[ppt]intro to carbon-based molecules: organic chemistry · web viewauthor callie wilson...

Copyright Cmassengale 1

Bell RingerWhat is the importance of Carbon in living

things?


Bell Ringer

• Explain what organic chemistry means?• What is a polymer?• What is a monomer?


Bell Ringer

• What is a monosaccaride? Give an example.• What is a disaccaride? Give an example.• What is a polysaccaride? Give an example.


Bell RingerCompare the structure of monosaccarides,

disaccarides, and polysaccarides.


Bell RingerAre Carbohydrates monomers, polymers or

both? Explain.


Bell RingerWhat 4 types of carbon compounds are

essential for living things?Provide an example for each.


Bell RingerHow do plants get the nitrogen they need

(where and what form)?What do plants do with the nitrogen?


Bell RingerAre proteins monomers or polymers or both?

Explain.


Intro to Carbon-based Molecules:

Organic Chemistry


Carbon-based MoleculesAlthough a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based moleculesOrganic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds


Organic vs. InorganicAll compounds can be classified

into 2 broad categories: Organic Compounds- contain

carbon atomsExamples: Proteins, DNA,

Sugars, Fats

Inorganic Compounds- do not contain carbon atoms

Examples: Ammonium (NH4+)

and Nitrate (NO3-)


Carbon is a Versatile AtomIt has four valence electrons

Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds


Carbon can use its bonds to::

Attach to other carbonsForm an endless diversity of carbon skeletons (chains, branched chains, and rings)


Hydrocarbons

The simplest carbon compounds …Contain only

carbon & hydrogen atoms


Large Hydrocarbons:Are the main

molecules in the gasoline we burn in our cars

The hydrocarbons of

fat molecules provide energy for our bodies


Shape of Organic Molecules

Each type of organic

molecule has a unique three-dimensional

shapeThe shape determines its function in an

organism


Giant Molecules - PolymersLarge molecules that consist of repeated, linked units are called polymers

Polymers are built from smaller, simpler molecules called monomers

Biologists call these large polymers macromolecules


Examples of MacromoleculesProteins

Lipids

CarbohydratesNucleic

Acids


Most Macromolecules are Polymers

Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers

Nucleic Acid Monomer

(Nucleotide)

Nucleic Acid Polymer (DNA)


Linking Monomers to Make PolymersCells link monomers by a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of

water to form bonds)

EX: This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar

Remove H

Remove OHH2O Forms

Each time a monomer is added to a polymer, a water molecule is released


Breaking Down Polymers

Cells break down macromolecules by a process called hydrolysis (adding a molecule of water to break bonds). This is the reverse of a condensation reaction.

Water added to split a double sugar


Macromolecules in OrganismsThere are four categories of large

molecules in cells:Carbohydrates

LipidsProteins

Nucleic Acids


Carbohydrates


Carbohydrates

Organic compounds composed of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a

ratio of 1:2:1

Can exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides


Monosaccharides:Called simple

sugars

Include glucose, fructose, & galactoseHave the same chemical, but different structural formulas (Isomers)

C6H12O6

Monomers of Carbohydrates


MonosaccharidesGlucose- main source of energy for cells

Fructose -found in fruits

Galactose – found in milk

-OSE ending means SUGAR


IsomersGlucose & fructose are isomers because they’re structures are different, but their chemical formulas are the same

C6H12O6


RingsIn aqueous (watery) solutions,

monosaccharides form ring structures


Cellular Fuel

Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work

Glucose Ring Structure


DisaccharidesA disaccharide is a double sugarThey’re made by joining two monosaccharidesInvolves removing a water molecule (condensation)Bond called a GLYCOSIDIC bond


Disaccharides

Common disaccharides include:

Sucrose (table sugar)Lactose (Milk Sugar)Maltose (Grain sugar)


DisaccharidesSucrose is composed of glucose + fructoseMaltose is composed of 2 glucose moleculesLactose is made of galactose + glucose


PolysaccharidesComplex carbohydrates

Composed of many monosaccharides linked together to form a polymer


Examples of Polysaccharides

Starch

Glycogen

Cellulose

Glucose Monomer


StarchStarch is an example of a

polysaccharide in plantsIt includes only glucose monomersPlant cells store starch for energy

Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet


GlycogenGlycogen is an

example of a polysaccharide in animals. It is a branched chain of glucose monomersAnimals store

glycogen for energyGlycogen is similar in structure to starch because BOTH are made of glucose monomers


CelluloseCellulose is the most abundant

organic compound on EarthIt provides structure and support to plant cell walls

It is a major component of wood It is also known as dietary fiber


Cellulose

SUGARS


Dietary CelluloseMost animals cannot digest

cellulose to get nutrientsThey have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose


Sugars in WaterSimple sugars and double sugars

dissolve readily in waterThey are hydrophilic, or “water-loving”

WATER MOLECULE

SUGAR MOLECULE

-OH groups make them water soluble


Lipids


Lipids

Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing”

Includes triglycerides, phospholipids fats, waxes, steroids, pigments& oils

Do NOT mix with water

Large, nonpolar organic molecules

More carbon and hydrogen atoms than oxygen atoms


Function of LipidsFats store energy (more than

carbohydrates) in long term storage, help to insulate the body, and cushion and protect organs


Types of Fatty Acids

Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons)

Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons)


Types of Fatty Acids

Single Bonds in Carbon chain

Double bond in carbon chain


Triglyceride

Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chainsGlycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic

Alcohol (-OL ending)


Triglyceride

Glycerol Fatty Acid Chains


Fats in OrganismsMost animal fats have a high

proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening)


Fats in OrganismsMost plant and fish oils tend to be

low in saturated fatty acids and high in unsaturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils)


FatsDietary fat consists largely of the

molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains

Glycerol

Fatty Acid Chain

Condensation links the fatty acids to Glycerol


Waxes

A wax is a structural lipid

Contains a long fatty-acid chain joined to a long alcohol chain.

Waxes are waterproof and form protective coatings on plants and protective layers in animals (such as earwax)


Lipids & Cell Membranes

• Cell membranes are made of lipids called phospholipids

• Phospholipids have a head that is polar & attract water (hydrophilic)

• Phospholipids also have 2 tails that are nonpolar and do not attract water (hydrophobic)


SteroidsThe carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused ringsCholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroidsEstrogen & testosterone are also steroids

Cholesterol

Testosterone

Estrogen


Nucleic Acids


Nucleic AcidsStore and transfer hereditary (genetic) informationContain information for making all the body’s proteinsTwo types exist --- DNA & RNA

Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorous


Nucleic AcidsNitrogenous base

(A,G,C, or T)

Phosphategroup

Thymine (T)

Sugar(deoxyribose)

Phosphate

BaseSugar

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides

Nucleotide


Nucleotide – Nucleic acid monomer


Nucleic Acids


BasesEach DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases:

Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

–Adenine (A)–Guanine (G)–Thymine (T)–Cytosine (C)


Nucleotide MonomersForm long chains called DNA

Backbone

Nucleotide

Bases

DNA strand

Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side


DNA- Deoxyribonucleic AcidTwo strands of DNA join together to form a double helix

Contains the sugar deoxyribose

Basepair

Double helix


RNA – Ribonucleic AcidRibose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl groupIt has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)

Nitrogenous base(A,G,C, or U)

Sugar (ribose)

Phosphategroup

Uracil


ATP – Cellular Energy

•ATP is used by cells for energy

•Adenosine triphosphate•Made of a nucleotide with 3

phosphate groups


ATP – Cellular Energy

•Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of ATP

•The last 2 phosphate bonds are HIGH ENERGY

•Breaking the last phosphate bond releases energy for cellular work and produces ADP and a free phosphate

•ADP (adenosine Diphosphate) can be rejoined to the free phosphate to make more ATP


Proteins


ProteinsProteins are polymers made of

monomers called amino acids

All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders

Composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen


20 Amino Acid Monomers


Structure of Amino Acids

Amino acids have a central carbon with 4 things bonded to it:Amino group –NH2

Carboxyl group -COOH

Hydrogen -HSide group -R

Amino

group

Carboxylgroup

R group

Side groups

Leucine -hydrophobic

Serine-hydrophillic


Linking Amino AcidsCells link amino acids together to make proteinsThe process is called condensation or dehydrationPeptide bonds form to hold the amino acids together

Carboxyl

Amino Side

Group

Dehydration Synthesis

Peptide Bond


Dipeptide- two amino acids bonded together

Polypeptide- long chains of amino acids.

Proteins are composed of one or more polypeptides


Functions of Proteins1.Enzymes (saliva and catalase)2.Structure (keratin and collagen)3.Transport (molecules in and out of cell)4.Movement (muscles)5.Defense against disease (antibodies)6.Storage (bean seed proteins)7.Others


Proteins as EnzymesMany proteins act as biological

catalysts or enzymesThousands of different enzymes exist in the bodyEnzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction


Enzymes

Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site.

Enzymes are globular proteins.

The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate (the reactant being catalyzed).


Enzyme + Substrate = Product


How the Enzyme Works

Enzymes are reusable!!!Active site changes SHAPECalled INDUCED FIT


Primary Protein StructureThe primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a proteinCalled polypeptide

Amino Acid


Protein Structures

Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or foldWhen protein chains called

polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms because R groups interact with each otherIn the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure


Protein Structures or CONFORMATIONS

Hydrogen bond

Pleated sheet

Amino acid(a) Primary structure

Hydrogen bond

Alpha helix

(b) Secondary structure

Polypeptide(single subunit)

(c) Tertiary structure

(d) Quaternary structure


Denaturing ProteinsChanges in temperature & pH can denature (unfold) a protein so it

no longer worksCooking denatures protein in eggs

Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures


Changing Amino Acid Sequence

Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes

sickle-cell disease

(a) Normal red blood cell Normal hemoglobin

1 2 34 5

6 7. . . 146

(b) Sickled red blood cell Sickle-cell hemoglobin

2 314 5

6 7. . . 146


Other Important Proteins

•Blood sugar level is controlled by a protein called insulin

•Insulin causes the liver to uptake and store excess sugar as Glycogen

•The cell membrane also contains proteins

•Receptor proteins help cells recognize other cells


INSULIN

Cell membrane with proteins & phospholipids


Summary of Key Concepts


Macromolecules

[ppt]intro to carbon-based molecules: organic chemistry · web viewauthor callie wilson...

Documents