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PRINCIPLES OFREFORESTATIONThe eastern deciduous hardwood forest with itshundreds of species of plants and animals is one of the most complex plant systems in North America.When land is surface-mined, the entire forest,including shrub layer, tree canopy, root stocks,

seed pools, animals, and microorganisms, isremoved. After mining and land reclamation, thiscomplex forest, given enough time, will berestored to its original function and structurethrough a process called forest succession. Forestsuccession is a natural process whereby, followingdisturbance, the forest regains its original compo-sition through a slow process of species replace-ment and site amelioration.

The original forest of oaks, hickories, basswood,dogwood, maple, Fraser magnolia, cucumber treeand other mid- to late-successional species is notinstantaneously restored. Instead, pioneer speciessuch as leguminous trees and shrubs and pine andhardwood species that can tolerate a wide range of acidity, fertility, moisture, and temperature

become established first. The pioneer species willeventually yield to the more site-sensitive hard-woods. In the meantime, the mine soil is beingconditioned, nitrogen and organic matter are beingincorporated, populations of macro and microplants and animals are increasing, a more diversewildlife habitat is being created, and valuablewood products are being produced. The rate atwhich natural forest succession proceeds dependson the nature of the reclaimed site and adjoiningundisturbed sites. We believe it would requireseveral hundred years for the mid- to late-succes-sional hardwoods to dominate if forest restorationwere left entirely to nature.

The reforestation procedures recommended beloware designed to accelerate forest succession whileproviding land stabilization and erosion control,bond release for the mining operator, and eco-nomic returns to land owners. A combination of grasses, legumes, nurse shrubs and trees, and croptrees are established more or less simultaneously.Each plant type serves a specific reclamationfunction then yields to another plant type(Figure 1).

Figure 1.Reforestation silviculture seeks to stimulate natural processes known as forest succession. All vegetatationtypes are established during reclamation. As time passes, grasses and legume groundcovers yield to fast-grow-ing pioneer species and nurse trees, which are themselves overtopped by commercially valuable crop trees asthe forest grows and matures


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On sites reforested using these guidelines,hydroseeded grasses emerge first to quickly stabi-lize the mine soil surface. Grasses then yield tolegumes when applied nitrogen is minimized. Theslow-starting, ground-sprawling legumes allowtrees to become established and grow before total-ly covering the ground. The legumes enrich thesite and eventually give way to the tree cover.Nurse trees and shrubs condition the site for thecrop trees and yield to the crop trees as they closecanopy. This process of matching plant species tosite conditions, matching plant species for theircompatibility with each other in space and time,and managing tree stands to accomplish certainobjectives as they develop, is called reforestationsilviculture.

REGULATIONS ANDPERFORMANCE BONDSSince about 1985, most mined land planted with

trees has been designated as "unmanaged forestland" (or non-commercial forest land) in Virginiamining permits. Another forest land postminingland-use option is known as "commercial forestland" or "managed forest."

Although bond release requirements specified bystate regulations (Coal Surface MiningReclamation Regulations, Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy, 1999) are similarfor both commercial (managed) and unmanagedforest land, there are some subtle differences.Typically, unmanaged forest land is planted withwhite pine and various wildlife and nitrogen-fix-ing shrub and tree species. This species composi-tion provides wildlife and environmental benefitswith little or no management input after establish-ment and little or no long-term commercial value

for the landowner.

The "commercial forest land" option provides anopportunity to use alternative reclamation prac-tices to achieve a wood-production forestry man-agement objective. For commercial forestry, aminimum stocking of 400 trees per acre of com-

mercial species is required, in addition to 40wildlife trees or shrubs per acre. As with any land-use designation, the coal company must submit asimple management plan that explains how theproposed postmining land use is to be achieved.Additionally, a copy of the comments by thelandowner concerning the proposed use must besubmitted. These documents are required to showthat the landowner is committed to the proposedcommercial forestland, and that it can be reason-ably achieved.

The guidelines offered in this paper were devel-oped to increase the probability of timely per-formance bond release as well as to ensure theestablishment of productive forests. Regulatoryrequirements in this publication are specific toVirginia, but the general guidelines are applicableto reclamation in surrounding states. In Virginia,performance criteria for bond release can beachieved for forestland. Of particular importanceare requirements relative to final surface grading,ground cover, and number of trees per acre.

PermittingSuccessful reforestation, from a regulatory stand-

point, starts with the mining permit. Regulatoryauthorities will reference the mining permit when

judging reclamation success. Mine permitting forproductive reforestation is discussed in VirginiaCooperative Extension Publication 460-141.

Final Surface GradingIn the past, establishment of smoothly-gradedslopes with lush vegetation during the first yearwas a goal for many reclamationists.Unfortunately, land reclaimed in this way is oftencompacted by excessive grading, and the groundcover vegetation is too dense for tree establish-

ment. Most southwest Virginia forested land-scapes are uneven, and many are strewn withrocks and boulders. Natural forest soils are roughand loose, allowing deeply-rooted woody speciesto become established and grow unimpeded.


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The Virginia Coal Surface Mining ControlReclamation Act of 1979 specifies that gradedbackfills "support the approved postmining landuse." Compaction is only necessary "... whereadvisable to ensure stability" (480-03 -19.816.102). Therefore, on level areas and short,gentle slopes, grading should be minimized toavoid surface soil compaction. After groundcoverand tree establishment, small to medium gulliesneed not be filled unless they are associated with

sedimentation problems or grow to the pointwhere they would hinder forestry operations.Small to medium gullies may interfere with hay-land/pasture uses, but do not interfere withforestry and wildlife habitat. Minesoil com-paction resulting from gully repair is counterpro-ductive to successful reforestation.

Ground Cover EstablishmentVirginia regulations require ground cover to be atleast 90 percent of the "success standard." Thesuccess standard depends on the designated post-mining land use. When trees are planted for"wildlife management, recreation, shelterbelts orforest uses other than commercial forest land," thesuccess standard is 90 percent. This means thatcoal companies must achieve 81 percent cover, or90 percent of the standard, for bond release.Ground cover for commercial forestland must beadequate to control erosion and achieve the speci-fied land use.

Number of Trees per AcreThe number of trees per acre and species selectiondiffers between commercial forestland and non-commercial forestland. For commercial forest-land, there must be at least 400 commercialtrees/acre plus 40 wildlife trees or shrubs (a mini-mum of 440 trees/acre) for bond release. InVirginia, white pine is a common commercialspecies. Mixed hardwood species are also consid-ered commercial species. For non-commercial

forest land, there must be at least 400 trees/acre, of which at least 40 must be wildlife trees or shrubs.Native invading trees count toward bond release if they are species suitable for the post-mining landuse defined in the mining permit and at least onefoot tall. Planting 550 crop trees and 60 to 100wildlife or "nurse" trees per acre should achievethese required stocking densities, if soils andgroundcover vegetation are compatible with treeestablishment.

SELECTION, PLACEMENT,AND GRADING OF MINE SOILMATERIALSoil MaterialsCarefully-constructed mine soils can be deeperand more fertile than some of the natural soilsfound in mountainous terrain. Natural soil inmany steeply sloping areas of the Appalachians is

Photo 3.Typical grading and tracking-in operations for non-

Photo 4.Example of uncompacted, roughly graded surface


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thin and difficult to recover, store, and replaceduring reclamation. "Topsoil substitutes" con-taining large amounts of blasted overburdenmaterials are allowed by law and can be used suc-cessfully as plant-growth media. But in order tobe as productive as natural soils, the spoil materi-als must have desirable physical and chemicalproperties conducive for good growth of deeply-rooted trees. The surface four feet of mine soilmaterial should be easily weatherable so thatmost rocks and boulders decompose to fine soilmaterials within a few years. The soil texture of the fine-earth fraction should be loamy to sandy,and the mine soil should be low in total salts andmoderately acid. Most important, the mine soilmust also be left uncompacted to a depth of fourfeet.

Trees have different mine soil requirements thanforage grasses and legumes, both in terms of soilquality and depth. Most grasses and legumes cantolerate compacted surfaces, high pH levels, and

high levels of soluble salts; trees cannot. Even if trees survive under these mine soil conditions,they will not grow well.

Brown, oxidized sandstones, often found in deeplayers near the land surface throughout theAppalachians, make the best mine soils for treesprovided they are not pyritic. Research studiesand many observations of reclaimed sites inVirginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky show thattree survival and long-term growth is excellent onoxidized, moderately-acid, sandstone-derivedmine soils. Two parts brown, weathered sand-stone and one part brown, weathered siltstone orshale have made an excellent topsoil substitute fortrees in our research studies. In general, siltstoneand shale that occur directly above or below coalseams should be avoided. These rock types usu-ally have high levels of soluble salts, a high pH,and compact to greater densities when trafficked.Some of the white or blue-gray unweathered sand-

stones that occur further below the surface areacceptable for forest land. However, these spoilsweather very slowly and should only be usedwhen brown, weathered sandstone and siltstoneare not available.

Mixing some fresh soil (where available) withoverburden will improve the sites suitability fortrees. Fresh topsoil typically harbors seeds androots of tree and shrub species that can grow intoviable seedlings when conditions are right.

Photo 5.Eight-year-old white pine growing in unweatheredshale mine soil.

Photo 6.Eight-year-old white pine growing in weathered

sandstone mine soil.

Photo 7.Cross-sections of 8-year-old white pine trees grow-ing on shale (left) and sandstone (right) mine soils(grid line spacing 1 inch).


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Mixing some fresh soil into the surface will aidseedling survival, as beneficial fungi and microor-ganisms help seedlings obtain water and nutrients.In places where the soil handling cost makes itimpractical to obtain large amounts of fresh soilfor use in reclamation, even small amounts of soil(a truck load here and there, placed so it can bedistributed during grading) will aid reforestationsuccess.

Surface GradingReclaimed mine soils must be left loose anduncompacted to ensure successful establishmentand long-term growth of trees. Prior to seedingground covers, reclaimed sites are often cleared of large boulders, gullies are filled, and the surface isgraded smooth and "tracked in" with bulldozers tocreate a seedbed for ground covers. This treat-ment is very undesirable for tree establishmentand long-term forest growth. Powell RiverProject research shows that mine soil compactionis the single factor most limiting to reforestationsuccess. When soils are excessively graded andtracked in, trees cannot be planted deeply enough.This results in poor survival and permanentlyreduces the mine soil quality. Compacted minesoils reduce water infiltration, reduce plant avail-able water, increase sheet erosion, and restrict root

growth.

When forest land is the post-mining land use, finalgrading should be limited to the extent needed toensure the stability of slopes. On level and gently

sloping areas, spoil placement should be plannedso that once a pile is dumped in place, no moreequipment passes over it except for a final, lightgrading. Mine soil compaction can be minimizedby grading when mine soil materials are dry andusing small dozers with low ground pressures.Natural forest land in the Appalachians is usuallyrougher than pastureland. Reclaimed forestlandwith boulders and uneven surfaces will notadversely affect forest management activities.

TREE-COMPATIBLE GROUNDCOVERS FOR EROSIONCONTROLGrass and legume ground covers are typicallyseeded with fertilizer and mulch hydromixes.

Even though trees are being planted, these herbsare needed to reduce erosion and stabilize slopingterrain. Grasses and legumes are not natural com-ponents of forest ecosystems in this area. Treesplanted in aggressive, tall, heavily-fertilizedground covers usually fail because they are over-come by the ground cover. When forestland is theintended land use, reforestation requires a careful-ly-planned balance between ground cover for ero-sion control and the trees' requirements for light,

moisture, and space. Forage species commonlyused to create hayland or pasture such as K-31 tallfescue and red or sweet clover are not compatiblewith trees; they grow too tall and too dense fortrees to emerge.

Photo 8.Example of non-competitive, tree-compatible groundcover.

Photo 9.Example of competitive ground cover compromisingthe survival of trees.


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A tree-compatible ground cover mix shouldinclude annual and perennial grasses and legumes.Because soil conditions typically differ across thesite, species adapted to a variety of site conditionsshould be included within the mix.

Table 1.Recommended groundcover seeding and fertilizerapplication rates for reforestation of reclaimedlands.

Species/Fertilizer Rate (lbs/acre)

Grasses :

foxtail millet (spring seeding only) 5annual ryegrass (fall seeding only) 20red top 5weeping lovegrass 2perennial ryegrass 10orchard grass (steep slopes only) 5

Legumes:

kobe lespedeza 5birdsfoot trefoil 5ladino or white clover 3

Fertilizer*:

nitrogen 50 to 75phosphorus 80 to 100

* Blend 200 lbs/acre concentrated superphosphatewith 300 lbs/acre 19-19-19 fertilizer orequivalent.

Annual grasses such as foxtail millet ( Setaria ital-ica ), and annual ryegrass ( Lolium multiflorumLam.) provide quick, initial protection to the sur-face by reducing the impact of raindrops and min-imizing soil movement. Foxtail millet is the pre-ferred annual grass to use for spring or summerseeding; annual ryegrass should be used for fallseeding. These grasses germinate quickly andprovide good cover during the first year. Sincemost annual grasses are tall, they must not be sodense as to adversely block light from seedlings.The limited shade and protection from wind pro-vided by these annual grasses reduce seedlingmoisture stress. Annual rye and wheat grains

should not be used in groundcover mixes for hard-wood plantings. Their grain production attractsrodents that chew the bark of seedlings thuskilling them.

After the first growing season, slower-growingperennial grasses and legumes should satisfyground cover requirements. They should be

adapted to low pH and fertility levels, and mostgrasses should be cool-season species to reducecompetition with trees for moisture during midsummer. Perennial ground cover species shouldnot grow so tall or dense that the establishment of trees is hindered. Perennial ryegrass ( Lolium

perenne ) and redtop ( Agrostis gigante a) are low-statured grasses that grow on relatively acid, infer-tile soils. They are quickly established anddecline after several years, providing space fordeveloping legumes.

On steep slopes, orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomera-ta ) can be included to provide additional protec-tion against erosion. Kentucky-31 tall fescue(Festuca arundinacea , 'K-31') should not be usedwith trees. Kentucky-31 tall fescue competesexcessively for light and moisture, it producesallelopathic substances (phytotoxic chemicals)that retard tree growth, and it attracts rodents thatchew on the stems of trees.

Although weeping lovegrass ( Eragrostis curvula )is a tall grass, it is a desirable component of areforestation ground cover when used at low seed-ing rates (less than 2 lbs/acre). Weeping lovegrassis tolerant of very acid spoil and germinates with-in a few days, thus contributing to early erosioncontrol.

A leguminous ground cover can enhance soilnitrogen (N) levels by as much as 50 lbs/acre/year.Legumes, in conjunction with Rhizobium bacteria,enhance the nitrogen status of the soil by fixingatmospheric nitrogen. Nitrogen released bydecomposition of legume foliage and sloughedroots quickly becomes available to trees. Kobelespedeza ( Lespedeza striata var. Kobe ) is a low-statured annual legume that should be included inreforestation ground-cover mixes. Kobe les-pedeza reseeds itself very well and can persist formany years. Birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus )is a perennial legume that has performed well in


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numerous research studies and on operationalsites on mine soils in Virginia. The `Fergus' vari-ety of birdsfoot trefoil is better adapted to Virginiathan most of the northern varieties. Serecia les-pedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) is not an acceptablelegume; it is too tall and competitive, and it hasbecome an invasive weed throughout the coal-fields. Birdsfoot trefoil and white clover are agood combination since they are cool-seasonplants and are tolerant of moderately acid soils.This combination provides an actively-growingground cover from spring through the fall season.

As a group, the clovers are less suitable for refor-estation ground covers. Most clovers require soilpH and fertility levels that are higher than neededfor trees, and most clover species are too aggres-sive during the first year to be used with trees. Anexception is white or ladino clover ( Trifoliumrepens ); it is tolerant of acidic mine soils and pro-duces a short cover that does not excessively com-pete with tree seedlings. It produces good coverfor the first two years and then yields to the birds-foot trefoil.

Importance of Using Tree-CompatibleGround CoversUnlike standard hayland and pasture forages thatare lush during the first year and gradually declinewithout additional fertilizer, tree-compatible cov-ers are designed to be sparse during the first yearand become increasingly dense by the second andthird years. This allows tree seedlings to emergeabove the ground cover and ensures their survival.

Despite relatively-low recommended seedingrates, 90 percent ground cover can be achieved forpartial bond reduction during the first year. Mostof the first-year cover results from the annualgrasses, while the legumes dominate after severalyears. Birdsfoot trefoil and white clover emergeslowly by producing only a few plants per squarefoot, and these plants are generally less than sixinches tall after the first season. By the third sea-son, however, they develop into a complete coverreplacing the grass and filling in under emergingtrees. These legumes persist beneath the trees,increasing organic matter and nitrogen levels forseveral years until they are eventually shaded outby trees.

Another purpose of low ground cover seedingrates is to allow the invasion of native plantspecies such as yellow poplar, red maple, birchand other light-seeded trees. Dense ground coversprevent the natural seeding-in of native plants. Anadditional benefit of a tree-compatible cover isthat some tree and shrub species can be estab-lished by direct seeding. When conventionalground covers are used, direct-seeded trees willnot emerge and survive due to dense shading.

TREE ESTABLISHMENTTree SpeciesA sufficient number of desirable trees must beestablished during reclamation in order to achievemultiple uses from a developing and mature for-est. Two categories of tree species are recom-

mended:1. "crop" trees: commercially valuable "timber

crop" species, and

2. N-fixing wildlife/nurse trees (or shrubs).

Crop trees are long-lived species that offer valueto landowners as saleable forest products. Themost commonly planted pines are white, pitch xloblolly hybrids, and Virginia pines. Yellow-poplar ( Liriodendron tulipifera ), oaks ( Quercu sspp.), ash ( Fraxinus spp.), maple ( Acer spp.) andother hardwood species can also be planted ascrop trees. Nurse trees are planted to assist thecrop trees by enhancing the organic matter andnitrogen status of the soil and improving soilphysical properties. Nurse trees will die or can becut out after 15 to 20 years when crop trees needadditional growing space. Nurse trees helpachieve the minimum number of stems andground cover required for bond release, and they

provide food and cover for wildlife. Black locust( Robinia psuedoacacia ) and autumn olive( Elaeagnus umbellata ) were commonly used inthe past, but are not recommended today. Otherrecommended nurse species are European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa ), bristly locust ( Robinia

fertilis ), redbud ( Cercis canadensis ) and bicolorlespedeza ( Lespedeza bicolor ).


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Crop Tree Selection

Pines.On good sites, white pine can produce more mer-chantable volume than any other species. Whitepine on a 12 x 12 to 15 x 15 foot spacing (200-300trees/acre) can produce merchantable timber in 30to 40 years (Balmer and Williston, 1983).However, white pine requires higher-quality sitesthan other pines. White pine should be planted inareas that have at least four feet of uncompactedsoil. It does best on deep, brown, well-drained,sandy mine soils.

On sites that are unsuitable for white pine due todepth, acidity, salinity, or drainage, other pinespecies should be planted. On shallow sites, orsites with a large amount of coal refuse, Virginia

pine (Pinus virginiana ) and loblolly pine ( P.taeda ) are good choices for crop trees. Bothspecies are more drought-tolerant than white pine.Virginia pine is an excellent pulpwood speciesthat is native to the region and is adapted to harshsites. It has a shallow root system, which makesit a suitable species for shallow soils. It is also tol-erant of acid mine soils with pH levels as low as4.0. Loblolly pine is not native to the mountain-ous regions of Virginia, but it has been successful-

ly planted and grown on many reclaimed sites.Some winter damage has been reported in thenorthern part of Virginia's coal mining region, butthe problem seems to be no more severe than inthe northern Piedmont of Virginia where loblollypine is grown commercially. Good stands canproduce pulpwood and sawtimber-sized trees in20 to 40 years. Pitch x loblolly pine hybrid ( P.rigida x taeda ) may be the best commerciallyvaluable pine species for planting on mine soilsbecause of its tolerance to a variety of soil and siteconditions and because of its rapid growth. It is across between loblolly and pitch pine, which isnative to the region. It has the rapid growth rateand good form of loblolly pine, and the coldhardi-ness and strength of pitch pine. Loblolly pine,pitch x loblolly, and Virginia pine are more sus-ceptible to damage by the southern pine beetlethan white pine.

Photo 10.

Northern red oak crop trees on mined land after 55years.

Hardwoods.On well-constructed mine soils, most nativehardwood species grow well. The critical factorsthat affect survival and growth of trees are spoiltype, compaction, slope aspect and position, andcompetition from ground cover grasses andlegumes. Ideally, these factors should be opti-mized during the reclamation process as describedabove. Most reclaimed sites, however, contain avariety of soil conditions. A key to successfulreforestation with hardwoods is tailoring thespecies to mine soil conditions. Tree species canand should be selected to "fit" the final combina-tion of conditions found on a reclaimed site. Forexample, hardwoods recommended for good sitesare red, white, and black oak, tulip-poplar, sugarmaple, black cherry, and white ash. Sycamore,green ash, and red maple are more tolerant of sitesthat are compacted, poorly drained, or have mine-soils primarily derived from siltstones or shales(Figure 2).


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Figure 2.Tree species recommended for different spoil types and different levels of compaction.

Figure 3 .Tree species recommended for different slope aspects and positions.


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Slope aspect and position (Figure 3) influencewater availability through the growing season.The best sites for the most water-demanding treesand the most valuable species are slopes with anorth and east aspect and a position toward the toeof the slope. Red oak, sugar maple, and tulippoplar are examples of species that should beplanted on such sites. Southwest aspects towardthe tops of slopes are the driest; therefore,drought-tolerant hardwoods such as scarlet andchestnut oaks should be planted in these positions.Good tree planting contractors can do site-specif-ic tree selection and planting. Site-specific plant-ing should be specified and described in miningpermits and tree planting contracts.

Competition control of ground covers is also crit-ical for reforestation success regardless of other

conditions. Spot or row spraying with herbicidesmust be done when ground cover grasses areaggressive and competitive.

Many minesoils are excessively wet during muchof the growing season because of poor internaldrainage or because of compacted layers thatperch water. Most high-value crop trees are intol-erant of wet soils; however, sycamore ( Platanusoccidentalis ), eastern cottonwood ( Populus del-toides ), and black alder grow well on wet sites and

should be used under these conditions.

On very low-quality sites, with limitations due tocompaction, acidity, or high soluble salt levels, theconcept of selecting a long-term "crop tree"should be abandoned. Emphasis should be placedon stabilizing the site with trees and shrubs thatare commonly used as nurse trees. As alreadymentioned, black alder is suitable for wet sites.Black alder and bristly locust are both tolerant of very acid sites.

Wildlife/Nurse Tree SelectionThe nurse tree and nurse shrub species recom-

mended for reclamation planting are N-fixingplants that benefit crop trees and provide food andcover for wildlife. Nurse trees contribute toground cover requirements and help stabilize thesite. Historically, black locust has been the mostcommonly planted nurse tree species in Virginia.Black locust is easily established and grows rap-

idly; unfortunately, it is very competitive andshould not be planted with crop trees in a com-mercial forest mix. Black locust is too aggressiveand the thorns on its branches can damage thebranches and terminal leaders of adjacent trees.The best nurse tree for interplanting with mostcrop trees is European black alder. Black aldergrows just as rapidly as black locust but it has nothorns. Black alder actually grows better thanblack locust on wet sites and very acid sites, and itprovides a better source of food for wildlife.

Black alder should be used with a combination of shrub species (bicolor lespedeza, bristly locust) toenhance soil N levels and wildlife habitat. Bristlylocust is especially well adapted to very acidicsites and should be used to a greater extent whereerosion control is especially important. Bristly

locust is a prolific sprouter; a single plant willdevelop into a large clump in several years.

Hydroseeding TreesSome nurse species can be hydroseeded with theground cover provided an appropriate groundcover mix is used. Many direct-seeding effortshave failed in the past because the accompanyingground cover was too tall and dense for tree ger-minants to become established. Black locust ismost easily and inexpensively established bydirect seeding. If black locust is seeded as a nursetree, the seeding rate should be no more than 1/2ounce per acre. A disadvantage of hydroseedingnurse trees is the loss of control with respect totree number and spacing. Too many nurse treescan reduce the amount of growing space for croptrees, and wind-blown locust branches can dam-age the tops of trees growing in close proximity.Therefore, hydroseeding trees is not recommend-ed for most mine land reclamation.

TREE SEEDLING HANDLINGAND PLANTING TECHNIQUESPlanting Contractors

The successful establishment of trees is highlydependent on selecting good nursery stock, prop-er handling before planting, and proper plantingtechniques. In most cases, tree planting is best leftto a professional tree planting crew that guaran-


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tees their work in a written contract. With proper,long-range planning, a good professional treeplanter will arrange for seedling production atnurseries, plant at the appropriate time, and do fol-low-up inspections to ensure survival. This "turn-key" approach costs about $250/acre for pines, or$300/acre for hardwoods.

Photo 11.Professional tree planting crew.

AssistanceVirginia residents can purchase a variety of treespecies from the Virginia Department of Forestry(VDOF). Many species from the state nursery aregrown from genetically superior seed and shouldperform better than other seed sources on Virginia

mine soils. If planting is managed directly by coalcompanies, supervisors should work carefullywith their local VDOF forester in ordering andpicking up seedlings. A common reason for poorseedling survival in Virginia is that planting crewspick up more seedlings than they can reasonablyplant within a short period of time. If plantingcrews cannot keep seedlings in cold storage untilplanting, they should arrange with the VDOF topick up a smaller number of seedlings on a morefrequent basis.

Use Healthy SeedlingsSeedlings should be graded prior to planting sothat only healthy seedlings are used. Healthy pineseedlings should have a root collar diameter of 4/32 to 9/32 inches. Very small pine seedlings(under 4/32 inches diameter) and very largeseedlings (over 10/32 inches in diameter) do notsurvive well. Very large seedlings are difficult toplant correctly. Root pruning is not recommend-

ed; there is a tendency to chop off too much of theroot system. With root pruning now being done inthe nursery beds, none is needed at the plantingsite. Overall survival is better when no root prun-ing is done by tree planters. Seedlings should notbe planted if the roots are dry. Air-dried rootshave less growth potential than roots that remainmoist.

Seedling StorageProper seedling storage and handling beforeplanting is critical to ensure good survival andgrowth. Seedlings must not be allowed to get hotor dry. If planting is delayed, the bags of seedlings should be wetted and roots dipped in amoisture-retaining gel specifically designed tokeep roots from drying. The seedlings shouldthen be rebundled and placed in cold storage (32-

36 F) for no more than four weeks. If cold stor-age is not possible, they should be stored in a cooldamp basement for no more than a week. At tem-peratures over 40F, mold develops and seedlingsare killed. Without cold storage, it becomes moreimportant to dampen the roots as soon as they aredelivered.

Tree Planting

Photo 12.Proper storage and handling of seedlings is critical toreforestation success.


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Photo 13.Roots of seedlings must be kept moist prior to plant-ing.

Photo 14.Seedlings must be planted properly in order tosurvive.

Seedlings should be planted as soon as possible inlate winter or early spring (February-April) afterthe ground has thawed. Early planting is preferredbecause the soil is usually wetter and more con-ducive to root growth. Root growth decreasesduring periods of rapid shoot elongation; there-fore, it is important that the seedlings be plantedearly in the season so roots can become estab-lished before the weather turns warm enough for

shoot growth to begin. During planting, crewleaders need to make certain that planters do notexpose roots to the air by carrying seedlings intheir hand. Seedlings should be carried in a plant-ing bag and not removed until the planting hole isopened. Planting holes must be opened deeplyenough so that the roots can be evenly spread inthe hole. Seedlings should be planted about oneinch deeper than grown in the nursery. Finally, theplanting hole must be completely closed since anyair spaces around the roots will cause those rootsto die.

SupervisionPlanting crews should be given instructions onproper techniques prior to planting, and crew lead-ers should start quality checks immediately so thatneeded corrections can be made before much of the area is planted. The VDOF will do planting-quality checks for landowners or operators whowant to verify and/or improve seedling survival.This involves careful lifting of planted seedlingson random plots to check on seedling health,tightness, depth of planting, straightness, spacing,and density. Seedlings are carefully replaced aftereach one is inspected.

Establishing Trees in Dense Ground

CoverSometimes it is necessary to establish trees in anexisting cover of dense grasses or legumes such asK-31 tall fescue or Serecia lespedeza. In order toensure survival and good growth, herbicides andslow-release fertilizer pellets are highly recom-mended. Chemical weed control (herbicidesapplied via backpack sprayer) helps maintain theseedlings free of overtopping competition. Bycontrolling dense vegetation with herbicides,

seedlings will receive adequate sunlight and moresoil water to ensure their survival. In conjunctionwith weed control, slow-release fertilizer pelletscan speed growth during the first few years to helpthe trees grow above surrounding grasses.Fertilizer pellets should be placed in the closinghole about two inches from the roots during plant-ing. Fertilizer pellets slowly decompose andrelease nutrients needed by the trees. By usingpellets it is possible to selectively fertilizeseedlings without fertilizing surrounding grasses.


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Herbicide technology changes rapidly. Newchemicals appear on the market annually and her-bicide labels and regulations change almost asquickly. For these reasons, a timely discussion of best herbicide treatments is not possible. Contactyour local VDOF forester or county extensionagent for current recommendations of specificherbicide products and application rates.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONCosts of ReforestationReclaiming mined land with trees can be lessexpensive than reclamation for hayland/pastureuse. Table 2 shows that the use of these suggest-ed guidelines for forest land can save several hun-dred dollars per acre compared to reclamation forhayland/pasture. The greatest cost savings occurs

due to reduced grading. Our discussions withmine operators indicate that, on average, about 4hours of bulldozer work per acre can be saved byleaving level areas and short slopes in a rough-graded condition and not tracking-in the surface(the cost of a D-9 bulldozer with operator wasestimated to be $90/hr).

Coal companies doing reforestation should beable to realize additional costs savings on regrad-ing costs since gully elimination requirements for

forest land are not as strict as for hayland/pasture;we have estimated that savings at about $75 peracre. Seed and fertilizer for the tree-compatibleground cover (Table 1) costs about $50/acre lessthan hayland/pasture seed mixtures with high

rates of K-31, clovers and other species.

Forest land reclamation does involve tree plant-ing costs. Planting 600 trees/acre will cost about$200/acre. If compaction has been avoided byreduced grading, and a tree-compatible groundcover is used, a sufficient number of trees willbecome established through the combination of

planting and natural invasion to satisfy bondrelease requirements and result in a well-stockedforest.

Benefits of Quality ReforestationStudies on the Powell River Project show thatmine soils covering a wide range of quality havebeen constructed by mining operations underSMCRA. This productivity spectrum is repre-sented by sites on which trees are unable to sur-

vive, to sites on which trees are growing at ratesfaster than on natural, undisturbed soils (Torbert etal., 1988). In forestry, soil or site quality is meas-ured using a "site index" defined as the averageheight of the tallest trees in the stand at age 50.The data in Table 3 compare the projected heightsof 50-year-old white pines on three reclaimed siteshaving different site qualities due to differentmine soil depths. Projected tree heights on thethree sites with mine soil depths of 12, 24, and 48inches are 60, 80, and 100 feet, respectively, at age50. These site indices correspond to poor, good,and excellent for white pine in this region, since asite index of 80 is average for undisturbed soils inthe southern Appalachians.

Operation Hayland/Pasture ($/ac) Forest Land ($/ac)

Grading cost difference 360 ---Gully repair 75 ---

Seed cost difference 50 ---

Re-seeding 125 ---

Tree planting --- 300

Total 610 300

Table 2.Relative costs for hayland/pasture and forest land reclamation.


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An excellent mine soil able to produce white pinesthat are 100 ft tall at age 50, versus a poor mine

soil producing 60-ft-tall trees, represents a verylarge difference in the amount and quality of woodproduced (Table 3). When reclaimed properly,mine soils can produce a harvestable tree stand in35 years with six times more board-foot volumethan that produced on a poor quality site. Becauselarger trees have more valuable wood due to thehigher-value use to which the wood can be put,the product value can be many times greater($3,480 versus $122) on the excellent site com-pared to that of the poor site. Hardwoods respondto mine soil quality in the same way. Hardwoodsgrowing on poor sites have virtually no commer-cial value, while timber value of hardwoods ongood sites can be as much or more than that onnon-mined sites (see VCE Publication 460-138).Just as the value of a corn crop or hay crop is usedto judge reclamation success for cropland orgrassland, the potential of a reclaimed site to pro-duce wood of high value should be the standardused to judge mine soil quality for reforestation.

Restoring economically viable, post-miningforests requires little or no additional effort orexpense, compared to other common post-miningland uses such as hayland or pasture. If reclama-tion procedures are specifically geared for refor-estation, highly productive forests can be createdin a timely manner so that the mine operator, thelandowner, and the community at large will bene-fit. As the regional economy diversifies from its

traditional coal base, communities will be able toturn toward the restored forest as a valuable,

renewable resource in which to live, recreate, anduse for income.

SUMMARYThe purpose of this publication is to provide prac-tical, cost-effective guidelines for reclaiming sur-face-mined land to forests using the principles of reforestation silviculture. These guidelines shouldbenefit coal mine operators by helping ensuretimely release of reclamation performance bonds.

The guidelines also include procedures that helpimprove the quality of mine soils and sites for tim-ber production and other forest values.

Reclamation procedures for forest land differ inseveral important ways from procedures for hay-land/pasture or other post-mining land uses. Thekey principles for timely and successful reforesta-tion of mined land are summarized below.

Mine Soil MaterialSpoil selection.In addition to available topsoil, four feet of agood-quality mine spoil should be placed at thesurface to accommodate the need of deeply rootedtrees. Mine spoils with low to moderate levels of soluble salts, an equilibrium pH of 4.5 to 6.5, anda sandy loam texture are preferred. A mixture of two parts of brown, oxidized sandstone, and onepart of brown, oxidized shale, found near the sur-

Mine Soil Site Standing Timber Harvest TotalDepth1 Index 50

2 Volume at Age 30 3 Wood Products Price Value(inches) (ft) (MBF/acre) ($/MBF) ($/acre)

12 60 5 mine props/pulp 20 122

24 80 14 small sawtimber 50 1,755

48 100 32 large sawtimber 75 3,480

1 Torbert et al., 19882 Site Index 50 = height of tallest trees at age 50.

Table 4.White pine growth and value by age 30 on mine soils of different depths and qualities.


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face in most areas of Virginias coal fields, weath-ers quickly into a good soil medium for trees. If native topsoil is available, mixing even smallamounts of fresh soil into the surface will increasevolunteer establishment and seedling survival.

Grading.Minimizing soil compaction is extremely impor-tant. Compaction on level areas can be minimizedby end dumping spoil piles and waiting until allpiles are in place before lightly leveling them,using a small bulldozer if possible (see VCEPublication 460-136). Restrict traffic on leveledareas to specific, designated roads and parkingareas. Do not track-in level areas, slopes less than20 percent, and slopes less than 100 feet long.Forest land surfaces are naturally rough; roughgrading and grading for slope stability are usually

adequate.

Ground Cover VegetationTree-compatible groundcover.Reforestation requires a carefully-planned balancebetween ground cover for erosion control andtrees' requirements for light, water and space.Ground covers should include grass and legumespecies that are slow-growing, have a sprawlinggrowth form, and are tolerant of acid, infertileminesoils. K-31 tall fescue and all clovers (exceptwhite and ladino) should be avoided.

Tree EstablishmentTree species selection.When mined land is reclaimed according to theseguidelines, a variety of hardwood and softwoodspecies can be planted and established successful-ly. Pioneer species such as nitrogen-fixing treesand shrubs are easily established by plantingseedlings. Additional hardwood species from thenative forest will eventually seed in and flourishwhen proper groundcovers and woody species areplanted during reclamation (see VCE Publication460-140). For good forest stand development,600 to 700 trees per acre should be established bya combination of planting, seeding, and naturalinvasion.

Seedling handling and planting techniques.Poor tree survival and early growth are usuallydue to improper seedling handling or planting.Trees must be kept dormant until planted; theyshould never be allowed to dry out; they should beplanted in late winter to early spring; and theyshould be planted deeply and firmly enough toensure survival. Help and advice on seedling han-dling and planting can be obtained from a VirginiaDepartment of Forestry (VDOF) forester or coun-ty extension agent. Only reputable and experi-enced tree planting crews should be used for treeplanting.

Hydroseeding trees.To reduce the expense of hand planting, somenurse tree species (e.g. bristly locust, black alder,redbud, etc.) under certain conditions can beestablished by direct seeding provided a tree-com-patible ground cover is used. However, plantingseedlings is recommended to ensure survival andproper tree spacing and stand composition.

Establishing trees in dense ground cover.Herbicide should be sprayed in spots or strips(along the contour) in order to ensure seedlingsurvival and emergence above established groundcovers. Fertilizer pellets can be placed in the

planting bar closing hole (never in the plantinghole) to speed early growth and emergence aboveground covers. Loblolly and Virginia pines areespecially fast growing and responsive to fertil-ization. Herbicide technology changes rapidly;contact a VDOF forester or county extensionagent for herbicide recommendations.

Costs and BenefitsCosts of reforestation.

Reclaiming mined land with trees can be lessexpensive than reclamation for hayland/pastureuse. Planting 600 trees/acre of higher qualityhardwoods and wildlife/nurse species will costabout $200/acre (2002 estimates). Reclamationwith trees is cheaper than reclamation for hay-land/pasture land uses because forest land recla-mation requires less grading, less repair work,and less seed and fertilizer for ground covers(estimated savings = $300). The extensive grad-


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ing required for hayland/pasture reclamation com-pacts mine soils which decreases tree survival andgrowth. Rougher ground surfaces and lessaggressive ground covers are consistent with for-est land uses.

Mine soil quality.High-quality, productive mine soils are as impor-

tant for forest production as for crop or forage pro-duction. Deep, uncompacted mine soil with goodphysical and chemical properties are absolutelyrequired for commercial timber production. Whenmine soils are capable of producing high wood vol-umes, other forest values such as wildlife habitat,water quality, and recreational opportunities arealso maximized.

Restoring economically-viable post-mining forestsrequires little or no additional effort or expense

compared to other land uses. Use of the reclama-tion procedures outlined in this publication willhelp create highly-productive forests in a timelymanner so that the mine operator, the landowner,and local communities will benefit.

Acknowledgements and Photo CreditsPhotos 3 and 7 by John Torbert.Photos 4, 9, 11, 12, 13, and 14 by Rick Williamsall other photos by Jim Burger.

Our thanks to the many mining firms and individu-als who have worked with Powell River Project toaid reforestation research and application of research results, including Pocahontas LandCorporation, Pittston Coal, Rapoca Energy, andRed River Coal.

REFERENCESVirginia Cooperative Extension Publications

Commercial forestry as a post-mining land use.J.L. Torbert, J.A. Burger, and J.E. Johnson.Publication 460-136.http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/mines/460-136/460-136.html

Maximizing the value of forests on reclaimedmined land. J.A. Burger, Dan Kelting, and C.Zipper. Publication 460-138.http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/mines/460-138/460-138.html

Recovery of native plant communities after min-ing. Karen D. Holl, Carl E. Zipper, James A.Burger. Publication 460-140.http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/mines/460-140/460-140.html

Mine Permitting to Establish Productive Forestsas Post-Mining Land Uses. J. Burger, C. Zipper,and J. Rodrigue Publication 460-141.http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/mines/460-141/460-141.html

Research ArticlesAshby, W. C., W. G. Vogel, C. A. Kolar, and G. R.Philo. 1984. Productivity of stony soils on stripmines. p. 31-44. In: Erosion and Productivity of Soils Containing Rock Fragments. Soil Sci. Soc.Am. Special Pub. No. 13.Madison, WI. 103 pp.

Balmer and Williston. 1983. Managing easternwhite pine in the southeast. USDA For. Ser. Rep.R8-FR1. 11 pp.

Beck, D. E. 1971. Growth intercept as an indica-tor of site index in natural stands of white pine insouthern Appalachians. USDA For. Res. Note SE-154.

Burger, J. A., and J. L. Torbert. 1990. Mined land

reclamation for wood production in theAppalachian region. p. 159-163 In: Proc., 1990Mining and Reclamation Conference andExhibition. Charleston, WV. National Meeting,American Society for Surface Mining andReclamation.

Preve, R. E. 1983. hydroseeding pine-grass-legume mixture for erosion control and reforesta-tion of mine spoils. M.S. Thesis, Dept. of Forestry, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University, Blacksburg.

Preve, R. E., J. A. Burger, and R. E. Kreh. 1984.The influence of mine-spoil type, fertilizer, andmycorrhizae on pines seeded in greenhouse trays.Journal of Environmental Quality 13:387-391.

Schoenholtz, S. H., and J. A. Burger. 1984.Influence of cultural treatments on survival andgrowth of pines on strip-mined sites. Reclamationand Revegetation Research 3:223-237.


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Schoenholtz, S. H., J. A. Burger, and J. L. Torbert.1987. Natural mycorrhizal colonization of pines onreclaimed surface mines in Virginia. Journal of Environmental Quality 16(2):143-146.

Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, J. N. Lien, and S. H.Schoenholtz. 1985. Results of a tree species trial ona recontoured surface mine in southwestern

Virginia. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry9:150-153.

Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, and W. L. Daniels.1986. Effect of overburden type and Pisolithustinctorius on the growth of pines on a reclaimedsurface mine. In: Proc., Better Reclamation withTrees Symposium.

Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, and W. L. Daniels.1986. The importance of overburden selection for

reforestation of mine spoils. Virginia CooperativeExtension Pub. 460-111.

Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, and R. E. Kreh. 1986.Nutrient concentration effects on Pisolithus tincto-rius development on containerized loblolly pine(Pinus taeda L.) seedlings. Tree Planters' Notes 37:17-22.

Torbert, J. L., T. Probert, J. A. Burger, and R.Gallimore. 1989. Creating productive forests on

surface mined land. Green Lands 19(4):28-31.Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, T. J. Nichols, and J. E.Johnson. 1989. Growing Christmas trees on sur-face mined lands. Virginia Cooperative ExtensionPublication 460-116.

Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, and W. L. Daniels.1990. Pine growth variation with overburden rock type on a reclaimed surface mine in Virginia.Journal of Environmental Quality 19:88-92.

Torbert, J. L. and J. A. Burger. 1990. Tree survivaland growth on graded and ungraded minesoil. TreePlanters' Notes 41(2)3-5.

Torbert, J. L., A. R. Tuladhar, J. A. Burger and J. C.Bell. 1988. Minesoil property effects on the heightof ten-year-old white pine. Journal of Environmental Quality 17:189-192.

Torbert, J. L., J. A. Burger, S. H. Schoenholtz, andR. E. Kreh. 2000. Growth of three pins speciesafter eleven years on reclaimed minesoils inVirginia. N. J. Appl. For. 17: 1-5.

Torbert, J. L., and J. A. Burger. 2000. Forest landreclamation. p. 371-398. In: R. I. Barnhisel, R. G.Darmody, and W. L. Daniels (ed.). Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands. Agronomy No. 41.American Society of Agronomy, Madison,Wisconsin.

Vogel, W. G. 1981. A guide for revegetating coalminesoils in the eastern United States. USDA For.Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-68. 190 pp.


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ance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, and the U.S.Department of Agriculture cooperating. J. David Barrett, Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg;

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