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Power motivation, illness, copingstrategies and psychological stress inpolice traineesJanice Langan-fox a , Tanya Deery a & Sara Van Vliet aa Department of Psychology , University of Melbourne , Parkville,3052, AustraliaPublished online: 25 Sep 2007.

To cite this article: Janice Langan-fox , Tanya Deery & Sara Van Vliet (1997) Power motivation,illness, coping strategies and psychological stress in police trainees, Work & Stress: An InternationalJournal of Work, Health & Organisations, 11:2, 186-195, DOI: 10.1080/02678379708256834

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WORK &. STRESS, 1997, VOL. 11, NO. 2, 186-195

Research Note

Power motivation, illness, coping strategies and psychological stress in police trainees

JANICE LANGAN-FOX, T A N Y A DEERY and SARA VAN VLIET Department of Psychology, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3052, Australia

Keywords: Power motivation ; Coping strategies; Pxycho/ogic.a/ stress; Polire trainees.

Research suggests that there are substantial differences in the ways in which people cope with strcss, and that certain coping strategies buffer the degree of psychological and physical illness resulting from stress. Furthermore, personality, the situational contcxt and subjective appraisal of the situation are believed to mediate coping behaviour and its effectiveness. The present investigation reports the results of two studies of the relationship between coping behaviour and the personality disposition need

.f.r power, taking into account the environment and the subject’s appraisal of the situation. Highly power-motivated individuals were hypothesized to utilize emotion-focused coping strategies more than problem-focused coping strategies, to find the training environment stressful and anxiety- provoking, and to report more illness, than low power-motivated individuals. A 19-wcck policc academy training programme was used to measure these relationships in 34 police trainees. Thc results did not support all hypotheses. Findings are discussed with reference to sample characteristics, training intensity, and the empirical work in this area.

1. Introduction Increased organizational stress over the last 30 years has been cited as a major contributor to the stress-illness relationship, with the resultant loss in productivity representing a serious cost t o organizations in both human and financial terms (Cooper and Marshall 1976). T w o approaches t o research can be found, one that focuses on occupational stress (Glowinkowski and Cooper 1986) and another that focuses on personality (McClelland 1987). However, it is n o w thought that stress and personality play a causal role in the onset and maintenance of illness (Friedman and Booth-Kewley 1987, Jemmott 1985, 1987). T h e present study focused on the relationship between personality, stress and illness.

Inherent in the life-events research is the finding that there are substantial individual differences in perceived stressors, and in responses to stress (Jemmott and Locke 1984). resulting in the notion that certain personality types may be more susceptible to illness than others. Generally, it is argued that a strong need for power (nPower) increases susceptibility to illness, particularly if it is inhibited, blocked or challenged in some way, increasing the possibility of power-related life-stress o r ‘power stress’ (Fodor 1990, Jemmott 1987, McClelland 1979, 1989).

0267-8373/97 81200 0 lY97 Taylor Kr Francis Ltd

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Power motivation, illness, copirrg arid stress in police trairiea 187

2. Stress, coping strategies and power motivation Research suggests that there are substantial individual differences in the ways in which people cope with stress and that coping strategies may buffer psychological and physical illness resulting from stress (Billings and Moos 1984, Endler and Parker 1990, Flookan and Lazars 1980, Flookan et a!. 1986a, McCrae 1984, Menaghan and Merves 1984). Prior research indicates that problem-focused coping is a dominant coping strategy (Billings and Moos 1984) and Folkman and Lazarus (1980) have proposed that the domain of work- related problems provides more opportunities for problem solving than most other life domains. It is preferable to assess coping in response to a chronic stressor (a long-term stressor) rather than an acute stressor (a major life event), in the light of studies which have found that chronic stressors are better predictors of impaired well-being than acute stressors (Kanner et al. 1981, Weinberger et al . 1987). Furthermore, Hamilton and Fagot (1988) have suggested that responses to chronic stressors should be assessed when examining characteristic coping patterns of individuals.

A review of the literature revealed that no published studies had been conducted on the relationship between nPower and coping behaviour. However, in an unpublished study by Hellman (1987, cited in McClelland 1989) highly power-motivated individuals’ sense of agency or mastery was found to be positively related to salivary immunoglobulin (S-IgA) concentrations.

The present investigation utilized police trainees as subjects and sought, in two studies, to examine the stress-personality-illness relationship and to focus on the importance of coping strategies in relation to individual differences in personality. The aims were to investigate: Study 1 (a) the stress and anxiety with a training programme; and (b) the relationship between stress, illness and nPower. Study 2 (c) the coping strategies employed in response to stress of a training programme; (d) whether trainees had a high need for power and whether this need for power was related to coping strategies; and (e) whether trainees appraised the training programme as stressful.

3. The research context McClelland (1979) argued that as men achieve an advanced stage of expressing the power drive, the self ceases to be a source of power and the ‘person sees himself as an instrument of higher authority which moves him to try and influence others’ (p. 20). Certain occupations such as the police force provide a legitimate way for people to express their high nPower since the police represent a ‘higher authority’. It was thought that a police training programme would represent a ‘power stress’ that challenges or blocks the subjects’ expression of nPower.

A repeated measures design was used to examine the relationship between nPower, stress and illness in police trainees undergoing a 19-week training programme. Two sessions were employed: Sessiorr 1 (the first morning of training): thought to represent a substantial challenge or block to the subjects’ nPower since the entire training programme must be completed for them to become Probationary Constables; Sessiori 2 (the ‘Crime Beat’ phase of training): thought to represent less of a challenge or block to the subjects’ power motivation than Session 1, because power needs were able to be expressed.

4. Preliminary analyses Since only the stress associated with training was of interest in the present study, any external stressors to which the subjects were exposed before or during training (for example, at home) represented potentially confounding variables. A number of tests were

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188 I . Langan-Fox et al.

performed on the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HUS; Kanner et al. 1981) and Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS ; Holmes and Rahe 1967) results to determine whether the subjects were under stress that was not associated with training. Since no predictions were made in relation to external stress, two-tailed t-tests were performed. Dependent t- tests were calculated separately for the HUS and SRRS scores across Sessions 1 and 2. The mean level of hassles, uplifts and major life-events requiring readjustment was calculated separately for the two experimental sessions across the subjects.

Overall, in the 3 to 6 months preceding the start of the training programme, the subjects reported significantly more uplifts and significantly more major life-events requiring readjustment, than in the 3 months preceding the Crime Beat which occurred on Day 87 of training. There was no significant difference in the number of hassles reported a t these times.

To determine whether there was a relationship between the external stress and the subjects’ perceptions of the stress associated with training, correlations were calculated across mean scores for the Perceived Stress Indicator (PSI; Jemmott et al. 1983), Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSC; Derogates et al. 1974), HUS and SRRS within each session. Since no predictions were made with respect to the relationship between external stress and the stress associated with training, two-tailed t-tests were performed. There was a significant relationship between the number of hassles reported during the 3 months preceding training and the subjects’ perceptions of the anxiety associated with the impending training programme (r = .40, p < .05). There were no other significant relationships between external stress and stress associated with training.

The results of preliminary analyses examining the nature of the environmental conditions appeared to confirm that extraneous stress was not associated with training and was not impacting on trainees. Therefore, it was appropriate to test the research hypotheses in relation to stress, illness and power motivation.

5. Study 1 The following hypotheses were formed:

Hypothesis 1 : Subjects characterized by a high nPower would perceive the training environment to be more stressful and anxiety-provoking at Session 1 than Session 2; Hypothesis 2: subjects characterized by a high nPower would perceive the training environment to be more stressful and anxiety-provoking than subjects characterized by a low nPower; and Hypothesis 3: subjects characterized by high nPower would report more illness than low nPower subjects.

5.1. Method 5.1.1. Subjects: The subjects were eight female and 26 male police trainees whose ages ranged from 19 to 37 years. Subjects received no payment and were naive to the hypotheses.

5.1.2. measures.

(1)

Materials: The following tests and scales were used as measures and control

Thematic Apperception Test (TA 7) : The TAT was used to measure the unconscious nPower. The subjects were required to write ‘creative’ stories to four-sentence cues (Mason and Blakenship 1987). Inter-scorer reliability studies were carried out as outlined by Winter (1973) : they had an inter-scorer category agreement of 0.92 and

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Power motivation, illness, coping and stress in police trainees 189

Table 1. The research variables and types of assessments used across three sessions of the 95-day training programme. On day 87 a ‘Crime

Beat’ was conducted.

Session 1 Session 2 Session 3 (Day 1) (Day 87) (Day 95)

nPower TAT t(Pwr) IPR Stress (PSI) Anxiety (HSC) Acute stress (SRRS) Chronic stress (HUS) Health (GHM) Demographics Coping (WCC)

nPOWER TAT t(Pwr) IPR Stress (PSI) Stress (PSI) Anxiety (HSC) Anxiety (HSC)

Acute stress (SRRS) Chronic stress (HUS) Health (GHM)

Coping (WCC) Coping (WCC)

a rho of .91. In addition, special instructions outlined by Winter and Stewart (1977) were used during the second administration of the TAT, telling subjects to ‘feel free to react to the T A T stimuli as they did on previous occasions, depending on how they feel now ’. Index of Personal Reactions ( I P R ) : A power influence trait was assessed through the IPR (Bennet 1988), which is a 39-item questionnaire consisting of four sub-scales: ability to influence t(Abi1); need for power t(Pwr), which is a more conscious version of power than nPower; need for influence t(1nf); and resistance to subordination t(Res). T h e Perceived Stress Indicator ( P S I ; Jemmott et al. 1983) : The PSI was used to assess the subjects’ perceptions of the stress associated with training. This 7-question measure requires subjects to respond, using a 7-point Likert scale, to a number of questions designed to assess situational stress. Hopkins Symptom Checklist ( H S C ; Derogates et al. 1974) : The Anxiety Scale of the HSC was used to assess the subjects’ perceptions of the anxiety associated with training. This 1 1-question measure requires subjects to respond, using a 4-point Llkert scale, to a number of questions designed to assess the anxiety associated with particular situations. Social Readjustment Rating Scale ( S R R S ; Holmes and Rahe 1967) and the Hassles and U p l i j s Scales ( H U S ; Kanner et al. 1981) : These were used as control measures. The SRRS and the HUS were used to determine whether the subjects were under stress that was not associated with training. Global Health Measure (GHM) : Another control measure, the GHM (Israel et al. 1989) was used to assess the frequency of various health complaints suffered in the preceding 6 months. Demographic questionnaire : A demographic questionnaire was used to obtain background information on, for instance, age, gender and nationality.

Procedure : The study was conducted over three sessions across the entire training programme: (1) Session 1 occurred at the beginning of training (day 1); (2) Session 2 was conducted during the Crime Beat which occurred on day 87 and involved a simulation of a police chase, which culminated in the arrest of assailants; (3) Session 3 occurred on the last day of training (day 95). Table 1 shows the variables that were assessed and the types of assessments used in analyses for Study 1 and Study 2.

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190 J . Larzgari-Fox et al.

Table 2. Anova table for Group (High nPowcr versus Low nPowcr) and Time (Session 1 versus Session 2) with two repeated measures for

stress, anxiety and health.

Sum of Mean Source df squares squares F

Stress Between subjects Groups Subjects within groups Within subjects Time Time x Group Error

Aiixirry Between subjects Groups Subjects within groups Within subjects Time Time x Group Error

Between subjects Groups Subjects within groups Within subjects Time Tinie x Group Error

Hi~alth

33 521 .0 1 0.7

32 520.3

1 27.2 1 2.5

32 257.8

33 4423.7 1 66.0

32 4357.7 34 4705.5

I 156.0

34 287.5

1 2731 .n

32 1817.7

33 23552.2 1 373.5

32 23178.7

1 356.2 1 - 350.0

32 -22979.9

34 -22972.8

0.7 16.3

27.2 2.5 8.1

66.0 136.2

2731.8 156.0 56.8

373.5 747.7

356.2 -349.1 -718.1

0.04

3.37 0.31

0.48

48.09* 2.75

0.50

- 0.50 0.48

*Significant at p < .05.

ANOVAs (2 x 2 with 2 repeated measures) were performed 011 scores of stress, anxiety and health (table 2 ) .

Stress: Overall, there was no difference between the high nPower and low nPower subjects' perceptions of the stress associated with the impending training and the stress associated with the Crime Beat. Aiixiety: The main effect for group, F(1,32) = 0.48, p > .05 was not significant, however, the main effect for session, F(1,32) = 48.09, p < .05) was highly significant. Overall, regardless of nPower scores, the subjects found the impending training programme to be significantly more anxiety-provoking than the Crime Beat. Healrh : Overall, whether the subjects were high in nPower or low in nPower, there was no difference in the amount of illness reported at Session 1 and Session 2. None of the hypotheses were supported, although scores were in the predicted direction.

6. Study2 Using the same data set, analyses were carried out to assess a series of relationships in regard to coping. Three hypotheses were formed:

Hypothesis 4 : Subjects would employ problem-focused (P-F) coping strategies signifi- cantly more than emotion-focused (E-F) coping strategies;

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Power motivatiori, illtzess, coping arid stress irr police trainees 191

Hypothesis 5 : Compared to low nPower subjects, subjects with a high nPower will employ E-F coping strategies significantly more than P-F coping strategies; Hypothesis 6: (i) Subjects will appraise Session 1 as more stressful than Session 2, and (ii) Subjects high in nPower will appraise the training programme as more stressful than low nPower subjects.

6.1. Method Materials

Revised W a y s of Copitzg Check-list ( WCC) : Coping was assessed with a version of the Revised Ways of Coping Check-list (WCC) adapted by Flookan et al. (1986b). Other measures: These have been described in Study 1 and included: the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Hopkins Symptom Check-list (HSC), the Demo- graphic Questionnaire, the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), and the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HUS). Perceived ro~trollability qfthe situatiori : The W C C questionnaire asked the subject to think of the most stressful event experienced during the month, and then to indicate those strategies that were used. Four questions asked the extent to which subjects appraised the situation as: (1) under their control; (2) a situation that they must accept; (3) a situation about which they needed to know more; and (4) a situation in which they had to hold back.

7. Results The results are divided into two sections: (1) coping behaviour; and (2) stress appraisal.

7.1. Coping hehaviorrr An overall index of coping was obtained by calculating the difference between the total emotion-focused coping score and the total problem-focused score. A positive score on

Figurc 1. 3.

Bar graph showing nican scores for each problcm-focuscd coping scalc for Times 1 .2 and

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192 1. Langan-Fox et al.

Figure 2. 3.

Bar graph showing mean scores for each emotion-focused coping scale for Times 1,2 and

this variable indicated that more emotion-focused than problem-focused coping had occurred, while a negative score indicated that more problem-focused coping was used. Figures 1 and 2 show the mean scores for the P-F and E-F coping.

Supporting Hypothesis 4, subjects used problem-focused coping strategies significantly more than emotion-focused strategies in Session 1 (mean overall coping score = -0.20; t , , = -4.18, p < .Ol ) , Session 2 (mean overall coping score = -0.26; t,, = -7.44, p < .01) and Session 3 (mean overall coping score = -0.17; t,, = -4.30, p < . O l ) , where the difference appeared to be greatest during Session 2. Specifically, subjects tended to use planful problem solving to the greatest extent of all problem-focused coping strategies across all sessions, and self-control was used most of all the emotion-focused coping strategies across all sessions.

7.1.1. C o p i q behaviour and needfor power: I t is evident that, on average, police trainees scored highly in the need for power (nPower, TAT), which was measured a t Times 1 and 2 with average raw scores of 7.0 (at Time 1) and 5.6 (at Time 2), where an average or norm score for nPower is 3.0 (McClelland 1987).

Five sets of predictor variables, nPower and the four perceived controllability scales (from the WCC), were regressed on the dependent variable, overall coping behaviour (described above). There was no significant relationship between the dependent variable and any of the independent variables for Time 1 . The five sets of independent variables accounted for only 22 % of the total variance. Similar results were found for Time 2, such that, together, the independent variables explained 23 YO of the variance. A significant difference was observed for the independent variable desccribed in (3) (2) of §6.1.1., appraisal of the situation as having to be accepted F(1,30) = 4.87; p = .035, in that this variable was associated with more emotion-focused coping strategies. It had been proposed that highly power-motivated subjects would use more emotion-focused coping strategies given the documented positive relationships between impaired health and E-F coping behaviour, and impaired health and nPower. However, no significant relationship was found between coping behaviour and nPower. Hypothesis 5 was not supported. In fact, a slight negative association ( t = -0.68, p < .05) was revealed between coping behaviour

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Power motivation, illness, coping and stress i n police trainees 193

and nPower, indicating that highly power-motivated subjects tended to use problem- focused methods of coping to a greater extent than emotion-focused coping.

7.2. Stress appraisal Confirming Study 1 results, subjects appraised the impending training programme (Session 1) as more stressful. Hypothesis 6 (i) was supported. Significant differences were observed for eight of 11 stress appraisal variables across Sessions 1 and 2 : demanding (t33 = 6.69, p < .Ol), competitive (t33 = 6.70, p < .Ol), supportive (t33 = 3.49, p < . O l ) , warm (t33 = 4.23, p = .001), stressful (t33 = 2.58, p = .015), difficult (t33 = 3.58, p = .001), formidable (t33 = 3.87, p < .Ol), and tense (t33 = 2.53, p = .016). Subjects scored significantly more highly on these variables at Session 1 than at Session 2. Subjects also scored significantly higher at Session 1 than Session 3 on the appraisal variables: demanding (t3z = 5.97, p < .Ol), anxiety (t32 = 3.38, p = .002), competitive ( t3z = 2.63, p = .013), supportive (t32 = 4.44, p < .Ol), warm (t3z = 2.40, p = .022), difficult (t32 = 3.1 1, p = .004), and tense (t3z = 2.99, p = .005). Finally, subjects’ scores were significantly higher at Session 3 than Session 2 on the appraisal variables: competitive ( t3z = -4.44, p < . O l ) , stressful ( t3z = -2.48, p = .019), and formidable (t32 = -2.15, p = .04).

7.2.1. Stress appraisal and nPower: Since the stress appraisal measure contained a large number of variables, a principal components analysis, with a varimax rotation, was conducted on responses obtained on the measure, at Sessions 1 and 2, to reduce the number of variables. The resulting factor structure accounted for 58 % and 55 % of the variance, respectively, and showed that, from each of the solutions obtained, one factor (Tense) related to the appraisal of the training programme as tense, formidable, difficult; another factor (Support) related to the perceived support and warmth experienced throughout training; and a third factor (Compete) related to the appraisal of the programme as competitive, demanding and risky.

To determine whether stress appraisal influenced coping behaviour and nPower, an Analysis of Variance was performed. It revealed no significant relationships between the dependent variable, coping behaviour, and the independent variables, stress appraisal, tense, support and compete, and nPower. Hypothesis 6 (ii) was not supported.

8. Discussion Police trainees tend to be a healthy sample since they are required to pass a medical examination in order to be selected as recruits, and therefore the duration of the training programme (3 months) may not have been sufficient for the documented stress-illness relationship to become apparent. As noted by Sarason et al. (1985) there is evidence to support a time lag (of some months) between stressful experiences and the onset of illness. Thus it is possible that the training programme was not sufficiently stressful for the stress- illness relationship to occur. In addition, police trainees may exhibit coping mechanisms that buffer the effects of stress (Friedman and Booth-Kewley 1987).

All eight coping strategies were utilized by the police trainees, demonstrating support for the proposal by Flookan and Lazars (1980) that coping is a complex process that can involve the simultaneous use of several strategies. Problem-focused coping strategies were employed most often, although E-F and P-F forms of coping were generally used together. Kuhlman (1990) suggested that when both styles of coping are used together, E-F modes of coping facilitate P-F coping behaviour by managing stress-related emotions that would

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194 /. Langan-Fox et al.

otherwise hinder P-F coping. In relation to the present study, police trainees used high levels of self-control and planful problem solving.

As expected, police trainees as a group were high in nPower. However, high Power- motivated individuals did not use E-F coping strategies more often than P-F coping strategies as compared with low power-motivated subjects. Despite the lack of support for the hypothesis, this finding is favourable since P-F coping strategies are more likely to assist individuals in moderating the adverse influence of stressful life events (Billings and Moos 1984). whereas E-F coping strategies in the long term have been associated with poor adaptation to stress (Felton and Revenson 1984). In relation to the police academy training programme, subjects appraised the beginning of training as the most stressful phase of training. It should be noted that during this stressful period, police trainees used adaptive (P- F) coping strategies to the greatest extent.

The findings could have implications for police recruitment and selection policies and the curriculum adopted for training. If it was found that police trainees exhibit a high nPower (and if they are therefore prone to stress-related illness), then it might be useful to consider teaching them appropriate coping strategies in an attempt to buffer the effects of stress. Given the potential organizational cost incurred as a result of the stress-illness relationship, further research would be beneficial.

Acknowledgement Acknowledgement is made to the Sunshine Foundation which gave financial support to the present study.

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Submitted March 1996. Revised version accepted January 1997.

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