoice-over:“Betterthingsforbetterliving.”IthinkmydadonlymettheCEOofDuPontahandfulof times,buthe’dtellstoriesofhisgoodjudgmentthewayyoumightspeakofafamilywarhero.

How do you know you’re part of a culture that, in a very real sense, hasbecome part of you? When you adopt a culture, you make a categoricalallegiancetothatin-group.You’renot“sortof”aSeahawk,or“sortof”aWestPointer.Youeitherareoryouaren’t.You’reinthegroup,oroutof it.Youcan

use a noun, not just an adjective or a verb, to describe your commitment. Somuchdepends,asitturnsout,onwhichin-groupyoucommitto.

Thebottomlineoncultureandgritis:Ifyouwanttobegrittier,findagrittyculture and join it. If you’re a leader, and you want the people in yourorganizationtobegrittier,createagrittyculture.

IrecentlycalledDanChambliss,thesociologistwemetinchapter3whospentthefirstsixyearsofhisprofessionallifestudyingswimmers.

Myquestion forDanwaswhether, in the three decades since his landmarkstudy of expertise, he’d changed his mind about any of its provocativeconclusions.

Did he, for example, still believe talent was largely a red herring when itcametounderstandingtheoriginsofworld-classexcellence?Didhestandbytheobservation that going from your local club team to being competitive at thestate and national levels and, finally, to world-class, Olympic-level expertisenecessitatedqualitativeimprovementsinskill,notjust“morehours”inthepool?Andwasmystifyingexcellence,at theendof theday, really theconfluenceofcountless,perfectlyexecutedyetmundane,doableacts?Yes,yes,andyes.“ButIleftoutthemostimportantthing,”Dansaid.“Therealwaytobecome

agreatswimmeristojoinagreatteam.”Thatlogicmightstrikeyouasstrange.Youmightassumethatfirstaperson

becomesagreatswimmerandthenheorshejoinsagreatteam.Andit’strue,ofcourse, that great teamsdon’t take just anyone.There are tryouts.There are alimitednumberofspots.Therearestandards.And themoreelite the team, thefiercerthedesireofthosealreadyontheteamtokeepthosestandardshigh.

WhatDanwasgettingatisthereciprocaleffectofateam’sparticularcultureonthepersonwhojoinsit.Inhismanyyearsinandoutofthepool,he’dseenthearrowofcausalitybetweenagreatteamandagreatindividualperformergobothways. In effect, he’dwitnessed the corresponsiveprinciple of personalitydevelopment:he’dseenthattheverycharacteristicsthatareselectedforcertainsituationsare,inturn,enhancedbythem.

“Look,whenIstartedstudyingOlympians,Ithought,‘Whatkindofoddballgetsupeverydayatfourinthemorningtogotoswimmingpractice?’Ithought,‘Thesemustbeextraordinarypeople todo that sortof thing.’But the thing is,whenyougotoaplacewherebasicallyeverybodyyouknowisgettingupatfourin the morning to go to practice, that’s just what you do. It’s no big deal. Itbecomesahabit.”

Overandover,Danhadobservednewswimmersjoinateamthatdidthingsanotchortwobetterthanwhatthey’dbeenusedto.Veryquickly,thenewcomerconformedtotheteam’snormsandstandards.

“Speaking formyself,”Dan added, “I don’t have thatmuch self-discipline.ButifI’msurroundedbypeoplewhoarewritingarticlesandgivinglecturesandworkinghard, I tend to fall in line. If I’minacrowdofpeopledoing thingsacertainway,Ifollowalong.”

Thedrive to fit in—toconform to thegroup—ispowerful indeed.Someofthemost important psychology experiments in history have demonstrated howquickly, and usually without conscious awareness, the individual falls in linewithagroupthatisactingorthinkingadifferentway.

“Soitseemstome,”Danconcluded,“thatthere’sahardwaytogetgritandan easy way. The hard way is to do it by yourself. The easy way is to useconformity—thebasichumandrivetofit in—becauseifyou’rearoundalotofpeoplewhoaregritty,you’regoingtoactgrittier.”

Short-termconformityeffectsarenotwhatexcitemeaboutthepowerofculturetoinfluencegrit.Notexactly.

Whatexcitesmemostistheideathat,inthelongrun,culturehasthepowerto shape our identity.Over time and under the right circumstances, the normsand values of the group towhichwe belong become our own.We internalizethem. We carry them with us. The way we do things around here and whyeventuallybecomesThewayIdothingsandwhy.

Identityinfluenceseveryaspectofourcharacter,butithasspecialrelevancetogrit.Often, thecriticalgritty-or-notdecisionswemake—togetuponemoretime;tostickitoutthroughthismiserable,exhaustingsummer;torunfivemileswithourteammateswhenonourownwemightonlyrunthree—areamatterofidentitymore than anything else. Often, our passion and perseverance do notspringfromacold,calculatinganalysisofthecostsandbenefitsofalternatives.Rather,thesourceofourstrengthisthepersonweknowourselvestobe.

JamesMarch,anexpertondecisionmakingatStanfordUniversity,explainsthedifference thisway:Sometimes,werevert tocost-benefitanalyses tomakechoices.Ofcourse,Marchdoesn’tmeanthat,indecidingwhattoorderforlunchorwhentogotobed,wetakeoutapadofpaperandacalculator.Whathemeansis that, sometimes when making choices, we take into consideration how wemightbenefit,andwhatwe’llhavetopay,andhowlikelyitisthatthesebenefitsandcostswillbewhatwethinkthey’llbe.Wecandoallofthisinourheads,and

indeed,whenI’mdecidingwhattoorderforlunchorwhentogotobed,Ioftenthinkthroughtheprosandtheconsbeforemakingadecision.It’sverylogical.

Butothertimes,Marchsays,wedon’tthinkthroughtheconsequencesofouractionsatall.Wedon’taskourselves:Whatarethebenefits?Whatarethecosts?Whataretherisks?Instead,weaskourselves:WhoamI?Whatisthissituation?Whatdoessomeonelikemedoinasituationlikethis?

Here’sanexample:Tom Deierlein introduced himself to me this way: “I am a West Pointer,

AirborneRanger, and two-timeCEO. I founded and run anonprofit. I amnotspecialorextraordinaryinanyway.Exceptone:grit.”

Onactiveduty inBaghdadduring thesummerof2006,Tomwasshotbyasniper.Thebullet shatteredhispelvisandsacrum.Therewasnoway toknowhow the bones would knit back together and what sort of functionality Tommighthavewhentheydid.Doctorstoldhimhemightneverwalkagain.

“Youdon’tknowme,”Tomrepliedsimply.Andthen,tohimself,hemadeapromise torun theArmyTen-Miler,a racehe’dbeen training torunbeforehewasshot.

When,sevenmonthslater,hewasfinallywellenoughtogetoutofbedandbegin physical therapy, Tom worked fiercely, unrelentingly, doing all theassigned exercises and thenmore. Sometimes, he’d grunt in pain or shout outencouragements to himself. “The other patients were a little startled at first,”Tomsays,“buttheygotusedtoit,andthen—allingoodfun—they’dmockmewithfakegruntsoftheirown.”

Afteraparticularlytoughworkout,Tomgot“zingers,”sharpboltsofpainthatshotdownhis legs.“They’donlylastasecondortwo,”Tomsays,“but they’dcomebackatrandomtimesthroughouttheday,literallymakingmejumpfromthe shock.”Without fail, eachday,Tom set a goal, and for a fewmonths, thepainandperspirationwerepayingoff.Finally,hecouldjustbarelywalkwithawalker,thenwithjustacane,thenonhisown.Hewalkedfasterandfarther,thenwas able to run on the treadmill for a few seconds while holding onto therailings, and then for a fullminute, and on and on until, after fourmonths ofimproving,hehitaplateau.

“Myphysical therapist said, ‘You’redone.Good job.’And I said, ‘I’mstillcoming.’And she said, ‘Youdidwhat youneeded to do.You’re good.’And Isaid,‘No,no,I’mstillcoming.’ ”

And then Tom kept going for a full eight months beyond the point wherethere were any noticeable improvements. Technically, his physical therapistwasn’tallowedtotreathimanymore,butTomcamebackonhisowntousetheequipmentanyway.

Wasthereanybenefittothoseextramonths?Maybe.Maybenot.Tomcan’tsayforsurethattheextraexercisesdidanygood.Hedoesknowthathewasableto start training for theArmyTen-Miler thenext summer.Beforegetting shot,he’daimedtorunseven-minutemiles,completingtheraceinseventyminutesorless.Aftergettingshot,herevisedhisgoal:hehopedtoruntwelve-minutemilesandtofinishintwohours.Hisfinishtime?Onehourandfifty-sixminutes.

Tom can’t say that running the Army Ten-Miler—and, after that, twotriathlons—weredecisionsrootedincostsandbenefits,either.“Isimplywasn’tgoingtofailbecauseIdidn’tcareordidn’ttry.That’snotwhoIam.”

Indeed, the calculated costs and benefits of passion and perseverance don’talwaysaddup,atleastintheshortrun.It’softenmore“sensible”togiveupandmoveon.Itcanbeyearsormorebeforegrit’sdividendspayoff.

And that’s exactlywhy culture and identity are so critical to understandinghow gritty people live their lives. The logic of anticipated costs and benefitsdoesn’texplaintheirchoicesverywell.Thelogicofidentitydoes.

ThepopulationofFinlandisjustoverfivemillion.TherearefewerFinnsintheworldthanNewYorkers.Thistiny,coldNordiccountry—sofarnorththat,inthedepth of winter, they get barely six hours of daylight—has been invadednumerous times by larger, more powerful neighbors. Whether thosemeteorologicalandhistoricalchallengescontributetohowFinnsseethemselvesisagoodquestion.Regardless,itisundeniablethattheFinnsseethemselvesasamongtheworld’sgrittiestpeople.

The closest word to grit in Finnish is sisu (pronounced see-sue). Thetranslation isn’t perfect. Grit specifies having a passion to accomplish aparticular top-level goal and the perseverance to follow through. Sisu, on theotherhand,isreallyjustaboutperseverance.Inparticular,sisureferstoasourceof inner strength—a sort of psychological capital—that Finns believe they’reborn with by dint of their Finnish heritage. Quite literally, sisu refers to theinsidesofaperson,theirguts.

In1939,FinlandwastheunderdogintheWinterWar,battlingaSovietarmythat boasted three times asmany soldiers, thirty times asmany aircraft, and ahundred times as many tanks. Finnish troops held their ground for severalmonths—dramatically longer than the Soviets or anyone else might haveexpected.In1940,Timemagazineranafeatureonsisu:

TheFinnshavesomethingtheycallsisu.Itisacompoundofbravadoandbravery,offerocityandtenacity,oftheabilitytokeepfightingaftermost

people would have quit, and to fight with the will to win. The Finnstranslatesisuas“theFinnishspirit”butitisamuchmoregutfulwordthanthat.

Inthesameyear,theNewYorkTimesranafeaturecalled“Sisu:AWordThatExplainsFinland.”AFinnexplainedhiscountrymentothejournalist thisway:“AtypicalFinnisanobstinatesortoffellowwhobelievesingettingthebetterofbadfortunebyprovingthathecanstandworse.”

WhenI lectureongrit tomyundergraduateclasses,I like to includeabriefdigression on sisu. I askmy students the rhetorical question: Canwe forge aculture—asSeahawkscoachPeteCarrollclearlythinkswecan—thatcelebratesandsupportssuchqualitiesassisuandgrit?

A fewyears ago,bycomplete coincidence, ayoungFinnishwomannamedEmiliaLahtiwasintheaudiencewhenImentionedsisu.After the lecture,sherushedtogreetmeandconfirmedthatmyoutsiderviewofsisuwascorrect.Weagreed there was a pressing need for a systematic investigation of sisu, howFinnsthinkaboutit,howit’spropagated.

Emilia becamemy graduate student the next year, completing hermaster’sthesisonexactlythosequestions.SheaskedathousandFinnshowtheythoughtabout sisu and discovered that most have a growth mindset about itsdevelopment. When asked, “Do you think sisu can be learned or developedthroughconsciouseffort?”83percentsaid,“Yes.”Onerespondentthenoffered:“For example, participation in Finnish scouting association jaunts, wherethirteen-year-oldsmaybeinchargeof ten-year-oldsalonein thewoods,seemstohavesomecorrelationwithsisu.”

Asascientist,Idon’ttakeseriouslythenotionthatFinns,ormembersofanyother nationality, have actual reserves of energy hidden in their intestines,awaitingreleaseatthecriticalmoment.Still,therearetwopowerfullessonswecantakefromsisu.

First, thinkingofyourselfas someonewho isable toovercome tremendousadversityoftenleadstobehavior thatconfirmsthatself-conception.Ifyou’reaFinnwiththat“sisuspirit,”yougetupagainnomatterwhat.Likewise,ifyou’reaSeattleSeahawk,you’reacompetitor.Youhavewhatittakestosucceed.Youdon’tletsetbacksholdyouback.Gritiswhoyouare.

Second,eveniftheideaofanactualinnerenergysourceispreposterous,themetaphorcouldn’tbemoreapt. Itsometimesfeels likewehavenothingleft togive,andyet,inthosedarkanddesperatemoments,wefindthatifwejustkeepputting one foot in front of the other, there is a way to accomplish what allreasonseemstoargueagainst.

Theideaofsisuhasbeenintegral toFinnishcultureforcenturies.Butculturescan be created inmuch shorter time frames. Inmy quest to understand whatgives rise to grit, I’ve encountered a few organizations with especially grittyleadersatthehelmwho,inmyview,havesuccessfullyforgedacultureofgrit.

Consider, for example, Jamie Dimon, the CEO of JPMorgan Chase. Jamieisn’ttheonlyoneofthebank’s250,000-plusemployeeswhosays,“Iwearthisjersey and I bleed this blood.”Other employeesmuch lower in the ranks saythingslike“WhatIdoeverydayforourclientsactuallymatters.Noonehereisinsignificant.Andeverydetail,everyemployee,matters. . . . Iamproud tobepartofthisgreatcompany.”

JamiehasbeentheCEOofJPMorganChase,thelargestbankintheUnitedStates, formore than a decade. In the 2008 financial crisis, Jamie steered hisbank to safety, and while other banks collapsed entirely, JPMorgan Chasesomehowturneda$5billionprofit.

Coincidentally, themotto of Jamie’s prep school almamater, theBrowningSchool,is“grytte,”anOldEnglishversionofgritdefinedinan1897yearbookas“firmness,courage,determination...whichalonewinthecrownofgenuinesuccess in all undertakings.” In Jamie’s senior year at Browning, his calculusteacherhadaheartattack,andthesubstituteteacherdidn’tknowcalculus.Halftheboysquit;theotherhalf,includingJamie,decidedtostickwithitandspenttheentireyearinaseparateclassroom,alone,teachingthemselves.

“Youhavetolearntogetoverbumpsintheroadandmistakesandsetbacks,”hetoldmewhenIcalledtotalkabouttheculturehe’sbuiltatJPMorganChase.“Failures are going to happen, and how you dealwith themmay be themostimportant thing inwhetheryou succeed.Youneed fierce resolve.Youneed totakeresponsibility.Youcallitgrit.Icallitfortitude.”

FortitudeistoJamieDimonwhatsisuistoFinland.JamierecallsthatgettingfiredfromCitibankatagethirty-three,andthentakingafullyeartoponderwhatlessons to takefromtheepisode,madehimabetter leader.Andhebelieves infortitude enough tomake it a corevalue for the entire JPMorganChasebank.“Theultimatethingisthatweneedtogrowovertime.”

Is it reallypossible, Iasked, fora leader to influence thecultureofsuchanenormous corporation? True, the culture of JPMorgan Chase has, with someaffection,beendescribedas“thecultofJamie.”ButthereareliterallythousandsandthousandsofJPMorganChaseemployeesJamiehasnevermetinperson.

“Absolutely,” Jamie says. “It takes relentless—absolutely relentless—communication.It’swhatyousayandhowyousayit.”

It may also be how often you say it. By all accounts, Jamie is a tirelessevangelist, crossing the country to appear atwhat he calls town hallmeetingswith his employees.At onemeeting hewas asked, “What do you look for inyour leadership team?”His answer? “Capability, character, andhow they treatpeople.” Later, he told me that he asks himself two questions about seniormanagement. First: “Would I let them run the businesswithoutme?” Second:“WouldIletmykidsworkforthem?”

JamiehasafavoriteTeddyRooseveltquotehelikestorepeat:

Itisnotthecriticwhocounts;notthemanwhopointsouthowthestrongman stumbles, orwhere the doer of deeds could have done thembetter.Thecreditbelongstothemanwhoisactuallyinthearena,whosefaceismarredbydustandsweatandblood;whostrivesvaliantly;whoerrs,whocomesshortagainandagain,becausethereisnoeffortwithouterrorandshortcoming; but who does actually strive to do the deeds; who knowsgreat enthusiasms, the great devotions; who spends himself in aworthycause;whoatthebestknowsintheendthetriumphofhighachievement,andwhoattheworst,ifhefails,atleastfailswhiledaringgreatly,sothathisplaceshallneverbewiththosecoldandtimidsoulswhoneitherknowvictorynordefeat.

AndhereishowJamietranslatesthepoetryofRooseveltintotheproseofaJPMorganChasemanual,titledHowWeDoBusiness:“Haveafierceresolveineverythingyoudo.”“Demonstratedetermination,resiliency,andtenacity.”“Donot let temporary setbacks become permanent excuses.” And, finally, “Usemistakesandproblemsasopportunitiestogetbetter—notreasonstoquit.”

AnsonDorrancehasthechallengeofinstillinggritinconsiderablyfewerpeople.Thirty-onewomen, tobeexact,which is the full rosterof thewomen’s soccerteamattheUniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill.Ansonisthewinningestcoach in women’s soccer history. His record includes twenty-two nationalchampionshipsinthirty-oneyearsofcompetition.In1991,hecoachedtheU.S.Women’sNationalTeamtoitsfirstworldtitle.

Duringhisyounger,playingdays,AnsonwasthecaptainoftheUNCmen’ssoccer team. He wasn’t especially talented, but his full-throttle, aggressiveplayingineveryminuteofpracticeandcompetitionearnedtheadmirationofhisteammates, who nicknamed him Hack and Hustle. His father once declared,“Anson,you’rethemostconfidentpersonwithoutanytalentI’veevermet.”To

whichAnson quickly replied, “Dad, I’m taking that as a compliment.”Manyyearslater,asacoach,Ansonobservedthat“talentiscommon;whatyouinvesttodevelopthattalentisthecriticalfinalmeasureofgreatness.”

ManyofAnson’sadmirersattributehisunprecedentedsuccesstorecruitment.“That’ssimplyincorrect,”hetoldme.“We’reout-recruitedbyfiveorsixschoolson a regular basis. Our extraordinary success is about what we do once theplayersgethere.It’sourculture.”

Culture building, Anson said, is a matter of continuous experimentation.“Basically,we’lltryanything,andifitworks,we’llkeepdoingit.”

For instance,after learningaboutmyresearchongrit,AnsonaskedeachofhisplayerstofillouttheGritScaleandmadesureeachreceivedtheirscore.“Tobehonest, Iwasabsolutelyshocked.Withonlyoneor twoexceptions, thegritrankingonyour test is thewayIwouldhaveevaluated theirgrit.”Ansonnowmakes sure the entire team scores themselves on grit each spring so that theyhave“adeeperappreciationforthecriticalqualitiesofsuccessfulpeople.”Eachplayergets toseeher scorebecause,asAnsonput it, “insomecases thescalecaptures them,and insomecases itexposes them.”Returningplayers take thescaleagain—andagain—eachyearsotheycancomparetheirgritnowtowhatitusedtobe.

AnotherexperimentthatstuckistheBeepTest,whichbeginseveryTarHeelseason. All the players line up, shoulder to shoulder, and at the sound of anelectronicbeep,jogtoalinetwentymetersaway,arrivingintimeforthesoundofanotherbeep,whichsignalsthemtoturnaroundandjogbacktowheretheystarted.Backandforththeyrun,pickingupthepaceastheintervalbetweenthebeepsgetsshorterandshorter.Withinminutes,theplayersareinaflat-outsprint—at which point, the beeps come faster still. One by one, players drop out,invariablyfallingtoallfoursinutterexhaustionwhentheydo.Howfartheyget,like everything else the players do in training and competition, is carefullyrecordedand,withoutdelay,postedinthelockerroomforeveryonetosee.

TheBeepTestwasoriginallydesignedbyCanadianexercisephysiologistsasatestofmaximalaerobiccapacity,butgaugingfitnessisonlyonereasonAnsonlikes it. Like the researchers at theHarvardFatigueLaboratorywho, in 1940,designed a treadmill test to assess perseverance through physical pain,Ansonsees the Beep Test as a twofold test of character. “I give a little speechbeforehandaboutwhatthisisgoingtoprovetome,”hetoldme.“Ifyoudowell,eitheryouhaveself-disciplinebecauseyou’ve trainedallsummer,oryouhavethe mental toughness to handle the pain that most people can’t. Ideally, ofcourse, you have both.” Just before the first beep,Anson announces, “Ladies,thisisatestofyourmentality.Go!”

HowelsedoesAnsonbuildacultureofgrit?LikeJamieDimon,heputsalotofstockincommunication.It’scertainlynottheonlythingthathedoes,butasaphilosophy and English major he has a special appreciation for the power ofwords:“Forme,languageiseverything.”

Over theyears,Ansonhasdevelopeda listof twelvecarefullywordedcorevaluesthatdefinewhatitmeanstobeaUNCTarHeel,asopposedtojustanyrun-of-the-millsoccerplayer.“Ifyouwanttocreateagreatculture,”hetoldme,“you have to have a collection of core values that everyone lives.” Half theteam’scorevaluesareaboutteamwork.Halfareaboutgrit.Together,theydefineacultureAnsonandhisplayersrefertoas“thecompetitivecauldron.”

Butalotoforganizationshavecorevalues,Ipointedout,thatareflagrantlyignoredonadailybasis.Ansonagreed.“Ofcourse,there’snothingmotivationalabout the statement that within your culture you work hard. I mean, it’s sobanal.”

Hissolutiontorescuingcorevaluesfrombanalitywasinsomewaysentirelyunpredictableand inotherwaysexactlywhatyoumightexpect fromsomeonewithAnson’shumanitiesbackground.

InspirationstruckwhileAnsonwasreadinganarticleaboutJosephBrodsky,theRussianexileandNobellaureatepoet.Brodsky,Ansonlearned,requiredhisgraduatestudentsatColumbiaUniversitytomemorizescoresofRussianpoemseach semester. Naturally, most students considered this demand unreasonableandantiquated,andtheymarchedintohisofficetotellhimso.Brodskysaidtheycoulddowhattheyliked,butif theydidn’tmemorizetherequiredverses, theywouldn’t get their PhDs. “So they walked out of his office,” Anson recalled,“withtheir tails tuckedfirmlybetweentheir legs,andtheygot towork.”Whathappenednextwas,asAnsonputit,“simplytransformational.”Quitesuddenly,upon committing a verse to memory, Brodsky’s students “felt and lived andbreathedRussia.”Whatwasdeadonthepagehadcometolife.

Rather than read this anecdote and quickly forget it, Anson immediatelyappreciateditsrelevancetothetop-levelgoalhewastryingtoaccomplish.Likejustabouteverythingelsehereads,sees,ordoes,heaskedhimself,HowcanthishelpmedevelopthecultureIwant?

EachyearthatyouplaysoccerforAnsonDorrance,youmustmemorizethreedifferentliteraryquotes,eachhandpickedtocommunicateadifferentcorevalue.“Youwill be tested in front of the team in preseason,” hismemo to the teamreads,“andthentestedagainineveryplayerconference.Notonlydoyouhaveto memorize them, but you have to understand them. So reflect on them aswell....”

Bysenioryear,Anson’sathletesknowalltwelvebyheart,beginningwiththefirst core value—We don’t whine—and its corresponding quote, courtesy ofplaywrightGeorgeBernardShaw:“Thetruejoyinlifeistobeaforceoffortuneinsteadofafeverish,selfish littleclodofailmentsandgrievancescomplainingthattheworldwillnotdevoteitselftomakingyouhappy.”

Verbatimmemorizationisaproud,centuries-oldtraditionatWestPoint.Youcanfindthevery,verylonglistofsongs,poems,codes,creeds,andmiscellanythatallfirst-yearcadets—“plebes”inWestPointparlance—arerequiredtomemorizeinadocumentWestPointcallstheBugleNotes.

ButWestPoint’scurrentsuperintendent,LieutenantGeneralRobertCaslen,isthefirsttopointoutthatwords,eventhosecommittedtomemory,don’tsustainaculturewhentheydivergefromactions.

Take, for example, Schofield’s Definition of Discipline. These words, firstspokeninan1879addresstothecadetsbythensuperintendentJohnSchofield,are the sort you’d expect aWest Pointer to know by heart. The passage thatcadetsmustmemorizebegins:“Thedisciplinewhichmakesthesoldiersofafreecountryreliableinbattleisnottobegainedbyharshortyrannicaltreatment.Onthecontrary,suchtreatmentisfarmorelikelytodestroythantomakeanarmy.”

Schofieldgoesontosay—andthecadetsmustmemorizethis, too—thatthevery same commands can be issued in away that inspires allegiance or seedsresentment. And the difference comes down to one essential thing: respect.Respectofsubordinatesfortheircommander?No,Schofieldsays.Theoriginofgreatleadershipbeginswiththerespectofthecommanderforhissubordinates.

TheironyofrecitingSchofield’supliftingwords,evenasyou’rebeingyelledandscreamedatbyupperclassmen,wasnotlostonCaslenwhenhecommittedthemtomemoryasaneighteen-year-oldplebein1971.Inthatera,hazingwasnot only tolerated but encouraged. “It was the survivalists who succeeded,”Caslen recalled. “It wasn’t so much the physical challenges as the mentaltoughnessrequiredtocopewithalltheyellingandscreaming.”

Indeed, forty years ago, 170 of the cadetswho startedBeast Barracks quitbeforeitwasover.That’s12percent,doubletheproportionwhodroppedoutofBeast by the time I came toWestPoint to studygrit a decade ago.Last year,attritionwasdowntolessthan2percent.

One explanation for this downward trend is hazing, or, rather, the lackthereof.Thepracticeofinflictingphysicalandpsychologicalstressonfirst-yearcadetswaslongconsideredanecessarypartoftougheningupfutureofficers.Asecondbenefit,so the logicwent,was tocull theweak,effectivelyeliminating

weakness in the corps by pushing out thosewho couldn’t handle it. Over thedecades, the listof approvedhazing ritualswasprogressivelycurtailed, and in1990,hazingwasofficiallybannedaltogether.

So, eliminating hazing might explain declining Beast attrition in the latetwentiethcentury,butwhatexplainsthelastdecade’sprecipitousdrop?IsWestPointadmissionsdoingabetterjobofselectingforgrit?Fromtheyear-to-yeardataongritI’veseen,absolutelynot.Theaveragegritscoresofincomingcadetshaven’tchangedsinceWestPointbegancollectingthem.

AccordingtoGeneralCaslen,what’shappenedattheacademyisadeliberatechange in culture. “When only the survivalists succeed, that’s an attritionmodel,” he explained. “There’s another kind of leadership. I call it adevelopmentalmodel. The standards are exactly the same—high—but in onecase,youusefeartogetyoursubordinatestoachievethosestandards.Andintheothercase,youleadfromthefront.”

Onthebattlefield,leadingfromthefrontmeans,quiteliterally,gettingoutinfrontwithyoursoldiers,doingthesamehardwork,andfacingthesamemortalrisks. AtWest Point, it means treating cadets with unconditional respect and,when they fall short ofmeeting the academy’s extraordinarily high standards,figuringoutthesupporttheyneedtodevelop.

“For example,” Caslen explained, “on the physical fitness test, if there arecadetsthatstrugglewiththetwo-milerunandI’mtheirleader,whatI’mgoingtodoissitdownwiththemandputtogetheratrainingprogram.I’mgoingtomakesuretheplanissensible.Someafternoons,I’mgoingtosay,‘Okay,let’sgorun,’or‘Let’sgoworkout,’or‘Let’sgodointervals.’Iwillleadfromthefronttogetthecadettothestandard.Veryoften,thecadetwhowasunabletodoitontheirown all of a sudden is now motivated, and once they start to improve, theirmotivationincreases,andwhentheymeetthoseobjectivestheygainevenmoreconfidence.Atsomepoint,theyfigureouthowtodothingsontheirown.”

Caslen’s example brought tomind a storyWestPointerTomDeierlein toldmeof theeven-tougher-than-Beast trainingheendured tobecomeanAirborneRanger.Atonepoint in the training,hewashangingoffa rock face—aclimbhe’dalreadyfailedonce—witheverymuscleinhisbodyshakinginrebellion.“Ican’t!”TomshoutedtotheRangerinstructorontheplateauabove.“Iexpectedhim to shoutback, ‘That’s right.Quit!You’rea loser!’Thisguy, forwhateverreason,insteadsays,‘Yesyoucan!Getuphere!’AndIdid.Iclimbedup,andIsworetomyselfI’dneversay‘Ican’t’again.”

As forcriticsofWestPoint’snewdevelopmentalculture,Caslenpointsoutthat the academic, physical, and military standards for graduating fromWestPointhave,ifanything,grownmorestringentovertime.He’sconvincedthatthe

academyisproducingfiner,stronger,andmorecapableleadersthaneverbefore.“IfyouwanttomeasureWestPointbyhowmuchyellingandscreaminggoesonaroundhere, then I’m just going to let you complain.Youngmen andwomentodayjustdon’trespondtoyellingandscreaming.”

Other thanobjective standardsof performance,what elsehasn’t changed atWest Point in the last ten years?Norms of politeness and decorum remain sostrongthat,duringmyvisit,IfoundmyselfcheckingmywatchtomakesureIwasafewminutesearlyforeachappointmentand,withoutthinking,addressedeveryman andwoman Imet by “sir” and “ma’am.”Also, the gray full-dressuniformswornbycadetsonformaloccasionsremainthesame,makingtoday’scadetspartofthe“longgrayline”ofWestPointersstretchingbacktwocenturiesbefore them. Finally, cadet slang is still spoken fluently byWest Pointers andincludes such improbably defined terms as firsties for “fourth-year cadets,”spoony for “neat in physical appearance,” and huah for everything from “Iunderstandyou”to“gungho”to“agreed”to“greatjob.”

Caslen isn’t sonaiveas to think that fouryearsofdevelopmentalcultureatWestPointwillreliablyturn2sand3sontheGritScaleinto5s.Butthenagain,the varsity athletes, class presidents, and valedictorians who make it throughWestPoint’stwo-yearadmissionsprocessaren’texactlythebottomofthebarrelingrit. Importantly,he’sseenpeoplechange.He’swatchedcadetsdevelop.Hehas a growth mindset. “You never really know who is going to become aSchwarzkopforaMacArthur.”

TwoyearsafterPeteCarrollcalledtotalkaboutgrit,IgotonaplanetoSeattle.Iwanted to see firsthand what Pete meant when he said the Seahawks werebuildingthegrittiestcultureintheNFL.

By then I’d read his autobiography,Win Forever, in which he talks aboutdiscoveringthepowerofpassionandperseveranceinhisownlife:

Personally,Ihavelearnedthatifyoucreateavisionforyourselfandstickwithit,youcanmakeamazingthingshappeninyourlife.Myexperienceis that once you have done thework to create the clear vision, it is thedisciplineandefforttomaintainthatvisionthatcanmakeitallcometrue.Thetwogohandinhand.Themomentyou’vecreatedthatvision,you’reonyourway,butit’sthediligencewithwhichyousticktothatvisionthatallowsyoutogetthere.

Gettingthatacrosstoplayersisaconstantoccupation.

I’dalsowatchedPetetalkaboutgritandcultureinhismanyinterviews.Inone,Pete is onstage in an auditorium at the University of Southern California,returningasanhonoredguesttotheschoolwherehe’dcoachedtheUSCTrojansto a record six wins in seven championship games over nine years. “What’snew? What are you learning?” Pete’s interviewer asked. Pete recounteddiscoveringmyresearchongritanditsresonancewithhisowndecades-in-the-making approach to coaching. “In our program,” Pete said, his coaching staffreinforcesacultureofgrit throughinnumerable“competitiveopportunitiesandmomentsand illustrations. . . .Reallywhatwe’redoing iswe’re just trying tomake them more gritty.We’re trying to teach them how to persevere.We’retryingtoillustratetothemhowtheycandemonstratemorepassion.”

Thenhegaveanexample.Inpractice,Seahawksplaytowin—offensiveanddefensive players compete against eachotherwith the full-throated aggressionand destroy-the-enemy intensity of a real game. The ritual of weeklycompetition-levelpractice,dubbedCompetitionWednesdays,canbetracedbackto Anson Dorrance, whose book on coaching Pete devoured when he wascraftinghisownapproach.“Ifyou thoughtof itaswhowaswinningandwhowaslosing,you’dmissthewholepoint....It’sreallytheguyacrossfromusthatmakes uswhowe are.”Our opponent, Pete explained, creates challenges thathelpusbecomeourbestselves.

OutsiderstoSeahawkscultureeasilymissthatpoint.“Guysdon’tunderstandit right away,” Pete said. “They don’t get it, but in time we work our waythrough it.” For Pete, this means sharing—in the most transparent way—everythingthatgoesoninhisownhead,hisobjectives,thereasoningbehindhisapproach.“IfIdidn’ttalkaboutit,theywouldn’tknowthat.They’dbethinking,‘AmIgoingtowinoramIgoingtolose?’Butwhenwetalkaboutitenough,theycometoanappreciationofwhytheycompete.”

Pete admitted that someplayersmayhavemore to teach than theyhave tolearn.SeahawkfreesafetyEarlThomas,forexample,cametohimas“themostcompetitive,grittyguyyoucouldeverimagine....Hepushesandpracticeswithmarvelous intensity. He focuses, studies, does everything.” But the magic ofcultureisthatoneperson’sgritcanprovideamodelforothers.Onadailybasis,Earl “demonstrates in so many different ways what he’s all about.” If eachperson’s grit enhances grit in others, then, over time, you might expect whatsocial scientist JimFlynn calls a “socialmultiplier” effect. In a sense, it’s themotivational analogueof the infinitycubeof self-reflectingmirrors JeffBezosbuiltasaboy—oneperson’sgritenhances thegritof theothers,which in turninspiresmoregritinthatperson,andsoon,withoutend.

WhatdoesEarlThomashavetosayaboutbeingaSeahawk?“Myteammateshavebeenpushingmesincedayone.They’rehelpingmetogetbetter,andviceversa.Youhavetohaveagenuineappreciationforteammateswhoarewillingtoputinhardwork,buyintothesystem,andneverbesatisfiedwithanythingbutcontinuingtoevolve.It’sincredibletoseetheheightswe’rereachingfromthathumbleattitude.”

BythetimeIgotaroundtovisitingtheSeahawks’trainingfacility,mycuriosityhad doubled. Making it to the championship game in successive years isnotoriouslyhard,buttheSeahawkshaddefiedtheoddsandmadeittotheSuperBowlagainthatyear.Insharpcontrasttotheprioryear’swin,whichSeattlefanscelebratedwith ablue andgreen ticker-tapeparade thatwas the largest publicgatheringinSeattle’shistory,thisyear’slossresultedinhowling,weeping,andthegnashingofteeth—overwhatsportscommentatorsdeemed“theworstcallinNFLhistory.”

Here’s a recap:With twenty-six seconds on the clock, the Seahawks havepossessionoftheballandareoneyardawayfromagame-winningtouchdown.EveryoneexpectsPetetocallarunningplay.It’snotjustthattheendzoneissoclose.It’salsobecausetheSeahawkshaveMarshawnLynch,whosenicknameisBeastModeandwho’swidelyagreedtobethesinglebestrunningbackintheentireNFL.

Instead, Seahawks quarterback Russell Wilson throws a pass, the ball isintercepted,andtheNewEnglandPatriotstakehomethetrophy.

Since Super Bowl XLIX was only the third football game I’d watchedwithoutinterruptioninmyentirelife—thesecondbeingtheNFCchampionshipgametheSeahawkshadwontheweekbefore—Ican’tofferanexpertopiniononwhether, indeed, passing instead of running was the epitome of coachingmisjudgment. What interested me more when I arrived in Seattle was Pete’sreactionandthatofthewholeteam.

Pete’s idol,basketballcoachJohnWooden,was fondofsaying,“Success isnever final; failure is never fatal. It’s courage that counts.”What Iwanted toknowishowacultureofgritcontinuesnotjustintheafterglowofsuccess,butintheaftermathoffailure.WhatIwantedtoknowishowPeteandtheSeahawksfoundthecouragetocontinue.

AsIlookbackonitnow,myvisithasan“inthemoment”feel:

Myappointmentbeginswithameeting inPete’soffice—yes, it’s thecorneroffice, but no, it’s not huge or fancy, and the door is apparentlyalways open,literally,allowingloudrockmusic tospillout into thehallway.“Angela,”Peteleansintoask,“howcanthisdaybehelpfultoyou?”

I explain my motive. Today I’m an anthropologist, here to take notes onSeahawksculture.IfIhadapithhelmet,I’dbewearingit.

And that, of course, gets Pete all excited.He tellsme that it’s not just onething.It’samillionthings.It’samilliondetails.It’ssubstanceandit’sstyle.

After adaywith theSeahawks, Ihave toagree. It’s countless small things,eachdoable—buteachsoeasytobotch,forget,orignore.Andthoughthedetailsarecountless,therearesomethemes.

The most obvious is language. One of Pete’s coaches once said, “I speakfluent Carroll.” And to speak Carroll is to speak fluent Seahawk: Alwayscompete.You’reeithercompetingoryou’renot.Competeineverythingyoudo.You’reaSeahawk24-7.Finishstrong.Positiveself-talk.Teamfirst.

Duringmydaywiththeteam,Ican’ttellyouhowmanytimessomeone—aplayer, acoach, a scout—enthusiasticallyoffersuponeof thesemorsels,but IcantellyouIdon’toncehearvariations.OneofPete’sfavoritesayingsis“Nosynonyms.”Whynot?“Ifyouwanttocommunicateeffectively,youneedtobeclearwiththewordsyouuse.”

EverybodyImeetpepperstheirsentenceswiththeseCarrollisms.Andwhilenobodyhas quite the neutron-powered, teenage energyof the sixty-three-year-oldheadcoach,therestoftheSeahawksfamily,astheyliketocallthemselves,arejustasearnestinhelpingmedecodewhatthesedictumsactuallymean.

“Compete,”I’mtold,isnotwhatIthinkitis.It’snotabouttriumphingoverothers, a notion I’ve always been uneasy about. Compete means excellence.“Compete comes from the Latin,” explains Mike Gervais, the competitive-surfer-turned-sports-psychologist who is one of Pete’s partners in culturebuilding.“Quiteliterally,itmeansstrivetogether.Itdoesn’thaveanythinginitsoriginsaboutanotherpersonlosing.”

Mike tellsmethat twokeyfactorspromoteexcellence in individualsand inteams: “deep and rich support and relentless challenge to improve.”When hesaysthat,alightbulbgoesoninmyhead.Supportiveanddemandingparentingis psychologically wise and encourages children to emulate their parents. Itstandstoreasonthatsupportiveanddemandingleadershipwoulddothesame.

I begin to get it. For this professional football team, it’s not solely aboutdefeatingotherteams,it’saboutpushingbeyondwhatyoucandotodaysothattomorrow you’re just a little bit better. It’s about excellence. So, for the

Seahawks,AlwayscompetemeansBeallyoucanbe,whatever that is foryou.Reachforyourbest.

Afteroneofthemeetings,anassistantcoachcatchesuptomeinthehallwayandsays,“Idon’tknowifanyone’smentionedfinishingtoyou.”

Finishing?“Onethingwereallybelieveinhereistheideaoffinishingstrong.”Thenhe

givesmeexamples:Seahawksfinishagamestrong,playing theirheartsout tothelastsecondontheclock.Seahawksfinishtheseasonstrong.Seahawksfinisheverydrillstrong.AndIask,“Butwhyjustfinishstrong?Doesn’titmakesensetostartstrong,too?”

“Yes,” the coach says, “but starting strong is easy. And for the Seahawks,‘finishing’doesn’tliterallymean‘finishing.’ ”

Ofcoursenot.Finishingstrongmeansconsistently focusinganddoingyourabsolutebestateverymoment,fromstarttofinish.

Soonenough, I realize it’snotonlyPetedoing thepreaching.Atonepoint,during a meeting attended by more than twenty assistant coaches, the entireroomspontaneouslybreaksoutintoachant,inperfectcadence:Nowhining.Nocomplaining.Noexcuses.It’s likebeinginachoirofallbaritones.Beforethis,theysangout:Alwaysprotecttheteam.Afterward:Beearly.

Be early? I tell them that, after reading Pete’s book, I made “Be early” aresolution.Sofar,Ihadyet tobeearlyforalmostanything.Thiselicitedsomechuckles.Apparently,I’mnottheonlywhostruggleswiththatone.Butjustasimportant,thisconfessiongetsoneoftheguystalkingaboutwhyit’simportantto be early: “It’s about respect. It’s about the details. It’s about excellence.”Okay,okay,I’mgettingit.

Around midday, I give a lecture on grit to the team. This is after givingsimilar presentations to the coaches and the scouts, and before talking to theentirefront-officestaff.

Aftermostoftheteamhasmovedontolunch,oneoftheSeahawksasksmewhatheshoulddoabouthislittlebrother.Hisbrother’sverysmart,hesays,butat somepoint,hisgrades started slipping.Asan incentive,heboughtabrand-new Xbox video-game console and placed it, still in its packaging, in hisbrother’s bedroom.Thedealwas that,when the report card comeshomewithA’s,hegetstounwrapthegame.Atfirst,thisschemeseemedtobeworking,butthenhisbrotherhitaslump.“ShouldIjustgivehimtheXbox?”heasksme.

Before I can answer, another player says, “Well,man,maybe he’s just notcapableofA’s.”

I shakemy head. “Fromwhat I’ve been told, your brother is plenty smartenoughtobringhomeA’s.Hewasdoingitbefore.”

Theplayeragrees.“He’sasmartkid.Trustme,he’sasmartkid.”I’m still thinking when Pete jumps up and says, with genuine excitement:

“Firstofall,thereisabsolutelynowayyougivethatgametoyourbrother.Yougothimmotivated.Okay,that’sastart.That’sabeginning.Nowwhat?Heneedssomecoaching!Heneedssomeonetoexplainwhatheneedstodo,specifically,togetbacktogoodgrades!Heneedsaplan!Heneedsyourhelpinfiguringoutthosenextsteps.”

ThisremindsmeofsomethingPetesaidatthestartofmyvisit:“EverytimeImakeadecisionor say something to aplayer, I think, ‘Howwould I treatmyownkid?’YouknowwhatIdobest?I’magreatdad.Andinaway, that’s thewayIcoach.”

Attheendoftheday,I’minthelobby,waitingformytaxi.Peteistherewithme,makingsureIgetoffokay.IrealizeIhaven’taskedhimdirectlyhowheandthe Seahawks found the courage to continue after he’d made “the worst callever.”Petelater toldSports Illustrated that itwasn’t theworstdecision, itwasthe “worst possible outcome.” He explained that like every other negativeexperience, and every positive one, “it becomes part of you. I’mnot going toignoreit.I’mgoingtofaceit.Andwhenitbubblesup,I’mgoingtothinkaboutitandgetonwithit.Anduseit.Useit!”

Justbefore I leave, I turn and lookup.And there, twenty feet aboveus, infoot-highchromeletters,isthewordCHARACTER.Inmyhand,I’mholdingabagof blue and green Seahawk swag, including a fistful of blue rubber braceletsstampedingreenwithLOB:LoveOurBrothers.

Chapter13

CONCLUSION

Thisbookhasbeenaboutthepowerofgrittohelpyouachieveyourpotential.Iwrote it because what we accomplish in the marathon of life dependstremendouslyonourgrit—ourpassionandperseveranceforlong-termgoals.Anobsessionwithtalentdistractsusfromthatsimpletruth.

This bookhas beenmywayof takingyouout for a coffee and tellingyouwhatIknow.

I’malmostdone.Letmeclosewitha fewfinal thoughts.Thefirst is thatyoucangrowyour

grit.I see twoways to do so.On your own, you can grow your grit “from the

insideout”:Youcancultivateyour interests.Youcandevelopahabit ofdailychallenge-exceeding-skill practice. You can connect your work to a purposebeyondyourself.Andyoucanlearntohopewhenallseemslost.

Youcanalsogrowyourgrit“fromtheoutsidein.”Parents,coaches,teachers,bosses, mentors, friends—developing your personal grit depends critically onotherpeople.

Mysecondclosingthoughtisabouthappiness.Success—whethermeasuredbywhowinstheNationalSpellingBee,makesit throughWestPoint,or leadsthedivisioninannualsales—isnottheonlythingyoucareabout.Surely,youalsowant to be happy. And while happiness and success are related, they’re notidentical.

You might wonder, If I get grittier and become more successful, will myhappinessplummet?

Someyearsago,IsoughttoanswerthisquestionbysurveyingtwothousandAmerican adults. The graph below shows how grit relates to life satisfaction,

measuredonascalethatrangedfrom7to35andincludeditemssuchas,“IfIcould livemy life over, Iwould change almost nothing.” In the same study, Imeasuredpositiveemotions suchasexcitementandnegativeemotions suchasshame.Ifoundthatthegrittierapersonis,themorelikelythey’llenjoyahealthyemotional life.Even at the top of theGrit Scale, gritwent hand in handwithwell-being,nomatterhowImeasuredit.

WhenmystudentsandIpublishedthisresult,weendedourreportthisway:“Are thespousesandchildrenof thegrittiestpeoplealsohappier?Whatabouttheir coworkers and employees? Additional inquiry is needed to explore thepossibledownsidesofgrit.”

Idon’tyethaveanswerstothosequestions,butIthinkthey’regoodonestoask.WhenItalktogritparagons,andtheytellmehowthrilledtheyaretoworkas passionately as they do for a purpose greater than themselves, I can’t tellwhethertheirfamiliesfeelthesameway.

Idon’tknow,forexample,whetherallthoseyearsdevotedtoatop-levelgoalofsingularimportancecomesatacostIhaven’tyetmeasured.

What Ihavedone isaskmydaughters,AmandaandLucy,what it’s like togrowupwithagrittymom.They’vewatchedmeattemptthingsI’veneverdonebefore—likewriteabook—and they’ve seenmecrywhen itgot really rough.They’veseenhowtorturousitcanbetohackawayat innumerabledoable,buthard-to-do,skills.They’veasked,atdinner:“Dowealwayshave to talkaboutdeliberatepractice?Whydoeseverythinghavetocomebacktoyourresearch?”

Amanda and Lucy wish I’d relax a little and, you know, talk more aboutTaylorSwift.

Buttheydon’twishtheirmotherwasanythingotherthanaparagonofgrit.Infact,AmandaandLucyaspiretoachievethesame.They’veglimpsedthe

satisfactionthatcomesfromdoingsomethingimportant—foryourselfandothers—anddoingitwell,anddoingiteventhoughit’ssoveryhard.Theywantmoreofthat.Theyrecognizethatcomplacencyhasitscharms,butnoneworthtradingforthefulfillmentofrealizingtheirpotential.

Here’sanotherquestionIhaven’tquiteansweredinmyresearch:Canyouhavetoomuchgrit?

Aristotle argued that too much (or too little) of a good thing is bad. Hespeculated, for example, that too little courage is cowardice but too muchcourage is folly. By the same logic, you can be too kind, too generous, toohonest,andtooself-controlled.It’sanargumentthatpsychologistsAdamGrantand Barry Schwartz have revisited. They speculate that there’s an inverted-Ufunction thatdescribes thebenefitsofanytrait,with theoptimalamountbeingsomewherebetweentheextremes.

Sofar,withgritIhaven’tfoundthesortofinverseUthatAristotlepredictedor that Barry and Adam have found for other traits, like extroversion.Regardless, I recognize that there are trade-offs to any choice, and I canappreciate how thatmight apply to grit. It isn’t hard to think of situations inwhichgivingupisthebestcourseofaction.Youmayrecalltimesyoustuckwithanidea,sport,job,orromanticpartnerlongerthanyoushouldhave.

Inmyownexperience,givinguponpianowhenitbecameclearIhadneitherinterestinitnorobvioustalentwasagreatdecision.Icouldhavegivenupevenearlier,actually,andsavedmyteacherfromhavingtolistentomesight-readallthepiecesIhadn’tpracticedtheweekbefore.GivinguponbecomingfluentinFrenchwasalsoagoodidea,eventhoughIdidenjoyitandpickeditupmorequicklythanIdidpiano.LesstimespentonpianoandFrenchfreeduptimeforpursuitsIfoundmoregratifying.

So, finishingwhatever you beginwithout exception is a goodway tomissopportunities to start different, possibly better, things. Ideally, even if you’rediscontinuingoneactivityandchoosingdifferentlower-ordergoals,you’restillholdingfasttoyourultimateconcern.

One reason I don’t worry much about an epidemic of grit is that such aprospectseemssoremovedfromourcurrentreality.Howmanydayshaveyoucomehomefromworkandsaidtoyourpartner,“Gosh,everyoneattheofficeisjust toogritty!They stickwith theirmostvaluedgoals too long!They try toohard!Iwishtheywerelesspassionate!”

Recently, Iasked threehundredAmericanadults to take theGritScaleand,afterreceivingtheirscores,totellmehowtheyfelt.Manysaidtheywerehappywith their scores, and some wanted to be grittier. Nevertheless, in the entiresample, there wasn’t a single person who, upon reflection, aspired to be lessgritty.

I’mcertainmostofuswouldbebetteroffwithmoregrit,notless.Theremaybe exceptions—grit outliers who don’t need to be any grittier—but thoseexceptionsarerare.

I’vebeenasked,onmorethanoneoccasion,whyIfeelgritistheonlythingthatmatters.Infact,Idon’t.

Icantellyou,forexample,thatgritisnottheonlythingIwantmychildrentodevelopastheyroundthecornerfromchildhoodtomaturity.DoIwantthemtobe great at whatever they do? Absolutely. But greatness and goodness aredifferent,andifforcedtochoose,I’dputgoodnessfirst.

Asapsychologist, Icanconfirm thatgrit is far from theonly—oreven themostimportant—aspectofaperson’scharacter.Infact,instudiesofhowpeoplesizeupothers,moralitytrumpsallotheraspectsofcharacterinimportance.Sure,wetakenoticeifourneighborsseemlazy,butwe’reespeciallyoffendediftheyseemtolackqualitieslikehonesty,integrity,andtrustworthiness.

So,gritisn’teverything.Therearemanyotherthingsapersonneedsinordertogrowandflourish.Characterisplural.

Onewaytothinkaboutgritistounderstandhowitrelatestootheraspectsofcharacter.Inassessinggritalongwithothervirtues,Ifindthreereliableclusters.Irefertothemastheintrapersonal,interpersonal,andintellectualdimensionsofcharacter.Youcouldalsocallthemstrengthsofwill,heart,andmind.

Intrapersonalcharacterincludesgrit.Thisclusterofvirtuesalsoincludesself-control, particularly as it relates to resisting temptations like textingandvideogames.Whatthismeansisthatgrittypeopletendtobeself-controlledandviceversa.Collectively,virtuesthatmakepossibletheaccomplishmentofpersonallyvalued goals have also been called “performance character” or “self-managementskills.”SocialcommentatorandjournalistDavidBrookscallsthese“resumevirtues”becausethey’rethesortsofthingsthatgetushiredandkeepusemployed.

Interpersonalcharacterincludesgratitude,socialintelligence,andself-controlover emotions like anger.Thesevirtueshelpyouget alongwith—andprovideassistance to—otherpeople.Sometimes, thesevirtuesare referred toas“moralcharacter.”DavidBrookspreferstheterm“eulogyvirtues”because,intheend,

theymay bemore important to how people remember us than anything else.Whenwespeakadmiringlyof someonebeinga“deeplygood”person, I thinkit’sthisclusterofvirtueswe’rethinkingabout.

And, finally, intellectual character includes virtues like curiosity and zest.Theseencourageactiveandopenengagementwiththeworldofideas.

My longitudinal studies show these three virtue clusters predict differentoutcomes. For academic achievement, including stellar report card grades, theclustercontaininggritisthemostpredictive.Butforpositivesocialfunctioning,includinghowmanyfriendsyouhave,interpersonalcharacterismoreimportant.And for a positive, independent posture toward learning, intellectual virtuetrumpstheothers.

In the end, the plurality of character operates against any one virtue beinguniquelyimportant.

I’moftenaskedwhetherencouraginggritdoeschildrenadisservicebysettingexpectations unreasonably high. “Careful, Dr. Duckworth, or children will allgrowupthinkingtheycanbeUsainBolt,WolfgangMozart,orAlbertEinstein.”

Ifwe can’t beEinstein, is itworth studying physics? Ifwe can’t beUsainBolt,shouldwegoforarunthismorning?Isthereanypointintryingtorunalittle faster or longer than we did yesterday? In my view, these are absurdquestions. If my daughter says to me, “Mom, I shouldn’t practice my pianotoday because I’ll never beMozart,” I’ll say in reply, “You’re not practicingpianotobeMozart.”

Weallfacelimits—notjustintalent,butinopportunity.Butmoreoftenthanwethink,ourlimitsareself-imposed.Wetry,fail,andconcludewe’vebumpedourheadsagainsttheceilingofpossibility.Ormaybeaftertakingjustafewstepswechangedirection.Ineithercase,weneverventureasfaraswemighthave.

Tobegrittyistokeepputtingonefootinfrontoftheother.Tobegrittyistoholdfasttoaninterestingandpurposefulgoal.Tobegrittyistoinvest,dayafterweekafteryear,inchallengingpractice.Tobegrittyistofalldownseventimes,andriseeight.

Iwasinterviewedrecentlybyajournalist.Ashewaspackinguphisnotes,hesaid, “So, it’s obvious you could have talked all day. You really love thissubject.”

“Oh,gosh.Isthereanythingasinterestingasthepsychologyofachievement?Couldtherebeanythingmoreimportant?”

He chuckled. “You know,” he said, “I absolutely love what I do, too. It’samazing to me how many people I know who’re well into their forties and

haven’treallycommittedtoanything.Theydon’tknowwhatthey’remissing.”

Onefinalthought.Earlierthisyear,thelatestMacArthurgeniusawardswereannounced.Oneof

thewinnerswasTa-NehisiCoates, the journalistwhose secondbook,BetweentheWorldandMe,hasbeenanextraordinarybestseller.

Eightyearsago,Coateswasunemployed,recentlylaidoffbyTimemagazine,andscramblingtogetfreelancework.Itwasahardtime.Heguesseshegainedthirtypoundsfromthestrain.“IknewwhatkindofwriterIwantedtobe.Iwasnot becoming that kind of writer. I was bangingmy head against a wall andnothingwascomingout.”

Hiswife,hesays,was“unerringlysupportive.”Still, theyhadayoungson.Therewerepracticalrealities.“Iwasconsideringdrivingacab.”

Hefinallygotbackonhisfeet,andafterpushingthroughthe“extraordinarystress” of his book, he began to hit his stride. “The writing was very, verydifferent.Thesentenceshadmuchmorepower.”

In his three-minute video posted on theMacArthur website, the first thingCoatessaysis:“Failureisprobablythemostimportantfactorinallofmywork.Writing is failure.Over andover andover again.”Thenhe explains, that as aboy, he was insatiably curious. Growing up in Baltimore, he was particularlyobsessedwiththeideaofphysicalsafety,andthelackthereof,andhasremainedso since. Journalism, he says, lets him keep asking the questions that interesthim.

Toward theendof thevideo,Coatesoffers thebestdescriptionofwhat it’sliketowritethatI’veeverheard.Togiveyouasenseofhisintonation,andthecadence,I’velaidoutthewordsasIheardthem—asapoem:

ThechallengeofwritingIstoseeyourhorriblenessonpage.ToseeyourterriblenessAndthentogotobed.

Andwakeupthenextday,Andtakethathorriblenessandthatterribleness,Andrefineit,Andmakeitnotsoterribleandnotsohorrible.Andthentogotobedagain.

Andcomethenextday,Andrefineitalittlebitmore,Andmakeitnotsobad.Andthentogotobedthenextday.

Anddoitagain,Andmakeitmaybeaverage.Andthenonemoretime,Ifyou’relucky,Maybeyougettogood.

Andifyou’vedonethat,That’sasuccess.

YoumightthinkCoatesisespeciallymodest.Heis.Buthe’salsoespeciallygritty.And I’ve yet tomeet aMacArthur Fellow,Nobel laureate, orOlympicchampionwhosaysthatwhattheyachievedcameinanyotherway.

“You’renogenius,”mydadusedtosaywhenIwasjustalittlegirl.Irealizenowhewastalkingtohimselfasmuchashewastalkingtome.

Ifyoudefinegeniusasbeingabletoaccomplishgreatthingsinlifewithouteffort,thenhewasright:I’mnogenius,andneitherishe.

Butif,instead,youdefinegeniusasworkingtowardexcellence,ceaselessly,witheveryelementofyourbeing—then,infact,mydadisagenius,andsoamI,andsoisCoates,and,ifyou’rewilling,soareyou.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

When I pick up a book for the first time, I immediately flip to theAcknowledgments.Likemany readers, I’meager topeekbehind thecurtain; Iwanttomeetthecastandcrewresponsiblefortheshow.Writingmyownbookhasonlydeepenedmyappreciationfortheteameffortthatanyworkrepresents.Ifyoulikethisbook,pleaseknowthatcreditforitscreationissharedamongthewonderfulhumanbeingsrecognizedhere.It’stimeforthesemanysupporterstostepout intothefootlightsforamomentandtakeawell-deservedbow.IfI’veleftanyoneinthewings,Iapologize;anyomissionsareinadvertent.

Firstandforemost,Iwanttothankmycollaborators.Iwrotethisbookinthefirst-personsingular,using“I”when, infact,prettymucheverythingI’vedoneasaresearcherorwriterwasaccomplishedbyaplurality.The“we”whodeservecredit—inparticularcoauthorsonpublishedresearch—arenamedindividuallyintheNotes.Ontheirbehalf,Iextendaheartfeltthankstoourresearchteamswho,collectively,madethisresearchpossible.

Asforthebookitself,Ihavethreeindividualstothankinparticular:Firstandforemost,Iameternallygratefultomyeditor,RickHorgan,whoimprovedmywritingandthinkingmorethanIthoughtwaspossible.IfI’mlucky,he’llletmework with him again (and again). Max Nesterak was my day-to-day editor,research assistant, and conscience. Put simply,were it not forMax, this bookwouldnotbe inyourhands today.And, finally,my fairygodfather andagent,RichardPine,isthepersonwhooriginally,andfinally,madethisbookareality.Eightyearsago,Richardwrotemeanemailasking,“Hasanyoneevertoldyouthatyououghttowriteabook?”Idemurred.Grittyandgallant,hekeptasking,butneverpushing,untilIwasready.Thankyou,Richard,foreverything.

The following scholars were kind enough to review drafts of this book,discusstheirrelevantwork,orboth—ofcourse,anyerrorsthatremainaremine:Elena Bodrova, Mihály Csíkszentmihályi, Dan Chambliss, Jean Côté, SidneyD’Mello,BillDamon,NancyDarling,CarolDweck,BobEisenberger,AndersEricsson,LaurenEskreis-Winkler,RonaldFerguson,JamesFlynn,BrianGalla,

Margo Gardner, Adam Grant, James Gross, Tim Hatton, Jerry Kagan, ScottBarryKaufman,DennisKelly,EmiliaLahti,ReedLarson,LucLeger,DeborahLeong,SusanMackie,SteveMaier,MikeMatthews,DarrinMcMahon,BarbaraMellers, Cal Newport, Gabrielle Oettingen, Daeun Park, Pat Quinn, AnnRenninger,BrentRoberts,ToddRogers,JamesRounds,BarrySchwartz,MartySeligman,PaulSilvia,LarrySteinberg,RongSu,PhilTetlock,Chia-JungTsay,Eli Tsukayama, Elliot Tucker-Drob, George Vaillant, Rachel White, DanWillingham,WarrenWillingham,AmyWrzesniewski,andDavidYeager.

I was shocked, and so deeply moved, that the following individuals werewilling toshare their stories for thisbook;evenwhen Iwasn’table to includedetails in thebook itself, theirperspectivesdeepenedmyunderstandingofgritanditsdevelopment:HemalathaAnnamalai,KayvonAsemani,MichaelBaime,Jo Barsh, Mark Bennett, Jackie Bezos, Juliet Blake, Geoffrey Canada, PeteCarroll, Robert Caslen, Ulrik Christensen, Kerry Close, Roxanne Coady, KatCole,CodyColeman,DarylDavis,JoedeSena,TomDeierlein,JamieDimon,AnsonDorrance,AuroraFonte,FrancoFonte,BillFitzsimmons,RowdyGaines,Antonio Galloni, Bruce Gemmell, Jeffrey Gettleman, Jane Golden, TempleGrandin,MikeHopkins,RhondaHughes,MichaelJoyner,NoaKageyama,PaigeKimble,SashaKosanic,HesterLacey,EmiliaLahti,TerryLaughlin,JoeLeader,Michael Lomax, David Luong, Tobi Lütke, Warren MacKenzie, WillyMacMullen,BobMankoff,AlexMartinez,FrancescaMartinez,TinaMartinez,DuffMcDonald,BillMcNabb,BernieNoe,ValerieRainford,MadsRasmussen,AnthonySeldon,WillShortz,ChantelSmith,AreTraasdahl,MarcVetri,ChrisWink,GritYoung,SherryYoung,SteveYoung,SamZell,andKaiZhang.

Many friends and familymembers helped improve earlier drafts. For theirinvaluable comments, I thank Steve Arnold, Ben Malcolmson, Erica Dewan,FerozDewan,JoeDuckworth,JordanEllenberg,IraHandler,DonaldKamentz,Annette Lee, SusanLee,DaveLevin, Felicia Lewis,AlyssaMatteucci,DavidMeketon,EvanNesterak,RickNichols,RebeccaNyquist,TanyaSchlam,RobertSeyfarth, Naomi Shavin, Paul Solman, Danny Southwick, Sharon Parker,DominicRandolph,RichardShell,PaoloTerni,PaulTough,AmyWax,andRichWilson.

ThefiguresinthisbookarecourtesyofStephenFew.Aworldexpertondatavisualization,Stephenisalsothesoulofgenerosityandpatience.

Iam immenselygrateful for theunflaggingsupportof somanyoutstandingindividuals at Simon&Schuster.The only hard thing aboutwriting this bookwasthewriting;everythingelse,theseremarkablefolksmadeeasy.Inparticular,I’d like to thankNanGraham,whoseoptimism, energy, andgenuine affectionforherauthorshavenoparallel.KatieMonaghanandBrianBelfigliomasterfully

orchestratedaworld-classpublicitycampaign,ensuringthatthisbookwouldendupinyourhands.Formasterfulhandlingofthisbook’sproduction,IthankCarlaBenton and her team. David Lamb, you’re a total pro; your commitment toexcellenceateverystageof theeditorialprocessmadeall thedifference.And,finally,forthisbook’sbeautifulcover,IamgratefultoJayaMiceli.

Hugethankstotheworld-classteamatInkWellManagement,includingElizaRothstein,LindseyBlessing, andAlexisHurley.You handle somuch sowell,andwithuttergraceandprofessionalism.

Like the grit paragons profiled in this book, I’ve benefited from especiallysupportiveanddemandingteachers.MatthewCarrtaughtmetowriteandtolovewords.KayMersethremindedme,atsomanycriticaljunctures,thateachofusis the author of our own life story. Marty Seligman taught me that the rightquestion is at least as important as the right answer. The late Chris Petersonshowed me that a true teacher is one who puts students first. Sigal Barsadeshowedme,ininnumerableways,whatitmeanstobeaprofessorandhowtobeagoodone.WalterMischelshowedmethatatitsapogee,scienceisanart.AndJimHeckmantaughtmethatgenuinecuriosityisthebestcompaniontotruegrit.

I amdeeplygrateful to the institutions and individualswhohave supportedmyresearch,includingtheNationalInstituteonAging,theBill&MelindaGatesFoundation, the Pinkerton Foundation, the RobertWood Johnson Foundation,theKIPPFoundation,theJohnTempletonFoundation,theSpencerFoundation,the Lone Pine Foundation, the Walton Family Foundation, the Richard KingMellon Family Foundation, the University of Pennsylvania ResearchFoundation, Acco Brands, the Michigan Retirement Research Center, theUniversity of Pennsylvania,Melvyn and CarolynMiller, Ariel Kor, andAmyAbrams.

TheboardandstaffoftheCharacterLabdeservespecialthanksbecausetheyarethepast,present,andmostdefinitelythefutureofallIdo.

And,finally,thankyoutomyfamily.AmandaandLucy,yourpatience,goodhumor, and stories made this book possible. Mom and Dad, you gave upeverything foryour children, andwe loveyou for that. Jason,youmakemeabetterpersoneveryday—thisbookisforyou.

RECOMMENDEDREADING

Brooks,David.TheRoadtoCharacter.NewYork:RandomHouse,2015.Brown,PeterC.,HenryL.RoedigerIII,andMarkA.McDaniel.MakeItStick:TheScienceofSuccessfulLearning.Cambridge,MA:BelknapPress,2014.

Damon,William.ThePathtoPurpose:HowYoungPeopleFindTheirCallinginLife.NewYork:FreePress,2009.

Deci,EdwardL.withRichardFlaste.WhyWeDoWhatWeDo:UnderstandingSelf-Motivation.NewYork:PenguinGroup,1995.

Duhigg, Charles.The Power of Habit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDo in Life andBusiness.NewYork:RandomHouse,2012.

Dweck,Carol.Mindset:TheNewPsychologyof Success.NewYork:RandomHouse,2006.

Emmons,RobertA.Thanks!:HowtheNewScienceofGratitudeCanMakeYouHappier.NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2007.

Ericsson, Anders and Robert Pool. Peak: Secrets from the New Science ofExpertise.NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2016.

Heckman, JamesJ., JohnEricHumphries,andTimKautz (eds.).TheMythofAchievement Tests: TheGED and the Role of Character in American Life.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2014.

Kaufman,ScottBarryandCarolynGregoire.Wired toCreate:Unraveling theMysteriesoftheCreativeMind.NewYork:Perigee,2015.

Lewis, Sarah. The Rise: Creativity, the Gift of Failure, and the Search forMastery.NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2014.

Matthews,MichaelD.Head Strong:HowPsychology is RevolutionizingWar.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2013.

McMahon, Darrin M. Divine Fury: A History of Genius. New York: BasicBooks,2013.

Mischel, Walter. The Marshmallow Test: Mastering Self-Control. New York:Little,Brown,2014.

Oettingen,Gabriele.Rethinking Positive Thinking: Inside the New Science ofMotivation.NewYork:PenguinGroup,2014.

Pink,DanielH.Drive: The Surprising Truth AboutWhatMotivatesUs. NewYork:RiverheadBooks,2009.

Renninger,K.AnnandSuzanneE.Hidi.ThePowerofInterest forMotivationandEngagement.NewYork:Routledge,2015.

Seligman,MartinE.P.LearnedOptimism:HowToChangeYourMindandYourLife.NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1991.

Steinberg, Laurence. Age of Opportunity: Lessons from the New Science ofAdolescence.NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2014.

Tetlock,PhilipE.andDanGardner.Superforecasting:TheArtandScienceofPrediction.NewYork:Crown,2015.

Tough,Paul.HowChildrenSucceed:Grit,Curiosity,andtheHiddenPowerofCharacter.NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2012.

Willingham,DanielT.WhyDon’t StudentsLike School:ACognitive ScientistAnswersQuestionsAboutHow theMindWorks andWhat ItMeans for theClassroom.SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2009.

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

PHOTOBYZACHTERIS

Angela Duckworth is a professor of psychology at the University ofPennsylvania and a 2013 MacArthur Fellow. She studies grit and otherattributesthatpredictsuccessinlife.Aformermiddleandhighschoolmathteacher, Angela recently co-founded the Character Lab, a nonprofit whosemission is to advance the science and practice of character development inchildren.

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NOTES

CHAPTER1:SHOWINGUPmorethan14,000applicants:Formore informationonWestPoint, including its admissionsprocess,

seewww.usma.edu.dropoutbeforegraduation:DataprovidedbytheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy.“newcadet toSoldier”: “Information forNewCadetsandParents,”UnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy–

WestPoint,2015,www.usma.edu/parents/SiteAssets/Info-4-New-Cadets_Class-of-19.pdf.“WestPointtoughensyou”:Ibid.andwhowould leave: For more on Jerry’s views about predictingWest Point outcomes, see Jerome

Kagan,AnArgumentforMind(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2006),49–54.West Point admissions: For more information on the Whole Candidate Score and its history, see

Lawrence M. Hanser and Mustafa Oguz, United States Service Academy Admissions: Selecting forSuccessattheMilitaryAcademy/WestPointandasanOfficer(SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation,2015).

thosewiththelowest:AngelaL.Duckworth,ChristopherPeterson,MichaelD.Matthews,andDennisR.Kelly, “Grit: Perseverance and Passion for Long-term Goals,” Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology92(2007):1087–1101.

“I was tired, lonely, frustrated”: Michael D. Matthews, Head Strong: How Psychology IsRevolutionizingWar(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2014),16.

“never give up” attitude: Mike Matthews, professor of engineering psychology at the U.S. MilitaryAcademyatWestPoint,inconversationwiththeauthor,May25,2015.

physicalfitnessmarks:HanserandOguz,SelectingforSuccess.seventy-onecadetshaddroppedout:Duckworthetal.,“Grit.”55 percent of the salespeople: Lauren Eskreis-Winkler, Elizabeth P. Shulman, Scott A. Beal, and

AngelaL.Duckworth,“TheGritEffect:PredictingRetentionintheMilitary,theWorkplace,SchoolandMarriage,”FrontiersinPsychology5(2014):1–12.

graduatedegreeweregrittier:Duckworth,etal.,“Grit.”as high as 80 percent: For more information on college dropout rates in the United States, see

“Institutional Retention and Graduation Rates for Undergraduate Students,” National Center forEducationStatistics,lastupdatedMay2015,http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cva.asp.

“wherewedecide”:DickCouch,ChosenSoldier:TheMakingofaSpecialForcesWarrior (NewYork:ThreeRiversPress,2007),108.

42percentofthecandidates:Eskreis-Winkleretal.,“TheGritEffect.”Success in the military, business, and education: Ibid. Importantly, the bivariate associations

betweengritandoutcomeswereinallcasessignificantaswell.toall273spellers:Duckworthetal.,“Grit.”SATscoresandgrit: Ibid. See alsoKennonM. Sheldon, Paul E. Jose, Todd B. Kashdan, andAaron

Jarden, “Personality, Effective Goal-Striving, and Enhanced Well-Being: Comparing 10 Candidate

Personality Strengths,”Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1 (2015), 1–11. In this one-yearlongitudinalstudy,gritemergedasamorereliablepredictorofgoalattainmentthananyothermeasuredpersonality strength. Likewise, my colleagues Phil Tetlock and Barbara Mellers have found in theirlongitudinalresearchthatpeoplewhoforecastfutureeventswithastonishingaccuracyareconsiderablygrittierthanothers:“Thestrongestpredictorofrisingintotheranksofsuperforecastersisperpetualbeta,thedegreetowhichoneiscommittedtobeliefupdatingandself-improvement.Itisroughlythreetimesas powerful a predictor as its closest rival, intelligence.” See Philip E. Tetlock and Dan Gardner,Superforecasting:TheArtandScienceofPrediction(NewYork:Crown,2015),page192.

CHAPTER2:DISTRACTEDBYTALENTintheclassroom:TheschoolItaughtatwascreatedbyTeachForAmericaalumnusDanielOscar,andin

myview,thebestteacherintheschoolwasaguynamedNeilDorosin.BothDanielandNeilarestillinthevanguardofeducationreform.

“Iwasalittlebehind”:DavidLuong,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,May8,2015.learningcameeasy:KarlPearson,TheLife,LettersandLaboursofFrancisGalton,vol.1(Cambridge,

UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,1930),66.“capacity for hard labor”: Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius (London: Macmillan, 1869), 38. It’s

important to note here that Galton’s fascination with heredity wasmisguided.While his conclusionsabout the importanceof zeal andhardwork andabilityhavebeen supportedbymodern research, hiserroneousconclusionsaboutheredityandracehavenot.

“eminently important difference”: Charles Darwin, Letter to Francis Galton, December 23, 1869.FrederickBurkhardtetal.,ed.,TheCorrespondenceofCharlesDarwin,vol.17,1869(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2009),530.

supernatural intelligence: See LeonardMlodinow,The Upright Thinkers: The Human Journey fromLivinginTreestoUnderstandingtheCosmos(NewYork:PantheonBooks,2015),195.CatharineMorrisCox,“TheEarlyMentalTraitsofThreeHundredGeniuses,” inGeneticStudiesofGenius,vol.2, ed.LewisM.Terman,(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1926),399.

“nogreatquickness”:CharlesDarwin,TheAutobiographyofCharlesDarwin (London:CollinsClear-TypePress,1958),140–41.

datapresented itself: Adam S.Wilkins, “CharlesDarwin: Genius or Plodder?”Genetics 183 (2009):773–77.

“TheEnergiesofMen”:WilliamJames,“TheEnergiesofMen,”Science25(1907):321–32.thatourtalentsvary:Talentsare,ofcourse,plural.Forinterestedreaders,seeHowardGardner,FramesofMind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences (NewYork: Basic Books, 1983). Also, EllenWinner,GiftedChildren:MythsandRealities(NewYork:BasicBooks,1996).RobertJ.SternbergandJamesC.Kaufman,“HumanAbilities,”AnnualReviewofPsychology49(1998):479–502.

twice as likely to single out effort: Survey of America’s Inner Financial Life, Worth Magazine,November1993.

aboutathleticability: “CBSNewsPoll:DoesPracticeMakePerfect inSports?,”CBSNewswebsite,April6,2014,www.cbsnews.com/news/cbs-news-poll-does-practice-make-perfect-in-sports.

endorse“intelligence”:The60Minutes/VanityFairPoll,VanityFair,January2010.morelikelytosucceed:Chia-JungTsayandMahzarinR.Banaji,“NaturalsandStrivers:Preferencesand

BeliefsAboutSourcesofAchievement,”JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology47(2011):460–65.naturals were rated higher: Chia-Jung Tsay, “Privileging Naturals Over Strivers: The Costs of the

NaturalnessBias,”PersonalityandSocialPsychologyBulletin(2015).favorthenatural:Ibid.“technicalskillscanflourish”:“JuilliardPre-College,”TheJuilliardSchool,accessedAugust10,2015,

http://www.juilliard.edu/youth-adult-programs/juilliard-pre-collegea self-fulfilling prophecy: Robert Rosenthal, “Pygmalion Effect,” in The Corsini Encyclopedia ofPsychology, ed. IrvingB.WeinerandW.EdwardCraighead (Hoboken,NJ: JohnWiley&Sons, Inc.,

2010),1398–99.“Iwantedtogetbetter”:Chia-JungTsay,assistantprofessorattheUniversityCollegeLondonSchoolof

Management,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,April8,2015.“TheWarforTalent”:ElizabethChambersetal.,“TheWarforTalent,”McKinseyQuarterly3 (1998):

44–57.becameabest-sellingbook:EdMichaels,HelenHandfield-Jones,andBethAxelrod,TheWarforTalent

(Boston:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress,2001).“Whatdowemeanbytalent?”:Ibid.,xii.“likecomparingSATscores”:JohnHuey,“HowMcKinseyDoesIt,”Fortune,November1993:56–81.onbeing“bright”:Ibid.,56.TheWaronCommonSense: DuffMcDonald, “McKinsey’sDirtyWar: Bogus ‘War for Talent’Was

Self-Serving(andFailed),”NewYorkObserver,November5,2013.Gladwellhasalsocritiqued:MalcolmGladwell,“TheTalentMyth,”NewYorker,July22,2002.largest corporate bankruptcy: Clinton Free, Norman Macintosh, and Mitchell Stein, “Management

Controls: The Organizational Fraud Triangle of Leadership, Culture, and Control in Enron,” IveyBusiness Journal, July 2007, http://iveybusinessjournal.com/publication/management-controls-the-organizational-fraud-triangle-of-leadership-culture-and-control-in-enron/.

firingthebottom15percent:Ibid.“always a step or two behind”: Scott Barry Kaufman, director of the Imagination Institute, in an

interviewwiththeauthor,May3,2015.Alsoseewww.scottbarrykaufman.com.“I was so driven”: Scott Barry Kaufman, “From Evaluation to Inspiration: Scott Barry Kaufman at

TEDxManhattanBeach,”YouTubevideo,postedJanuary6,2014,https://youtu.be/HQ6fW_GDEpA.“doesachievementtrumppotential?”:Ibid.“Ihadthisgrit”:Kaufman,interview.deemed insufficiently bright: I know two other people whose tested aptitude wasn’t particularly

prognosticofwhattheywouldgoontoachieve.ThefirstisDarrinMcMahon,aneminenthistorianatDartmouthCollege.InDarrin’sbook,DivineFury:AHistoryofGenius(NewYork:BasicBooks,2013),hepointsoutthatgeniusincitesambivalence.Ononehand,theideathatafewofusstandabovetherestbyvirtueofourGod-givengiftsholdstimelessappeal.Ontheotherhand,welovetheideaofequality;weliketothinkweallhavethesamechanceofsucceedinginlife.Inarecentconversationonthistopic,Darrintoldme,“Whatweareseeingplayoutnowisthedemocratizationofgenius.Partofuswantstobelievethateveryonecanbeagenius.”Iwasneveraverygoodhistorystudent,andsometimesIwasavery poor one. So I wasmore than a little surprised that I couldn’t put Darrin’s book down. It wasbeautifullywritten.Themeticulousresearchandcarefulargumentationsomehowdidnotgetinthewayof it telling a story.And then, at the very end, on page 243, I got to the acknowledgments: “I haveundoubtedly suffered frommany delusions in my life—and undoubtedly suffer frommany still. Butbeing a genius is not one of them.” Then Darrin says, with humor and affection, that when he wasgrowingup,hisparentssawtoitthattheirson“nevergottoobigforhisbritches.”Andevenmoretothepoint,herecallsbeingtestedasachildforhisschool’sgiftedprogram.Therewere“shapesandpicturesand the like,” but the only thing he remembers with certainty is “I didn’t pass.” Darrin rememberswatchinghisclassmates“trundleoffeachweektospecialclassesforthespeciallyendowed.”Andthenhereflectsonwhethergettinglabelednongiftedwas,intheend,ablessingoracurse:“Atanearlyage,Iwastold,withalltheobjectivityofscience,thatIwasnottherecipientofgifts.Imighthavejustthrownin the towel then and there, but I am a stubborn sort, and I spentmany years disputing the verdict,workingawaytoprovetomyselfandtoothers,dammit,thatIhadnotbeenslightedatbirth.”Similarly,MichaelLomaxwasnot easily identifiable as anykindofprodigy.Nevertheless,hehasan illustriousrésumé:heispresidentandCEOoftheUnitedNegroCollegeFund,aleadershippositionhehasheldformorethanadecade.Beforethat,MichaelwaspresidentofDillardUniversity.HehastaughtEnglishatEmoryUniversity,SpelmanCollege,andMorehouseCollegeandwasatwo-timemayoralcandidateforthecityofAtlanta.“Honestly,Iwasn’tconsideredthesmartestkid,”Michaeltoldmerecently.Whenhewassixteen,hismotherneverthelesswrotetothepresidentofMorehouseCollegetoaskwhetherherson

could be admitted to its prep school. “Of course, there was no prep school atMorehouse!”Michaelchuckled.TheMorehousepresidentdecided,onthebasisofMichael’soutstandinggrades,toadmithimasafreshmantothecollege.“Igotthere.Ihatedit.Iwantedtoleave.Iwasnumberoneinmyclass,butIwantedtotransfer.IgotitinmyheadthatIwouldbeabetterfitatWilliamsCollege,soIapplied.Ihaddoneeverything,andtheywereabouttoadmitme,andthenthedirectorofadmissionssaid,‘Oh,bytheway,weneedanSATscore.’ ”Becausehe’dbeenadmittedtoMorehousewithoutaformalapplication,MichaelhadnevertakentheSATbefore.“Thattestwasmake-or-breakforme.Isatdownandtookit.AndIdidn’tdowell.Williamsdidn’tadmitme.”SoMichaelstayedatMorehouseandmadethebestofit,graduatingPhiBetaKappawithadegreeinEnglish.Later,heearnedhismaster’sdegreeinEnglishfrom Columbia University, and his PhD in American and African American literature from EmoryUniversity.Now sixty-eight years old,Michael toldme, “Atmy age, I think it’s charactermore thangenius.Iknowallkindsofverytalentedpeoplewhosquandertheirgreattalents,orwhoaredissatisfiedandunhappybecausetheythinktalentisenough.Infact,itain’tevennearenough.WhatItellmykids,whatItrytotellmygrandchildren,andanybodyIgetachancetomentoristhis:It’sthesweat,it’sthehardwork,it’sthepersistence,it’sthedetermination.Itisthegettingupanddustingyourselfoff.That’swhatit’sallabout.”Inanticipationofhatemailaboutthispassageongiftedandtalentedprograms,letmesaythis:Iamwholeheartedlyinfavorofgivingkidsalltheintellectualstimulationtheycanhandle.At the same time, Iurgeopening thoseprograms toall childrenwhomightbenefit.Thirtyyearsago,BenjaminBloomsaiditbest:“Weinthiscountryhavecometobelievethatwecantellwho’sgoingtobeagreatmusicianbygivingmusical aptitude tests,who’sgoing tobeagreatmathematicianbygivingmathematicsaptitude tests.Doing thatcountssomepeople inandothersout far tooearly. . . .All thechildren should be given opportunities to explore fields that theymight be interested in.” Ronald S.Brandt,“OnTalentDevelopment:AConversationwithBenjaminBloom,”EducationalLeadership 43(1985):33–35.

CHAPTER3:EFFORTCOUNTSTWICE“TheMundanityofExcellence”:DanielF.Chambliss,“TheMundanityofExcellence:AnEthnographic

ReportonStratificationandOlympicSwimmers,”SociologicalTheory7(1989):70–86.“dozensofsmallskills”:Ibid.,81.“Youneedtojazzitup”:Ibid.,86.“wehaveforathleticsuccess”:Ibid.,78.“distinguishesthebestamongourathletes”:Ibid,78.“It’seasytodo”:Ibid.,79.“anatomical advantages”: Daniel F. Chambliss, professor of sociology at Hamilton College, in an

interviewwiththeauthor,June2,2015.“how it came to be”: This is an informal translation, Friedrich Nietzsche, Menschliches,Allzumenschliches:EinBuchfürFreieGeister(Leipzig:AlfredKrönerVerlag,1925),135.

“outofthegroundbymagic”:FriedrichNietzsche,Human,AllTooHuman:ABook forFreeSpirits,trans.R.J.Hollingdale(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986),80.

“growssomewhatcool”:Ibid.,86.“thecultofthegenius”:Ibid.“activeinonedirection”:Ibid.“giftedness,inborntalents!”:Ibid.human flourishing:Marty Seligman lays out the rationale for Positive Psychology in his presidential

addresstotheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation,reprintedinAmericanPsychologist54(1999):559–62.

talent is how quickly: The word talent is used differently by different people, but I think the mostintuitive definition is the one I’ve offered here. For evidence that individuals do differ in the rate atwhich they acquire skills, see Paul B. Baltes and Reinhold Kliegl, “Further Testing of Limits ofCognitive Plasticity: Negative Age Differences in a Mnemonic Skill Are Robust,” Developmental

Psychology28(1992):121–25.SeealsoTomStaffordandMichaelDewar,“Tracing theTrajectoryofSkillLearningwithaVeryLargeSampleofOnlineGamePlayers,”PsychologicalScience, 25 (2014),511–18. Finally, see the work of David Hambrick and colleagues on factors other than practice thatlikely influence skill acquisition; for example, see Brooke N. Macnamara, David Z. Hambrick, andFrederickL.Oswald, “Deliberate Practice and Performance inMusic,Games, Sports, Education, andProfessions: AMeta-Analysis,”Psychological Science 25 (2014): 1608–18. A critique of this meta-analysisbypsychologistAndersEricsson,whoseworkweexploreindepthinchapter7,ispostedonhiswebsite:https://psy.fsu.edu/faculty/ericsson/ericsson.hp.html.

“goingtobetherenaissancepeople”:“OralHistoryInterviewwithWarrenMacKenzie,2002October29,” Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, www.aaa.si.edu/collections/interviews/oral-history-interview-warren-mackenzie-12417.

“ourtrueinterestlay”:Ibid.“40or50potsinaday”:WarrenMacKenzie,potter,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,June16,2015.“continue to engage the senses”: Warren MacKenzie, Artist’s Statement, Schaller Gallery,

https://www.schallergallery.com/artists/macwa/pdf/MacKenzie-Warren-statement.pdf.“themostexcitingthings”:“OralHistory,”ArchivesofAmericanArt.“inmyworktoday”:Ibid.“first10,000potsaredifficult”:AlexLauer,“LivingwithPottery:WarrenMacKenzieat90,”Walker

ArtCenterblog,February16,2014,http://blogs.walkerart.org/visualarts/2014/02/16/living-with-pottery-warren-mackenzie-at-90.

“Garpwasanatural storyteller”: John Irving,TheWorldAccording toGarp (NewYork:Ballantine,1978),127.

“the great storyteller”: Peter Matthiessen, quoted in “Life & Times: John Iriving,”New York Times,http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/06/15/lifetimes/irving.html.

Garp“couldmakethingsup”:Irving,Garp,127.“mylackoftalent”:JohnIrving,TheImaginaryGirlfriend:AMemoir(NewYork:Ballantine,1996),10.SATverbalscorewas475:SallyShaywitz,OvercomingDyslexia:ANewandCompleteScience-basedProgramforReadingProblemsatAnyLevel(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2003),345–50.

“lazy”and“stupid”:Ibid.,346.“frequentlymisspelledwords”:Irving,ImaginaryGirlfriend,9.“slowly—andwithmyfinger”:Shaywitz,OvercomingDyslexia,346.“youhavetooverextendyourself”:Ibid.,347.“nomatterhowdifficultitis”:Ibid.“RewritingiswhatIdobest”:JohnIrving,“AuthorQ&A,”RandomHouseOnlineCatalogue,2002.“tohavetogoslowly”:Shaywitz,OvercomingDyslexia,347.“sickeningworkethic”:60Minutes,CBS,December2,2007,http://www.cbsnews.com/news/will-smith-

my-work-ethic-is-sickening.A lyric inoneofWillSmith’s rapsgoes:“Ifyousayyou’regoing to runthreemiles,andyouonlyruntwo,Idon’teverhavetoworryaboutlosinginnothingtoyou.”See“WillSmithInterview:WillPower,”Reader’sDigest,December2006.

“orI’mgoingtodie”:TavisSmiley,PBS,December12,2007.“healthyyoungmen”:ClarkW.Heath,WhatPeopleAre:AStudyofNormalYoungMen (Cambridge,

MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1945),7.foronlyfourminutes:KatharineA.Phillips,GeorgeE.Vaillant,andPaulaSchnurr,“SomePhysiologic

AntecedentsofAdultMentalHealth,”TheAmericanJournalofPsychiatry144(1987):1009–13.“strengthofwill”:Heath,NormalYoungMen,75.“becomestoosevere”:Ibid.,74.“withmentalhealth”:Phillips,Vaillant,andSchnurr,“SomePhysiologicAntecedents,”1012.“I’mnotallthatpersistent”:GeorgeVaillant,professoratHarvardMedicalSchoolandformerdirector

oftheGrantStudy,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,April8,2015.

“neverwritetheplayorbook”:WilliamSafire,“OnLanguage;TheElisionFields,”NewYorkTimes,August13,1989.

“Eightypercentofsuccessinlifeisshowingup”:Ibid.lessthanthey’dexpected:ConsumerReports,“HomeExerciseMachines,”August2011.“beatingonyourcraft”:Todayshow,NBC,June23,2008.

CHAPTER4:HOWGRITTYAREYOU?Grit Scale: The original twelve-item Grit Scale, from which this ten-item version is adapted, was

publishedinDuckworthetal.,“Grit.”Thecorrelationbetweenthesetwoversionsofthescaleisr=.99.Note also that, as you’ll learn in chapter 9, I’ve revised item 2, adding, “I don’t give up easily” to“Setbacksdon’tdiscourageme.”

howyourscorescompare:Data for thesenormsare fromDuckworthetal.,“Grit”Study1.Note thattherearenumerouslimitationsofanymeasure, includingself-reportquestionnairesliketheGritScale.For an extended discussion, see Angela L. Duckworth andDavid S. Yeager, “MeasurementMatters:Assessing Personal Qualities Other Than Cognitive Ability for Educational Purposes,” EducationalResearcher44(2015):237–51.

“work in East Africa”: Jeffrey Gettleman, East Africa bureau chief for the New York Times, in aninterviewwiththeauthor,May22,2015.

“itwastheeasiesttofulfilltherequirements”:AbigailWarren,“GettlemanSharesAnecdotes,OffersAdvice,” Cornell Chronicle, March 2, 2015, http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2015/03/gettleman-shares-anecdotes-offers-advice.

“Iwantedtomakeitapartofmylife”:Gettleman,interview.“whowants towork foraboringnewspaper?”:MaxSchindler, “NewYorkTimesReporter Jeffrey

Gettleman’94ChroniclesHisTimeinAfrica,”CornellDailySun,April6,2011.“Iwasprettylostacademically”:Gettleman,interview.“havea lifephilosophy”: Pete Carroll, head coach of the Seattle Seahawks, in an interviewwith the

author,June2,2015.theyhaveeverbeendonebefore:FormoreonPete’sperspective,seePeteCarroll,WinForever:Live,Work,andPlayLikeaChampion(NewYork:Penguin,2010).Someofthequotationsinthissection,andlater in thebook,are frominterviewswith theauthorbetween2014and2015.Othersare fromPete’sbookorpublictalks.

“driveallmyactions”:Carroll,WinForever,73.“andfillingbinders”:Ibid.,78.goals in a hierarchy: Material in this chapter on the hierarchical structure of goals from Angela

DuckworthandJamesJ.Gross,“Self-controlandGrit:RelatedbutSeparableDeterminantsofSuccess.”CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience23(2014):319–25.Ongoalhierarchiesmoregenerally,seeArieW.Kruglanskietal.,“ATheoryofGoalSystems,”inAdvancesinExperimentalSocialPsychology34(2002):331–78.And, finally, fora reviewofgoal-setting theory, seeEdwinA.LockeandGaryP.Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-YearOdyssey,”AmericanPsychologist57(2002):705–17.

an “ultimate concern”: Robert A. Emmons, The Psychology of Ultimate Concerns: Motivation andSpiritualityinPersonality(NewYork:GuildfordPress,1999).

whenheretiredin1987:IraBerkow,“SportsoftheTimes;Farewell,SweetPitcher,”NewYorkTimes,June23,1987.

“dayafterday,yearafteryear”:Pat Jordan,“TomTerrificandHisMysticTalent,”SportsIllustrated,July24,1972,http://www.si.com/vault/1972/07/24/612578/tom-terrific-and-his-mystic-talent.

“thenIeatcottagecheese”:Ibid.“helpmebehappy”:Ibid.

“positivefantasizing”:GabrieleOettingen,“FutureThoughtandBehaviourChange,”EuropeanReviewofSocialPsychology23(2012):1–63.Foraterrificsummary,andpracticalsuggestions,ongoalsettingand planning, see Gabriele Oettingen, Rethinking Positive Thinking: Inside the New Science ofMotivation(NewYork:Penguin,2014).

reportedly gave his personal pilot: James Clear, “Warren Buffett’s ‘Two List’ Strategy: How toMaximizeYourFocusandMasterYourPriorities,”HuffingtonPost,originallypostedOctober,24,2014,updated December 24, 2014, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/james-clear/warren-buffetts-two-list-strategy-how-to-maximize-your-focus-_b_6041584.html.

amoreimportantend:Forinstance,inonestudy,youngadultswrotedowntheirhigh-level,mid-level,and low-levelgoals;over thenext twoweeks, theyreportedondaily frustrations.Peoplewhosegoalsdemonstrated amore organized, hierarchical structure subsequently demonstrated greater resilience inthe face of daily frustrations. In particular, when confronted with frustrating experiences, theymaintained a sense that they were in control of attaining their goals. In a related study, a morehierarchical goal structurepredicted feeling less anger and annoyance in the faceof daily frustrationsoverthenexttwoweeks.SeeMichaelD.RobinsonandSaraK.Moeller,“Frustrated,butNotFlustered:TheBenefits ofHierarchicalApproachMotivation toWeatheringDailyFrustrations,”Motivation andEmotion38(2014):547–59.

“improvise,adapt,overcome”:MichaelMartel,Improvise,Adapt,Overcome:Achieve theGreenBeretWay(Seattle:AmazonDigitalServices,Inc.,2012).

“mademinewither”:RobertMankoff,HowAboutNever—IsNeverGoodforYou?:MyLifeinCartoons(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,2014),34.

“I’vewrittenthisbook”:SydHoff,LearningtoCartoon(NewYork:StravonEducationalPress,1966),vii.

“Howcouldanyonedomorethantwenty-sevencartoons?”:Mankoff,HowAboutNever,38.“I’mthefunniestguyyouevermet”:BobMankoff,cartooneditoroftheNewYorker,inaninterview

withtheauthor,February10,2015.“I’mgoingtobeacartoonist”:Mankoff,interview.“wallpapermybathroom”:Mankoff,HowAboutNever,44.“youtoowereoneofthebest”:Ibid.,46.“Ilookedupallthecartoons”:Mankoff,interview.“Ihadcompleteconfidence”:Ibid.“thingsneverworkout”:Mankoff,HowAboutNever,114.301exceptionallyaccomplished:Cox,“EarlyMentalTraits.”“Cox’sFirstTen”:Ibid.,181.Presentedhereinalphabeticalorderbylastname.“withsomewhatlesspersistence”:Ibid.,187.

CHAPTER5:GRITGROWSworthourattention:PsychologistSteveHeinehasdoneresearchshowingthatifyouthinksomethingis

genetic,thenyouthinkitis“natural”andthereforethewaythings“shouldbe.”Forexample,ifyoutellobesepeoplethatobesityhasageneticbasis,theyreducetheirdietingefforts.SeeIlanDar-NimrodandStevenJ.Heine,“GeneticEssentialism:OntheDeceptiveDeterminismofDNA,”PsychologicalBulletin137(2011):800–18.Perhapspeoplewouldnothavesuchaknee-jerkreactioniftheyunderstoodbetterthat the interplaybetween genes and the environment is complex and dynamic.The interested readermightfindtheworkofElliotTucker-Drobonthistopicespeciallyilluminating;forexample,seeDanielA. Briley and Elliot M. Tucker-Drob, “Comparing the Developmental Genetics of Cognition andPersonalityOvertheLifeSpan,”JournalofPersonality(2015):1–14.

150yearsago:Timothy J.HattonandBerniceE.Bray, “LongRunTrends in theHeightsofEuropeanMen,19th–20thCenturies,”EconomicsandHumanBiology8(2010):405–13.

average is five feet ten inches: Alison Moody, “Adult Anthropometric Measures, Overweight andObesity,” inHealthSurvey forEngland2013, ed.RachelCraigandJenniferMindell (London:HealthandSocialCareInformationCentre,2014).

gain ofmore than six inches: Hatton, “Long Run Trends.” Yvonne Schonbeck et al., “TheWorld’sTallest Nation Has Stopped Growing Taller: The Height of Dutch Children from 1955 to 2009,”PediatricResearch73(2013):371–77.

honestyandgenerosity: SeeEricTurkheimer,ErikPettersson, andErinE.Horn, “APhenotypicNullHypothesisfortheGeneticsofPersonality,”AnnualReviewofPsychology65(2014):515–40.

Ditto for IQ: Richard E. Nisbett et al., “Intelligence: New Findings and Theoretical Developments,”AmericanPsychologist67(2012):130–59.

enjoying the great outdoors: Niels G. Waller, David T. Lykken, and Auke Tellegen, “OccupationalInterests,LeisureTimeInterests,andPersonality:ThreeDomainsorOne?FindingsfromtheMinnesotaTwinRegistry.”InAssessingIndividualDifferencesinHumanBehavior:NewConcepts,Methods,andFindings,ed.DavidJohnLubinskiandRenéV.Dawis(PaloAlto,CA:Davies-BlackPublishing,1995):233–59.

having a sweet tooth: Fiona M. Breen, Robert Plomin, and Jane Wardle, “Heritability of FoodPreferencesinYoungChildren,”Physiology&Behavior88(2006):443–47.

endupachain-smoker:GaryE.Swanetal.,“SmokingandAlcoholConsumptioninAdultMaleTwins:GeneticHeritabilityandSharedEnvironmentalInfluences,”JournalofSubstanceAbuse2(1990):39–50.

gettingskincancer:PaulLichtensteinet al. “Environmental andHeritableFactors in theCausationofCancer—AnalysesofCohortsofTwinsfromSweden,Denmark,andFinland,”NewEnglandJournalofMedicine343(2000):78–85.

carry a tune: Elizabeth Theusch and Jane Gitschier, “Absolute Pitch Twin Study and SegregationAnalysis,”TwinResearchandHumanGenetics14(2011):173–78.

dunkabasketball:LisaM.GuthandStephenM.Roth,“Genetic InfluenceandAthleticPerformance,”CurrentOpinioninPediatrics25(2013):653–58.

solveaquadraticequation: BonamyOliver et al., “A Twin Study of Teacher-ReportedMathematicsPerformance and Low Performance in 7-Year-Olds,” Journal of Educational Psychology 96 (2004):504–17.

“Icouldonlyswimbreaststroke”:Chambliss,interview.“Ihadhorriblybadcoaches”:Chambliss, interview.The tremendous importanceof teacherquality to

trajectories of academic achievement is documented in Eric A. Hanushek, “Valuing Teachers: HowMuchIsaGoodTeacherWorth?”EducationNext11(2011),40–45.

researchersinLondon: Personal communicationwithRobert Plomin, June21, 2015.For a reviewofheritabilityofpersonality traits, seeTurkheimer,Pettersson, andHorn, “PhenotypicNullHypothesis.”It’s worth noting that there are behavioral genetics studies that do not rely on twins, and also thatheritabilityisatopictoocomplextofullysummarizehere.Inparticular,thereareinteractionsbetweendifferent genes, between genes and the environment, and epigenetic effects. Relatedly, there is anongoing debate as to the proportion of environmental influence that can be attributed to parenting.Definitively teasing apart the effects of parenting from genetic heritage is difficult. Chiefly, this isbecauseyoucan’t randomlyswaphumanchildren to livewithdifferentparents.However,youcandoexactlythatwithratpupsandtheirmoms.Youcan,forexample,randomlyassignratpupstogrowupwithverynurturingmothersorverynegligentones.NeurobiologistMichaelMeaneyhasdoneexactlythat,andhehasfoundthatnurturingrats—wholickandgroomandnursetheirpupsmorethanaverage—raise pups who are less stressed when dealing with challenging situations. The effects last intoadulthood,andinfact,ratpupswhoareborntolow-lickmomsbut,withintwenty-fourhoursofbirth,are switched tobe raisedbyhigh-lickmoms,growup tobehigh-lickmoms themselves.SeeDarleneFrancis, Josie Diorio, Dong Liu, and Michael J. Meaney, “Nongenomic Transmission AcrossGenerationsofMaternalBehaviorandStressResponsesintheRat,”Science286(1999):1155–58.

traitsarepolygenic:Christopher F.Chabris et al., “TheFourthLawofBehavioralGenetics,”CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience24(2015):304–12.

atleast697differentgenes:AndrewR.Woodetal.,“DefiningtheRoleofCommonVariationin theGenomicandBiologicalArchitectureofAdultHumanHeight,”NatureGenetics46(2014):1173–86.

asmany as twenty-five thousanddifferent genes: “ABriefGuide toGenomics,”NationalHumanGenomeResearchInstitute,lastmodifiedAugust27,2015,http://www.genome.gov/18016863.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: The Wechsler tests are now published by Pearson’s ClinicalAssessment.

inthelastfiftyyears:InformationontheFlynneffectcomesfrompersonalcommunicationswithJamesFlynnfrom2006to2015.FormoreinformationontheFlynneffect,seeJamesR.Flynn,AreWeGettingSmarter?: Rising IQ in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,2012).SeealsoJakobPietschnigandMartinVoracek,“OneCenturyofGlobalIQGains:AFormalMeta-AnalysisoftheFlynnEffect(1909–2013),”PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience10(2015):282–306.In this analysis of 271 independent samples, totaling almost four million people from thirty-onecountries,afewkeyfindingsemerged:IQgainsareubiquitousandpositiveoverthepastcentury;gainshavevariedinmagnitudebydomainofintelligence;gainshavebeenlessdramaticinrecentyears;and,finally,candidatecausesinclude,inadditiontosocialmultipliereffects,changesineducation,nutrition,hygiene,medicalcare,andtest-takingsophistication.

the socialmultiplier effect:William T. Dickens and James R. Flynn, “Heritability Estimates VersusLargeEnvironmentalEffects:TheIQParadoxResolved,”PsychologicalReview108(2001):346–69.

Gritandage:ThesedataareoriginallyreportedinDuckworthetal.,“Grit,”1092.moreconscientious,confident,caring,andcalm:AvshalomCaspi,BrentW.Roberts,andRebeccaL.

Shiner,“PersonalityDevelopment:StabilityandChange,”AnnualReviewofPsychology56(2005):453–84.

“thematurityprinciple”:Ibid.,468.“doesn’tcomeovernight”:Shaywitz,OvercomingDyslexia,347.“you’relate,you’refired”:BernieNoe,headofschool,LakesideSchool,Seattle,inaninterviewwiththe

author,July29,2015.interestwithoutpurpose:KenM.Sheldon,“BecomingOneself:TheCentralRoleofSelf-Concordant

GoalSelection,”PersonalityandSocialPsychologyReview18 (2014):349–65.SeepsychologistKenSheldon’swork on enjoyment and importance as the two components ofwhat he calls autonomouslymotivatedgoals.Kenpointsout thatallofushaveresponsibilitieswemustfulfilloutofobligationornecessity. But no matter how much we think we care about externally motivated goals, theiraccomplishmentrarelyfulfillsusinthewaythatinterestingandpurposefulgoalsdo.Alotofthepeoplein Ken’s studies are highly educated and very comfortably upper-middle-class yet sorely lacking inautonomouslymotivatedgoals.They tellKen they feel like they’re in thepassengerseatof theirownlives.Byfollowingtheseindividualsovertime,Ken’slearnedthatthey’relesslikelytoaccomplishtheirgoals;evenwhentheydoachieve them, theyderive lesssatisfactionfromhavingdoneso.Recently, Icollecteddatafromhundredsofadults,agestwenty-fivetoseventy-fiveandfoundthatKen’smeasureofautonomousmotivationcorrelatespositivelywithgrit.

CHAPTER6:INTEREST“follow your passion”: Indiana University, “Will Shortz’s 2008 Commencement Address,” CSPAN,

http://www.c-span.org/video/?205168-1/indiana-university-commencement-address.“to follow my passion”: Princeton University, “Jeff Bezos’ 2010 Baccalaureate Remarks,” TED,

https://www.ted.com/talks/jeff_bezos_gifts_vs_choices.“won’tbeabletostickwithit”:TaylorSoper,“AdvicefromAmazonFounderJeffBezos:BeProudof

Your Choices, Not Your Gifts,”GeekWire, October 13, 2013, http://www.geekwire.com/2013/advice-amazon-founder-jeff-bezos-proud-choices-gifts.

asksthesamequestions:HesterLacey,“TheInventory,”publishedweeklyintheFinancialTimes.

“IlovewhatIdo”:HesterLacey,journalistfortheFinancialTimes,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,June2,2015.

fitstheirpersonalinterests:MarkAllenMorris,“AMeta-AnalyticInvestigationofVocationalInterest-BasedJobFit,andItsRelationshiptoJobSatisfaction,Performance,andTurnover”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofHouston,2003).

happierwiththeirlives:RongSu,LouisTay,andQiZhang,“InterestFitandLifeSatisfaction:ACross-CulturalStudyinTenCountries”(manuscriptinpreparation).”

performbetter:ChristopherD.Nye,RongSu, JamesRounds, andFritzDrasgow,“Vocational Interestsand Performance: A Quantitative Summary of over 60 Years of Research,” Perspectives onPsychologicalScience7(2012),384–403.

veryrealconstraints:SeeCalNewport,SoGoodTheyCan’tIgnoreYou:WhySkillsTrumpPassionintheQuestforWorkYouLove(NewYork:HachetteBookGroup,2012).Calpointsoutthatgettingverygoodatsomethingandthereforemakingyourselfvaluabletoothersoftenprecedesidentifyingwhatyoudoasyourpassion.

“strengthof[our]interest”:WilliamJames,TalkstoTeachersonPsychology;andtoStudentsonSomeofLife’sIdeals(NewYork:HenryHoltandCompany,1916),114.

“engaged”atwork:Gallup,StateoftheGlobalWorkplace:EmployeeEngagementInsightsforBusinessLeadersWorldwide(Washington,DC:Gallup,Inc.,2013).

foodcouldbethisgood:Julie&Julia,dir.NoraEphron,ColumbiaPictures,2009.“I was hooked, and for life”: Marilyn Mellowes, “About Julia Child,” PBS, June 15, 2005,

http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/julia-child-about-julia-child/555.“Icouldreallyfallinlovewith”:RowdyGaines,Olympicgoldmedalistswimmer,inaninterviewwith

theauthor,June15,2015.“I’mgladIwentthisway”:MarcVetri,chef,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,February2,2015.writingacookbookforAmericans:JuliaChildwithAlexPrud’homme,MyLifeinFrance(NewYork:

AlfredA.Knopf,2006).“zerointerestinthestove”:Ibid.,3.“tofindmytruepassion”:Mellowes,“AboutJuliaChild.”“NoCareerDirection”: “Fleeting Interest inEverything,NoCareerDirection,”Reddit, accessed June

17,2015,https://www.reddit.com/r/jobs/comments/1asw10/fleeting_interest_in_everything_no_career.“They’reholdingoutforperfection”:BarrySchwartz,DorwinCartwrightProfessorofSocialTheory

andSocialActionatSwarthmoreCollege,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,January27,2015.aroundmiddleschool:DouglasK.S.Low,MijungYoon,BrentW.Roberts,andJamesRounds.“The

StabilityofVocationalInterestsfromEarlyAdolescencetoMiddleAdulthood:AQuantitativeReviewofLongitudinalStudies.”PsychologicalBulletin131(2005):713–37.

withtheoutsideworld:MuchofthecontentinthischapteronthedevelopmentofinterestscomesfromaninterviewbetweentheauthorandAnnRenninger,EugeneM.LangProfessorofEducationalStudiesatSwarthmoreCollege,onJuly13,2015.Foranin-depthreview,theinterestedreaderisreferredtoK.Ann Renninger and Suzanne Hidi, The Power of Interest for Motivation and Engagement (London:Routledge,2015).

“to force an interest”: Rob Walker, “25 Entrepreneurs We Love: Jeff Bezos, Amazon.com,” Inc.magazine,April2004,150.

“onepieceofinformationledtoanother”:MikeHopkins,NASAastronautandcolonelintheU.S.AirForce,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,May12,2015.

“Istartedwantingtomakethat”:Vetri,interview.“I’llalwaysneedyou”:MarcVetri,IlViaggioDiVetri:ACulinaryJourney(NewYork:TenSpeedPress,

2008),ix.“atthethingstheylove”:AmyChua,BattleHymnoftheTigerMother(NewYork:Penguin,2011),213.120peoplewhoachieved:BenjaminBloom,DevelopingTalentinYoungPeople(NewYork:Ballantine,

1985).

“theearlyyears”: Ibid. Iwould like topointouthere thatwhile interest typicallyprecedes theeffortfulpracticewewilldiscussinthenextchapter,it’salsobeenshownthatinvestingeffortintoanendeavorcan reciprocally increase passion. SeeMichael M. Gielnik et al., “ ‘I Put in Effort, Therefore I AmPassionate’: Investigating the Path from Effort to Passion in Entrepreneurship,” Academy ofManagementJournal58(2015):1012–31.

Encouragement during the early years: For related work, see Stacey R. Finkelstein and AyeletFishbach,“TellMeWhatIDidWrong:ExpertsSeekandRespondtoNegativeFeedback,”Journal ofConsumerResearch39(2012):22–38.

“perhapsthemajorquality”:Bloom,DevelopingTalent,514.erodeintrinsicmotivation:RobertVallerand,NathalieHoulfort,andJacquesForest,“PassionforWork:

Determinants and Outcomes,” in The Oxford Handbook of Work Engagement, Motivation, and Self-DeterminationTheory,ed.MarylèneGagné(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,2014),85–105.

injuredphysicallyandtoburnout: JeanCôté,ProfessorofPsychologyatQueen’sUniversity, inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July24,2015.Seealso,JeanCôté,KarlErickson,andBruceAbernethy,“PlayandPracticeDuringChildhood,”inConditionsofChildren’sTalentDevelopmentinSport,ed.JeanCôtéandRonnieLidor (Morgantown,WV:Fitness InformationTechnology, 2013), 9–20.Côté,Baker, andAbernethy,“PracticeandPlayintheDevelopmentofSportExercise,”inHandbookofSportPsychology,ed.GershonTenenbaumandRobertC.Eklund(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2007),184–202.

different motivational needs: Robert J. Vallerand, The Psychology of Passion: A Dualistic Model(Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2015). Vallerand has found that passion leads to deliberatepractice,andthatautonomysupportfromteachersandparentsleadstopassion.

“Ijustwantedtomakemyown”:WillShortz,crosswordpuzzleeditorfor theNewYorkTimes, inaninterviewwiththeauthor,February28,2015.

“myfirstcrossword”:ElisabethAndrews,“20QuestionsforWillShortz,”BloomMagazine,December2007/January2008,58.

“Isoldmyfirstpuzzle”:Shortz,interview.“whatIwassupposedtodo”:JackieBezos,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,August6,2015.Jackiealso

toldmethatJeff’searlyloveofspacehasneverwaned.Hishighschoolvaledictoryspeechwasaboutcolonizing space. Decades later, he created Blue Origin to establish a permanent presence in space:www.blueorigin.com.

“becausethey’resodiverse”:Shortz,interview.“callthemshort-termers”:JaneGolden,founderandexecutivedirectoroftheMuralArtsProgram,inan

interviewwiththeauthor,June5,2015.“it’sabasicdrive”:PaulSilvia,associateprofessorofpsychologyattheUniversityofNorthCarolinaat

Greensboro,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July22,2015.enduringinterests:PaulJ.Silvia,“Interest—theCuriousEmotion,”CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience17(2008):57–60.

“howeagertolearn”:Seewww.templeton.org.“they’renotsurewhatit’sallabout”:Silvia,interview.“HowtoSolvetheNewYorkTimesCrosswordPuzzle”:WillShortz,“HowtoSolve theNewYorkTimesCrosswordPuzzle,”NewYorkTimesMagazine,April8,2001.

“withaslightlynewturn”:James,TalkstoTeachers,108.

CHAPTER7:PRACTICEgrittierkidsattheNationalSpellingBee:Duckworthetal.,“Grit.”“bebetterthanthelast”:Lacey,interview.worldexpertonworldexperts:AndersEricssonandRobertPool,Peak:SecretsfromtheNewScienceofExpertise(NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2016).Seealso,K.AndersEricsson,“TheInfluenceof Experience andDeliberate Practice on the Development of Superior Expert Performance,” inThe

CambridgeHandbookofExpertiseandExpertPerformance,ed.K.AndersEricssonetal.(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversity Press, 2006).K.Anders Ericsson,Ralf Th.Krampe, andClemensTesch-Römer, “The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance,” PsychologicalReview100(1993):363–406.

their rate of improvement slows: See K. Anders Ericsson and PaulWard, “Capturing the NaturallyOccurring Superior Performance of Experts in the Laboratory,”Current Directions in PsychologicalScience 16 (2007): 346–50. See also Allen Newell and Paul S. Rosenbloom, “Mechanisms of SkillAcquisitionandtheLawofPractice,”inCognitiveSkillsandTheirAcquisition,ed.JohnR.Anderson(Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1981),1–56.Gritparagonstellme,insomanywords,thatifyouhadamagnifyingglass,you’dsee that learningcurvesarenot smoothatall. Instead, thereare“mini”plateaus—gettingstuckonaproblemforhours,days,weeksorevenlonger,andthensuddenlyabreakthrough.Ninety-six-year-oldMacArthur Fellow and poet Irving Feldman put it tome thisway:“Learningisn’tanevenlyrisingslope,butaseriesofleapsfromplateautoplateau.”

tenthousandhoursofpractice:Ericssonetal.,“TheRoleofDeliberatePractice.”“makeamaturedancer”:MarthaGraham, “IAmaDancer,”onEdwardR.Murrow’sThis IBelieve,

CBS, circa 1953. Republished on NPR, “An Athlete of God,” January 4, 2006,http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5065006.

“seasoned press dispatcher”: Bryan Lowe William and Noble Harter, “Studies on the TelegraphicLanguage: The Acquisition of a Hierarchy of Habits,” Psychological Review 6 (1899): 358. AlsorelevantisJohnR.Hayes,“CognitiveProcessesinCreativity,”inHandbookofCreativity, ed. JohnA.Glover,RoyceR.Ronning,andCecilR.Reynolds(NewYork:Springer,1989),135–45.

is justaroughaverage:SeeK.AndersEricsson,“TheDangerofDelegatingEducation toJournalists:Why the APS Observer Needs Peer Review When Summarizing New Scientific Developments”(unpublishedmanuscript,2012),https://psy.fsu.edu/faculty/ericsson/ericsson.hp.html.

“notdoingdeliberatepractice”:K.AndersEricsson,professorofpsychologyatFloridaStateUniversity,inconversationwiththeauthor,December2005.

intentionallyseekoutchallenges:Ericssonetal.,“TheRoleofDeliberatePractice.”“I’dtrytohold1:14”:Gaines,interview.“thatneedsproblemsolving”:RobertoDíaz,presidentandCEOoftheCurtisInstituteofMusic,inan

interviewwiththeauthor,October7,2015.“everysinglepieceofmygame”:Anadditional15percentofhistime,hesays,isforplayingpick-up,

eitherone-on-oneorthree-on-three,sothatthemicrorefinementshehasworkedoncanbeintegratedintoteam play.And, finally, the last 15 percent is for organized games. “KevinDurant,”The Film RoomProject.

“there we were, stuck”: Ulrik Juul Christensen, executive chairman of Area9 and senior fellow atMcGraw-HillEducation,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July15,2015.

firststudiedinchessplayers:HerbertA.SimonandWilliamG.Chase,“Skill inChess:Experimentswith Chess-Playing Tasks and Computer Simulation of Skilled Performance Throw Light on SomeHumanPerceptualandMemoryProcesses,”AmericanScientist61(1973):394–403.Seealso:Ericssonetal.,“TheRoleofDeliberatePractice.”

“andcorrectedthem”:TheAutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin:WithanIntroductionandNotes(NewYork:MacMillanCompany,1921),14.

“nogainswithoutpains”:BenjaminFranklin,“TheWaytoWealth,”inMemoirsofBenjaminFranklin(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1839),7.

“a small number of practices”: Peter F. Drucker, The Effective Executive: The Definitive Guide toGettingtheRightThingsDone(NewYork:HarperCollins,2006),ix.

“foryearsonend”:AtulGawande,“TheLearningCurve:LikeEveryoneElse,SurgeonsNeedPractice.That’sWhereYouComeIn,”NewYorker,January28,2002.

“that’s whatmagic is tome”: David Blaine, “How I HeldMyBreath for 17Minutes,” TED video,filmedOctober 2009, http://www.ted.com/talks/david_blaine_how_i_held_my_breath_for_17_min. See

alsoRoyF.BaumeisterandJohnTierney,Willpower:RediscoveringtheGreatestHumanStrenth(NewYork:Penguin,2011).

poredthroughpublishedbooks:BarrieTrinkle,CarolynAndrews,andPaigeKimble,HowtoSpellLikeaChamp:Roots,Lists,Rules,Games,Tricks,andBee-WinningTipsfromthePros(NewYork:WorkmanPublishingCompany,2006)

“studyingashardasIcan”:JamesMaguire,AmericanBee:TheNationalSpellingBeeandtheCultureofWordNerds(Emmaus,PA:Rodale,2006),360.

deliberate practice predicted: Angela Duckworth et al., “Deliberate Practice Spells Success: WhyGrittier Competitors Triumph at the National Spelling Bee,” Social Psychological and PersonalityScience 2 (2011): 174–81. Getting quizzed also predicted doing well in competition, but whencomparingkidswhogotquizzedthesameamountoftimetoeachother,Ifoundthatthosewhodidmoredeliberatepracticedidbetter.Incontrast,whencomparingkidswhodidthesameamountofdeliberatepracticetoeachother,Ifoundthatmorequizzingproducednoadvantage.

benefitstobeingquizzed:HenryL.RoedigerandJeffreyD.Karpicke,“ThePowerofTestingMemory:Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice,”Perspectives on Psychological Science 1(2006):181–210.

tenhoursperweek:Duckworthetal.,“SpellsSuccess,”177.cometoadifferentconclusion:Ontheeffortfulnessoflearning,seealsoElizabethL.BjorkandRobert

Bjork,“MakingThingsHardonYourself,butinaGoodWay:CreatingDesirableDifficultiestoEnhanceLearning,”inPsychologyandtheRealWorld:EssaysIllustratingFundamentalContributionstoSociety,ed. Morton A. Gernsbacher et al. (New York: Worth Publishers, 2011), 56–64. See also Sidney K.D’MelloandArthurC.Graesser,“Confusion”inInternationalHandbookofEmotionsinEducation,ed.ReinhardPekrunandLisaLinnenbrink-Garcia(NewYork:Routledge,2014),289–310.

experiencedassupremelyeffortful:Ericssonetal.,“TheRoleofDeliberatePractice.”“dailysmalldeaths”:Graham,“IAmaDancer.”“you’re concentrating and you’re exhausted”: Judd Apatow, interviewed by Charlie Rose,CharlieRose, July31,2009, republished inApatow,Sick in theHead:ConversationsAboutLifeandComedy(NewYork:RandomHouse,2015),26.

to keep doing it: K. Anders Ericsson, “How Experts Attain and Maintain Superior Performance:Implicationsfor theEnhancementofSkilledPerformanceinOlderIndividuals,”JournalofAgingandPhysicalActivity8(2000):366–72.

“afeelingofspontaneity”:KarenStansberryBeard,“TheoreticallySpeaking:AnInterviewwithMihalyCsikszentmihalyi on Flow Theory Development and Its Usefulness in Addressing ContemporaryChallenges in Education,” Educational Psychology Review 27 (2015): 358. Csikszentmihalyi hasemphasized that what matters to the quality of our momentary experience is the subjective level ofchallengeandthesubjectivelevelofskill.

“justflowsoutbyitself”:MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,“PlayandIntrinsicRewards,”JournalofHumanisticPsychology15(1975):50.

“automatically without thinking”: Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, “Flow: The Joy of Reading,” inApplications of Flow in Human Development: The Collected Works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi(Dordrecht,Netherlands:Springer,2014),233.

“incompatiblewithdeliberatepractice”:K.AndersEricssonandPaulWard,“CapturingtheNaturallyOccurring Superior Performance of Experts in the Laboratory,”Current Directions in PsychologicalScience16(2007):349.

“bynomeansself-evident”:Csikszentmihalyi,ApplicationsofFlow,xx.“butitsfruitsaresweet”:Ibid.“achievewhatyoudesire”:Ibid.“passionandworld-classperformance”:MihalyCsikszentmihalyi andK.AndersEricsson, “Passion

and World-Class Performance” (presentation, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, August2006).

flowandgrit:Inthisstudy,flowwasmeasuredusingapreviouslyvalidatedsix-itemquestionnairewhosepossiblescoresrangedfromaminimumof1andamaximumof5.Exampleitem:“Whetheratworkorplay,Iamusually‘inazone’andnotconsciousofmyself.”SeeKatherineR.VonCulin,EliTsukayama,andAngelaL.Duckworth, “UnpackingGrit:MotivationalCorrelatesofPerseveranceandPassion forLong-termGoals,”JournalofPositivePsychology9(2014):1–7.

“Iswamaroundtheworld”:Gaines,interview.“It’sabouthardwork”:MadsRasmussen,DanishrowerandOlympicgoldmedalist,inaninterviewwith

theauthor,June28,2015.“testamenttothework”:RodGilmour,“LedeckyBettersOwn1500mFreestyleWorldRecord,”Reuters,

August 3, 2015, http://in.reuters.com/article/2015/08/03/swimming-world-1500m-idINKCN0Q813Y20150803.

“shows off in themeet”: AshleyBranca, “Katie Ledecky: ‘I’ve JustAlways Felt Comfortable in theWaterfromDayOne,’ ”Guardian,March10,2015.

saidtheyenjoyeditmore:Duckworthetal.,“SpellsSuccess.”“shehasthatattitude”:BruceGemmell,USANationalTeamswimmingcoach,inaninterviewwiththe

author,August24,2015.“andgettingitdone”:KerryClose,2006ScrippsNationalSpellingBeechampion,inaninterviewwith

theauthor,August10,2015.basic requirements of deliberate practice: K. Anders Ericsson, “The Influence of Experience and

DeliberatePracticeontheDevelopmentofSuperiorExpertPerformance,” inCambridgeHandbookofExpertiseandExpertPerformanceed.K.AndersEricssonetal.(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress),685–706.Forafascinatingstudyoftheimportanceofpracticing“strategically,”seeRobertDuke,Amy Simmons, and Carla Davis Cash, “It’s Not How Much; It’s How: Characteristics of PracticeBehaviorandRetentionofPerformanceSkills,”JournalofResearchinMusicEducation56(2009):31021.

it’snothoursofbrute-force:Rasmussen,interview.until he was twenty-two: Noa Kageyama, performance psychologist at The Julliard School, in an

interviewwiththeauthor,September21,2015.challenging,effortfulpractice:LaurenEskreis-Winkler et al., “UsingWise Interventions toMotivate

DeliberatePractice,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology(inpress).

Youjustdo:JudithA.OuelletteandWendyWood,“HabitandIntentioninEverydayLife:TheMultipleProcessesbyWhichPastBehaviorPredictsFutureBehavior,”PsychologicalBulletin124(1998):54–74.Seealso,CharlesDuhigg,ThePower ofHabit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDo inLife andBusiness (NewYork:RandomHouse,2012).

roseatdawn:MasonCurrey,DailyRituals:HowArtistsWork(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2013),217–18.

a“tinymean”hotelroom:Ibid.,122.“beginningofeverybitofwork”:WilliamJames,“TheLawsofHabits,”ThePopularScienceMonthly

30(1887):447.“with your nose”: Robert Compton, “Joyce Carol Oates Keeps Punching,” Dallas Morning News,

November17,1987.“feelgreatwhileyou’redoingit”:TerryLaughlin,headcoachandchiefexecutiveoptimist(notkidding,

that’shisrealtitle)ofTotalImmersionSwimming,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July24,2015.toddlers don’t mind at all: Elena Bodrova and Deborah Leong, creators of the Tools of the Mind

curriculumforearlychildhoodeducation,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July15,2015.SeealsoAdeleDiamondandKathleenLee,“InterventionsShowntoAidExecutiveFunctionDevelopmentinChildren4 to 12 Years Old,” Science 333 (2011): 959–64. Clancy Blair and C. Cybele Raver, “Closing theAchievementGapThroughModificationofNeurocognitiveandNeuroendocrineFunction,”PLoSONE9(2014):1–13.

“givetheirbesteffort”:Gemmell,interview.

CHAPTER8:PURPOSE“havealemonadestand”:Alex’sLemonadeStand,http://www.alexslemonade.org.thisthree-phaseprogression:Bloom,DevelopingTalent.“thelargerpurposeandmeaning”:Bloom,DevelopingTalent,527.“newperspectiveonlife”:Golden,interview.ElectionDaynevercomes:MelissaDribben,“GracingtheCityJaneGoldenHasMadeMuralArtsthe

Nation’sTopPublicArtsProgram,”PhiladelphiaInquirer,July27,2008,http://articles.philly.com/2008-07-27/news/25245217_1_jane-seymour-golden-globes-philadelphia-s-mural-arts-program.

“soIfindwaystogetenergized”:Ibid.“it’samoralimperative”:Golden,interview.“beautifulbottleofwine”:AntonioGalloni,winecriticandfounderofVinous,inaninterviewwiththe

author,July24,2015“amillionlightbulbs”:“Liv-ExInterviewwithAntonioGalloni,PartOne,”Liv-ExBlog,December13,

2013,www.blog.liv-ex.com/2013/12/liv-ex-interview-with-antonio-galloni-part-one.html.“senseofpurpose”:Galloni,interview.purpose, pleasure, and age: These data are originally reported in Von Culin, Tsukayama, and

Duckworth,“UnpackingGrit.”well-being of others: Different scholars use the word purpose in slightly different ways. Often it is

emphasized that a goal, to be purposeful, has to be meaningful to the self and, at the same time,beneficialtoothers.HereIemphasizethebeyond-the-selfaspectofpurposebecausewealreadycoveredthemoreself-orientedmotivationofinterestinthelastchapter.

the eudaimonic life: Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, trans. David Ross (Oxford, UK: OxfordUniversityPress,2009),5.

“pleasure principle”: Sigmund Freud, “Formulations Regarding the Two Principles in MentalFunctioning,”inTheStandardEditionoftheCompletePsychologicalWorksofSigmundFreud,vol.12,trans.JamesStracheyandAnnaFreud(London:HogarthPress,1958),218–26.

evolvedtoseekmeaning:SeeJohnT.CacioppoandWilliamPatrick,Loneliness:HumanNatureandtheNeedforSocialConnection(NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,2008).SeealsoRoyF.Baumeister

and Mark R. Leary, “The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a FundamentalHumanMotivation,”PsychologicalBulletin 117 (1995): 497–529. Finally, see Edward L. Deci withRichardFlaste,WhyWeDoWhatWeDo:UnderstandingSelf-Motivation (NewYork:Penguin,1995).Notethatrecentprimatestudiesshowthat longevityandreproductivesuccessdependontheabilitytoform strong, enduring social bonds with others. The desire to connect is as basic a human—evenmammalian—need as the need for pleasure. See Robert M. Seyfarth and Dorothy L. Cheney, “TheEvolutionaryOriginsofFriendship,”AnnualReviewofPsychology63(2012):153–77.

than we care about pleasure: Richard M. Ryan and Edward L. Deci, “On Happiness and HumanPotential: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being,” Annual Review ofPsychology52(2001):141–66.

whichofthethreebricklayers:AmyWrzesniewski,ClarkMcCauley,PaulRozin,andBarrySchwartz,“Jobs,Careers,andCallings:People’sRelationstoTheirWork,”JournalofResearchinPersonality31(1997):25.

theiroccupationsacalling:Wecollectedthisdatain2015.thanthosewithajob:Wrzesniewskietal.,“Jobs,Careers,andCallings,”25.survey of 982 zookeepers: J. Stuart Bunderson and Jeffery A. Thompson, “The Call of the Wild:

Zookeepers, Callings, and the Double-Edged Sword of Deeply Meaningful Work,” AdministrativeScienceQuarterly54(2009):32–57.

“MondaythroughFridaysortofdying”:StudsTerkel,Working:PeopleTalkAboutWhatTheyDoAllDayandHowTheyFeelAboutWhatTheyDo (NewYork: PantheonBooks, 1974), xi.Note that thenamesoftheworkersinTerkel’sbookwerepseudonyms.

“Idon’tthinkIhaveacalling”:Ibid.,521–24.“findasavorintheirdailyjob”:Ibid.,xi.“It’smeaningfultosociety”:Ibid.,103–6.whenshestudiedsecretaries:Wrzesniewskietal.,“Jobs,Careers,andCallings.”“waitingtobediscovered”:AmyWrzesniewski,professoroforganizationalbehavioratYaleSchoolof

Management,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,January27,2015.allthewaytoChicago:MetropolitanTransitAuthority,“FactsandFigures,”accessedMarch10,2015,

http://web.mta.info/nyct/facts/ffsubway.htm.“andIgothired”: JoeLeader,seniorvicepresidentatNewYorkCityTransit, inan interviewwith the

author,February26,2015.“experienceI’veeverhad”:MichaelBaime,clinicalassociateprofessorofmedicineattheUniversityof

PennsylvaniaanddirectorofthePennProgramforMindfulness,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,January21,2015.

having funat the same time: The next year,we doubled in size and, to better support our students,developed an after-school enrichment program. The following year, the program won the BetterGovernmentAward for the state ofMassachusetts. Around the same time, professors at theHarvardKennedy School of Government wrote up the story of Summerbridge Cambridge as a case study insocialentrepreneurship.

hundreds of students every year: For more information on Breakthrough Greater Boston, seewww.breakthroughgreaterboston.org.

“youcanhaveboth”:AdamGrant,Classof 1965WhartonProfessorofManagement, in an interviewwiththeauthor,July15,2015.

prosocialinterestsinminddobetter:AdamGrant,GiveandTake:WhyHelpingOthersDrivesOurSuccess(NewYork:Penguin,2014).

interest in the work itself: Adam Grant, “Does Intrinsic Motivation Fuel the Prosocial Fire?Motivational Synergy in Predicting Persistence, Performance, and Productivity,” Journal of AppliedPsychology93(2008):48–58.

raisedmoremoney:Ibid.

aboutahundredadolescents:DavidS.YeagerandMatthewJ.Bundick,“TheRoleofPurposefulWorkGoals inPromotingMeaning inLife and inSchoolworkDuringAdolescence,”Journal ofAdolescentResearch24(2009):423–52.Relatedly,it’sbeenshownthataffirmingvaluescanboostperformanceforotherreasons,particularlybymaintainingasenseofpersonaladequacy.GeoffreyL.CohenandDavidK.Sherman,“ThePsychologyofChange:Self-AffirmationandSocialPsychologicalIntervention,”AnnualReviewofPsychology65(2014):333–71.

“didn’t give in to obstacles”: Aurora and Franco Fonte, wife and husband founders and directors ofAssetlink,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,March13,2015.

“somethingyou’reinterestedin”:BillDamon,professorofpsychologyatStanfordGraduateSchoolofEducation,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July20,2015.

personallossoradversity:Forexample,detectiveswhohavethemselvesbeenthevictimofacrimearegrittierand,inturn,moreengagedintheirwork.SeeLaurenEskreis-Winkler,ElizabethP.Shulman,andAngelaL.Duckworth,“SurvivorMission:DoThoseWhoSurviveHaveaDrive toThriveatWork?”JournalofPositivePsychology9(2014):209–18.

“becamefamilytoher”:KatCole,presidentofCinnabon, inaninterviewwith theauthor,February1,2015.

exceededonebilliondollars:CharlotteAlter,“HowtoRunaBillionDollarBrandBeforeYou’re35,”Time,December2,2014.

“Mypassionistohelppeople”:JoBarsh,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,July31,2015.“liketheyarethatperson”:KatCole,“SeeWhat’sPossible,andHelpOthersDotheSame,”fromKat

Cole’s blog, The Difference, August 7, 2013, http://www.katcole.net/2013/08/see-whats-possible-and-help-others-do.html.

“beabetterplace?”:DavidS.Yeager et al., “Boring but Important:ASelf-Transcendent Purpose forLearningFostersAcademicSelf-Regulation,”AttitudesandSocialCognition107(2014):559–80.

calls this idea job crafting: Amy Wrzesniewski and Jane E. Dutton, “Crafting a Job: RevisioningEmployeesasActiveCraftersofTheirWork,”Academy ofManagementReview 26 (2001): 179–201.See also www.jobcrafting.org andGrant,Give and Take, 262–63. This section also reflects personalcorrespondencebetweentheauthorandAmyWrzesniewski,professoroforganizationalbehavioratYaleSchoolofManagement,October20,2015.

“beabetterperson”:InterestedreaderscanfindamorecompletelistofquestionsthatBillDamonusesinhisbook,ThePathtoPurpose:HowYoungPeopleFindTheirCallinginLife(NewYork:FreePress,2008),183–86.

CHAPTER9:HOPEgettingupagain: For amore expansive discussion of how hope can be conceptualized, seeKevin L.

Rand, Allison D. Martin, and Amanda M. Shea, “Hope, but Not Optimism, Predicts AcademicPerformance of Law Students Beyond Previous Academic Achievement,” Journal of Research inPersonality45(2011):683–86.AlsoseeShaneJ.Lopez,MakingHopeHappen:CreatetheFutureYouWantforYourselfandOthers(NewYork:AtriaBooks,2013).

majorin—neurobiology:AtHarvarduntil 2006, you actually declaredyour “concentration” (which isHarvard’sterminologyfor“major”),inthespringofyourfreshmanyearandatthesametimemappedout every class you intended to take. My official concentration was the neurobiology track withinbiology,sinceneurobiologyasaseparateconcentrationwasnotcreateduntilyearslater.

thepunishmentstostop:StevenF.MaierandMartinE.Seligman,“LearnedHelplessness:TheoryandEvidence,” Journal of Experimental Psychology 105 (1976): 3–46. The seminal studies on learnedhelplessnessactuallyhadatriadicdesign,meaningthattherewasathirdcondition:dogswhoreceivedno shock at all. In general, these dogs behaved similarly to thosewhowere subjected to stresswithcontrol.SomeofthematerialinthischapterisfromaninterviewbetweenSeligmanandtheauthor,July20,2015.SeealsoMartinE.P.Seligman,LearnedOptimism:HowtoChangeYourMindandYourLife(NewYork:PocketBooks,1990).

practicalantidotesfordepression:FormoreinformationonAaronBeck,seewww.beckinstitute.org.distinguish optimists from pessimists: Christopher Peterson et al., “The Attributional Style

Questionnaire,”CognitiveTherapyandResearch6(1982):287–300.SeealsoLynY.Abramson,GeraldI.Metalsky,andLaurenB.Alloy,“HopelessnessDepression:ATheory-BasedSubtypeofDepression,”PsychologicalReview96(1989):358–72.

suffer fromdepression and anxiety: Peter Schulman, CamiloCastellon, andMartin E. P. Seligman,“Assessing Explanatory Style: The Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations and the AttributionalStyleQuestionnaire,”BehaviouralResearchandTherapy27(1989):505–9.

dropoutof school: Leslie P.Kamen andMartin E. P. Seligman, “Explanatory Style Predicts CollegeGrade Point Average” (unpublished manuscript, 1985). Christopher Peterson and Lisa C. Barrett,“ExplanatoryStyle andAcademicPerformanceAmongUniversityFreshman,”Journal ofPersonalityandSocialPsychology53(1987):603–7.

stay healthier: Toshihiko Maruto, Robert C. Colligan, Michael Malinchoc, and Kenneth P. Offord,“Optimistsvs.Pessimists:SurvivalRateAmongMedicalPatientsOvera30-YearPeriod,”MayoClinicProceedings75(2000):140–43.ChristopherPeterson,MartinE.P.Seligman,“PessimisticExplanatoryStyle Is a Risk Factor for Physical Illness: A Thirty-Five-Year Longitudinal Study,” Journal ofPersonalityandSocialPsychology55(1988):23–27.

satisfiedwiththeirmarriages:Karen J.Horneffer andFrankD.Fincham,“ConstructofAttributionalStyle inDepressionandMaritalDistress,”JournalofFamilyPsychology 9 (1995): 186–95. See also,Horneffer and Fincham, “Attributional Models of Depression and Distress,” Personality and SocialPsychologyBulletin22(1996):678–89.

sellabout25percentmoreinsurance:Onoptimismandsales, seeMartinE.P.SeligmanandPeterSchulman,“ExplanatoryStyleasaPredictorofProductivityandQuittingAmongLifeInsuranceSalesAgents,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986): 832–38. Shulman, “ExplanatoryStyle.”SeealsoPeterSchulman,“ApplyingLearnedOptimismtoIncreaseSalesProductivity,”JournalofPersonalSelling&SalesManagement19(1999):31–37.

swim in his or her best event: Martin E. P. Seligman, “Explanatory Style as a Mechanism ofDisappointingAthleticPerformance,”PsychologicalScience1(1990):143–46.

“Iwilljustcarryon”:Lacey,interview.could be the target of therapy: Aaron T. Beck, A. John Rush, Brian F. Shaw, and Gary Emery,Cognitive Therapy ofDepression (NewYork:Guilford Press, 1979).Also note that, in the same era,AlbertEllisdevelopedasimilarapproach.SoBeckandEllisarejointlyrecognizedaspioneersinwhatisnowcommonlyreferredtoascognitivebehavioraltherapy.

longer-lasting in its effects: Robert J. DeRubeis et al., “Cognitive Therapy vs Medications in theTreatment of Moderate to Severe Depression,” Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005): 409–16.Steven D. Hollon et al., “Prevention of Relapse Following Cognitive Therapy vs Medications inModerate to Severe Depression,” Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005): 417–22. Some patientsstrugglewith theaspectofCBT that involves trying to talk themselvesoutof theirnegative self-talk.These patients say things like: “Inmy head, I know it’s not fair to callmyself a loser. I’m labelingmyself,I’mengaginginall-or-nothingthinking.Butinmyheart,partofmestillfeelslikealoser—likeI’llneverbegoodenough.”AnewformofCBT,acceptanceandcommitmenttherapy(ACT),addressestheseconcerns.InACT,thegoalissimplytonoticeanynegativeself-talkandacceptthatitexists,whilenotlettingitcontrolyouractions.

“Relentless pursuit”: Information on Teach For America’s mission and history can be found atwww.teachforamerica.org.

optimistic teachers were grittier: Claire Robertson-Kraft and Angela L. Duckworth, “True Grit:Perseverance and Passion for Long-term Goals Predicts Effectiveness and Retention Among NoviceTeachers,”TeachersCollegeRecord(1970)116(2014):1–24.

one of Carol’s first studies: Carol S. Dweck, “The Role of Expectations and Attributions in theAlleviationofLearnedHelplessness,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology31(1975):674–85.

assessaperson’s theoryof intelligence:ThismeasurewasdevelopedbyCarolDweck,SheriLevy,ValanneMacGyvers,C.Y.Chiu, andYing-yiHong.For interested readers, I highly recommendCarolDweck,Mindset:TheNewPsychologyofSuccess(NewYork:BallantineBooks,2008).

positivesocialrelationships:SeeCarolS.Dweck,“MindsetsandHumanNature:PromotingChangeintheMiddle East, the Schoolyard, the Racial Divide, andWillpower,”AmericanPsychologist (2012):614–22.

persistthroughcollege:BrianGallaetal.,“Intellective,Motivational,andSelf-RegulatoryDeterminantsofHighSchoolGrades,SATScores,andCollegePersistence”(manuscriptunderreview,2015).

KIPPSchools:FormoreinformationonKIPP,seewww.kipp.org.PromotesGrowthMindsetandGrit:This thesauruswasoriginallydevelopedbypsychologistDavid

Yeager,whomIthankforthisage-generalrevision.Ongenericstatements,seeDaeunParketal.,“HowDoGenericStatements ImpactPerformance?Evidence forEntityBeliefs,”DevelopmentalScience (inpress,2015).Andfinally,ontheimportanceofa“genuine”growthmindset,seeCarolS.Dweck,“CarolDweckRevisitsthe‘GrowthMindset’ ”EducationWeek,September22,2015.

“neverfailedtoimitatethem”:JamesBaldwin,NobodyKnowsMyName(NewYork:VintageBooks,1993),61–62.

inadvertently inculcated a fixed mindset: Daeun Park et al., “Young Children’s MotivationalFrameworks and Math Achievement: Relation to Teacher-Reported Instructional Practices, but NotTeacherTheoryofIntelligence,”JournalofEducationalPsychology(inpress,2015).

parentsreacttomistakes:KylaHaimovitzandCarolS.Dweck,“WhatPredictsChildren’sFixedandGrowth Mindsets? Not Their Parent’s Views of Intelligence But Their Parents’ Views of Failure”(manuscriptunderreview,2015).

apply in a corporate setting: Harvard Business Review Staff, “How Companies Can Profit from a‘GrowthMindset’ ”HarvardBusinessReview,November2014.

“trackedseniorleaders”:BillMcNabb,CEOofVanguard, inaninterviewwiththeauthor,August20,2015.

“makesmestronger”:FriedrichNietzsche,TheAnti-Christ,EcceHomo,TwilightoftheIdols:andOtherWritings,ed.AaronRidley,trans.JudithNorman(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005),157.

croonthesamewords:KanyeWest,“Stronger,”Graduation,2007.KellyClarksonsingsapopularizedversion of the phrase, “What doesn’t kill youmakes you stronger,” in “Stronger (WhatDoesn’tKillYou),”Stronger,2011.

more confident: In fact, the idea that suffering can make us more capable is timeless. Every majorreligioustraditionincludesaparablewheresufferingisnecessaryforenlightenment.TheLatinrootofthewordpassion ispati,whichmeans “to suffer.”OEDOnline,OxfordUniversity Press, September2015.

“tenacityinpursuit”:FormoreinformationonOutwardBound,seewww.outwardbound.org.benefits tendto increase: JohnA.Hattie,HerbertW.Marsh, JamesT.Neill, andGarryE.Richards,

“AdventureEducationandOutwardBound:Out-of-ClassExperiencesThatMakeaLastingDifference,”ReviewofEducationalPsychology67(1997):43–87.

weremuchmorevulnerable:MaierandSeligman,“LearnedHelplessness.”SteveMaier and his students: Kenneth H. Kubala et al., “Short- and Long-Term Consequences of

StressorControllabilityinAdolescentRats,”BehaviouralBrainResearch234(2012):278–84.“respondtostress”:StevenF.Maier,professorofpsychologyanddirectoroftheCenterforNeuroscience

attheUniversityofColoradoatBoulder,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,April2,2015.MiltonHershey School: Not coincidentally, Milton Hershey himself exemplified grit, having started

severalunsuccessfulcompaniesbeforedeveloping,throughtrialanderror,aformulaformilkchocolatethatwould soonmakehis company the largest confectionary in theworld.Heandhiswife couldnothavechildrenand thereforecreated theHersheySchool,whichownsacontrolling interest inHersheystock.FormoreinformationontheMiltonHersheySchoolanditsfounder,visitwww.mhskids.org.

alwayslearningandgrowing:IfyouwanttohearKayvon’smusic,visitwww.kayvonmusic.com.increased their IQ scores: Sue Ramsden et al., “Verbal and Non-Verbal Intelligence Changes in the

TeenageBrain,”Nature479(2011):113–16.ability to growmyelin: Carol S.Dweck, “The Secret toRaising SmartKids,”ScientificAmerican 23

(2015).LisaS.Blackwell,KaliH.Trzesniewski,andCarolS.Dweck,“ImplicitTheoriesofIntelligencePredictAchievementAcrossanAdolescentTransition:ALongitudinalStudyandinIntervention,”ChildDevelopment78(2007):246–63.JoshuaAronson,CarrieB.FriedandCatherineGood,“ReducingtheEffects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories ofIntelligence,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology38(2002):113–25.DavidPauneskuetal.,“Mind-SetInterventions Are a Scalable Treatment for Academic Underachievement,” Psychological Science(2015): 1–10. Allyson P.Mackey, Kirstie J.Whitaker, and Silvia A. Bunge, “Experience-DependentPlasticityinWhiteMatterMicrostructure:ReasoningTrainingAltersStructuralConnectivity,”Frontiersin Neuroanatomy 6 (2012): 1–9. Robert J. Zatorre, R. Douglas Fields, and Heidi Johansen-Berg,“Plasticity in Gray andWhite: Neuroimaging Changes in Brain Structure During Learning,”NatureNeuroscience15(2012):528–36.

“resiliencetraining”:ThePennResilienceProgramwasdevelopedbyJaneGillham,KarenReivich,andLisa Jaycox. This school-based program teaches cognitive-behavioral and social-emotional skills tostudentsusingroleplays,games,andinteractiveactivities.SeeJ.E.Gillham,K.J.Reivich,L.H.Jaycox,andM. E. P. Seligman, “PreventingDepressive Symptoms in Schoolchildren: TwoYear Follow-up,”PsychologicalScience6 (1995):343–51.MartinE.P.Seligman,PeterSchulman,RobertJ.DeRubeis,andStevenD.Hollon,“ThePreventionofDepressionandAnxiety,”PreventionandTreatment2(1999).Note that amore recentmeta-analytic review confirmed benefits of the program over twelvemonthspost-interventionincomparisontonotreatment,butnotactivetreatment,controlconditions:StevenM.Brunwasser, Jane E. Gillham, and Eric S. Kim, “A Meta-Analytic Review of the Penn ResiliencyProgram’sEffectonDepressiveSymptoms,”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology77(2009):1042–54.

cognitivebehavioraltherapy:Formoreinformationoncognitivetherapy,seewww.beckinstitute.org.“Igetbackonmyfeet”:RhondaHughes,HelenHerrmannProfessorofMathematicsEmeritusatBryn

MawrCollegeandcofounderoftheEDGEProgram,inconversationwiththeauthor,May25,2013.“Don’t give up!”: Sylvia Bozeman, professor emeritus of mathematics at Spelman College, in

correspondencewiththeauthor,October14,2015.SylviahasmadesimilarremarksinEdnaFrancisco,“ChangingtheCultureofMath,”Science,September16,2005.Ishouldalsonotethatsometimesthere’snobodyavailabletotellyoutokeepgoing.PsychologistKristinNeffsuggeststhinkingaboutwhatyouwould say toa friendwhowas strugglingwitha similar situation, and then topractice saying similarcompassionate,understandingthingstoyourself.

CHAPTER10:PARENTINGFORGRIT“canquiteoverwhelmhim”:JohnB.Watson,PsychologicalCareofInfantandChild(London:Unwin

Brothers,1928),14.“givethemapatonthehead”:Ibid.,73.“myparentsweremy foundation”:DonAmore, “Redemption for aPurePasser?”HartfordCourant,

January29,1995.“I’dliketocomehome”:Grit:TheTrueStoryofSteveYoung,directedbyKevinDoman (CedarFort,

KSLTelevision,andHomeSports,2014),DVD.“You’renotcomingbackhere”:Ibid.“I threw over 10,000 spirals”: Steve Young with Jeff Benedict, “Ten Thousand Spirals,” chapter in

forthcomingbook,2015,http://www.jeffbenedict.com/index.php/blog/389-ten-thousand-spirals.“Icouldn’tgetahit”:Doman,Grit:TheTrueStory.“you cannot quit”: Christopher W. Hunt, “Forever Young, Part II: Resolve in the Face of Failure,”GreenwichTime,February2,2013.

“andI’dbehittingthem”:Doman,Grit:TheTrueStory.“Endure to the end, Steve”: The Pro Football Hall of Fame, “Steve Young’s Enshrinement Speech

Transcript,”August7,2005.“Thenamereallyfitshim”:Doman,Grit:TheTrueStory.tenthousandsit-upsinarow:KevinDoman,“Grit:TheTrueStoryofSteveYoung,”DeseretNews,

April4,2014.“OurSteveisagreatkid!”:SherryandGritYoung,parentsofSteveYoung, inan interviewwith the

author,August23,2015.“Everythingiscontextual”:SteveYoung,formerquarterbackoftheSanFrancisco49ers,inaninterview

withtheauthor,August18,2015.funniestcomicsinBritain:Observer,“TheA-ZofLaughter(PartTwo),”Guardian,December7,2003.“camefrommyfamily”:FrancescaMartinez,comedian,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,August4,2015.“thenyoucanreassess”:FrancescaMartinez,Whatthe****IsNormal?!(London:VirginBooks,2014),

185.“leaveformaleducation”:Martinez,interview.Inherbook,Francescagivesasimilaraccount.“thethrowingofobjects”:Martinez,Whatthe****IsNormal?!,48.“authoritativeparenting”:Wendy S. Grolnick and RichardM. Ryan, “Parent Styles Associated with

Children’sSelf-RegulationandCompetenceinSchool,”JournalofEducationalPsychology81(1989):143–54. Earl S. Schaefer, “A Configurational Analysis of Children’s Reports of Parent Behavior,”Journal of Consulting Psychology 29 (1965): 552–57. Diana Baumrind, “Authoritative ParentingRevisited: History and Current Status,” in Authoritative Parenting: Synthesizing Nurturance andDiscipline for Optimal Child Development, ed. Robert E. Larzelere, Amanda Sheffield Morris, andAmandaW.Harrist(Washington,D.C.:AmericanPsychologicalAssociation,2013),11–34.

amoratoriumonfurtherresearch:LaurenceSteinberg,“PresidentialAddress:WeKnowSomeThings:Parent-AdolescentRelationships inRetrospect andProspect,”Journal ofResearch onAdolescence 11(2001):1–19.

warm,respectful,anddemandingparents:LaurenceSteinberg,NinaS.Mounts,SusieD.Lamborn,and Sanford M. Dornbusch, “Authoritative Parenting and Adolescent Adjustment Across VariedEcologicalNiches,”JournalofResearchonAdolescence1(1991):19–36.

acrossadecadeormore:KoenLuyckx et al., “Parenting andTrajectories ofChildren’sMaladaptiveBehaviors: A 12-year Prospective Community Study,” Journal of Clinical Child & AdolescentPsychology40(2011):468–78.

messages their children receive: Earl S. Schaefer, “Children’s Reports of Parental Behavior: AnInventory,”ChildDevelopment36(1965):413–24.NancyDarlingandLaurenceSteinberg,“ParentingStyleasContext:AnIntegrativeModel,”PsychologicalBulletin113(1993):487–96.

parentingassessment:AdaptedwithpermissionfromNancyDarlingandTeruToyokawa,“ConstructionandValidationoftheParentingStyleInventoryII(PSI-II),”(unpublishedmanuscript,1997).

as virtual “carbon copies”: Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross, and Sheila Ross, “Imitation of Film-MediatedAggressiveModels,”JournalofAbnormalandSocialPsychology66(1963):3–11.

“worktowarddistantgoals”:Bloom,DevelopingTalent,510.“parents’owninterests”:RonaldS.Brandt, “OnTalentDevelopment:AConversationwithBenjamin

Bloom,”EducationalLeadership43(1985):34.thenextgeneration:Center forPromise,Don’tQuitonMe:WhatYoungPeopleWhoLeftSchoolSayAbout the Power of Relationships (Washington, D.C.: America’s Promise Alliance, 2015),www.gradnation.org/report/dont-quit-me.

“fifty-something, grizzled rocker”: Tobi Lütke, “The Apprentice Programmer,” Tobi Lütke’s blog,March3,2013,http://tobi.lutke.com/blogs/news/11280301-the-apprentice-programmer.

emerging research on teaching: Kathryn R. Wentzel, “Are Effective Teachers Like Good Parents?Teaching Styles and StudentAdjustment in EarlyAdolescence,”ChildDevelopment 73 (2002): 287–301. Douglas A. Bernstein, “Parenting and Teaching: What’s the Connection in Our Classrooms?”

PsychologyTeacherNetwork,September2013,http://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/ptn/2013/09/parenting-teaching.aspx.

1,892 different classrooms: Ronald F. Ferguson and Charlotte Danielson, “How Framework forTeachingandTripod7CsEvidenceDistinguishKeyComponentsofEffectiveTeaching,”inDesigningTeacher Evaluation Systems: New Guidance from the Measures of Effective Teaching Project, ed.ThomasJ.Kane,KerriA.Kerr,andRobertC.Pianta(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2014),98–133.

David Yeager and Geoff Cohen: David Scott Yeager et al., “Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust:WiseInterventions to Provide Critical Feedback Across the Racial Divide,” Journal of ExperimentalPsychology143(2013):804–24.Fortheresearchonhighlyeffectivetutorsthatoriginallyinspiredthisintervention, seeMarkR.Lepper andMariaWoolverton, “TheWisdomofPractice:LessonsLearnedfrom the Study of Highly Effective Tutors,” in Improving Academic Achievement: Impact ofPsychologicalFactorsonEducation,ed.JoshuaAronson(NewYork:AcademicPress,2002),135–58.

“haveveryhighexpectations”:Yeageretal.,“BreakingtheCycle”Cody Coleman: Cody Coleman, PhD candidate in computer science at Stanford University, in

conversationwiththeauthor,May24,2013.ChantelSmith:ChantelSmith,mathematicsteacheratWinslowTownshipHighSchool,inconversation

withtheauthor,March15,2015.“Staypositive”:CodyColeman,interviewbyStephanieRenée,900AM-WURD,October31,2014.

CHAPTER11:THEPLAYINGFIELDSOFGRITboth challenged and having fun: Reed W. Larson and Douglas Kleiber, “Daily Experience of

Adolescents,”inHandbookofClinicalResearchandPracticewithAdolescents,ed.PatrickH.TolanandBertram J. Cohler (Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1993), 125–45. Reed W. Larson, “PositiveDevelopmentinaDisorderlyWorld,”JournalofResearchonAdolescence21(2011):317–34.Dataareoriginally from Reed W. Larson, Giovanni Moneta, Maryse H. Richards, and Suzanne Wilson,“Continuity, Stability, and Change in Daily Emotional Experience Across Adolescence,” ChildDevelopment73(2002):1151–65.

AdaptedwithpermissionfromYoungetal.poster

See also David J. Shernoff, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Barbara Schneider, and Elisa SteeleShernoff,“StudentEngagement inHighSchoolClassroomsfromthePerspectiveofFlowTheory,”School Psychology Quarterly 18 (2003): 158–76. David J. Shernoff and Deborah Lowe Vandell,“Engagement in After-School Program Activities: Quality of Experience from the Perspective ofParticipants,”JournalofYouthandAdolescence36(2007):891–903.KiyoshiAsakawaandMihalyCsikszentmihalyi, “The Quality of Experience of Asian American Adolescents in AcademicActivities: An Exploration of Educational Achievement,” Journal of Research on Adolescence 8(1998):241–62.

involvedinextracurriculars:ReedW.Larson,“TowardaPsychologyofPositiveYouthDevelopment,”AmericanPsychologist55(2000):170–83.SeealsoRobertD.Putnam,OurKids:TheAmericanDreaminCrisis(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2015),174–82.

predicts better outcomes: For example, see Jennifer Fredricks and Jacquelynne S. Eccles,“Extracurricular Participation Associated with Beneficial Outcomes? Concurrent and LongitudinalRelations,”DevelopmentalPsychology42(2006):698–713.

playingvideogames:BureauofLaborStatistics,“AmericanTimeUseSurvey,”AverageHoursSpentPerDay in Leisure and Sports Activities, by Youngest and Oldest Populations Graph, 2013,http://www.bls.gov/TUS/CHARTS/LEISURE.HTM.SeealsoVanessaR.Wight,JosephPrice,SuzanneM.Bianchi,andBijouR.Hunt,“TheTimeUseofTeenagers,”SocialScienceResearch38(2009):792–809.

successinadulthood:MargoGardner,JodieRoth,andJeanneBrooks-Gunn,“Adolescents’ParticipationinOrganizedActivitiesandDevelopmentalSuccess2and8YearsAfterHighSchool:DoSponsorship,Duration,andIntensityMatter?”DevelopmentalPsychology44(2008):814–30.

Willingham was the director: Warren H. Willingham, Success in College: The Role of PersonalQualities andAcademicAbility (NewYork:CollegeEntranceExaminationBoard, 1985).Around thetimeWarrenWillinghamwas conducting this study,his teenage sonDanwentoff to college to studypsychology.DanisnowaprofessorofpsychologyattheUniversityofVirginiaand,inthespiritofhisfather’slegacy,dedicatedtohelpingkidsbenefitfromadvancesincognitivepsychology.MyfavoriteofhisbooksisWhyDon’tStudentsLikeSchool?(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,2009).

beyondstandardizedtests:Thepredictivevalidityofstandardizedachievement testsforacademicandprofessional outcomes is well-documented. See the work of psychologists Paul Sackett and NathanKuncelinparticular.Myclaimhereisnotthatachievementtestsareinvalid,perse,butratherthattheyareanincompleteandimperfectmetricforwhatstudentsknowandcando.SeeAngelaL.Duckworth,PatrickD.Quinn,andEliTsukayama,“WhatNoChildLeftBehindLeavesBehind:TheRolesofIQandSelf-ControlinPredictingStandardizedAchievementTestScoresandReportCardGrades,”JournalofEducationalPsychology 104 (2012): 439–51. See also James J.Heckman, JohnEricHumphries, andTimKautz,ed.,TheMythofAchievementTests:TheGEDandtheRoleofCharacterinAmericanLife(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2014).

“purposeful,continuouscommitment”:Willingham,SuccessinCollege,213.“winningan importantmeet”:MichaelWines,“ExtracurricularWorkSpursSuccess inCollege,”LosAngelesTimes,October17,1985.

“productivefollow-through”:Willingham,SuccessinCollege,193.Forareviewoftheadvantagesanddisadvantages of various approaches to measuring qualities like grit, see Duckworth and Yeager,“MeasurementMatters.”

atverydifferentrates:BrianM.Gallaetal.,“CognitiveandNoncognitiveDeterminantsofHighSchoolGrades,SATScores,andCollegePersistence,”JournalofEducationalPsychology(underreview,2015).

theGritGrid:Alyssa J.Matteucci et al., “QuantifyingGrit fromExtracurricularActivities:ABiodataMeasureofPassionandPerseveranceforLong-TermGoals”(manuscriptinpreparation,2015).

extracurricularsofnoviceteachers:Robertson-KraftandDuckworth,“TrueGrit”corresponsiveprinciple:BrentW.RobertsandAvshalomCaspi,“TheCumulativeContinuityModelof

Personality Development: Striking a Balance Between Continuity and Change in Personality TraitsAcrosstheLifeCourse,”inUnderstandingHumanDevelopment:DialogueswithLifespanPsychology,

ed.UrsulaM.StaudingerandUlmanLindenberger(Norwell,MA:KluwerAcademicPublishers,2003),183–214.

“set like plaster”:William James claimed in 1890 that by age thirty, personality is “set like plaster.”Quoted inBrentW.Roberts andWendyF.DelVecchio, “TheRank-OrderConsistency of PersonalityTraits from Childhood to Old Age: A Quantitative Review of Longitudinal Studies,” PsychologicalBulletin126(2000):6.

changeafterchildhood: Ibid.AvshalomCaspi,BrentW.Roberts,andRebeccaL.Shiner,“PersonalityDevelopment: Stability and Change,” Annual Review of Psychology 56 (2005): 453–84. Brent W.Roberts,Kate E.Walton, andWolfgangViechtbauer, “Patterns ofMean-Level Change in PersonalityTraitsAcross theLifeCourse:AMeta-AnalysisofLongitudinalStudies,”PsychologicalBulletin 132(2006):1–25.

tendency toward sociability: Brent W. Roberts, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt, “WorkExperiences and Personality Development in Young Adulthood,” Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology84(2003):582–93.

“It’sneverfarfromreach”:WilliamR.Fitzsimmons,deanofadmissionsandfinancialaidatHarvardCollege,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,February17,2015.

“plainoldhardwork”:WilliamR.Fitzsimmons,“GuidanceOffice:AnswersfromHarvard’sDean,Part3,”NewYorkTimes,September14,2009,http://thechoice.blogs.nytimes.com/tag/harvarddean.

“allthatgrit”:Fitzsimmons,interview.droppingprecipitously:KaisaSnellman, JenniferM.Silva,CarlB.Frederick, andRobertD.Putnam,

“TheEngagementGap:SocialMobilityandExtracurricularParticipationAmongAmericanYouth,”TheAnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience657(2015):194–207.

HarlemChildren’sZone:Formore informationonGeoffreyCanadaand theHarlemChildren’sZone,visitwww.hcz.org.

“a decent childhood”: Geoffrey Canada, founder and president of the Harlem Children’s Zone, inconversationwiththeauthor,May14,2012.

“Iactuallylikekids”:GeoffreyCanada,“OurFailingSchools.EnoughIsEnough!”TEDTalksEducationvideo, filmed May 2013,https://www.ted.com/talks/geoffrey_canada_our_failing_schools_enough_is_enough?language=en.

BobEisenberger: For a summary of his research, see Robert Eisenberger, “Learned Industriousness,”PsychologicalReview99(1992):248–67andEisenberger’sbookBlueMonday:TheLossof theWorkEthicinAmerica(NewYork:ParagonHouse,1989).

playingfieldsforgrit:Evenforthoseofuswhoarebeyondourhighschoolandcollegeyears,therearemanyactivitieswecansignupforthatofferchallengeandsupport.Forexample,I’velearnedalotaboutgrit from JoeDe Sena, founder of the SpartanRace.Here’s a story from our interview: “We live inVermont.Itgetsveryicy.Mysonisontheskiteam.Oneday,hecomesinanhourbeforelunch.Hetellsmehecameinearlybecausehewascold.”Itturnsoutthattherestoftheteamwasstilloutpracticing.“Okay,”Joesaidtohisson,“Iunderstandyou’recold.Butyou’reontheteam,andtheteamisskiing,sonowyou’reonmyteam,andmyteamdoesn’t take thechairlift.”Fatherandsonthenproceedoutsideandhikeupthemountainonfoot, thesonupsetandcomplainingthewholeway.Andthentheyskieddown.Lessonover. “Sounds like torture,” I said,half-joking. “Thepointwasnot to torturehim,” Joereplied.“Thepointwastoshowhimitcouldbealotworse.Weneverhadthatissueagainbecausenowhehadaframeofreferencethatsaid,‘Okay,thisisuncomfortable,butitcouldbealotworse.’ ”ThenJoepaused.“Youknow,I’vequitaracebefore.Ilearnedthere’salotworsethandealingwiththepaininfrontofme.That’salessonyouneedhelplearning.You’renotbornknowingthat.”

CHAPTER12:ACULTUREOFGRIT“really have grit”: Pete Carroll, interviewed by Eric Wayne Davis, NFL AM, posted by the Seattle

Seahawks, “Pete Carroll: ‘We’re Looking for Grit,’ ” February 3, 2014,http://www.seahawks.com/video/2014/02/03/pete-carroll-were-looking-grit.

“begreatcompetitors”:PeteCarroll,headcoachoftheSeattleSeahawks,inaphonecallwiththeauthor,May13,2013.

“joinagreatteam”:Chambliss,interview.thinkingadifferentway:LeeRossandRichardE.Nisbett,ThePersonandtheSituation:PerspectivesofSocialPsychology(London:McGraw-Hill,1991).Thisbooksumsupallthisresearchbeautifully.

JamesMarch:JamesG.March,“HowDecisionsHappeninOrganizations,”Human-ComputerInteraction6(1991):95–117.

“IamaWestPointer”:TomDeierlein,cofounderandCEOofThunderCatTechnology,inanemailwiththeauthor,October29,2011.

“theygotusedtoit”:Deierlein,inanemailtotheauthor,September17,2015.“theFinnishspirit”:Time,“NorthernTheatre:Sisu,”January8,1940.“hecanstandworse”:HudsonStrode,“Sisu:AWordThatExplainsFinland,”NewYorkTimes,January

14,1940.asked a thousand Finns: Emilia Lahti, “Above and Beyond Perseverance: An Exploration of Sisu”

(MastersCapstone,UniversityofPennsylvania,2013).“Iwearthisjersey”:BettyLiu,WorkSmarts:WhatCEOsSayYouNeedtoKnowtoGetAhead(Hoboken,

NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2014),7.“Noonehereisinsignificant”:ThomasII,Amazonreviewof“LastManStanding:TheAscentofJamie

Dimon and JPMorganChase,”October 8, 2009, http://www.amazon.com/Last-Man-Standing-Ascent-JPMorgan/dp/B003STCKN0.

“grytte”: Ben Smith, “Master Howard Dean,” Observer, December 8, 2003,http://observer.com/2003/12/master-howard-dean.

senioryearatBrowning:DuffMcDonald,LastManStanding:TheAscentofJamieDimon(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2009),5.

“Icall it fortitude”: JamieDimon, chairman,president, andCEOof JPMorganChase, inconversationwiththeauthor,April14,2015.

“theultimatething”:Dimon,interview.“how they treat people”: Nick Summers andMaxAbelson, “Why JPMorgan’s JamieDimon isWall

Street’sIndispensableMan,”BloombergBusinessweek,May16,2013.“letmykidsworkforthem?”:Dimon,interview.“actuallyinthearena”:TheodoreRoosevelt,“TheManintheArena.CitizenshipinaRepublic,”address

deliveredattheSorbonne,Paris,1910.“not reasons to quit”: JPMorgan Chase & Co., How We Do Business, 2014,

http://www.jpmorganchase.com/corporate/About-JPMC/document/20140711_Website_PDF_FINAL.pdf.

“thatasacompliment”:TimCrothers,TheManWatching:AnsonDorranceandtheUniversityofNorthCarolinaWomen’sSoccerDynasty(NewYork:ThomasDunne,2006),37.

“finalmeasureofgreatness”:Ibid.,106.“It’sourculture”:AnsonDorrance, head coach of theUniversity ofNorthCarolina’swomen’s soccer

team,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,August21,2015.theBeepTest:LucA.Léger,D.Mercier,C.Gadoury,andJ.Lambert,“TheMultistage20MetreShuttle

RunTestforAerobicFitness,”JournalofSportsSciences6(1988):93–101.“thisisatestofyourmentality”:Dorrance,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,September30,2015.“languageiseverything”:Dimon,interview.“making youhappy”: GeorgeBernard Shaw,Man and Superman: AComedy and a Philosophy (New

York:Penguin,1903),32.Theoriginalpassagereads:“Thisisthetruejoyinlife,thebeingusedforapurpose recognizedbyyourselfasamightyone . . . thebeinga forceofNature insteadofa feverishselfishlittleclodofailmentsandgrievancescomplainingthattheworldwillnotdevoteitselftomakingyouhappy.”

the Bugle Notes: West-Point.org, “Bugle Notes,” accessed February 10, 2015, http://www.west-point.org/academy/malo-wa/inspirations/buglenotes.html.

“thantomakeanarmy”:MajorGeneralJohnM.Schofield,formersuperintendentoftheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy,addresstocadets,August11,1879.

“theyellingandscreaming”:LieutenantGeneralRobertL.Caslen,superintendentoftheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy,inaninterviewwiththeauthor,September4,2015.

lessthan2percent:DataprovidedbytheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy.“allowsyoutogetthere”:Carroll,WinForever,183.“theycandemonstratepassion”:“PeteCarrollReturnstoUSC,FullInterview,2014,”YouTubevideo,

1:57:42,postedMarch20,2014,https://youtube/jSizvISegnE.“they’re helpingme to get better”: Earl Thomas, “TakeNothing forGranted,” Earl Thomas’s blog,

January25,2014,http://www.earlthomas.com/2014/01/25/take-nothing-granted.“theworstcall inNFLhistory”:DonBanks,“TheWorstPlayCall inNFLHistoryWillContinue to

HauntSeahawksin2015,”SportsIllustrated,July21,2015.“failureisneverfatal”:“TheWizard’sWisdom:‘Woodenism,’ ”ESPN,June5,2010.“Anduseit.Useit!”:GregBishop,“PeteCarroll,NFL’sEternalOptimist,IsReadytoTurnHeartbreak

intoTriumph,”SportsIllustrated,August3,2015,http://www.si.com/nfl/2015/07/28/pete-carroll-seattle-seahawks-2015-season-super-bowl-xlix.

CHAPTER13:CONCLUSIONhandinhandwithwell-being:VictoriaYoung,YuchenLin,andAngelaL.Duckworth,“Associations

BetweenGritandSubjectiveWell-BeinginaLargeSampleofUSAdults,”posterpresentedatthe16thAnnualConvention of theSociety forPersonality andSocial Psychology,LongBeach,CA,February2015.

betweentheextremes:Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics.AdamM.GrantandBarrySchwartz,“TooMuchof aGood Thing: The Challenge andOpportunity of the InvertedU,”Perspectives in PsychologicalScience6(2011):61–76.

wantedtobegrittier:Thisdatawascollectedin2015andisnotyetpublished.honestytrumpsall:GeoffreyP.Goodwin,JaredPiazza,andPaulRozin,“MoralCharacterPredominates

inPersonPerceptionandEvaluation,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology106(2014):148–68.

characterisplural: Iwish Icould takecredit for theexpression,“character isplural.” I cannot.Manyothers have made the same observation, including Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman inCharacterStrengthsandVirtues(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2004),10.

dimensions of character: Daeun Park et al., “A Tripartite Taxonomy of Character: Evidence forInterpersonal,Intrapersonal,andIntellectualCompetenciesinYouth,”(manuscriptunderreview,2015).Notethatthesesamethreevirtueclusterscorrespond,roughly,totheBigFivepersonalitydimensionsofconscientiousness,agreeableness,andopennesstoexperience.

tendtobeself-controlled:Iseeself-controlasrelatedbutdistinctfromgrit.Youcanbeself-controlledabout a goal that is not your top-level, ultimate concern. And self-control isn’t directly related toovercomingsetbacksandfailures.However,bothgritandself-controlareaboutachievingvaluedgoals.See Angela L. Duckworth and James J. Gross, “Self-Control and Grit: Related but SeparableDeterminantsofSuccess,”CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience23(2014):319–25.Ipersonallybelieve that self-control is an extraordinarily important virtue, and to learnmore about strategies thatfacilitateitandtheirbenefits,seeWalterMischel,TheMarshmallowTest:MasteringSelf-Control(NewYork: Little, Brown, 2014), and Roy F. Baumeister and John Tierney,Willpower: Rediscovering theGreatestHumanStrength(NewYork:Penguin,2011).

“resumevirtues”;“eulogyvirtues”:DavidBrooks,TheRoadtoCharacter(NewYork:RandomHouse,2015),xi.

worldofideas:Ihaven’ttoucheduponcreativityinthisbook.Inmanyendeavors,creativityisabsolutelyessential, and I direct the interested reader to Scott Barry Kaufman and Carolyn Gregoire,Wired toCreate:UnravelingtheMysteriesoftheCreativeMind(NewYork:PerigeeBooks,2015).

predictdifferentoutcomes:Parketal.,“TripartiteTaxonomy.”“nothingwascomingout”: “AdviceonWriting from theAtlantic’sTa-NehisiCoates,”Atlanticvideo,

September 27, 2013, http://www.theatlantic.com/video/archive/2013/09/advice-on-writing-from-i-the-atlantic-i-s-ta-nehisi-coates/280025.

“writing is failure”: “Journalist Ta-Nehisi Coates, 2015 MacArthur Fellow,” MacArthur Foundationvideo,postedSeptember28,2015,https://www.macfound.org/fellows/931.

INDEXAnoteabouttheindex:Thepagesreferencedinthisindexrefertothepagenumbersintheprintedition.Clickingonapagenumberwill takeyou to theebook location thatcorresponds to thebeginningof thatpage in the print edition.For a comprehensive list of locations of anywordor phrase, use your readingsystem’ssearchfunction.

AcademyAwards,44Acceptanceandcommitmenttherapy(ACT),310nAgeandgrit,84–89AirborneRangers,248,260Alex’sLemonadeStandFoundation,143Allen,Woody,49Amazon.com,95,111America’sGotTalent(televisionprogram),31Anderson,Chris,134Angelou,Maya,140Animalexperiments.SeeDogs,experimentson;Rats,experimentsonAnxiety,174Apatow,Judd,127–28Aristotle,146,271–72ArmySpecialOperationsForces.SeeGreenBeretsArmyTen-Miler,249–50Asemani,Kayvon,190–91Attributionretrainingprogram,179Attritionmodel,259Authoritarianparenting,200,203,211,212,213Authoritativeparenting.SeeWise(authoritative)parentingAutonomouslymotivatedgoals,297n

Bacon,Francis,76Baime,Michael,155–57Baldwin,James,183Basketball,84BeastBarracks,4–7,9–10,12

characteristicsofsuccessfulcadets,5–7diminishedattritionratein,259typicaldayat,4

Beck,Aaron,173,175–76BeepTest,255–56Berg,Justin,166BetweentheWorldandMe(Coates),275Bezos,Jeff,95,96,99,104,110–11,263BillandMelindaGatesFoundation,218,230–31Blaine,David,124Blake,Juliet,133–34

Bloom,Benjamin,107,108,144,211,215–16Bodrova,Elena,141–42Bonaparte,Napoleon,76Boredom,104,111–12Bozeman,Sylvia,194BreakthroughGreaterBoston,158Bricklayers,parableofthe,149–50,152,153BrighamYoungUniversity(BYU),202,206,215Brodsky,Joseph,257Brooks,David,274BrowningSchool,253Buffett,Warren,66–68BugleNotes,258Bugnard,Chef,101Bundick,Matt,160Bunsen,ChristianK.J.von,76Burke,Edmund,76Bush,GeorgeH.W.,49

Calling,149–57developingvs.finding,153takingtimetoidentify,155–57unconventionalpathsto,161–62

CambridgeUniversity,31Canada,Geoffrey,237–38CarnegieMellonUniversity,31,33Carroll,Pete,74

lifephilosophyof,61–62,64Seahawkcultureand,243–44,251,261–68

Caslen,Robert,258–61Cervantes,Miguelde,75Chalmers,Thomas,76Chambliss,Dan,36–38,39,81,245–47Character,273–74Chast,Roz,69Chatman,Jennifer,183Chatterton,Thomas,76ChicagoPublicSchools,11Child,Julia,57,99–101Child-centeredapproachtoparenting,201,211ChildGenius(televisionprogram),31Christensen,Ulrik,122–23Chua,Amy,106CiderHouseRules,The(film),44Cinnabonbakerychain,163,164Clarkson,Kelly,187Clinton,Bill,35–36Clinton,Hillary,35–36Close,Kerry,125–26,137Coady,Chantal,96Coates,Ta-Nehisi,275–76Cobden,Richard,76Cognitivebehavioraltherapy,176,193,310n

Cohen,Geoff,218–19Cole,Kat,163–65Coleman,Cody,220–22Coleridge,SamuelTaylor,76Collegeeducation,11,230–32ColumbiaUniversity,226,257Communication,253,256Communitycolleges,11Compassmetaphor,60,63,67,90Competition,262–63,265–66CompetitionWednesdays,262Copernicus,Nicolaus,75Corresponsiveprinciple,233–34,246Cost-benefitanalysis,248,250Côté,Jean,107–8Cox,Catharine,74–78Crosswordpuzzledesign,95,108–10,111–12,115Csikszentmihalyi,Mihaly,128–31Culture,243–68

categoricalallegianceto,245defined,244generationaldifferencesand,85–86,89identityand,247–50organizational,252–58

Cuomo,Mario,49Currey,Mason,139

DailyRituals(Currey),139Damon,Bill,162–63,167Danton,GeorgesJ.,76Darling,Nancy,213Darwin,Charles,20–22DavyO’Brienaward,203DearAbby,193Deierlein,Tom,248–50,260Deliberatepractice,120–42

applyingprinciplesof,123–24author’sexperienceof,133–35effortfulnessof,127–28feedbackand,122–23,132,134flowand,128–32,137gettingthemostfrom,137–42asahabit,139–40positiveexperienceof,135–37,140–42scienceof,137–39stretchgoalin,121–23

Demandingstyleofparenting,201–7,211DenverBroncos,243Depression,173,174,176,193DeSena,Joe,319nDevelopmentalmodel,259–61Díaz,Roberto,121Dimon,Jamie,252–54,256

DivineFury:AHistoryofGenius(McMahon),288–89nDogs,experimentson,171–73,187Dorrance,Anson,254–58,262Dorsin,Neil,286nDropoutrates

college,11,230–32WestPoint,3–4,259

Drucker,Peter,124Duckworth,Angela

daughterAmanda,134,240,241,242,271daughterLucy,87–88,134,223,240–41,242,271fatherof,xiii–xv,96–97,98,107,159,167,277GritScalescoresof,57HardThingRuleand,241–42IQtestscoresof,34longitudinalstudyconductedby,230–32MacArthurFellowshipawardedto,xiii–xivatMcKinsey,15,18,27–29motherof,167neurobiologyclassof,169–71neurosciencedegreeof,15psychologyofachievementtheoryof,40–42purposeexperiencedby,157–59teachingcareerof,15–20,117,157–59,177–78TEDtalkof,133–35,220,244

DuPont,86,97,245Durant,Kevin,121–22Dutton,Jane,166Dweck,Carol,178–81,183,184,192Dyslexia,15,45

“Earlyyears,”107–8,144EDGE(EnhancingDiversityinGraduateEducation)Program,194Education.SeealsoTeachers

college,11,230–32dropoutratesin,11,230–32graduate-level,11,194KIPPprogramand,181–83,245talentvs.gritinacademicsuccess,15–20

EducationalTestingService(ETS),227Effort,34,35–51

academicsuccessand,17–18ambivalencetoward,23–25consistencyof,50deliberatepracticeand,127–28KIPPand,181musicalabilityand,23–24Nietzscheon,38–40swimmingand,36–39talentandskillinteractionwith,42–44,50–51TreadmillTestof,46–50,256writingand,44–46

Eisenberger,Robert,238–40

Emulation(ofparents),214–16Encouragementandsupport

askingfor,193–95ofinterests,105–6,107,109–11fromparents,207–10,211

“EnergiesofMen,The”(James),22–23Enigmatology,110Enron,30–31Entrepreneurship,24Environmentalinfluences/experience,79–83,296nEricsson,Anders,118–21,124–31,135,138Eskreis-Winkler,Lauren,138Eudaimonichappiness,146–47Eulogyvirtues,274Excessofgrit(lackofevidencefor),271–73Experience.SeeEnvironmentalinfluences/experienceExtracurricularactivities,223–42

benefittransfersfrom,238–40excessive,rarityof,225follow-throughimportance,226–36long-termbenefitsof,225low-incomechildrenand,236–38

Fame(film),71Faraday,Michael,75Farhi,Nicole,96Feedback,122–23,132,134,218–19Feinberg,Mike,181Ferguson,Ron,218Field,Colin,96FinancialTimes,96Finland,250–52,253Fitzsimmons,Bill,234–36Fixedmindset,180,181,183,184,185–86,190,191–92“FleetingInterestinEverything,NoCareerDirection”(Redditpost),101Flow,128–32,137Flynn,Jim,83–84,263Flynneffect,83–84,85,296–97nFonte,Aurora,161–62Fonte,Franco,161–62Football.SeeCarroll,Pete;SeattleSeahawks;Young,SteveFortunemagazine,27,30Fortune1000companies,183–84Fragileperfects,190Franklin,Benjamin,123–24Freud,Sigmund,147

Gaines,Rowdy,38,100,103,107,121,132–33Galloni,Antonio,145–46Galluppolls,98Galton,Francis,20–21,286–87nGardner,Margo,226

Gates,Bill,230Gates,Melinda,230GatesFoundation.SeeBillandMelindaGatesFoundationGawande,Atul,124Gemmell,Bruce,136–37,141Genetics,79–83,296nGenius,xiii–xiv,277,288–89nGervais,Mike,265–66Gettleman,Jeffrey,58–60,61,70,86Gladwell,Malcolm,30Goalhierarchies,62–74,294n

abandoninglow-levelgoals,68–74coherentgoalstructuresin,64–66commonpurposeofgoalsin,68conflictofgoalsin,65–66levelsofgoalsin,62–63prioritizinggoalsin,66–68

Goethe,JohannWolfgangvon,76Golden,Jane,112–13,145Goodness,273Google,166–67Graduate-leveleducation,11,194Graham,Martha,119,127,135GrammyAwards,46Grant,Adam,166,272Greatness,38,39–40,273GreenBerets,11–12,70GritGrid,231–32,235,237GritScale,9–14,54–58,77,78,131,194,272–73

ageandscoreson,84–86developmentof,9–10fakeabilityof,229happinesscorrelatedwithscoreson,270oninterestconsistency,113purposecorrelatedwithscoreson,147–48spellerstestedon,125takingandscoring,55–56TarHeelstestedon,255teacherstestedon,177twinstestedon,82WestPointcadetstestedon,9–10,54,259

Growthmindset,180–86,190,192,251benefitsassociatedwith,181languageimportancein,182qualitiesassociatedwith,180rolemodeling,182–84

Habitformation,139–40HallofFame,63,226Happiness

eudaimonicvs.hedonic,146–47gritcorrelatedwith,177,270–71

HardThingRule,241–42HarlemChildren’sZone,237–38HarvardUniversity,25,46–47,48,49,86,234,237,256Haydn,Joseph,76Hazing,258–59Hedonichappiness,146–47Height,nature-nurtureinteractionin,79–80,82–83Hershey,Milton,190,312nHitler,Adolf,148Hoff,Syd,71Hootersrestaurant,163–64Hope,91–92,169–95,269

controland,188–90defined,169languageof,182mindsetand(seeFixedmindset;Growthmindset)neurobiologyof,189optimismand(seeOptimism)

Hopkins,Mike,104–5“HowtoSolvetheNewYorkTimesCrosswordPuzzle”(Shortz),115HowtoSpellLikeaChamp(Kimble),125HowWeDoBusiness(JPMorganChasemanual),254Hughes,Rhonda,193–95Humangenome,82

Identityandculture,247–50IlViaggioDiVetri(Vetri),106Imitation(ofparents),214–16IndianaUniversity,95,109–10In-groups,245Intellectualdimensionofcharacter,273,274Interest,95–116,269

beginnersand,106–8,114benefitsoffollowing,97–98consistencyof,111–14constraintsonchoicesand,96–97,98deepeningof,103,113–14,116,153developmentof,103,104–6,107,115–16,153discoveryof,103–4,107,114–15expertsand,113–14exploring,100–101playand,106–8inthree-phaseprogressionmodel,143

Interpersonaldimensionofcharacter,273,274Intrapersonaldimensionofcharacter,273–74IQ/intelligence,32,33

author’sscoresontest,34ofhighachievers,75–76increasein,83–84,192,297nmindsetson,180ofspellingbeeparticipants,13,14updatingbeliefson,192–93Irving,John,44–46,87

IvyLeagueundergraduates,14

James,William,22–23,98,116,140JamesBeardAward,100Japan,118Jobcrafting,166–67JPMorganChase,252–54Julia&Julia(film),99JulliardSchoolofMusic,25,138Jürgen(mentor),217

Kagan,Jerry,5Kageyama,Noa,138Kaizen,118Kashyap,Anurag,14Kaufman,ScottBarry,31–34Kimble,Paige,13,125King,Philip,157–58KIPP(KnowledgeIsPowerProgram),181–83,245Kopp,Wendy,176–78

Lacey,Hester,95–96,104,118,175LaGuardiaHighSchoolofMusicandArt,70–71Lahti,Emilia,251–52LakesideSchool,88Lamennais,Hughes-Félicité-Robertde,76LangLang,96Language,importanceof,182,256,265“Lateryears,”108,144Laughlin,Terry,140–41Leach,Bernard,105Leader,Joe,153Learnedhelplessness,171–73,188,193,240,309nLearnedindustriousness,240Learnedoptimism,173LearningtoCartoon(Hoff),71Ledecky,Katie,133,136–37Leong,Deborah,141–42Levin,Dave,181,183Lifephilosophy,61–62,64Lomax,Michael,289–90nLongitudinalstudies

onextracurricularactivities,225,226–29,230–32oninterests,103–4,107onparentingimpact,213onpersonalitychange,86,233–34

LowellHighSchool,18–20Loyd,Sam,109Luong,David,18–20Luther,Martin,76Lütke,Tobi,217–18Lynch,Marshawn(“BeastMode”),264

MacArthurFellowship,xiii–xiv,275MacKenzie,Warren,42–44,105Mackie,Susan,184Maier,Steve,171–73,178,188–90,200n,240Mankoff,Bob,69,86March,James,248Martinez,Alex,207–10Martinez,Francesca,201,207–10,211,215Martinez,Raoul,208Martinez,Tina,207–10Mathematics,16–20,117,193–95Matthews,Mike,6–7,9Maturityprinciple,86–89Mazzini,Giuseppe,76McDonald,Duff,30McKinsey,58

author’scareerwith,15,18,27–29talentemphasizedby,26–30

McMahon,Darrin,288–89nMcNabb,Bill,185–87Meaney,Michael,296nMegasuccessfulpeople,96,104,118Mentors,107,116,194,217MetLifeinsuranceagents,174–75Microsoft,230“Middleyears,”108,144Mill,JohnStuart,75Milton,John,76MiltonHersheySchool,190,312nMindfulness,155–57Mindsets.SeeFixedmindset;GrowthmindsetMistakes,respondingto,141–42,183MIT,220,221–22Montana,Joe,203MostValuablePlayeraward,202“MundanityofExcellence,The”(study),36MuralArtsProgram,112,113Murat,Joachim,76Music,23–24,26,32–33Myelin,193

NASA,104–5“NastyNick”(obstaclecourse),12NationalBookAward,44Naturals,23–25,31,36,37,51Nature,192Neglectfulparenting,212NewEnglandPatriots,61,264Newton,Isaac,75,76NewYorkercartoons,68,69,71–74NewYorkTimes,58,60,70,251NewYorkTimescrosswordpuzzle.SeeCrosswordpuzzledesignNewZealand,233

Nietzsche,Friedrich,38–40,187,199–200Noe,Bernie,88–89Novelty,112,114,116NYCTransit,153

Oates,JoyceCarol,140Observer,207Oettingen,Gabriele,65Olympicsathletes,38,100,114

optimismand,175practiceand,118,121,132,133,138,140

Optimism,173–75,190,193growthmindsetand,181,192learned,173inteachers,176–78

Oscar,Daniel,286nOutliers,20–21OutwardBound,187OxfordUniversity,15,58,59,60

Palin,Michael,96Parenting,199–222

authoritarian,200,203,211,212,213child-centered,201,211contiuumofviewson,199–201demandingstyle,201–7,211emulationbychildrenand,214–16encouraging/supportive,207–10,211neglectful,212bynon-parents,216–22patternsofsuccessful,210–13permissive,209,212,213wise(authoritative),211–16

Park,Daeun,183Parker,James,12Passion,8,56–60,61,64,68,261–62

ageand,86consistencyofovertime,57–60fostering,99–101geneticsandexperiencein,82GritScalemeasuresof,9,56–57,82highachieverindicatorsof,77identityand,248,250intensitynotcorrelatedwith,57,60interestand,91,95–101,103,116,143practicalityvs.,96–97purposeand,91,143

Paunesku,Dave,166PeabodyConservatory,25Peanuts(comicstrip),140Permissiveparenting,209,212,213Perseverance,56–57,91,261–62

ageand,86

flexibilityand,69–74geneticsandexperiencein,82GritScalemeasuresof,9,57,82highachieverindicatorsof,77identityand,248,250

Persistenceofmotive,77Personality

corresponsiveprincipleand,233–34,246maturityprincipleand,86–89

PersonalQualitiesProject,226–29,234–35Pessimism,174–75,177,178,191–92Phelps,Michael,37,38Pitt,William,76Positivefantasizing,65PositivePsychology,40Post-itnoteexperiment,219Potential,14,22–23,51,236Potter’sBook,A(Leach),105Practice,91,117–42

deliberate(seeDeliberatepractice)quantityoftimeand,118–20spelling,13,117,124–27,135–36,140swimming,37,132–33inthree-phaseprogressionmodel,144

Prefrontalcortex,189PrincetonUniversity,95PsychologicalCareofInfantandChild(Watson),200PulitzerPrize,58Purpose,91,143–67,269

author’sexperiencewith,157–59cultivatingasenseof,165–67defined,143happinessand,146–47originsof,162other-oriented,144–49,159–61,164–65self-oriented,159–61inthree-phaseprogressionmodel,144unpredictableroadsto,161–62

Putnam,Robert,236–37

Rasmussen,Mads,133,138Rats,experimentson,188–89,238–39,296nReddit,101,103Resiliencetraining,193,313nRésumévirtues,274ReverseFlynneffect,85Roberts,Brent,233Rolemodels

ofgrowthmindset,182–84parentsas,214–16ofpurpose,162–65,167

Roosevelt,Teddy,254Rushdie,Salman,96

Sales,10–11SanFrancisco49ers,202,203,243SAT,3,6,14,28,33,44,227,229,230,232,235Schmidt,Roy,151–52Schneider,John,243Schofield,John,258Schofield’sDefinitionofDiscipline,258Schultz,Charles,140Schwartz,Barry,102,272Science,22Scott,Alex,143,145ScrippsNationalSpellingBee,12–14,91,131,270

performance-improvingactivitiesfor,125practicefor,13,117,124–27,135–36,140verbalIQofparticipants,13,14

SeattleSeahawks,61,243–44,245,251,252,261–68competitionin,262–63,265–66finishingstrongand,266languageof,265

Seaver,Tom,63–64,65Secretaries,152“SeeWhat’sPossible,andHelpOthersDotheSame”(Cole),165Self-control,273,322nSelf-fulfillingprophecies,26,170Self-talk,175–76,193,310nSeligman,Marty,171–75,178,184

asauthor’sadvisor,40–41learnedhelplessnessexperimentsof,171–73,188,240optimisticteachersstudiedby,176–77

Seurat,Georges,73Shaw,GeorgeBernard,257–58Sheldon,Ken,297nShopify,218Shortz,Will,95,96,99,108–10,111–12,115Silvia,Paul,113–14Sisu,250–52,253“Sisu:AWordThatExplainsFinland”(Timesarticle),251Skilldevelopment,42–44,50–51

learningcurvefor,119threestagesof,107

Skilling,Jeff,30–31SmartestGuysintheRoom,The(documentary),30Smith,Chantel,221,222Smith,Will,46,47,51Socialmultipliereffect,84,263SocietyforResearchonAdolescence,212SpartanRace,319nSpecialForcesSelectionCourse,12Spectatormagazine,123Spellbound(documentary),12–14Spellingbees.SeeScrippsNationalSpellingBeeSpitz,Mark,38,39

SportsIllustrated,268Stalin,Joseph,148StanfordUniversity,162,215,222,248Steinberg,Larry,212–13Stretchgoal,121–23Strivers,24,26,31,36,50–51Summerbridgeprogram,157–59,167SuperBowl,202,243,263–64SwarthmoreCollege,20,102Swimming

cultureof,245–47effortand,36–39geneticsandexperiencein,81optimismand,175practiceand,37,132–33

Talent,15–34,35–44,255academicsuccessand,15–20differencesin,31downsideofoveremphasizing,31,35,269earlyliteratureon,20–23effortinteractionwith,42–44,51atEnron,30–31geneticsandexperiencein,80–81inIvyLeagueundergraduates,14KIPPviewof,181McKinsey’semphasison,26–30musicalabilityand,23–24mythologizing,39Nietzscheon,39,40skillseparatedfrom,51spellingand,14swimmingand,36–39testsfor,imperfectionof,34updatingbeliefson,192–93inWestPointcadets,9–10

TarHeels,UNC,254–58Teachers.SeealsoEducation

author’scareeras,15–20,117,157–59,177–78impactoffeedbackfrom,218–19optimismin,176–78

TeachForAmerica(TFA),176–78,181TEDtalks,124,133–35,220,238,244Television,84,210Templeton,John,114Ten-thousand-hour/ten-year-rule,119–20Terkel,Studs,151TFA.SeeTeachForAmericaThomas,Earl,263Timemagazine,251,276Toughlove,211TreadmillTest,46–50,256

Trojans,USC,262Tsay,Chia-Jung,23–26Twinstudies,81–82

UCLA,20Ultimateconcern,63,66,68,272UnitedKingdom,82UnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyatWestPoint,3–7,90–91,270.SeealsoBeastBarracks

admissionsprocessfor,3cultureof,245,258–61dropoutratein,3–4,259GritScaleadministeredat,9–10,54,259hazingat,258–59WholeCandidateScoreand,6,9,10

UniversityCollegeLondon,25UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,233UniversityofHouston,238UniversityofNorthCarolinaatChapelHill(UNC),254–58UniversityofPennsylvania,155,190,191,237UniversityofSouthernCalifornia(USC),262

Vaillant,George,47–48,49,86Values.SeeCorevaluesVanguard,185Vetri,Marc,100,103,105–6Voltaire,76

WarforTalent,The(Michaels,Hanfield-Jones,andAxelrod),26–27,29–30“WarforTalent,The”(report),26Washington,George,76Watson,John,200,211,212Watson,Nora,151–52Watts,Alan,155WechslerAdultIntelligenceScale,83WechslerIntelligenceScaleforChildren,83West,Kanye,187WestPoint.SeeUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyatWestPointWhartonSchoolofBusiness,53,86,159,191Whatthe****IsNormal?!(Martinez),201WholeCandidateScore(WestPoint),6,9,10“Why?”questions,63,89Willingham,Dan,317nWillingham,Warren,226–30,231,234–35,317nWilson,Russell,264WinForever(Carroll),261–62WinterWar,250–51Wise(authoritative)parenting,211–16Wooden,John,61,264Work

asacalling(seeCalling)careerchangesand,112corevaluesin,166–67disengagementin,98

lackofdirectionin,101–3passionfor,97–99,103

WorldAccordingtoGarp,The(Irving),44Writing,44–46Wrzesniewski,Amy,149–50,152–53,155,166–67

XFactor,The(televisionprogram),31

YaleUniversity,31,149Yeager,David,160,166,218–19Young,LeGrande(“Grit”),202,203,204–7Young,Mike,204Young,Sherry,204–6Young,Steve,201–7,210,211,215,226

Zookeepers,150

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Names:Duckworth,Angela.Title:Grit:thepowerofpassionandperseverance/AngelaDuckworth.Description:NewYork:Scribner,2016.|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.Identifiers:LCCN2015042880(print)|LCCN2015044753(ebook)Subjects:LCSH:Success|Perseverance(Ethics)|Expectation(Psychology)|Diligence.|BISAC:PSYCHOLOGY/Personality.|EDUCATION/ProfessionalDevelopment.Classification:LCCBF637.S8D6932016(print)|LCCBF637.S8(ebook)|DDC158.1—dc23

ISBN978-1-5011-1110-5ISBN978-1-5011-1112-9(ebook)