practical applications of immunology

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation prepared by Christine L. Case

M I C R O B I O L O G Ya n i n t r o d u c t i o n

ninth edition TORTORA FUNKE CASE

Part A18Practical

Applications of Immunology


Vaccine History

Variolation: Inoculation of smallpox into skin

(18th century).

Vaccination: Inoculation of cowpox into skin.

Herd immunity results when most of a population

is immune to a disease.


Principal Vaccines Used in the United States to Prevent Bacterial Diseases in Humans DtaP

Diphtheria: Purified diphtheria toxoid

Pertussis: Acellular fragments of B. pertussis

Tetanus: Purified tetanus toxoid

Meningococcal meningitis: Purified polysaccharide from

N. meningitidis

Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis:

Polysaccharides conjugated with protein

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine: S. pneumoniae

antigens conjugated with protein


Principal Vaccines Used in the United States to Prevent Viral Diseases in Humans Smallpox: Live vaccinia virus

Poliomyelitis: Inactivated virus

Rabies: Inactivated virus

Hepatitis A: Inactivated virus

Influenza: Inactivated or attenuated virus

Measles: Attenuated virus

Mumps: Attenuated virus

Rubella: Attenuated virus

Chickenpox: Attenuated virus

Hepatitis B: Antigenic fragments (recombinant vaccine)


Monoclonal Antibodies (Mabs)

Alemtuzumab: For leukemia

Infliximab: For Crohn’s disease

Rituximab: For non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma

Trastuzumab: Herceptin for breast cancer

Basiliximab and daclizumab: Block IL–2,

immunosuppresives for transplants

Palivizumab: Treatment of RSV


Monoclonal Antibodies

Figure 18.2


Monoclonal Antibodies

Immunotoxins: Mabs conjugated with a toxin to target

cancer cells.

Chimeric mabs: Genetically modified mice that produce

Ab with a human constant region.

Humanized mabs: Mabs that are mostly human, except

for mouse antigen-binding.

Fully human antibodies: Mabs produced from a human

gene on a mouse.


Precipitation Reactions

Involve soluble

antigens with

antibodies.

Figure 18.4


Agglutination Reactions

Involve particulate

antigens and

antibodies.

Antigens may be

On a cell (direct

agglutination).

Attached to latex

spheres (indirect or

passive

agglutination).Figure 18.5


Antibody Titer

Is the concentration of

antibodies against a

particular antigen.

Figure 18.6


Viral Hemagglutination

Hemagglutination involves agglutination of RBCs.

Some viruses agglutinate RBCs in vitro.

Figure 18.8


Viral Hemagglutination-Inhibition

Hemagglutination involves agglutination of RBCs.

Some viruses agglutinate RBCs in vitro.

Antibodies prevent hemagglutination.

Figure 18.9b


Neutralization Reactions

Eliminate the harmful effect of a virus or exotoxin.

Figure 18.9b


Complement Fixation Test

Figure 18.10 (1 of 2)


Complement Fixation Test

Figure 18.10 (2 of 2)


Fluorescent Antibody Techniques (Direct)

Figure 18.11a


Fluorescent Antibody Techniques (Indirect)

Figures 18.11b, 3.6b


Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay(Direct ELISA)

Figure 18.14a


Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (Indirect ELISA)

Figure 18.14b


Serological Tests

Figure 18.13


Serological Tests

Direct tests detect antigens (from patient sample).

Indirect tests detect antibodies (in patient′s serum).


Serological Tests

Agglutination: Particulate antigens

Hemagglutination: Agglutination of RBCs

Precipitation: Soluble antigens

Fluorescent-antibody technique: Antibodies linked

to fluorescent dye.

Complement fixation: RBCs are indicator.

Neutralization: Inactivates toxin or virus.

ELISA: Peroxidase enzyme is the indicator.


Question 1

Patient’s serum, influenza virus, sheep RBCs, and

anti-sheep RBCs are mixed in a tube.

Influenza virus agglutinates RBCs.

What happens if the patient has antibodies against

influenza virus?


Question 2

Patient’s serum, Chlamydia, guinea pig complement,

sheep RBCs, and anti-sheep RBCs are mixed in a

tube.

What happens if the patient has antibodies against

Chlamydia?


Harmful immune responses

Allergies

Transplant rejection

Autoimmunity

Superantigens cause release of cytokines that cause

adverse host responses.

Immunodeficiencies

Disorders Associated with the Immune System


PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation prepared by Christine L. Case

M I C R O B I O L O G Ya n i n t r o d u c t i o n

ninth edition TORTORA FUNKE CASE

Part A19Disorders Associated

with the Immune System


Hypersensitivity Reactions

Response to antigens (allergens) leading to damage.

Require sensitizing dose(s).


Type I (Anaphylactic) Reactions

Involve IgE

antibodies.

Localized: Hives or

asthma from contact

or inhaled antigens.

Systemic: Shock

from ingested or

injected antigens.

Figure 19.1a


Type I (Anaphylactic) Reactions

Skin testing

Desensitization

Figure 19.3


Type II (Cytotoxic) Reactions

Involve IgG or IgM antibodies and complement.

Complement activation causes cell lysis or damage by

macrophages.


ABO Blood Group System

Table 19.2


Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn

Figure 19.4


Drug-induced Thrombocytopenic Purpura

Figure 19.5


Type III (Immune Complex) Reactions

IgG antibodies and antigens form complexes that lodge

in basement membranes.

Figure 19.6


Type IV (Cell-Mediated) Reactions

Delayed-type

hypersensitivities due

to TD cells.

Cytokines attract

macrophages and

initiate tissue damage.

Figure 19.8


Autoimmune Diseases

Clonal deletion during fetal development ensures

self-tolerance.

Autoimmunity is loss of self-tolerance.


Autoimmune Diseases

Type I — Due to antibodies against pathogens.

Type II — Antibodies react with cell-surface antigens.

Type III (Immune Complex) — IgM, IgG, complement

immune complexes deposit in tissues.

Type IV — Mediated by T cells.


Reactions Related to the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Complex

Histocompatibility antigens: Self antigens on cell

surfaces.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC): Genes

encoding histocompatibility antigens

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex: MHC genes

in humans


Diseases Related to Specific HLAs

Table 19.3


HLA Typing

Figure 19.9


Reactions to Transplantation

Transplants may be attacked by T cells, macrophages,

and complement-fixing antibodies.

Transplants to privileged sites do not cause an immune

response.

Stem cells may allow therapeutic cloning to avoid

rejection.


Grafts

Autograft: Use of one's own tissue.

Isograft: Use of identical twin's tissue.

Allograft: Use of tissue from another person.

Xenotransplantation product: Use of non-human tissue.

Graft-versus-host disease can result from transplanted

bone marrow that contains immunocompetent cells.


Immunosuppression Prevents an Immune Response to Transplanted Tissues

Cyclosporine suppresses IL-2.

Mycophenolate mofetil inhibits T cell and B cell

reproduction.

Sirolimus blocks IL-2.


The Immune System and Cancer

Cancer cells possess tumor-specific antigens.

TC cells recognize and lyse cancer cells.

Cancer cells may lack tumor antigens or kill TC cells.

Figure 19.10


Immunotherapy

Treatment of cancer using immunologic methods.

Tumor necrosis factor, IL-2, and interferons may kill

cancer cells.

Immunotoxins link poisons with an monoclonal antibody

directed at a tumor antigen.

Vaccines contain tumor-specific antigens.


Immune Deficiencies

Congenital: Due to defective or missing genes

Selective IgA immunodeficiency

Severe combined immunodeficiency

Acquired: Develop during an individual's life, due to

drugs, cancers, and infections.

Artificial: Immunosuppression drugs.

Natural: HIV infections.

practical applications of immunology

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