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CRICOS code 00025B

Drug Law Enforcement in Australia:

How Best to Spend $1 Billion Per Year on Policing

By

Lorraine Mazerolle

Elizabeth Eggins

Angela Higginson

In partnership with

Serious & Organised Crime Research Laboratory

(Australian Institute of Criminology)

Applied Criminology Conference

February 2020

Today’s Talk

• A look at Australia’s spending on drug problems

• Results from our Systematic Review on Street Level Drug Law Enforcement

• What works (and doesn’t) in street level drug law enforcement?

Source – Government Drug Policy Expenditure in Australia – 2009/10 by Alison Ritter, Ross McLeod and Marian Shanahan, National Drug and Research Centre June 2013

Australian Spending on Illicit Drug Problems

$1.6 Billion every year

Category Amount

Prevention $156.8m

Treatment $361.8m

Harm Reduction $36.1m

Law Enforcement $1031.8m

Other $23.1m

Approx. $1 Billion on Law Enforcement

Source – Government Drug Policy Expenditure in Australia – 2009/10 by Alison Ritter, Ross McLeod and Marian Shanahan, National Drug and Research Centre June 2013

Total government expenditure estimates

across four policy domains

9.7%

22.5%

2.2%

64.1%

1.4%

Prevention

Treatment

Harm Reduction

Law Enforcement

Other

$1 Billion in Drug Law Enforcement Spending

• State police - 69% of the total law enforcement spend each year, including

- Covert operations

- Cultivating Human Source Intelligence

- Overt enforcement (including warrants, arrests)

- Raids

- Crackdowns

- Street checks

• Federal law enforcement agencies – 31% of the spend each year, including

- Criminal investigations

- Operational support

- Customs and Border activities

Evidence Based Policing

• Are we spending $1 billion on policing interventions that work to reduce the

street-level supply and demand for illicit drugs?

• Do we have sound scientific knowledge to inform the spend on drug law

enforcement?

• Are drug law enforcement interventions adhering to the basic principle of

Do No Harm?

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Street-level Drug Law Enforcement:

A Systematic Review

Our Question:

What Street-Level Drug Law Enforcement Tactics

Work to Reduce Drug Problems?

USING THE GLOBAL POLICING DATABASE

• Web-based and searchable database

• Compiled using systematic search and review techniques

• Designed to capture all published and unpublished experimental and quasi-experimental

evaluations of policing interventions conducted since 1950

• No restrictions on type of policing technique

• No restrictions on type of outcome(s) measured

• No restrictions on language

http://www.gpd.uq.edu.au

GPD SYSTEMATIC SEARCH METHOD

The GPD search strategy is expansive in comparison to existing systematic reviews in crime and justice

Average number of search locations for current population of C2 crime and justice reviews = 19.08 search

locations

The GPD search strategy includes…

→ 88 Academic databases (24 LOTE) across multiple disciplines including criminal justice, psychology,

economics, public health and medicine

→ 89 Grey literature sources (21 LOTE)

→ 20 Hand search sources + reference harvest of eligible studies

0

10000

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

Nu

mb

er

of

Un

iqu

e R

eco

rds Id

en

tifi

ed

b

y S

earc

h

Years

N unique records identified by search ≈ 275K

N projected to be Stage 1 eligible ≈ 47K

N projected to be included in the GPD ≈ 11K

*Partial 5 years, last search conducted Dec 2018

GPD TRENDS OVER TIME, as of January, 2018

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PRISMA FLOWCHART

Eligible for initial FT eligibility screening

54,486

Eligible for final FT eligibility screening

19,379

Studies/documents eligible for GPD

1,669

Unique records identified by GPD systematic

search (2004–2016) and screened on title and

abstract for initial eligibility

135,521 539 in LOTE

80,496 not related to police,

duplicates or ineligible doc types

27,056 did not report bivariate or

multivariate comparisons or were

duplicates

8,051 documents on order

8,358 no quantitative impact

evaluation of an intervention

relating to police or policing

9,352 awaiting final classification

Review

78

RCT

225

Quasi-Experiment

1,366

ELIGIBLE NUMBER OF STAGE 2 SCREENED DOCUMENTS BY YEAR (2004-2016) N = 1,669

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Num

ber

of S

tudie

s

Year

Country N

USA 499

UK 66

Australia 62

Canada 45

Sweden 26

Netherlands 18

India 16

Italy 13

Turkey 12

Israel 9

South Korea 9

Spain 8

Taiwan 8

China 7

Norway 7

Germany 7

Switzerland

Japan

New Zealand

Brazil

Finland

Slovenia

Mexico

Pakistan

UAE

South Africa

Denmark

Poland

Thailand

France

Czech Republic

Bosnia

Chile

Hong Kong

Malaysia

Iraq

Libya

Nigeria

Croatia

Ghana

Colombia

Trinidad

Uganda

Portugal

Belgium

Philippines

Romania

CAN INCLUDE MULTIPLE COUNTRIES Classified 946

Missing 723

Not stated 12

Multiple 50

COUNTRY OF STUDY ELIGIBLE DOCUMENT TYPES

Book 1%

Book Section 1%

Conference Paper 0%

Journal Article 71%

Other 0%

Report 1%

Thesis 20%

Working Paper 1%

Missing 5%

Book

Book Section

Conference Paper

Journal Article

Other

Report

Thesis

Working Paper

Missing

CATEGORIES OF POLICING INTERVENTIONS IN THE GPD

Policing Practices i. Community policing ii.Drug market interventions iii.Multiagency collaboration iv.Hot spot policing v.Problem oriented vi.Procedural justice

Legislative Reforms i. CCTV a.DV laws b.Traffic laws c.Anti-piracy laws d.Mass Gathering Laws e.Sex offender registration legislation f. Gun buy back program

Interrogation, Information, and Evidence Gathering i. Interview techniques ii.Line-up techniques iii.Forensics

Police Organisations and Staff i. Staff stress / Leadership styles ii.Policy/Organisation change

Police Technologies, Equipment, Safety, & Health i. TASERs ii.Body armour iii.Police officer exposure to hazard & hazard preventions

NUMBER OF STUDIES BY INTERVENTION CATEGORY (2010-2014)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Nu

mb

er o

f St

ud

ies

Year

Interrogation, Information, & Evidence Gathering

Legislative Reforms

Police Organisation & Staff

Police Technology, Equipment, Safety, & Health

Policing Practices

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13%

5%

82%

RCT

Review

Quasi-Experiment

BROAD CATGORIES OF EVALUATION DESIGN

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Randomised experiment

Unmatched control group designs without pre-intervention measures

Other multivariate control design

TOP 3 EVALUATION DESIGNS BY YEAR (2004-2016)

Street-Level Drug Law Enforcement:

Our systematic review using the

Global Policing Database

Table 1: Systematic Search Terms

Drug Search Terms Highly Drug-Specific Law

Enforcement or Drug Market Terms

addict* acid

amphet* bath*

benzo* cannab* cocaine

“date rape” “date-rape” depressant*

drug* ecstasy fentanyl

GBL GHB

hallucino* heroin illicit*

impair* inject*

intoxica* ketamine

LSD marij* MDMA

mephedrone methadone

meth naloxone*

narco* opiate* opioid*

oxy* overdos* pharma*

poly* precurs* prescri* pseudo*

psychoactive Rohypnol

speed spice* spik*

steroid* stimulant* substance* synthetic* tranquili*

weed

bust* buy

caution* closedown*

“close down*” “close-down*”

confisc* covert crack* dark* deal*

decrim* delivery

deliveries demand* depenali* disposal* disrupt* diver* eradic*

expiation farm* harm*

informant* informer*

interdict* launder*

legali* market*

network* operation* precursor*

raid* rave*

referral* sale*

saturat* smuggl*

stop* sting*

substitute* suppl*

suppress* sweep* traffick*

undercover

Includes any study where the intervention is initiated, managed, and/or implemented by

police to reduce or prevent illicit drug use, drug dealing, or associated drug problems.

The review includes policing interventions where:

The intervention targets, at least in part, illicit drugs (e.g., heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, cannabis);

or

Street-level drug law enforcement is either the only intervention,

or

is one component of a larger intervention

TYPES OF INTERVENTIONS

TYPES OF OUTCOMES Drug activity classified as illegal by legislation, including:

• Selling, buying, manufacturing, or possessing drugs or paraphernalia

• Public nuisance due to illicit drugs (not alcohol)

• Driving under the influence of drugs (not alcohol)

Variables defined as drug crime, include:

• Drug-related calls-for-service

• Drug-related arrests

• Drug-related fines, citations or notices

• Drug-related convictions

• Drug-related recidivism

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TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS • Includes quantitative impact evaluations that use a randomised experimental (RCT) or quasi-

experimental design, with a comparison group that does not receive the intervention

• Includes studies where the comparison group receives ‘business-as-usual’ policing (ie standard model of policing), no intervention, or an alternative intervention (treatment-treatment designs)

• Only includes quasi- experimental studies if there is a comparison condition (unmatched or

matched) and a baseline pre-intervention measure of eligible outcomes

• All other weaker research designs were ineligible

Business-as-Usual, Standard Model of Policing

• Responding to Calls for Service

• Arrests

• Reactive Covert Operations

• Reactive Street Checks

• Preventive Patrols

Figure 1: PRISMA Flow diagram

Figure 2. Effect of interventions (excluding depenalisation) on drug-related crime.

Drug-Related Crime (N = 18 studies)

Figure 5. Effect of interventions on drug-related calls-for-service.

Drug-Related Calls for Service (N = 7 studies)

Source – Crime Prevention Research Reviews, No. 1 Disrupting Street-Level Drug Markets by Lorraine Mazerolle, David W.Soole and Sacha Rombouts Griffith University, school of Criminology and Criminal Justice

Classification of

Street Drug Law Enforcement Interventions

Div

ers

ity o

f A

ppro

aches

Level of Geographic Focus Low High

Mostly law

enfo

rcem

ent

Wid

e

arr

ay

Community-wide Partnerships

Problem Oriented Policing

Standard Model Hot Spots

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Community-Wide Partnerships

• Arrest Referral

• Drug Diversion

• Weed and Seed

• Neighbourhood Enhancement Programs

• Foot and Bike Patrols

• Beat Offices

• Referral from police to services in the community

Problem-Oriented Policing

• Nuisance Abatement

• Civil Remedies

• Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design

• Problem Oriented Policing focusing on repeat victims

• Problem Oriented Policing focusing on repeat offenders

Hotspots Policing

• Crackdowns

• Raids

• Undercover Operations

• Directed Patrols

• Search and Seizures on Drug Labs

• Drug Free Zones

Standard Model of Policing

• Responding to Calls for Service

• Arrests

• Reactive Covert Operations

• Ad-hoc Street Checks

• Preventive Patrols

Figure 4. Effect of interventions (excluding depenalisation) on drug-related crime, by type of policing approach.

POLICING APPROACH

Problem Oriented

Hotspots

Community-wide

compared to the

Standard Model of Policing

Drug-Related Crime Figure 7. Effect of interventions on drug-related calls-for-service, by type of policing approach.

Drug-Related Calls for Service

POLICING APPROACH

Problem Oriented

Hotspots

Community-wide

compared to the

Standard Model of Policing

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Summary of What Works

Div

ersi

ty o

f A

pp

licat

ion

s

High Community - Wide Partnerships Some evidence to support the approach

Focused POP and Partnerships Effective

Low

Standard Approach No evidence of effectiveness

Police Only Focus on Hot Spots Mixed Evidence

Low High

Level of Geographic Focus

Conclusions

1. Substantial increase in the number of high-quality impact evaluations of drug law enforcement interventions BUT general lack of high-quality impact evaluations outside of the United States

2. Proactive problem-oriented and community-wide interventions are more effective for reducing drug crime and calls-for-service than reactive hotspots interventions

3. Partnership approaches to tackling street level drug crime problems (either problem or community-level focused) are more effective than police working alone, using hotspots or directed patrols