powerpoint® lecture slides prepared by vince austin, university of kentucky anatomy &...
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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared byVince Austin, University of Kentucky
Anatomy & PhysiologySECOND EDITION
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
PARTElaine N. Marieb
151
The Endocrine System
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Endocrine System: Overview
• Endocrine system – the body’s second great controlling system which influences metabolic activities of cells by means of hormones
• Endocrine glands – pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus
• The pancreas and gonads produce both hormones and exocrine products
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Endocrine System: Overview
• The hypothalamus has both neural functions and releases hormones +
• Other tissues and organs that produce hormones – adipose cells, pockets of cells in the walls of the small intestine, stomach, kidneys, and heart
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Major Endocrine Organs
Figure 15.1
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Autocrines and Paracrines
• Autocrines – chemicals that exert their effects on the same cells that secrete them
• Paracrines – locally acting chemicals that affect cells other than those that secrete them
• These are not considered hormones since hormones are long-distance chemical signals
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Hormones
• Hormones – chemical substances secreted by cells into the extracellular fluids +
• Regulate the metabolic function of other cells
• Have lag times ranging from seconds to hours +
• Tend to have prolonged effects +
• Are classified as amino acid-based hormones, or steroids
• Eicosanoids – biologically active lipids with local hormone–like activity
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Types of Hormones
• Amino acid based – most hormones belong to this class, including:
• Amines, thyroxine, peptide, and protein hormones +
• Steroids – gonadal and adrenocortical hormones +
• Eicosanoids – leukotrienes and prostaglandins
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Hormone Action
• Hormones alter target cell activity by one of two mechanisms
• Second messengers involving:
• Regulatory G proteins
• Amino acid–based hormones
• Direct gene activation involving steroid hormones
• The precise response depends on the type of the target cell
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Mechanism of Hormone Action
• Hormones produce one or more of the following cellular changes in target cells
• Alter plasma membrane permeability
• Stimulate protein synthesis
• Activate or deactivate enzyme systems
• Induce secretory activity
• Stimulate mitosisInterActive Physiology®: Endocrine System: Orientation
PLAYPLAY
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• Hormone (first messenger) binds to its receptor, which then binds to a G protein
• The G protein is then activated as it binds GTP, displacing GDP
• Activated G protein activates the effector enzyme adenylate cyclase
• Adenylate cyclase generates cAMP (second messenger) from ATP +
• cAMP activates protein kinases, which then cause cellular effects
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action: cAMP Second Messenger
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Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action: cAMP Second Messenger
Figure 15.2a
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• Hormone binds to the receptor and activates G protein
• G protein binds and activates a phospholipase enzyme
• Phospholipase splits the phospholipid PIP2 into diacylglycerol (DAG) and IP3 (both act as second messengers)
• DAG activates protein kinases; IP3 triggers release of Ca2+ stores
• Ca2+ (third messenger) alters cellular responses
Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action: PIP-Calcium
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Amino Acid-Based Hormone Action: PIP-Calcium
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• Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone diffuse easily into their target cells
• Once inside, they bind and activate a specific intracellular receptor
• The hormone-receptor complex travels to the nucleus and binds a DNA-associated receptor protein
• This interaction prompts DNA transcription to produce mRNA
• The mRNA is translated into proteins, which bring about a cellular effect
Steroid Hormones
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Steroid Hormones
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• Hormones circulate to all tissues but only activate cells referred to as target cells
• Target cells must have specific receptors to which the hormone binds +
• These receptors may be intracellular or located on the plasma membrane
Target Cell Specificity
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• Examples of hormone activity
• ACTH receptors are only found on certain cells of the adrenal cortex
• Thyroxin receptors are found on nearly all cells of the body
Target Cell Specificity
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• Target cell activation depends on three factors
• Blood levels of the hormone
• Relative number of receptors on the target cell
• The affinity of those receptors for the hormone
Target Cell Activation
InterActive Physiology®: Endocrine System: Actions of Hormone on Target Cells
PLAYPLAY
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• Up-regulation – target cells form more receptors in response to the hormone
• Down-regulation – target cells lose receptors in response to the hormone
Target Cell Activation
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• Hormones circulate in the blood in two forms –
free or bound
• Steroids and thyroid hormone are attached to plasma proteins
• All others are unencumbered
Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
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• Concentrations of circulating hormone reflect:
• Rate of release
• Speed of inactivation and removal from the body
• Hormones are removed from the blood by:
• Degrading enzymes
• The kidneys
• Liver enzyme systems
Hormone Concentrations in the Blood
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• Three types of hormone interaction
• Permissiveness – one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present
• Synergism – more than one hormone produces the same effects on a target cell
• Antagonism – one or more hormones opposes the action of another hormone
Interaction of Hormones at Target Cells
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• Blood levels of hormones:
• Are controlled by negative feedback systems+
• Vary only within a narrow desirable range
• Hormones are synthesized and released in response to:
• Humoral stimuli
• Neural stimuli
• Hormonal stimuli
Control of Hormone Release
InterActive Physiology®: Endocrine System: Biochemistry, Secretion, and Transport of Hormones
PLAYPLAY
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Humoral Stimuli
• Humoral stimuli – secretion of hormones in direct response to changing blood levels of ions and nutrients
• Example: concentration of calcium ions in the blood
• Declining blood Ca2+ concentration stimulates the parathyroid glands to secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)
• PTH causes Ca2+ concentrations to rise and the stimulus is removed
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Humoral Stimuli
Figure 15.4a
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Neural Stimuli
• Neural stimuli – nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
• Preganglionic sympathetic nervous system (SNS) fibers stimulate the adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines
Figure 15.4b
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• Hormonal stimuli – release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs
• The hypothalamic hormones stimulate the anterior pituitary
• In turn, pituitary hormones stimulate targets to secrete still more hormones
Hormonal Stimuli
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Hormonal Stimuli
Figure 15.4c
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• The nervous system modifies the stimulation of endocrine glands and their negative feedback mechanisms
• The nervous system can override normal endocrine controls
• For example, control of blood glucose levels
• Normally the endocrine system maintains blood glucose
• Under stress, the body needs more glucose
• The hypothalamus and the sympathetic nervous system are activated to supply ample glucose
Nervous System Modulation
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• Pituitary gland – two-lobed organ that secretes nine major hormones
• Neurohypophysis – posterior lobe (neural tissue) and the infundibulum
• Receives, stores, and releases hormones from the hypothalamus
• Adenohypophysis – anterior lobe, made up of glandular tissue
• Synthesizes and secretes a number of hormones
Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary (Hypophysis)
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Major Endocrine Organs: Pituitary (Hypophysis)
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• The posterior lobe is a downgrowth of hypothalamic neural tissue
• Has a neural connection with the hypothalamus (hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract)
• Nuclei of the hypothalamus synthesize oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• These hormones are transported to the posterior pituitary
Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships: Posterior Lobe
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• The anterior lobe of the pituitary is an outpocketing of the oral mucosa
• There is no direct neural contact with the hypothalamus
Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships: Anterior Lobe
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• There is a vascular connection, the hypophyseal portal system, consisting of:
• The primary capillary plexus
• The hypophyseal portal veins
• The secondary capillary plexus
Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships: Anterior Lobe
InterActive Physiology®: Endocrine System: The Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis
PLAYPLAY
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Pituitary-Hypothalamic Relationships: Anterior Lobe
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• The six hormones of the adenohypophysis:
• Are abbreviated as GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and PRL
• Regulate the activity of other endocrine glands
• In addition, pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC):
• Has been isolated from the pituitary
• Is enzymatically split into ACTH, opiates, and MSH
Adenophypophyseal Hormones
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• The hypothalamus sends a chemical stimulus to the anterior pituitary +
• Releasing hormones stimulate the synthesis and release of hormones
• Inhibiting hormones shut off the synthesis and release of hormones
Activity of the Adenophypophysis
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• The tropic hormones that are released are:
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Activity of the Adenophypophysis
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• Produced by somatotropic cells of the anterior lobe that:
• Stimulate most cells, but target bone and skeletal muscle
• Promote protein synthesis and encourage the use of fats for fuel
• Most effects are mediated indirectly by somatomedins
Growth Hormone (GH)
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• Antagonistic hypothalamic hormones regulate GH
• Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) stimulates GH release
• Growth hormone–inhibiting hormone (GHIH) inhibits GH release
Growth Hormone (GH)
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• GH stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone, and cartilage to produce insulin-like growth factors
• Direct action promotes lipolysis and inhibits glucose uptake
Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone
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Metabolic Action of Growth Hormone
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• Tropic hormone that stimulates the normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid gland
• Triggered by hypothalamic peptide thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Rising blood levels of thyroid hormones act on the pituitary and hypothalamus to block the release of TSH
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (Thyrotropin)
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• Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids
• Triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm
• Internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors can trigger the release of CRH
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (Corticotropin)
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• Gonadotropins – follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Regulate the function of the ovaries and testes
• FSH stimulates gamete (egg or sperm) production
• Absent from the blood in prepubertal boys and girls
• Triggered by the hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) during and after puberty
Gonadotropins
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• In females
• LH works with FSH to cause maturation of the ovarian follicle
• LH works alone to trigger ovulation (expulsion of the egg from the follicle)
• LH promotes synthesis and release of estrogens and progesterone
Functions of Gonadotropins
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• In males
• LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to produce testosterone
• LH is also referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Functions of Gonadotropins
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• In females, stimulates milk production by the breasts
• Triggered by the hypothalamic prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)
• Inhibited by prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)
• Blood levels rise toward the end of pregnancy
• Suckling stimulates PRH release and encourages continued milk production
Prolactin (PRL)
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• Posterior pituitary – made of axons of hypothalamic neurons, stores antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
• ADH and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus
• ADH influences water balance
• Oxytocin stimulates smooth muscle contraction in breasts and uterus
• Both use PIP-calcium second-messenger mechanism
The Posterior Pituitary and Hypothalamic Hormones