Chinese literatureChinese literature

IntroductionIntroduction

China is the only country in the world China is the only country in the world with a literature written in one with a literature written in one language for more than 3,000 language for more than 3,000 consecutive years.consecutive years.

This continuity results largely from This continuity results largely from the nature of the written language the nature of the written language itself. It is the use of characters, not itself. It is the use of characters, not letters as in Western languages, that letters as in Western languages, that is most important in the Chinese is most important in the Chinese language language

The dominance of the written The dominance of the written language has had significant language has had significant effects on the development of effects on the development of the literature. In handwriting or the literature. In handwriting or in print, a piece of literature has in print, a piece of literature has visual appeal. This has given visual appeal. This has given rise to the great respect that rise to the great respect that calligraphy enjoys in China, calligraphy enjoys in China, where it has been regarded for where it has been regarded for at least 16 centuries as a fine art at least 16 centuries as a fine art comparable to painting. comparable to painting.

The main disadvantage of written The main disadvantage of written Chinese is the great number of Chinese is the great number of characters it contains: Even basic characters it contains: Even basic reading and writing require a reading and writing require a knowledge of more than 1,000 knowledge of more than 1,000 characters.characters.

But even with this disadvantage, But even with this disadvantage, Chinese has been a potent factor in Chinese has been a potent factor in shaping and maintaining a cultural shaping and maintaining a cultural continuity for millions of people. continuity for millions of people.

China has a very old and rich China has a very old and rich tradition in literature and the tradition in literature and the dramatic and visual arts. Early dramatic and visual arts. Early writings generally derived from writings generally derived from philosophical or religious essays philosophical or religious essays such as the works of Confucius (551-such as the works of Confucius (551-479 BC) and Lao-tzu (probably 4th 479 BC) and Lao-tzu (probably 4th century BC).century BC).

After the fall of a dynasty, for After the fall of a dynasty, for example, a grand history of the late example, a grand history of the late dynasty was commissioned and dynasty was commissioned and written by scholars in the next written by scholars in the next dynasty. dynasty.

To many Westerners, Chinese To many Westerners, Chinese literature remains a hidden seam in literature remains a hidden seam in the rich strata of Chinese culture. As the rich strata of Chinese culture. As a matter of fact, it is a treasure of a a matter of fact, it is a treasure of a very considerable number of brilliant very considerable number of brilliant and profound works as each and profound works as each dynasty, in the long history of China, dynasty, in the long history of China, has passed down its legacy of has passed down its legacy of magnificent events and works.magnificent events and works.

For 3500 years, they have woven a For 3500 years, they have woven a variety of genres and forms variety of genres and forms encompassing poetry, essays, fiction encompassing poetry, essays, fiction and drama; and drama;

China also produced poetry, novels, China also produced poetry, novels, and dramatic writings from an early and dramatic writings from an early date. Poetry, example became well date. Poetry, example became well established as a literary form during established as a literary form during the T'ang Dynasty, from AD 618 to the T'ang Dynasty, from AD 618 to 907.907.

Chinese literature has its own values Chinese literature has its own values and tastes, its own reigning cultural and tastes, its own reigning cultural tradition and its own critical system tradition and its own critical system of theory.of theory.

Drama is another old and important Drama is another old and important literary form. Chinese drama usually literary form. Chinese drama usually combines vernacular language with combines vernacular language with music and song and thus has been music and song and thus has been popular with the common people. popular with the common people.

A variety of popular and standard A variety of popular and standard themes are presented in Peking themes are presented in Peking Opera, which is probably the best Opera, which is probably the best known of several operatic traditions known of several operatic traditions that developed in China. Chinese that developed in China. Chinese opera is a favorite artistic and opera is a favorite artistic and cultural medium cultural medium

Early Chinese novels often Early Chinese novels often stressed character development stressed character development and usually centered on an and usually centered on an adventure or supernatural adventure or supernatural happening; happening;

"Dream of the Red Chamber', "Dream of the Red Chamber', probably China's most famous probably China's most famous novel.novel.

China's literary tradition continues to China's literary tradition continues to the present, though much 20th-the present, though much 20th-century writing has concentrated on century writing has concentrated on efforts to reform or modernize China.efforts to reform or modernize China.

To many Westerners, Chinese To many Westerners, Chinese literature remains a hidden seam in literature remains a hidden seam in the rich strata of Chinese culture. the rich strata of Chinese culture.

For 3500 years, they have woven a For 3500 years, they have woven a variety of genres and forms variety of genres and forms encompassing poetry, essays, fiction encompassing poetry, essays, fiction and drama; and drama;

Four main periods:Four main periods:

classical literature, classical literature,

contemporary literature,contemporary literature,

modern literature and modern literature and

present day literature.present day literature.

Classical literatureClassical literature

refers to the earliest period and refers to the earliest period and covers works from three thousands covers works from three thousands years ago to the late Qing Dynasty years ago to the late Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911), and is a virtually (1644 - 1911), and is a virtually unbroken strand enduring dynastic unbroken strand enduring dynastic changes. changes.

Written in an ancient form of Written in an ancient form of language that is very different from language that is very different from present day Chinese, it needs to be present day Chinese, it needs to be carefully studied to be understood. carefully studied to be understood.

The most important poetic work The most important poetic work produced during the classical period produced during the classical period was the was the Shih ChingShih Ching (Book of Poetry), (Book of Poetry), an anthology of ancient poems an anthology of ancient poems written in four-word verses and written in four-word verses and composed mostly between the 10th composed mostly between the 10th and the 7th centuries bc. and the 7th centuries bc.

The The Shih ChingShih Ching is classified as the is classified as the third of the Five Classics; legend has third of the Five Classics; legend has it that Confucius himself selected it that Confucius himself selected and edited the 305 poems that and edited the 305 poems that constitute the work. constitute the work.

The other half of the The other half of the Shih ChingShih Ching is is made up of dynastic songs and court made up of dynastic songs and court poems. These songs and poems poems. These songs and poems give a colorful picture of the life and give a colorful picture of the life and manners of the Chinese feudal manners of the Chinese feudal nobility, just as the folk poems depict nobility, just as the folk poems depict the simple and yet bountiful life of the simple and yet bountiful life of the peasantry. the peasantry.

The aristocratic, or court, style finds The aristocratic, or court, style finds its best expression, however, in a its best expression, however, in a group of poems known as the group of poems known as the elegies of Ch'u. elegies of Ch'u.

A feudal state in south-central China, A feudal state in south-central China, Ch'u was the home of Ch'ü Yüan Ch'u was the home of Ch'ü Yüan (343–277 bc), the first great Chinese (343–277 bc), the first great Chinese poet. poet.

A noble by birth, Ch'ü Yüan wrote A noble by birth, Ch'ü Yüan wrote Li Li SaoSao (Encountering Sorrow), a long, (Encountering Sorrow), a long, autobiographical poem full of autobiographical poem full of historical allusions, allegories, and historical allusions, allegories, and similes, lyrically expressed and similes, lyrically expressed and concerned with the intimate concerned with the intimate revelation of a poetic soul tormented revelation of a poetic soul tormented because it has failed in its search for because it has failed in its search for a beautiful ideal. a beautiful ideal.

ProseProse

The seminal works of Chinese prose are The seminal works of Chinese prose are those that, with the those that, with the Shih Ching,Shih Ching, constitute constitute the Five Classics. These are the the Five Classics. These are the I ChingI Ching (Book of Changes), a divination text; the (Book of Changes), a divination text; the Shu ChingShu Ching (Book of History), a miscellanea (Book of History), a miscellanea of ancient state documents; the of ancient state documents; the Li ChiLi Chi (Book of Rites), a collection of ritual and (Book of Rites), a collection of ritual and governmental codes; and the governmental codes; and the Ch'un Ch'iuCh'un Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals), a history of (Spring and Autumn Annals), a history of the state of Lu from 722 to 481 bc. the state of Lu from 722 to 481 bc.

From the 6th to the 3d century bc, the first From the 6th to the 3d century bc, the first great works of Chinese philosophy great works of Chinese philosophy appeared. appeared.

PoetryPoetry

In ancient China, people had profuse In ancient China, people had profuse feelings to express when historical events feelings to express when historical events took place, both joyful or of grief. took place, both joyful or of grief.

Classical literature possesses a profound Classical literature possesses a profound culture, and is the epitome of the spirit, culture, and is the epitome of the spirit, morals and wisdom of the Chinese people.morals and wisdom of the Chinese people.

Classical poetry cares a great deal for Classical poetry cares a great deal for rhythm. Poetry is one of the earliest artistic rhythm. Poetry is one of the earliest artistic forms as well as the most fully developed forms as well as the most fully developed in China. in China.

dynastiesdynasties

Shang (bea)Shang (bea)

ZhouZhou

Chin Chin

HanHan

Chu Ci, or The Songs of the South, Chu Ci, or The Songs of the South, is another important poem collection is another important poem collection which appeared 300 years after The which appeared 300 years after The Classic of Odes. Classic of Odes.

Chu Ci, as the book's name Chu Ci, as the book's name indicates, is derived from the songs indicates, is derived from the songs of the southern state Chu during the of the southern state Chu during the Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 Warring States Period (476 BC - 221 BC). BC).

Qu Yuan, who furthered the Qu Yuan, who furthered the development of the new poem style, development of the new poem style, is famed as a great patriotic poet and is famed as a great patriotic poet and politician in the Chu state. politician in the Chu state.

This poetry book changed the simple This poetry book changed the simple and brief style of The Classic of and brief style of The Classic of Odes, and completely distinctive.Odes, and completely distinctive.

The ancient poetry really enlightened The ancient poetry really enlightened

the poets that came after with its the poets that came after with its romanticism. romanticism.

Yuefu in Han Dynasty (206 BC - Yuefu in Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220) is a creation of the lower 220) is a creation of the lower class working people. class working people.

The most prominent works are The most prominent works are Mo Shang Sang, Zhan Cheng Mo Shang Sang, Zhan Cheng Nan (War in the South of Town), Nan (War in the South of Town), Orphan's Song, and A Pair of Orphan's Song, and A Pair of Peacocks Southeast Fly. Peacocks Southeast Fly.

The Han Dynasty Ode is another The Han Dynasty Ode is another popular style originated in the first popular style originated in the first unprecedented powerful empire - unprecedented powerful empire - Han. It is an artistic reflection of the Han. It is an artistic reflection of the optimism and self-reliance of that optimism and self-reliance of that time. time.

The Han Dynasty (206 BC to AD The Han Dynasty (206 BC to AD 220) actively promoted the 220) actively promoted the restoration and teaching of the restoration and teaching of the Classics. Classics.

In 124 BC a national university was In 124 BC a national university was opened for the purpose of teaching opened for the purpose of teaching Confucianism. Confucianism.

It was also during the Han period It was also during the Han period that the Classics became that the Classics became established as the basis of Chinese established as the basis of Chinese education. education.

Literature flowered again during the Literature flowered again during the Han Dynasty. Han Dynasty.

Traditional poetry and prose forms, Traditional poetry and prose forms, especially the fu prose poems, especially the fu prose poems, flourished. But the most notable flourished. But the most notable achievement came with the achievement came with the reactivation of the Yueh Fu, or Music reactivation of the Yueh Fu, or Music Bureau, in 125 BC. Bureau, in 125 BC.

The most outstanding folk ballad of The most outstanding folk ballad of the period, about AD 200, was the period, about AD 200, was `Southeast the Peacock Flies'. `Southeast the Peacock Flies'.

The major prose authors of the Han The major prose authors of the Han Dynasty were Liu An, Ssu-ma Ch'ien, and Dynasty were Liu An, Ssu-ma Ch'ien, and Pan Ku. Pan Ku.

Liu An was a prince of Huai-nan in the 2nd Liu An was a prince of Huai-nan in the 2nd century BC. century BC.

The work attributed to him, but probably The work attributed to him, but probably done under his patronage, is `The Master done under his patronage, is `The Master of Huai-nan'. of Huai-nan'.

The masterpiece of the period was the The masterpiece of the period was the `Shih-chi', meaning "Historical Records," of `Shih-chi', meaning "Historical Records," of Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Ssu-ma Ch'ien.

It was completed in about 85 BC and It was completed in about 85 BC and took 18 years to produce. It contains took 18 years to produce. It contains a record of events and personalities a record of events and personalities for the previous 2,000 years. for the previous 2,000 years.

It was the first attempt at a national It was the first attempt at a national history in China, and it set the history in China, and it set the pattern for the histories of dynasties pattern for the histories of dynasties in the following centuries. in the following centuries.

In the next century Ssu-ma In the next century Ssu-ma Ch'ien was followed as historian Ch'ien was followed as historian by Pan Ku, who was born about by Pan Ku, who was born about AD 32 and died about AD 92. AD 32 and died about AD 92.

He was also a poet, soldier, and He was also a poet, soldier, and the author of `Han shu', the author of `Han shu', meaning "History of the Former meaning "History of the Former Han Dynasty." Han Dynasty."

Six Dynasties and the Sui Six Dynasties and the Sui Dynasty (AD 221 to 618)Dynasty (AD 221 to 618).. XinXin Dynasty Dynasty    Eastern Eastern HanHanThree Three

KingdomsKingdoms 220–280  220–280  Wei, Shu Wei, Shu & WuJin Dynasty& WuJin Dynasty 265–420  265–420  Western Jin16 KingdomsWestern Jin16 Kingdoms 304– 304–439  439  Eastern JinSouthern & Eastern JinSouthern & Northern DynastiesNorthern Dynasties

Sui dynastySui dynasty

Six Dynasties and the Sui Six Dynasties and the Sui Dynasty (AD 221 to 618)Dynasty (AD 221 to 618)..

The major poet of this era was The major poet of this era was T'ao Ch'ien (365-427).T'ao Ch'ien (365-427).

He was a master of the five-He was a master of the five-word line and has been called word line and has been called the first of China's great nature the first of China's great nature poets because most of his poets because most of his writings deal with rural activities. writings deal with rural activities.

The 3rd and 4th centuries were, for The 3rd and 4th centuries were, for prose writers, a time of individuality prose writers, a time of individuality and partial rejection of slavish and partial rejection of slavish imitation of past models.imitation of past models.

Lu Chi (261-303) was a renowned Lu Chi (261-303) was a renowned poet and literary critic who poet and literary critic who emphasized originality in creative emphasized originality in creative writing. writing.

-ex. Wen Fu -ex. Wen Fu

The revolt against imitative writing The revolt against imitative writing was also expressed in a 5th-century was also expressed in a 5th-century style called "pure conversation," an style called "pure conversation," an intellectual discussion on lofty intellectual discussion on lofty matters. matters.

In the 6th century the first book of In the 6th century the first book of literary criticism, `Carving of the literary criticism, `Carving of the Literary Dragon', was published by Literary Dragon', was published by Liu Hsieh (465-522). Liu Hsieh (465-522).

Two other 6th-century prose Two other 6th-century prose masters were Yang Hsien-chih, masters were Yang Hsien-chih, author of `Record of Buddhist author of `Record of Buddhist Temples in Lo-yang', and Li Temples in Lo-yang', and Li Tao-yuan, author of Tao-yuan, author of `Commentary on the Water `Commentary on the Water Classic'. Classic'.

Tang DynastyTang Dynasty

Poetry in the Tang Dynasty (618 - Poetry in the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907) is an unparalleled system and 907) is an unparalleled system and reaches the pinnacle in the reaches the pinnacle in the development of the poem. development of the poem.

is considered China's golden age of is considered China's golden age of poetry. poetry.

Its dazzling value consists of an ideal Its dazzling value consists of an ideal combination of thoughts and art. combination of thoughts and art.

In later study of literature, it is In later study of literature, it is spoken of as being representative of spoken of as being representative of the whole classical literature along the whole classical literature along with two other styles of poetry – with two other styles of poetry –

Tang Shi, Tang Shi, Song Ci, Song Ci, Yuan Qu (Poetry in the Tang Yuan Qu (Poetry in the Tang

Dynasty, Ci in the Song Dynasty, Dynasty, Ci in the Song Dynasty, and Qu in the Yuan Dynasty). and Qu in the Yuan Dynasty).

As for quantity, a total of over 50,000 As for quantity, a total of over 50,000 poems have been collected and no poems have been collected and no one has any idea how many more one has any idea how many more have been lost. have been lost.

Depending upon the period of its Depending upon the period of its development poetry dating from the development poetry dating from the Tang Dynasty, can be classified into Tang Dynasty, can be classified into four groups, namely early Tang four groups, namely early Tang Dynasty, Flourishing Tang, Mid-Tang Dynasty, Flourishing Tang, Mid-Tang and late Tang Dynasty.and late Tang Dynasty.

Early TangEarly Tang

In the early Tang Dynasty, most of In the early Tang Dynasty, most of the poets followed the style of their the poets followed the style of their forebears and created a blend of the forebears and created a blend of the characteristics of the north and characteristics of the north and south. south.

Eventually the field of literature was Eventually the field of literature was refreshed and became more refreshed and became more vigorous as a result of those who are vigorous as a result of those who are known as The Four Talents - Wang known as The Four Talents - Wang Bo, Yang Jiong, Luo Binwang, and Bo, Yang Jiong, Luo Binwang, and Lu Zhaolin,. Lu Zhaolin,.

Poems of the period known as Poems of the period known as the flourishing Tang Dynasty the flourishing Tang Dynasty enjoyed a golden environment enjoyed a golden environment owing to the wise reign, owing to the wise reign, prosperous economy, and the prosperous economy, and the prevailing strength of diplomacy. prevailing strength of diplomacy.

The era endowed poets with The era endowed poets with broad horizons, positive and broad horizons, positive and unrestrained emotion, and unrestrained emotion, and innovative inspiration. innovative inspiration.

There are many representatives There are many representatives we can enumerate:we can enumerate:

Li Bai enjoys the title of the Li Bai enjoys the title of the 'Supernatural Being of Poem' .'Supernatural Being of Poem' .

Even now his 'Jing Ye Si' Even now his 'Jing Ye Si' (Thoughts on the Silent Night) is (Thoughts on the Silent Night) is quite popular and nearly quite popular and nearly everyone knows it even children everyone knows it even children as young as two years of age. as young as two years of age.

Du Fu, known as the 'Saint of Du Fu, known as the 'Saint of Poem', was strict in his use of Poem', was strict in his use of metrical verses. metrical verses.

His Deng Gao (Climbing Up) His Deng Gao (Climbing Up) achieved the perfection of sheer achieved the perfection of sheer professionalism. professionalism.

Wang Wei, the poet of landscape, Wang Wei, the poet of landscape, has written lots of elegant and has written lots of elegant and exquisite verses, such as 'bright exquisite verses, such as 'bright moon lighting on the pine forests, moon lighting on the pine forests, clear water found running on the clear water found running on the stones'. stones'.

Cui Hao created the best of the Cui Hao created the best of the seven-worded regulated poems - seven-worded regulated poems - The Yellow Crane Tower with the The Yellow Crane Tower with the verse 'yellow crane flies and never verse 'yellow crane flies and never back, white cloud floats away for back, white cloud floats away for thousand years'. thousand years'.

Cen Shen was skillful in his Cen Shen was skillful in his descriptions of colorful scenes in descriptions of colorful scenes in the then northwest China and the then northwest China and his famous sentence conveying his famous sentence conveying the delight with snow 'just like the delight with snow 'just like the sudden spring wind the sudden spring wind overnight blows, thousands of overnight blows, thousands of pear trees come to bloom' .pear trees come to bloom' .

Mid-TangMid-Tang

In the Mid-Tang Dynasty, numerous In the Mid-Tang Dynasty, numerous poets came to prominence. poets came to prominence.

The poets also subsequently The poets also subsequently diverted the attention from state diverted the attention from state affairs to the trivialities of daily life, affairs to the trivialities of daily life, and from the glorification of and from the glorification of landscapes to the anchorage of landscapes to the anchorage of spirits and hopes. spirits and hopes.

Poets like Liu Zongyuan and Wei Poets like Liu Zongyuan and Wei Yiwu expressed themselves through Yiwu expressed themselves through the plain depiction of sights around the plain depiction of sights around them.them.

Another renowned literary figure is Another renowned literary figure is Bai Juyi. His The Old Charcoal Seller Bai Juyi. His The Old Charcoal Seller fully satirized the dark social reality. fully satirized the dark social reality.

And the Chang Hen Ge (Song of And the Chang Hen Ge (Song of Eternal Lament) Eternal Lament)

Late Tang dynastyLate Tang dynasty

In late Tang Dynasty, with the In late Tang Dynasty, with the deterioration of government, the deterioration of government, the poems reflected more and more poems reflected more and more the hopeless and helpless the hopeless and helpless feelings of the people in a heavy feelings of the people in a heavy way. way.

The most talented poets were Li The most talented poets were Li Shang Yin and Du Mu.Shang Yin and Du Mu.

Other Information about Tang Other Information about Tang DynastyDynasty Two of the greatest poets in all Two of the greatest poets in all

Chinese literature lived during the Chinese literature lived during the T'ang DynastyT'ang Dynasty: Li Po (701-762) and : Li Po (701-762) and Tu Fu (712-770). Tu Fu (712-770).

Li Po was a romantic who celebrated Li Po was a romantic who celebrated such things as drinking, friendship, such things as drinking, friendship, and nature as well as solitude and and nature as well as solitude and the passage of time. the passage of time.

Tu Fu also celebrated the beauties Tu Fu also celebrated the beauties of nature and bemoaned the of nature and bemoaned the passage of time, but he was also a passage of time, but he was also a satirist and critic. satirist and critic.

Tu Fu's great reputation in literature Tu Fu's great reputation in literature comes in part from his expert use of comes in part from his expert use of all types of poetic style. all types of poetic style.

Chinese prose also underwent a Chinese prose also underwent a stylistic reform during the T'ang stylistic reform during the T'ang period. The major change was period. The major change was brought about by Han Yu (768-824). brought about by Han Yu (768-824).

He promoted classic Confucian He promoted classic Confucian doctrines at a time when they had doctrines at a time when they had begun to fall into neglect because of begun to fall into neglect because of the rising popularity of Buddhism and the rising popularity of Buddhism and Taoism. Taoism.

At his death he was honored with the At his death he was honored with the title "Prince of Letters."title "Prince of Letters."

Sung DynastySung Dynasty

Ci in the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) Ci in the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) indicates another type of poetry at indicates another type of poetry at that time. It came into being in the that time. It came into being in the Tang Dynasty and reached its Tang Dynasty and reached its summit in the Song literature. summit in the Song literature.

This type of poem is akin to lyrics This type of poem is akin to lyrics created for musical accompaniment created for musical accompaniment as the meter varies in the way that as the meter varies in the way that the words had to match the rhythm the words had to match the rhythm of the music. of the music.

Ci, depending upon its length, can Ci, depending upon its length, can be divided into Xiao Ling (small-be divided into Xiao Ling (small-sized, less than 58 characters), sized, less than 58 characters), Zhong Diao (middle-sized, 59 - 90 Zhong Diao (middle-sized, 59 - 90 characters), and Chang Diao (long-characters), and Chang Diao (long-sized, more than 91 characters). sized, more than 91 characters).

Each Ci has a title as well as a Cipai Each Ci has a title as well as a Cipai which is the name of the tonal which is the name of the tonal pattern and decides the rhythm and pattern and decides the rhythm and form of a verse. form of a verse.

Poets in the Song Dynasty Poets in the Song Dynasty developed Ci that was deeper in developed Ci that was deeper in content and broader in form. content and broader in form.

Those who made a great Those who made a great contribution were Liu Yong, Su Shi, contribution were Liu Yong, Su Shi, Yan Shu, Li Qingzhao, Xin Qiji, etc. Yan Shu, Li Qingzhao, Xin Qiji, etc.

Generally speaking, Ci has two main Generally speaking, Ci has two main genres - Wanyue (graceful and mild) genres - Wanyue (graceful and mild) and Haofang (bold and and Haofang (bold and unconstrained). unconstrained).

Ci of Wanyue genre endows delicate Ci of Wanyue genre endows delicate things with exquisite feeling and things with exquisite feeling and elegance. elegance.

The most famous verses are 'How The most famous verses are 'How helpless I see the flowers falling, the helpless I see the flowers falling, the swallows seem to know winter is swallows seem to know winter is coming again' by Yan Shu. coming again' by Yan Shu.

Ci of Haofang genre began to be Ci of Haofang genre began to be popular since the creation by Su Shi popular since the creation by Su Shi who changed Ci into a lyrical art. who changed Ci into a lyrical art.

Other information about Sung Other information about Sung DynastyDynasty During the Sung Dynasty, especially During the Sung Dynasty, especially

in the 11th century, the tz'u form of in the 11th century, the tz'u form of poetry and song was brought to its poetry and song was brought to its greatest heights, particularly through greatest heights, particularly through the efforts of China's best woman the efforts of China's best woman poet, Li Ch'ing-chao (1081-1141). poet, Li Ch'ing-chao (1081-1141).

Her early poems dealt with the joys Her early poems dealt with the joys of love and were intensely personal. of love and were intensely personal.

The prose reform continued under The prose reform continued under followers of Han Yu, and poetry of followers of Han Yu, and poetry of the conventional type continued to the conventional type continued to be written by members of rival be written by members of rival literary schools. The only real literary schools. The only real innovation came with the use of innovation came with the use of everyday speech in local dialects in everyday speech in local dialects in storytelling. storytelling.

This style opened new vistas in This style opened new vistas in prose fiction in later periods, though prose fiction in later periods, though its use was at first despised by its use was at first despised by professional writers professional writers