Postcolonial Architecture Through North Korean Modes: Namibian Commissions of the Mansudae Overseas Project

By

Meghan Laurel Elizabeth Kirkwood

Submitted to the graduate degree program in History of Art and the Graduate Faculty of

the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts.

________________________________ Chairperson, Dr. Marsha Haufler

________________________________

Dr. Elizabeth MacGonagle

________________________________ Dr. Gitti Salami

MA Exam: January 20-21, 2011

ii

The Thesis Committee for Meghan Laurel Elizabeth Kirkwood certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis:

Postcolonial Architecture Through North Korean Modes: Namibian Commissions of the Mansudae Overseas Project

________________________________ Chairperson, Dr. Marsha Haufler

MA Exam: January 20-21, 2011

iii

Abstract:

Sincethe1970stheNorthKoreandesignfirm,theMansudaeOverseasProject,has

completedcommissionsforpublicsculpturesandbuildingsineightdifferentAfrican

nations.Thoughthesecommissionsincorporatesubjectmatterspecifictotheir

respectivelocations,theworksreplicateanaestheticthatisdistinctlyNorthKorean.

ExamplesofthisvisualparallelmaybeobservediniconicMansudaeworksfoundin

Windhoek,thecapitalofNamibia:thenewNamibianStateHouse(2006),theHeroes’

AcreMemorial(2002)andtheIndependenceMuseum(begun2009).Thisthesisargues

thatthedecisionbyNamibianleaderstoawardarchitecturaltenderstotheMansudae

OverseasProjectwasnotbasedoneconomicconcernsorpreferenceforMansudae

designs,butwasinsteadmotivatedbyadesiretoemulatetheauthority,cohesiveness

anddirectednatureofavisualculturespecifictoPyongyang.InNamibia,the

constructionofMansudae‐designedbuildingsandmonumentsassertsadecisivebreak

witharchitectureandmemorialsassociatedwithcolonialregimes,andindoingso

foregroundstheauthorityandmodernityofthepostcolonialgovernment.Thorough

considerationofcommissionsoftheMansudaeOverseasProjectinurbancapitalssuch

asWindhoekexpandsthelimitedbodyofresearchontheestablishmentofa

postcolonialvernacularinAfricanurbansettings.

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I.Introduction

InSeptember2009constructionbeganontheIndependenceMemorialMuseumin

centralWindhoek,thecapitalofNamibia(Fig.1).**Thenewmuseummarksthefourth

majorarchitecturaltenderawardedtooneNorthKoreandesignfirm,theMansudae

OverseasProject,bytheNamibiangovernmentwithinthepasttenyears.Arthistorians

havenotexaminedtheappearanceofNorthKorean‐designedworksinNamibiaandin

otherAfricannations,1norhavetheyconsideredthehiringofNorthKoreanarchitects

overotherWesternorAfricanprofessionalsasanassertionoftheauthorityand

modernitybypost‐colonialregimes.Thispaperaimstodoboth.Itdiscussesthese

monumentsasstrategicadoptionsofaspectsofNorthKoreanvisualculture,ones

intendedtosymbolicallyinscribethecapitalcitywithafoundingnarrativefavorableto

thepostcolonialgovernment,andtoprovideavisualbreakwithcolonialantecedents.

Thiswillbeaccomplishedthroughacomparativevisualanalysisofphotographstakenby

**Theauthorwouldliketothankthemembersofhercommitteefortheirguidanceduringthisproject:Dr.MarshaHaufler,Dr.GittiSalamiandDr.ElizabethMacgonagle.InadditiontheauthorwouldliketothanktheMorrisFamily,withoutwhosescholarshipassistancethisresearchandmystudiesattheUniversityofKansaswouldnothavebeenpossible.1ImportantworkonpublicmonumentscommissionedbypostcolonialgovernmentshasbeendonebyscholarssuchasMaryJoArnoldi,butthisresearchdoesnotaddresstheparallelsbetweenAfricanmonumentsdesignedbyNorthKoreansandextantworksinNorthKorea,nordoesspeculateonthemotivationsforcommissioningtheMansudaeOverseasProject.See:MaryJoArnoldi.“SymbolicallyInscribingtheCity:PublicMonumentsinMali,1995‐2002.”AfricanArts36(Summer,2003):56‐65;MaryJoArnoldi.“Bamako,Mali:MonumentsandModernityintheUrbanImagination.”AfricaToday54(Winter,2007):3‐24.

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theauthorattheNamibiansiteswithimagesofcorrespondingworksinNorthKorea

takenfrominternetresources.

TheMansudaeOverseasProjectistheinternationaldivisionoftheMansudaeArt

Studio,whichproducesthemajorityofofficialpublicmonumentsandbuildingsin

Pyongyang,thecapitaloftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea(DPRK).InNamibia,

inadditiontotheIndependenceMemorialMuseum,theMansudaeOverseasProject

designedandbuilttheHeroes’AcreMemorial(2002),amartyrs’cemeterylocatedten

kilometerssouthofWindhoek(Fig.2),amilitarymuseum(2004)situatedseventy

kilometersnorthofWindhoekinthecityofOkahandja,2andthenewNamibianState

House(2008)(Fig.3).

NamibiaisnottheonlyAfricannationtoawardcommissionsofpublic

monumentsandgovernmentbuildingstotheMansudaeOverseasProject.Todate,the

firmhasalsocompletedprojectsinSenegal,Angola,Botswana,EquatorialGuinea,Benin,

DemocraticRepublicofCongo,ZimbabweandEthiopia.3ProjectsrealizedinAfrican

2OfthefourmonumentscommissionedbytheMansudaeOverseasProjecttheleastisknownaboutthiswork.Builtin2004atanestimatedcostofN$25milliontoN$30millionthemuseumstillremainsclosedtothepublic.See:“MilitaryMuseumStillOff‐limitstoPublic,”TheNamibian,3March2008.3TheexactnumberofcommissionscompletedwithintheAfricancontinenthasnotbeendisclosedbytheMansudaeOverseasProjectorMansudaeArtStudioofficials,thoughthereisbroadmentionofcommissionscompletedinspecificcountriesasbecomesrelevantinKoreanCentralNewsAgencybriefings.See:KoreanCentralNewsAgency“MonumentCreationCenter” http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2004/200409/news09/14.htm#10.Nonetheless,thisinformationiscollectedinscatteredpublicationsbygroupssuchastheNorthKoreanEconomyWatch,reportersfortheDailyNKandotherinternationalnewsorganizationssuchastheBritishBroadcastingCorporationandtheWallStreetJournal.See:ChristinaPassariello,“MonumentstoFreedomAren’tFree,butNorthKoreaBuildsCheapOnes”

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nationsbytheMansudaeOverseasProjectincludecommemorativeportraitsof

importantfiguresinpostcolonialgovernments(e.g.DemocraticRepublicofCongo–

StatueofJosephKasavubu,2010),revolutionaryheroes(e.g.Zimbabwe–National

Heroes’Acre,1981),4historicalfigures(e.g.Botswana‐ThreeDikgosi[chiefs]

Monument,2005).5Theyalsocommemoratepost‐colonialself‐determination(Senegal

–MonumenttotheAfricanRenaissance,2010),6andprovidenewspacesfor

governmentadministration(e.g.Namibia–NewNamibianStateHouse,2008).The

iconographicprogramsofthesemonumentsandbuildingsdifferbetweennations,yet

worksremainformallysimilar,effectivelyemulatingtheSocialistRealistaestheticofthe

artandarchitectureofPyongyang.7

Infact,thefourNamibiancommissionsoftheMansudaeOverseasProject

parallelmonumentsandedificesinPyongyangtothepointthattheyseemmorelike

NamibiantranslationsofaNorthKoreandesignvernacularratherthanasoriginal,

WallStreetJournalJanuary28,2010;KimYongHun,“ForeignCurrencyEarningConstructionsinAfrica,”DailyNKJune212010.4ForabriefdiscussionoftheZimbabweHeroes’Acresee:JoostFontein,“ThePoliticsoftheDead:Livingheritage,bonesandcommemorationinZimbabwe,”1‐27.5ForabriefdiscussionoftheBotswanamonumentssee:NeilParsons,“UnravellingHistoryandCulturalHeritageinBotswana,”JournalofSouthernAfricanStudies32(December2006),680,andMorongwaPhala,OpportunitiesMissedAsChiefsTenderIsGivenAway,Mmegi,May17,2004. 6ForabriefdiscussionoftheSenegalesemonumentsee:FerdinanddeJongandVincentFoucher,“LatragédieduroiAbdoulaye?NéomodernismeetRenaissanceafricainedansleSénégalcontemporain,”187‐204. 7Theterm“SocialistRealist”remainsproblematicasadescriptoroftheNorthKoreanscopicregimeforscholarssuchasJanePortal,whoacknowledgesthatartinDPRKrepresentsa“curiousmixtureofinfluencesfromWesternmonuments,transferredthroughSocialistRealistSovietandChineseworkstoahybridNorthKoreanmonumentalism,”distinguishingNorthKoreanSocialistRealismfromitspredecessorsinChinaandtheSovietUnion.See:JanePortal.ArtUnderControlInNorthKorea(London:Reaktion,2005):13.

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indigenousinterpretations.ThisdirectformalrelationshipbetweentheNamibian

commissionsandextantworksinNorthKoreapromptsustoaskwhythepost‐colonial

governmentwouldchoosedesignsthatsoclearlyforegroundaforeignvisualculturefor

architecturalworksthatsymbolizetherealizationofanindependentNamibia.

CliffordGeertzarguesthatthetaskofconceivinganationalistselffor

postcolonialstatesshiftsbetweenpre‐andpost‐revolutionaryperiods.Whereaspre‐

revolutionarynationalisticsentimentbuildsuponan“easypopulism”offreedomand

self‐determination,thepost‐revolutionarystatefacesthetaskofdefining“acollective

subjecttowhomtheactionsofthestatecanbeinternallyconnected.”Theneedto

fosteracollectiveselfwithinthenationalunit,thus,motivatespostcolonial

governmentstoseekoutmeansofarticulatingthisself,suchasthrougharchitectural

buildingprograms.8

Yet,StuartMurphynotes,thoughthedesiretoestablish“abounded,linearand

empiricalversionofselfhood”mayfinda“setofusefulideologicaltools”inthesortof

nationalismasdescribedbyErnestGellner,whereinthepoliticalandnationalunitare

congruent,9Murphyassertsthatsuch“ideologicalmovesactuallyproducemultipleand

oftencontradictoryimagesofthenationalself.”10Thus,theefforttogenerateorboost

nationalisminthepostcolonialstatemaybeantitheticaltoapostcolonialorder

characterizedbyfluidityandhybridity.Nevertheless,theuseofarchitecturalprograms

8CliffordGeertz,InterpretationofCultures,238‐40.9 ErnestGellner,NationsandNationalism,1. 10 StuartMurray,“Introduction,”inNotonAnyMap:EssaysonPostcolonialityandCulturalNationalism,8.

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topromoteandsupportaregime’sviewofthenationalcollectiveselfshouldbe

understoodwithinaframeworkofnationalistassertionsofself.

Attentiontothemotivationsoftheindividualwhofacilitatedthehiringofthe

MansudaeOverseasProjectfortheNamibianprojects,Namibia’sFoundingPresident

SamNujoma(heldofficefrom1990‐2005)offersinsightintothenatureofthe

commissionsaseffortstopromoteaparticularviewoftheNamibiannationalistself.

FormerPresidentNujomawasapivotalfigureinNamibia’sresistancemovement

againstSouthAfricanrule.HehelpedfoundSWAPO(SouthWestAfricaPeople’s

OrganizationParty)in1960,11whichhasheldpowersinceNamibiagained

independencein1990,andledinthearmedinsurgencyagainsttherulingSouthAfrican

government.12NujomaremainsanomnipresentfigureinNamibiaevenafterhis

retirementfrompolitics(Fig.4).13Hissuccessor,HifikepunyePohamba,anotherSWAPO

foundingmemberelectedin2004,isbroadlyperceivedtobedistinctfromNujomain

nameonly,particularlyasNujomacontinuedonaspresidentofSWAPOfollowing

Pohamba’selection.14

11TheSWAPOpartywasoriginallyformedoutofagroupworkingonbehalfofmigrantOwambolaborersthatwantedtoenlargeitsconcernsfromtheworkingconditionsofmigrantstotheendingofSouthAfricanruleinthecountry.TheneworganizationwasmodeledaftertheSouthAfricanANC(AfricanNationalCongress)andstrovetomovebeyondtribalaffinitiesinfavorofacollectiveNamibianagenda.See:LionelCliffe,TheTransitiontoIndependenceinNamibia(London:LynneRienner,1994):18‐19.12ibid,826.13FormerPresidentNujomaisoftenconsultedforcommentrelatingtotheSWAPOpartyandadisparaterangeofstoriesinWindhoeknewspaperssuchastheWindhoekObserver.SeeAndreasThomas“NujomaproposesSWAPOTVstation,”WindhoekObserver,August14,2010.14 See:BBCNews,“SwapoManWinsNamibiaLandslide,”November21,2004.

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AsLawrenceValenotesinhiswritingsonthepostcolonialarchitectural

environment,“theleadershipofnewlyindependentstates[has]frequentlyattempted

tousearchitecturenotonlytohouseanewformofgovernmentbutalsotoproclaim

theworthinessofthenewregimeandadvanceitsstatus.”15Assomeonewhodevoted

hislifetothecauseofNamibianself‐realizationandservedasthefirstPresidentof

independentNamibiaforfourteenyears,Nujomanaturallyhadavestedinterestin

promotingthenewpostcolonialgovernmentandSWAPO’sroleinitsgeneration.Thus,

evenafterNujoma’sretirement,hispersonalmotivationsforcreatingnewarchitectural

worksremainrelevanttoadiscussionofthecontractsawardedtotheMansudae

OverseasProject.

InpublicstatementsregardingtheMansudaeOverseasProjectcommissions,

spokespersonsfortheNujomaandPohambaadministrationspointtothematerial

supportprovidedbytheNorthKoreansduringtheperiodofliberationstruggleas

justificationforawardingthemcommissions.16Althoughtheextentandnatureofthe

NorthKoreanassistanceisnotpubliclydocumented,itisframedbybothnationsasa

benevolentgesturemadeinsupportoftheNamibiannationinitsnascentstage.17For

15LawrenceVale,Architecture,Power,andNationalIdentity(London:Routledge,2008):10.16Examplesofthepublicacknowledgmentofthislong‐standingrelationshipappearofteninpublicstatementsassociatedwiththeMansudaecommissionsintheNamibianpress,butaregenerallyworkedintoanypublicdiscussionofstatevisitsordiplomatictalksbetweenthetwonationsondiversetopicssuchaspublichealthanddiplomaticconsultationagreements.See:BrigitteWeidlich,“NamibiaandNorthKorea'tostrengthensupremeties,”TheNamibian,March25,2008.17See:BBCSummaryofWorldBroadcasts,Transcript,“NorthKoreanDelegationinNamibiato‘Promote,Consolidate’ExistingTies,”March21,2002.

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example,a2000communiquédetailingtheeventsofNujoma’sStatevisittoPyongyang

notes:

SamNujomasaidinhisspeechhiscurrentvisittotheDPRKwasaimedatfurtherstrengtheningtheexistingfraternalrelationsoffriendshipbetweenthecountries.TheNamibianpeoplewillalwaysrememberthematerial,diplomaticandspiritualsupportgivenbytheworker’spartyandthegovernmentofKoreatotheSWAPOofNamibia,hesaid.18

Itisimportanttonotethatthefraternalrelationshipbetweenthetwonations

beganwiththepersonalfriendshipbetweenNujomaandKimIlSungratherthanwith

diplomaticexchangebetweenthetwonationspriortoNamibia’sindependencein

1990.19Duringhistimeinexile,NujomatraveledtoPyongyang.Thedetailsofhisvisit

andwhathediscussedwiththeNorthKoreangovernmentarenotknown,but

photographsfromtheNamibianNationalArchiveshowhimtogetherwithKimIlSung,

andNujomavisitingwithNorthKoreanmilitaryforces,attestingtohiscordialrelations

withhishostsand,fromtheNorthKoreanview,hisadmirationforthem(Fig.5‐6).

ThefoundingPresident’sdesiretohonorthesupportgivenbytheNorthKoreans

totheliberationmovementmayhavebeenonemotivationforthecommissions,yetthe

hiringoftheMansudaeOverseasProjectforfourmajorculturallandmarksdemands

morethoroughjustification.Forwhilethefoundingpresidenthadclearreasonto

supporthisallies,theSWAPOleadershipalsohadacommitmenttosupporttheir

economicallydisadvantagedbase,manyofwhomwouldhavebenefitedfinanciallyand

18KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“NamibianPresidenthere.”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm.19KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“NamibianPresidentonRelationswiththeDPRK”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2002/200208/news26/2002.htm.

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experientiallyfromreceivingagreatershareofthelucrativegovernmentcontracts

associatedwiththecommissions.20Similarly,theastronomicalcostsassociatedwiththe

constructionoftheWindhoekmonumentschallengesthenotionthatNorthKorean

worksofferedaneconomicalalternativetoawardingcontractstoregionalarchitects.21

WhilepreviousrelationshipswithNorthKoreamayhavebeenafactor,Ibelieve

itsafetoassumethatAfricanleaders,suchasNujoma,whocommissionedthe

MansudaeOverseasProjecttoerectnationalmonumentsdidsoforstrategicpolitical

reasons.Iassertthattheyrecognizedthebold,dynamic,andmonumentalworks

characteristicoftheMansudaeOverseasProjectasdecisive,modernandauthoritative

meansofexpressingtheirnationalisticcontent.Moreover,IbelievethattheNamibian

governmentviewedMansudaeworksasexpressionsofatypeofSocialistRealismby

thenextinctelsewherethatwouldbeaneffectiveinsignalingtheirowntriumphover

colonialrule.

TosupportthisargumentIwillfirstdiscussFoundingPresidentSamNujoma’s

2000visittoNorthKoreatoestablishhisfamiliaritywithPyongyangandhisknowledge

ofthewaysmonumentsandbuildingsdesignedbytheMansudaeArtStudio

20Foradiscussionofthe1992LabourActSee:Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?”40‐41.21OneofthereasonsadvancedbytheNamibiangovernmentfortheirdecisiontouseNorthKoreanarchitectsforthecommissionswasthattherewerenolocalNamibianarchitectscapableofcompletingthejobs.See:LindsayDentlinger,“MoreQuestionsonNewStateHouseComplex,”TheNamibian,April21,2006.ThisassertionhasbeenrejectedbytheNamibianInstituteofArchitects,whoevidencethevarietyofcommissionscompletedbytheirmembersrequiringsimilarlevelsofexpertise.See:NinaMaritz,PersonalCommunication,10August2010andJacobWasserfall,PersonalCommunication,13August2010;ChristofMaletsky,“ArchitectssaymoveofMonumentFlawed,”TheNamibianJuly17,2008.

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aestheticallyunifythecityandprojectstateideology.Second,throughacomparative

analysisofextantmonumentsinPyongyangandtheNamibiancommissionsIwill

identifytheformaldevicescommontobothandassertthattheNamibianworksare

Namibianincontentonly.Finally,Iwilldiscussthecircumstancesofthemostrecent

commission,theIndependenceMemorialmuseum,andidentifyitisanattemptbythe

Namibiangovernmenttosymbolicallyinscribepublicmemoryinfavorofthepost‐

colonialregime.Insum,thispaperwillshowthattheNamibianleadershipembraced

theMansudae‐designedworksasameanstoasserttheirauthority,modernityand

securetheirlegitimacy.

II.PresidentNujoma’s2000visittoPyongyang

ThevisualcultureofPyongyangisdefinedinlargepartbythepublicartworksand

monumentscreatedbytheMansudaeArtStudiotohonortheachievementsandlegacy

oftheGreatLeaderKimIlSung.Inadditiontomonumentalsculpture,thestudio

specializesinlarge‐scalemosaics,paintings,andbronzereliefs.Theprominenceofthe

MansudaeArtStudioinPyongyangcannotbeoverstated.Foundedin1959,itemploys

3,700workers,onequarterofwhomareartists,mostgraduatesofthePyongyang

UniversityofFineArts.22TheMansudaeArtStudiopridesitselfonitsproductionof

diverseworksthatcommemoratetheresistanceagainstJapanesecolonization.23

MansudaemonumentssuchastheJuchetowerexemplifythewaysinwhichMansudae

worksarehighlysymbolicandmeticulouslyconceivedtorelayaprogrammaticintent

22JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,127.23www.mansudaeartstudio.com/.../en/the_mansudae_art_studio.pdf

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(Fig.7andFig.8).This170meterhightowercelebratesKimIlSung’sJuchephilosophy

ofself‐reliance,whichstressesself‐sufficiencywithoutoutsideassistance.24Builtonthe

occasionofKim'sseventiethbirthdayin1982,thetoweriscoveredwith25,550pieces

ofgranite,eachrepresentingadayinthelifeoftheGreatLeader.25

MansudaebuildingsandmonumentsaroseintheNorthKoreancapitalfollowing

theneartotaldestructionofthecityduringtheKoreanWar(1950‐53).AsPeterAtkins

notes,NorthKoreanplannershadatabularasaonwhichtoideologicallyinscribethe

physicallandscapeonagrandandunifiedscale.26Indeed,majoravenues,government

buildings,large‐scalemonumentswereconceivedwithinashortperiodbyarelatively

smallgroupofindividualsandonemajordesignfirm.Theresultantcohesionwithinthe

urbancapitalandgeomanticplacementofMansudaemonumentsaredefining

characteristicsoftheSocialistRealismspecifictoNorthKorea.

OutsidershaveinterpretedthePyongyangcityscapeasametaphoricalmirrorfor

theGreatLeader,conceivedsolelytofuelhispersonalitycult.Suk‐YoungKimsuggests

comparisonsbetweenmodernPyongyangandAlbertSpeer’sunrealizedGermania,and

arguesthatPyongyangfunctionsasatheatricalset,whereinhabitantsexistaspropsin

anendlessproductionglorifyingKimIlSung.27Whilethevisualcharacterofthecityis

arguablyone‐tracked,itisoverlydismissivetoperceivethemoderncityofPyongyangas

24 ForfurtherreadingonKimIlSung’sJuchephilosophysee:JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,77‐79;B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreanSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,46‐47. 25 Thename“GreatLeader”isusedtorefertoKimIlSung,while“DearLeader”referenceshissonandsuccessor,KimJongIl. 26Atkins,““ASéancewiththeLiving:theIntelligibilityoftheNorthKoreanLandscape,”199.27Suk‐YoungKim,“SpringtimeforKimIlSunginPyongyang,”24.

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simplyastagewithacentralactorandanaudience.InhisbookTheCleanestRace:How

NorthKoreansSeeThemselves—AndWhyItMatters,B.R.Myerscommentsonthe

popularmisconceptionsaboutKimIlSung’spersonalitycult:

TheregimeinPyongyangisoftenaccusedof‘brainwashing’itssubjects,asiftheformersecretlybelievedsomethingverydifferent,andthelatterwerepassiveorevenunwillingvictimsofindoctrination.Perhapsthismisconceptionderivesfromthemistakenbeliefthatthepersonalitycult…formsthebasisoftheofficialworldview.Infact…thepersonalitycultproceedsfrommythsabouttheraceanditshistorythatcannotbutexertastrongappealontheNorthKoreanmasses.28

Myersobservationssuggeststhat,ratherthaninterpretingthevisuallandscapeof

Pyongyangasjustamirrorforthesolebenefitofitsleadership,wecanunderstand

Pyongyangasanorchestratedsystemsupportedbyaunified,omnipresentvisual

culture,whereinmonumentsandvisualreferencestotheGreatLeaderservetoremind

citizensoftheirleaders’legitimacyandachievementstowardsNorthKoreanself‐

definitionafteraperiodofJapanesecolonialRule.

***

InNovemberof2000NamibianPresidentSamNujomamadeadiplomaticvisittothe

DemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKoreainresponsetoastateinvitationfromPyongyang.

NujomahadrecentlybegunhisthirdtermasPresident,bypassingtheconstitutionally

statedtwo‐termlimitonthegroundsthathehadinitiallybeenelectedbythe

Constituent/NationalAssemblyandthushadonlyoncebeenpopularlyelected.29Atthe

timeofhisvisit,SWAPOcontrolledboththeexecutiveandlegislativebranchesofthe

28 B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,75.29ChristopherSaunders,“RecentHistory,”828;Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?”,37.

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Namibiangovernment,andhadbeenwithoutsignificantoppositionfromotherpolitical

partiesforoveradecade,promptingconcernforsomethatNamibiacoulddevelopinto

asinglepartystate.30Thetrendtowardssinglepartyruleandthepotentiallossof

democracyisnotedbyGretchenBauer,whohaspointedtoconstitutionalamendments,

suchasthepresidentialtermextensions,andtotheincreasingconcentrationofpower

intheOfficeofthePresidentasconcernsfortheevolvingpoliticalclimateoftheyoung

nation.31

TheKoreanCentralNewsAgency,theofficialNorthKoreannewsorganization,

issuedadetailedaccountofNujoma’sNovember2000visittoPyongyang.32Through

thesedescriptionsweknowwhatmonumentsandbuildingsNujomavisited,andthus

canspeculateonhisimpressionsofthecity.VisitstotheKumsusanMemorialPalace

andtheRevolutionaryMartyrs’Cemeteryareofparticularnoteastheyfamiliarizedhim

withtheritualexperienceprovidedbysitesinPyongyang.Nujomaalsovisitedthe

MansudaeArtStudio,givinghimafirsthandsenseofthemagnitudeofthisartfactory.

30 Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”43. 31 AccordingtoBauer,thisconcentrationofpowercanbeseen,forexample,“inPresidentNujoma'sinsistenceonmakingpoliticalappointmentshimself,hispracticesofkeepingpoliticalrivalsatbaywithperiodicCabinetreshuffles,ofchoosingthebulkofthecandidatesforSwapo'slistinNationalAssemblyelectionsandofretainingmostofthepre‐independenceSwapoleadershipinkeyCabinetposts.”“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”37.Also,throughoutherarticleBaueracknowledgesagrowingresistencetocriticismanddissenttowardsactionstakenbySWAPOleaders,see:“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”46;AbsalomShigwedha,“Pohamba,Nujoma,GeingoblashoutatcriticsofSwapo,”TheNamibian,July1,2008.32 B.R.MyersacknowledgesthattheEnglishlanguageKoreanCentralNewsAgencyreleasesdonotrepresentthelevelofpropagandaaboutNorthKoreaanditsleadersthatdomesticaudiencesreceive.See:B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,17‐18.

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SomeofhisstaffmembersvisitedthePyongyangMaternityHospital.VisitstotheGrand

People’sStudyHouseandtheJuchetowerarenotmentionedintheKoreanCentral

NewsAgencyaccountofhisvisit,buttheyareprominent,centrallylocatedbuildings

andNujomacouldnothavefailedtoseethemashewasdrivenaroundthecity.Thus,

theymaybecountedamongtheNorthKoreanexperiencesthatinfluencedhisdecisions

regardingtheMansudaeworksinNamibia.33

NujomabeganhisgoodwillvisittoPyongyangonthetwenty‐eighthof

November,2000and,accordingtotheKoreanreports,hewaswelcomedwithmuch

celebration,asiscustomaryuponthearrivalofforeignleaders.CrowdsofPyongyang

citizenswavedtheflagsofbothnations,cheeredandraisedbouquetswhenhisplane

landed.34TheanthemsofbothnationswereplayedattheairportbeforetheNamibian

PresidentleftinalimousinefordowntownPyongyang.Theroutewasdecoratedwith

theflagsandsloganboardswelcomingNujomaandaseaofdancerssprangtolifewhen

thelimousinereachedtheplazaoftheApril25thHouseofCulture.35Theseaccountsnot

onlyhighlighttheelaboratewelcomeextendedtoNujoma,butalsodocumenthis

33Followingthisvisitintheyear2000otherdiplomaticvisitstoPyongyangweremadein2007,2008duringwhichreportsdocumentvisitstotheArchofTriumph,theThreeRevolutionExhibition,theMangyongdaeandPyongyang326ElectricWireFactoryarementioned.ThoughthesevisitswillnotbeincludedinthecontextofinfluencesoftotheHeroes’AcreandnewNamibianStateHousetheynonethelessenterintothesphereofinfluencefortheIndependenceMuseumandfurthersupportanawarenessonthepartoftheNamibiangovernmenttohowNorthKoreanworksfunctionintheirenvironment.See:KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“NamibianGovernmentDelegationLeaves,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/200810/news25/20081025‐17.htm34ibid.35KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“Over100,000PyongyangiteswelcomeNamibianPresident.”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm

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observationofacoordinatedcitizenryactinginsupportofthegovernment’sdiplomatic

intent.

OntheseconddayofPresidentNujoma’svisittoPyongyanghepaidvisittothe

RevolutionaryMartyrs’Cemetery,asitethatprefiguresthe2002NamibianHeroes’Acre.

Establishedin1975andremodeledin1985,theMartyrs’Cemeterycommemoratesover

170revolutionarieswhodiedfightingagainsttheJapaneseoccupationforcesduringthe

colonialperiodbetween1910and1945.36Thesiteispartofalargerparkcomplex,

which,asPeterAtkinsnotes,servestounitereverentialandrecreationalcontextswithin

theMartyrs’Cemetery.37Newlywedsaresaidtomakethissitetheirfirstdestination

afterthemarriageceremony,anditisacommonlyvisitedbyschoolgroups,further

expandingpopularuseandinteractionwiththememorial.38

Asiscustomaryofanyvisitingdignitary,duringhisofficialexcursiontothe

MountTaesongmonumentNujomalaidawreathatthepedestalbeforethemonument

and,togetherwiththeKoreanofficialspresent,includingKimYongNam,Presidentof

thePresidiumofNorthKorea,observedamomentofsilenceinmemoryoftheanti‐

Japaneserevolutionaryfighters.39

Itisimportanttoemphasizethesignificancethatthismonumentandritual

wouldhavehadforNujoma.LikeKimIlSung,whoasayoungmanassumedaleadership

roleofaguerillagroupintheNortheastAnti‐JapaneseArmy,Nujomaalsoledina

36Portal,Jane.ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,145.37 PeterAtkins,“ASéancewiththeLiving:theIntelligibilityoftheNorthKoreanLandscape,”inNorthKoreaintheNewWorldOrder,204. 38JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,146.39KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“GreetingstoBarbadianPrimeMinister.”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm

15

revolutionarystrugglethroughhisleadershippositionwithinSWAPO.40Nujomawas

likelyawareoftheseparallels,andthus,appreciatedthereverentialtreatmentgivento

therevolutionaryleadersasmeaningfulpracticeforanynationborneoutofstruggle.

RitualpracticeattheMartyrs’Cemeteryevokesthememoryandlegacyofthe

Koreanrevolutionaryheroes,andpreventsthespacefrombecomingfrozenina

previousera,andthusremovedfromcontemporaryaudiences.JamesYoungwriteson

theuseofritualpracticetoforestallthepotentialofmemorialstobecome

anachronisms.Henotes:“Monumentsdependonthepublicfortheirverylives:aslong

asthepublicspheresharesaregime’sdesireforpermanenceofitsformalself‐

idealizations,itsuspendsdisbeliefinthemonument’sownimpermanenceandthus

makestheregime’smonumentitsownsacredspace.”41Similarly,CarolMedlicottnotes:

“States’sovereigntyandtheircoercivepoweronlybecomerealandmeaningfulthrough

symbolandperformance.42Theobservationsofbothscholarsontheimportanceof

ritualpracticeinmotivatingasharedperformanceofcollectivehistoryprovideinsight

intotheappealoftheMansudae‐designedworksforAfricanleaderslookingtofostera

similarreverentialrelationshipbetweentheirpopulationsandrevolutionaryheroes.

ThatcertainfeaturesoftheMartyrs’CemeterylikelystoodouttoNujomais

suggestedbytheirparallelsinthelaterNamibianHeroes’Acremonument.Toaccess

thePyongyangmonumentavisitormustpassthroughnineteen‐meterhighKorean‐style

gatewithagreen‐tiledroof(Fig.9).Thegateframesaseriesof348stonestairsthat

40MichaelJ.Seth,AConciseHistoryofModernKorea,88.41JamesYoung,“Memory/Monument,”244.42CarolMedlicott,Medlicott“SymbolandSovereigntyinNorthKorea.”71.

16

ascendChujakPeakandsymbolicallymarksthepassagefromtheurbanenvironsof

Pyongyangtothesacred,reverentialspaceaccordedtotheMartyrs’Cemetery.Atthe

topofthestairsawidestoneavenue,flankedoneithersidebysculpturegroupsof

soldiersemergingfromrusticatedstone,leadstothebaseofaterracedcemetery(Fig.

10‐Fig.13).Inadditiontothesculpturegroups,ontheleftsideoftheavenueastone

placarddisplaysaninscriptioninKim‐Il‐Sung’shandwritingthatproclaims:“Thenoble

revolutionaryspiritdisplayedbytheanti‐Japaneserevolutionarymartyrswilldwell

foreverintheheartsofourPartyandourpeople.October10th,1985.”(Fig.14)43Atthe

endofthestoneavenueagranitepedestal,raisedagainsttheinclineofthehill,serves

asapolishedbackdropforalargebronzemedallionandwreathmotif(Fig.15).Set

againstthemaroonstone,thegoldsymbolsprojecttowardtheviewer,reflecting

ambientlightandechoingthemetallicglowofthecopperbustsatopthedistant

gravestones.Takentogether,thepedestalandmedallionmetaphoricallyannouncethe

viewer’sarrivalatthecentralareaofimportance,thesacredgroundwherethelegend

ofNorthKorea’srevolutionaryheroesiscontinuallyrecalled.

Thegravestones,spacedevenlyinrowsconformingtotheterracedhillside,lead

toagraniteredflagatthehill’sapex(Fig.16andFig.17).Thebustsdisplayindividual

likenessesofrevolutionaryheroes,andtheirsize,viewingheightanddescriptive

featuresservetoanimatethegravestonesinamannernottypicallyachievedthrough

writteninscriptions.Assuch,theMartyrs’Cemeterytranscendstheviewingexperience

traditionallyaccordedaburialgroundbyinvokingassociationsrelatedtoshrinesor

43 KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“KimIlSung'sCalligraphicStyle,TreasureofKoreanNation,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2010/201004/news12/20100412‐13ee.html

17

commemorativemonuments,wherereplicastatuesandestablishedenvironments

encouragereflectionandrecreationwithinthepublicsphere.

AnotherofficialexcursiontookNujomatoKumsusanMemorialPalace,aformer

palatialassemblyhallreconstructedasKimIlSung’smausoleumuponhisdeathin1994

(Fig.18),andtotheMansudaeGrandMonument(colossalbronzeKimIlSungstatue)

erectedbytheMansudaeArtStudioin1972(Fig.19).TheKoreanCentralNewsAgency

mentionsthataceremonialfloralbasketwaslaidbeforethestatueinthenameofthe

NamibianPresident,afamiliarritualforPyongyangcitizensandarequisiteactfor

foreignvisitors.44AsattheMartyrs’Cemetery,Nujomatookpartinthisriteand

experiencedfirst‐handthereverenceaccordedtoNorthKorea’srevolutionaryleader,a

manwithwhomhecouldpersonallyidentifygivenhisroleinthestruggleforNamibian

independence.

InsidetheKumsusanMemorialPalaceNujomaalsofollowedritualpractice

requiredofvisitors.IntheMourners’Hall,helearnedoftheoverwhelminggriefofthe

NorthKoreanpeoplewhentheylearnedofthedeathoftheGreatLeader.ThenNujoma

viewedtheembalmedbodyofKimIlSung.Afterward,intheexhibitionhalls,Nujoma

sawtheordersandmedalsawardedtotheGreatLeaderfromcountriesacrossthe

world.

AttheKumsusanMemorialPalace,aswellasotherMansudaebuildingssuchas

theGrandPeople’sStudyHouse(Fig.20)Nujomaviewedflamboyantinteriorsthat

featurebrightlycolored,floral‐patternterrazzofloors,extensiveuseofcoloredmarble,

44KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“NamibianPresidentvisitsKumsusanMemorialPalace,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2000/200011/news11/28.htm.

18

decorativebronzereliefs,gaudycrystalchandeliers,andepiclandscapepaintings(Fig.

21andFig.22).Themarbleandterrazzofloors,grandchandeliers,andepiclandscape

worksarealldefinitivemarkersoftheopulent,modernsensibilityofNorthKorean

visualcultureandcametobefeaturedinthedesignsoftheNamibiancommissionsof

theMansudaeOverseasProject.

Insum,Nujoma’s2000goodwillvisittoPyongyangfamiliarizedhimwiththe

particularlypotent,stilllivingbrandofsocialistartandarchitecturespecifictoNorth

Korea.Heobservedfirst‐handhowmonumentsandbuildingscanbecombinedona

grandscaletoglorifythelegacyofthenation’sfoundersandtheirresistanceofcolonial

forces,andmotivatetheperformanceofasharednationalhistory.Visitingthevarious

Mansudaedesignedmonumentsandbuildings,Nujomaobservedasystemofunified

andhighlycontrollednationalmemory,apparentlypropagatedwillinglybytheNorth

Koreanpeople.WhileothersmaydismissPyongyangasacityservingthepersonality

cultofKimIlSung,Nujomamighthaveperceiveditmorepositivelyasacity

rememberingitspastandagreatleadernotentirelyofobligation,butoutof

gratefulness.Whateverhispersonalresponse,whathesawwassoonechoedinthe

buildingprojectsheinitiatedandsupportedfollowinghisreturntoNamibia.

III.MansudaeOverseasProjectinNamibia:theHeroesAcreandNamibianStateHouse

Inhiswritingsoncollectivememoryandpublicmonuments,JamesYoungarguesfora

relationshipbetweenastate’sdesiretoforgeacommon,nationalmemoryandthe

19

creationofmonumentsthatserveasanaturalizinglocusforthatmemory.Accordingto

Young,theseplacesofmemory,ortoborrowPierreNora’sterm,lieuxdemémoire,cast

astate’smartyrs,foundingmythsandidealsasnaturallytrueasthelandscapethey

inhabit.45Furthermore,invokingHalbwachs’assertionthatmemoriesarerecalled

throughmembershipinnational,religiousorclassgroups,Youngarguesthat“boththe

reasonsformemoryandtheformsmemorytakesarealwayssociallymandated,partof

asocializingsystemwherebyfellowcitizensgaincommonhistorythroughthevicarious

memoryoftheirforbearers’experiences.”46

Young’sidentificationofmonumentsassocially‐mandated,naturalizedlociof

nationalmemoryprovidesinsightintothecreationofthefirstNamibianworkdesigned

bytheMansudaeOverseasProject,theHeroes’Acremonument.Completedovera

periodofthirteenmonths,itwasinauguratedonAugust26th,2002.Officiallydesignated

“Heroes’Day,”August26thisanationalholidaycommemoratingthestartofthe

Namibianwarforindependence,ledbySWAPOliberationforces,in1966.47TheHeroes’

AcrecommemoratesimportantrevolutionaryfiguresthatworkedtoattainNamibian

independence.Themonumentfeaturesathirty‐fivemeterhighobelisk,aneight‐meter

highbronzestatueofanUnknownSolider,acontinuoussemi‐circularbronzerelief

45 JamesYoung,“Memory/Monument,”237.46JamesYoung,“Introduction”toTheTextureofMemory,6. 47EachyearceremoniesareheldoutattheHeroes’AcreonAugust26th,Heroes’Day,whenthemonumentitselfishonoredbyofficialsandattendingcitizens.ItisalsoofnotethatwhenrepresentativesoftheDPRKtraveltoNamibia,asdidKimYongNam,PresidentofthePresidiumoftheDPRKSupremePeople’sAssembly,theywilllaywreathsatthemonument.See:KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“WreathLaidBeforeHeroesCemeteryinWindhoek”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/2008003/news03/22.htm

20

depictingNamibia’sstruggleforindependence,aneternalflame,and170graves(Fig.23

andFig.24).48ThemonumentemergesatthefootoftheAuasMountains,ten

kilometerssouthofWindhoek’sdowntownarea.Itslocationoutsidetheimmediate

urbanenvironsofWindhoek,incombinationwiththeentryadmissionchargeand

restaurantadjacenttotheseatingpavilion,allfunctiontodistinguishtheHeroes’Acre

memorialasasiteofdestination,aplaceonevisitstoleavebehindeverydayactivities.

Theplacementofthemonumentinthecity’soutskirtsamidstdeserthillsalsoforgesa

connectionbetweenthememorialtoNamibia’smartyrsandthenaturalenvironment.

ThisjuxtapositioninvokesYoung’snotionthattheplacementofamonumentwithina

particularnaturalenvironmentseekstoinvokea“truth”and“legitimacy”associated

withthe“objective”and“impartial”land.

ThereareanumberofimportantparallelsbetweentheHeroes’Acreandworks

inPyongyang,whichconnectthedecisiontoemployaNorthKoreanaesthetictothe

intentionofthepostcolonialregimetocreateasiteofcollectivenationalmemory.First,

theviewingexperiencecloselyreplicatesthatoftheNorthKoreanMartyrs’Cemetery.

VisitorstotheHeroes’Acremonumentmustenterthroughamonumentalentrance

gateadornedoneachsidewithreliefsculpturesdepictingtwokneelingwomenholding

bouquetsofflowers(Fig.25andFig.26).Afterpassingthroughthegate,thevisitor

encountersafountainwithacolumnatitscenter,whosetopiscarvedawayinthe

shapeofthreefacesmeanttosymbolizeyouththatlooktowardthe“buriedheroesand

48MinistryofInformationandBroadcastingandtheNamibiaNationalHeritageCouncil.“HeroesAcreIntroduction.”http://www.namibia‐1on1.com/a‐central/heroes‐acre‐2.html(accessedonNovember30,2009).

21

heroineslaidtorestontheAcreitself”(Fig.27).49Thefountainitselfhasparticular

iconographicmeaning;oneguidenotesthatitcontains“cleansingandsoothingqualities

[that]symbolizefreedomafteralongandbitterstruggle.”50Thedegreetowhichthis

iconographicprogramcanbeinterpretedbyvisitorsisuncertainasnoplaqueorwritten

inscriptionatthesiteprovidessuchinformation.

Ashortdriveupthehillbringstheviewertoapavilionatthebaseofthe

monument,onerepletewithagrandstandpurportedlycapableofholdingupto5,000

persons(Fig.28).51Beforereachingthestairstheviewerencountersasprawling,

cruciformbronzemedal–aclearreferencetothemedalattheMartyrs’Cemetery(Fig.

29).Here,themedal,“theHeroes’MedalofBravery,”isdedicatedto“allNamibians

whosacrificedtheirlivesforthefreedomandsovereigntyofNamibia.”52Theeternal

flameatthebaseofthemedalissimilarlysymbolic,honoringthefallenheroesand

heroinesofNamibia.

ThegravesattheHeroes’AcrearealsosimilartothoseattheMartyrs’Cemetery.

DesignatedforheroesoftheNamibianindependencestruggle,over170gravesare

presentatthememorial,thoughsomeareemptyandaremarkedinhonorof

revolutionaryheroesburiedelsewhere.Evenlydividedamongthetiersascendingtothe

obelisk,thegravesappearinginorderedlinesfrombelowinamannersimilartothe

49NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).50Ibid.51MinistryofInformationandBroadcastingandtheNamibiaNationalHeritageCouncil.“HeroesAcreIntroduction.”http://www.namibia‐1on1.com/a‐central/heroes‐acre‐2.html(accessedonNovember30,2009).52Ibid.

22

Martyrs’Cemetery.IncontrasttothestonesattheMartyrs’Cemetery,however,which

feature110copperbustsoftheirdead,theNamibianstonesdisplaynamesandpictures

engravedinblackmarblemarkers(Fig.30andFig.31).Takentogether,thelocationof

theHeroes’Acreattheedgeofthecity,thepassagewaybetweencityandsacredspace

signaledthroughtheentrancegate,theinclusionofasymbolicallycleansingwater,and

theascensionavisitormustmaketoreachthemonument’sfocalpoint,allechothe

viewingexperienceperformedbyavisitortothePyongyangMartyr’sCemetery.

Inadditiontotheviewer’sspatiallymediatedexperience,otherimportant

formalparallelsassociatetheHeroes’AcrewithMansudaeworksinPyongyang.For

example,thedynamically‐posedstatueoftheUnknownSoldierinfullcombatgear,who

standsinfrontoftheobeliskandlookstowardsWindhoekoveranexpanseofthearid

Namibianlandscape,closelyrecallsastatueofthe“Victory”monumentatthe

VictoriousFatherlandLiberationWarMemorial(Fig.32–Fig.37).Alsobrandishing

militaryarmament,thelattersoldierholdstheNorthKoreanflaginonehandandboldly

motionswiththeother.Thekineticfoldsofhiscaperhymewiththewhippingflag,

creatingavaliant,explosivetenorseeminglyinconflictwiththeweightofthesculptural

medium.ThatthesoldierisposedwiththeNorthKoreanflagconnotesarelationship

betweenthebrazenrevolutionaryfighterandthecollectivenationalidentitysymbolized

withintheflag.Thesoldier’sopenmouthfurtherenergizesthebold,decisivenessofhis

gestureandsuggeststheemanationofavisceralyell,oneperhapsprojectedoverthe

howlofthewindfillingthesoldier’scape.

23

TheUnknownSoldierattheNamibianHeroes’Acregripsagrenadeinonehand

andanAK‐47intheother,areferencetothetypicalarmamentoftheliberationarmof

theorganizedresistance.LiketheUnknownSoldierattheVictoriousFatherland

LiberationWarMemorial,theNamibianfigurestridesforward,replicatingthekineticsof

thePyongyangwork.ThoughthebronzestatuerepresentstheUnknownSolider,its

chiseledfeaturesbearastrikingresemblancetoNujomahimself,andthelikenessis

oftenreadassuch.Thisconnectionisfurtheradvancedthroughtheinclusionofa

handwrittenmessageatthebaseofthestatue,whichreads:"Glorytothefallenheroes

andheroinesofthemotherlandNamibia!SamNujoma,26thAugust2002"(Fig.38).53

Theinclusionofaleader’swrittenscriptalsohasampleprecedentinPyongyang,where

KimIlSung’sautographsandmessagesappearingoldinsuchplacesastheUnitedFront

Tower,theChongchonBridge,andChungsongBridge.Additionally,KimIlSung’s

calligraphyfiguresprominentlyatthebaseofthePyongyangMartyrs’Cemetery,where

itservesasarecordofthemonumentsbenedictionanddedication.54

InfluencesfortheMansudae‐designedthirty‐meterhighobeliskandbronze

statuelikelyincludetheJucheTower,andotherWesternprototypesfromwhichthe

NorthKoreanmonumentoriginallyderived.Theobelisk,visibleevenfromtheapexof

thedowntownareaofWindhoek,representsaswordsymbolizingstrength,braveryand

53Thatthememorialwasinauguratedonthe26thofAugustissignificantasitthisdatemarkedthebeginningofthearmedstrugglein1966.SinceNamibia’sindependencethisdatehasbeenknownas“HeroesDay.”54KoreanCentralNewAgency,“KimIlSung'sCalligraphicStyle,TreasureofKoreanNation,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2010/201004/news12/20100412‐13ee.html.

24

dedication.55BelowthestatueasymbolicgravetotheUnknownSoldiercontainssoil

frommassgravesinAngolaandZambiabelievedtocontainremainsofrevolutionary

fighters.56

Thesemi‐circularbronzemuraldepictingNamibia’sstruggleforindependence

canbecomparedtothereliefencirclingthemonumentcommemoratingthefoundingof

theKoreanWorkers’Party,leadbyGeneralSecretary,KimJongIl(Fig.39–Fig.43).The

MonumenttothePartyFoundingwascompletedin1995andfeaturesthreefifty‐meter

highsculpturaltowersthatdepictthehammer,thesickleandthewritingbrush,

representingtheworker,thepeasantandtheintellectual.Belowthemassivesculptures

astonebeltencirclesthemonument,insidewhichanarrativebanddisplays

iconographically‐richbronzereliefs.Thebandsaresaidtorepresent“thehistoricalroot

oftheKoreanWorkers’Party,themightofthesingle‐mindedunityoftheleader,party

andmasses,andthefightingfeatureoftheKoreanpeopletocarryoutthehumancause

ofindependence.”57Thenarrativescenesfeaturestrong,defiantfiguresofbothsexes,

againsteitherneutralorforestedbackdrops.Thefacialfeaturesofthefiguresvaryonly

slightly,andtheirdeterminedexpressionsarematchedbytheforcefulposesoftheir

bodies.Thelargesizeofthefiguresandtheirplacementbeneaththesoaringsculptures

underscorethemessageofhardworkanddedicationastherootoftheparty’spower.

55NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).56NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).57 KoreanCentralNewsAgency,“MonumenttoPartyFounding,SymbolofWorkers'PartyofKorea,”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/200810/news10/20081010‐13ee.html.

25

Toseethebandinitsentirety,thevisitormuststandinsidethemonumentitselfandis

confrontedwiththedynamicchargeofthefiguresanddwarfedbythegreatstonefists

overhead.Thisthunderingviewingexperiencecombinedwiththenarrativereliefs

effectivelyassertthemythandmightoftherulingWorkers’Partyanditsrolein

achievingKoreanfreedomfromcolonialrule.

ThenarrativewithintheNamibianmuraliscontinuous(Fig.44andFig.45),but

ismeanttorepresentfiveseparatesceneschroniclingthejourneytowardsself‐rule.An

onlineNamibianguideidentifieseachsceneas:“theawakeningoftheindependence

ideal(Fig.46),politicalmobilizationofthemasses(Fig.47),startofthearmedstruggle

(Fig.48),intensificationofthestruggleandfinally(Fig.49),achievementof

independenceitself(Fig.50).”58Thisguideindicatesthatthefinalscene,the

achievementofindependence,is“depictedbyaflag‐bearingsoldiermarchingatthe

headofacolumnofmaleandfemalesoldiers.”59Theguidedoesnot,however,notethe

strikingresemblancebetweentheflagbearerinthefinalsceneandFoundingPresident

SamNujoma.

ExceptforthelikenessofSamNujomaleadingthevictorioussoldiers,the

mural’siconographicalreferencesaregeneralized.Forexample,inthefirstsection,the

awakeningoftheindependenceideal,figuresrepresentingHereroandHimbaethnic

tribes,areshownenslaved,somecrawling,visiblydefeated,andburdenedunderthe

weightofcolonialrule.Theslopeoftheirbacksleadstheeyetothenextscene,the

58NamibiaHeroes’AcreMonument.http://my‐beautiful‐namibia.com/heroes‐acre‐monument.html(accessedonDecember12,2010).59Ibid.

26

politicalmobilizationofthemasses.EmblematicplantsassociatedwiththeNamibian

desertenvironment,suchasthecenturyplant,areshownatthebaseofthefirst

throughthirdscenes.Weaponsdepictedthroughoutthefinalfourscenesofthemural

representthevariousarmamentsoftheliberationforces,includingAK47s,grenades

andabazooka.Thesoldiersthemselvesappearsimilarinphysiqueandfacial

expressions,liketheminimallyvariedfiguresinthedioramasorotherbronzereliefs

producedbytheMansudaeArtStudioinPyongyang.

Thenarrativeemphasisinthelastthreescenesisclearlyfocusedonsoldiersand

guerillaeffortsintheachievementofindependence,whichisrepresentedinthelast

sceneofthemural.Thisvisualconnectionbetweenguerillafiguresandthenarrative

climaxinthefinalscenecanbeobservedintheformalarrangementofthefigures

behindtheflagbearer.Fiveofthesixfiguresdressedinmilitaryattiredirectlybehind

theflagbearerstareinunisonattheirleader.Behindthem,amotherandchildfollow

thegroupofsoldiers,clappingandraisingtheirarmsincelebration.Thechildpushesa

bouquetofflowersintothehandofasoldieratthebackofthegroup,theonlysoldier

notlookingtowardstheleader.Precedingthemotherandchildarethreefigures

wieldingguns,whopartiallyobscurethefrontsoftankspeakingoutoverplantsand

rockyoutcroppingsinthedistance.

Thebold,dynamically‐posedSocialistRealistfigurescredittheSWAPOliberation

forceswiththeattainmentofindependence.Asidefromthemural’ssecondscene,the

“politicalmobilizationofthemasses,”wherethreefiguresareshownwiththeirhands

placedontopofeachotheroveraschematicglobe,referencestoResolution435orthe

27

internationalmediationofthetransferofpowerareabsentinthestylizedaccountof

thestruggle.Instead,theconnectionbetweenguerillafightingandindependenceis

championedandassertedwithinthemural,suchasinthethirdscene,whichfeaturesa

soldierholdingaflagandraisingaclenchedfist.

ReinhartKösslerinterpretstherelief’snarrativeaseitheranimageofaunified,

nationalcollectiveopposingexternalrule,orasareferencetotheendofcolonialism

broughtbyanarmyinexile,butnotesthatbothinterpretationsadvancea“militarist

view”oftheliberationstruggle.60Historically,however,SWAPO'sarmedliberation

struggle,thoughitdidhave“amajorimpactonthecourseofdecolonization,”wasnot

thedecisivefactorintheachievementofindependence.61Rather,thetransferofpower

fromSouthAfricatotheSWAPO‐ledgovernmentcameaboutafterayear‐long

transitionsupervisedbytheUnitedNationsandguidedbyUnitedNationsSecurity

CouncilResolution435.62

Insum,thevisualpanoplyofreferencestothemilitarizedmembersofthe

independencemovementattheHeroes’Acre,exemplifiedthroughthenarrativerelief

thatforegroundstheroleofmilitaryleadersinachievingindependence,andthe

UnknownSoliderwholooksouttowardstheprosperousurbancapitalfromthe

monument’sapex,asserttheimportanceofSWAPOinachievingNamibianfreedom.A

NorthKoreanvisualrhetoricwasusedtoarticulatethisassertionofpowerbythe

SWAPOelitetocreatealastingmemorialtohonorandpromotetheachievementsof

60Kossler,“FacingaFragmentedPast:Memory,CultureandPoliticsinNamibia,”370.61MelberandSaunders,“ConflictMediationinDecolonisation:Namibia'sTransitiontoIndependence,”76.62Bauer,“NamibiaintheFirstDecadeofIndependence:HowDemocratic?,”35.

28

theSWAPOrevolutionaryfiguresintheindependencestruggle,linkthecurrentregime

totheirefforts,andinspirearecognitionofasharedhistoryforthosevisitingthesite.

ThesecondworkdesignedandbuiltbytheMansudaeOverseasProjectinthe

capitalcitywasthenewNamibianStateHouse(Fig.51).Commissionedin2002,the

buildingofthenewStateHousetookfiveandahalfyearsandwascompletedinMarch

of2008.Itwasinauguratedwithmuchfanfare,andtheceremonyincludedaspeechby

KimYongNam,whotraveledtoNamibiafortheoccasion.ThenewStateHouseinspired

afairamountofcontroversy,muchofwhichsurfacedinWindhoekdailynewspapers

suchasTheNamibian,althoughonlysomeofitrelatedtothecommissioningofaNorth

Koreandesignfirmfortheproject.ByanymeasurethenewStateHouseisgrandiose,

withamenitiessuchasamusicalfountain,amassiveundergroundparkingareaand

collectionsoflife‐sizedanimalsculpturesdispersedthroughoutthegrounds(Fig.52–

Fig.54).63ThebuildingitselfislocatedoutsideofthecitycenterintheWindhoek

suburbofAuasblick,andrequiredtheexpropriationofsomefiftypropertiesforsecurity

purposes.ThecosttotheNamibiancitizensquicklyexceededfromoriginalestimates,

fuelingangerthatthegovernmentwasactingirresponsiblywhennearlyathirdofthe

populationlivedinpoverty.64Thefactthatthebuildingprojectbeganinthemiddleof

Nujoma’sthirdterminofficealsopromptedspeculationthatheintendedtocontinue

onasPresidentforafourthterm.Finally,thatNorthKoreanworkersfirmmadeupthe

majorityofthelaborforceforthebuildingprojectprovokedfurthercriticisms.When

63Dynes,Michael,“PalacePadforPeople’sHero.”TheTimes(London),June23,2004.64BusinessDay,“Namibia;NujomaBuildsforFourthTerm.”AfricaNews,October3,

2003.

29

theprojectbeganin2003therewere176workersonsite,onlyforty‐fourofwhichwere

Namibiancitizens.65Thenumberofcontroversiessurroundingthebuildingofthenew

StateHouseunderscoresthefactthatthecommissionofMansudaeOverseasProject

forthejobwasnotachoiceofconvenience.Rather,thedecisionreflectsacleardesire

onthepartoftheformerNamibianPresidenttohavetheNorthKoreanfirmcomplete

thecommission,oneindicativeofhisfondnessfortheauthority,modernityand

monumentalityexpressedinMansudae‐designedworks.

ThedesignoftheNamibianStateHousedisplaysmyriadinfluencesfromextant

worksinNorthKorea,onesespeciallyvisiblewithinitsinterior.Elementssuchas

terrazzoflooring,extensiveuseofgranite,large‐scalepaintingsoftheNamibian

landscape,andtheincorporationoficonicplantspeciesallborrowfrommotifscommon

withinNorthKoreanvisualculture.AswiththeHeroes’Acre,thebold,symbolically‐

ladenMansudaedesignofferedaclearstrategyforinscribingnationalisticcontent

withinthenewStateHouse.

LawrenceValenotestheimportanceofstraightforward,legiblearchitectural

statementsfornewregimesassertingtheirlegitimacyandidentityfollowingtheir

election.Hewrites:“…forrulersoffledglingcountries,inwhichquestionsaretoomany

andanswersareatapremium,theprospectofabuildingthatfailstocontribute

unambiguouslytotheconsolidationofrulemaybeunsettling.”66Vale’semphasisonthe

importanceofbuildingsthatunambiguouslycontributetothelargerprojectofa

65TheNamibian,“Namibia;Governmenthas‘NoClue’OnFinalCostsofNewState

House”AfricaNews,September26,2003.66 Vale,Architecture,PowerandNationalIdentity,328.

30

nationalidentityfavorabletoanewregimehasparticularrelevancetoconsiderationsof

theappealofNorthKoreandesignedworksforpostcolonialgovernmentsinAfrica.

Mansudaedesigns,asseenintheHeroes’Acre,emphasizeunderstandable,

iconographically‐richdesigns,andofferaunique,suitablemeansforcreating

“unambiguous”architecturalworksthatbothdeclarethepowerofanewregimeand

alignthemwiththeexpressionofnationalisticcontent.

ThattheNamibiangovernmentbuiltthelavishnewStateHousetoinspire

nationalisticsentimentandloyaltytothenewregimeisconfirmedinthevariouspublic

statementsmadeinresponsetoprotestsfromparliamentaryrepresentativesandthe

citizenryabouttheescalatingcostsfortheproject.Forexample,whenprobedabout

thecostoftheStateHousebytheoppositionpartyMinisterofPresidentialAffairs

AlbertKwanatoldtheNationalAssembly:

“TheNewStateHouseis–becauseofourbackground–asymbolofNamibia’sSovereignty,ofourhistoryandourstruggle.TheGovernmentthereforetookthedecisiontoexpressourhistoryandourstruggle,tohonourourheroesandheroinesandforebears.ThatiswhywecallittheHouseofthePeople.PeoplewillappreciateourfreedomwhentheyseethenewStateHouse.”67

InthisstatementtheMinisterbothjustifiedtheproject’scost,andremindedthe

readersoftheGovernment’sroleinthestruggleasameansofaffirmingitslegitimacy.

AlsoofnoteisthatinthestatebudgettheallocationforthenewStateHouseprojectis

67BrigitteWeidlich,“CostlyNewStateHouse,notonly‘HouseofthePeople’,butStruggleSymbol:Kwana,”TheNamibian,April18,2008.

31

listedundertheheadingof“protectinganddefendingtheConstitution,”ansection

designatingprovisionsforthemaintenanceofpeace,stabilityandgoodgovernance.68

AsinthecaseoftheHeroes’AcrevisualparallelsexistbetweentheNamibian

StateHouseandsimilarprojectsinPyongyang.TheNamibianStateHouseinterior

recallselementsfoundintheGrandPeople’sStudyHouse,theKumsusanMemorial

Palace,andthePyongyangMaternityHospital.Forexample,commontotheNamibian

StateHouseandthegrandbuildingsofPyongyangaretheinlaidfloralpatternsthat

radiateoutfromthecenterofstonefloors.Examplesofsuchcirculardesignsarefound

onfloorsintheCredentialArearoomandtheStateHouseMediaBriefingroominthe

NamibianStateHouse(Fig.55andFig.56).ThedesignintheCredentialAreadisplays

alternatingdarkandlight“s”curvedlinesthatspiraloutfromarosettecentertocreate

adynamicpatternthatseemstoreferencenature.FloorsintheGrandPeople’sStudy

House,andthePyongyangMaternityHospital(Fig.57andFig.58)aresimilarly

symmetricalandderivedfromnature.However,thePyongyangexamplesdisplayclear

subjectmatter,suchasbotanicalmotifs,andagreaterrangeofcolorsthandothe

Namibianfloors.Nevertheless,theNamibianworksundoubtedlyderivefromthis

popularmodeofadorningpublicbuildingsinPyongyang.

AnotheraestheticfeatureoftheNamibianStateHouserootedinthebombastic

visualcultureofNorthKoreaandothercommuniststatesistheuseofgrand

emblematiclandscapepaintingsandmosaics.Onesuchmosaiclandscapeappearsin

GrandPeople’sStudyHousebehindaseatedstatueofKimIlSung;thesubjectisthe

68LindsayDentlinger,“NewStateHouse‘todefendtheConstitution,’TheNamibian,May17,2005.

32

iconiccraterlakeonMt.Paektu,theholymountainofrevolution(Fig.59).69Depictions

ofthenaturallandscapewereapprovedassubjectmatterinthe1970s,whenKimJong

Ildeclaredthat:“TheideaofdescribingnatureinaSocialistcountryistopromote

patriotism,heightennationalprideandconfidenceoflivinginaSocialistcountry.”70This

statementbyKimJongIlunderscorestheimportantrelationshipthatNorthKoreans

havewiththeirphysicallandscapeandthevalueattachedtoitasanartisticsubject.71

Suchlandscapesalsoserveasbackdropsforofficialphotographswithstatevisitors.For

example,duringhisstatevisittoNorthKorea,BillClintonwasphotographedwithKim

JongIlinfrontofalargemuralofacrashingwaterfall(Fig.60).72Astatephotographof

NujomaandNorthKoreanofficialswastakeninfrontasimilarmuralduringaprevious

visitmadebyNujoma(Fig.61).

RepresentativescenesofNamibia’slandscapesuchasRucanaFalls,FishRiver

Canyon(Fig.62andFig.63),EpupaFalls(Fig.64andFig.65),andtheSpitzkopperock

formation(Fig.66)werepaintedbyMansudaeartistsandfigureprominentlywithinthe

69BrianMyersdisucssesthissymbolofthebirthplaceoftheKoreanraceandafrequentlydepictednationallandmark.B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,76.Seealso:JanePortal.ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,60.70JanePortal.ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,124.71Foranin‐depthdiscussionofNorthKoreaninterpretationsandusesoflandscapessee:B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,73;seealsoPeterAtkins’post‐structuralistinterpretationoflandscapehistoryin:“ASéancewiththeLiving:theIntelligibilityoftheNorthKoreanLandscape”inNorthKoreaintheNewWorldOrder,(NewYork:St.Martin’sPress,1996):196‐211.72CrashingwavesarefrequentlyusedinNorthKoreanpaintingsasametaphorfortheaggressionandhostilityoftheoutside(particularyWestern)world.Theirbreakingalongthecoastassceneinthisimageismeantasareferencetotheineffectualityofsuchonslaughts.See:B.R.Myers,TheCleanestRace:HowNorthKoreansSeeThemselvesandWhyItMatters,photographicinsert13.

33

StateHouseinterior.73ThesepaintingsrepresenthighlightsoftheNamibianlandscape,

withoutindicationofhumanpresence.Thescenesarecroppedcloselytoemphasizethe

powerofthefallingwaterandarchingdunes,andeffectivelyassociatethegrandeurof

theNamibianlandscapewiththepostcolonialgovernment.

AssigningNorthKoreanstopaintscenesoftheNamibianlandscapeforState

HousedecorationisperhapsoneofthemostsurprisingdecisionsmadebyNamibian

officialsorchestratingthecommission.Thearid,desertexpansesoftheNamibian

landscapearefamiliartropesofNamibianpaintingsofthepastcentury,exemplifiedin

theworksofearlytwentieth‐centuryartistssuchasAlfredJentsch(Fig.67andFig.68)

andmorecontemporaryartistssuchasChristineMarais.74Inaddition,Namibiahasa

vibrantartscommunity,asevidencedbythenumberofartistsworkingandexhibitingin

WindhoekandothercitiessuchasthecoastalmunicipalityofSwakopmund.In

Windhoekalonetherearetwoinstitutionsthatprovideartseducation:theDepartment

ofArtattheUniversityofNamibiaandtheKataturaCenterforthearts,whosestudents

workinavarietyofmediaandreceiverigoroustrainingthroughtheirrespective

73Economist,The,“NewStateHousetoopenonIndependenceDay.”TheEconomist

(Namibia),March20,2008.74ItisimportanttonotethatevenifthegovernmentrejectedtheuseofartworksmadebyNamibianartistsofEuropeandescentforthenewStateHousetherewereanumberofotherartistswhoseworktheycouldhaveusedinstead.Forexample,theworkofprominent,prolificblackartistssuchasJohnMuafangejoorJosephMadisiacouldhavebeenchosentodecoratetheStateHouse,andassuch,effectivelysupportedthoseNamibiansdisadvantagedunderthecolonialadministration’sapartheidrule.Foranin‐depthdiscussionofthehistoryoflandscapepaintinginNamibiasee:AdelheidLilienthal,AnnaleenEins,andJoRogge,ArtinNamibia:NationalArtGalleryofNamibia,1‐7.

34

curricula.75Thus,localartistsmighthavebeengiventhecommissions.Another

alternativewasborrowingfromtheNationalGalleryofArtinWindhoek,whichhasa

largepermanentcollectionrichwithworkfromNamibianartists,rangingfromtradition‐

basedtocontemporaryworksindifferentmedia.76Presumablysomeoftheseworks

couldhavebeenloanedtotheStateHouse,aswasdonepreviouslyforvariousministry

offices.77

ThelobbyoftheStateHousefeaturesalargepaintingdepictingthefirst

NamibianCabinet.Large‐scaleportraitsofKimIlSungandKimJongIlmaybecounted

amongtheimmediateprecedentsforthiswork(Fig.69andFig.70).Suchportraits

typicallydisplaythetwoleaderstogetherwithinanaturalsetting,sometimeswith

emblematicplantspeciessuchastheKimilsungia,aspecialnewhybridcultivaroforchid,

andtheKimjongilia,aspecialbegonia,namedinhonoroftheleaders;themagnolia,the

nationalfloweroftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea;andtheazalea,theflower

oftherevolution(Fig.71andFig.72).

ThegroupportraitoftheNamibianleadersextendsthelengthofthewalland

presents:SamNujoma,HifikepunyePohama,HageGeingob(thefirstPrimeMinisterof

75ManyoftheKataturastudentsaredisadvantagedandhadthegovernmentwantedtosupportanon‐elitegroupofstudetnsttheycouldhavedoneso.76TheprevalenceofdesertscenesandotherdepictionsoftheNamibiannaturalenvironmentpaintedbyNamibianartistsbegantodiminishtowardstheendofthe1970s,whentastesestablishedbyEuropeanpaintersandpatronslostmuchoftheirinfluence.The1970swereatumultuoustimepoliticallyandassuchmanyartistsbegantomoveawayfromedenisticdepictionsofthecountrysideintheirworktosubjectswithpoliticalcontentandorthatcouldotherwiseconveytensionandunease.See:NationalArtGalleryofNamibia,AdelheidLilienthal,AnnaleenEins,andJoRogge,ArtinNamibia:NationalArtGalleryofNamibia(Windhoek:TheGallery,1997):6.77Personalcommunication,AnnaleenEins,August15,2010.

35

Namibia),Theo‐BenGurirab(whoreplacedHageGeingobasPrimeMinisterandnow

servesasSpeakeroftheNationalAssemblyofNamibia),BenandLibertinaAmathilia

(bothpreviouscabinetandNationalAssemblymembers),HidipoHamutenya(former

cabinetandNationalAssemblymember),GertHanekom(FormerFinanceMinister)and

othersagainstaNamibianlandscapewithlacesofWelwitschialeavesintheforeground

(Fig.73).78Allpersonspictured,inadditiontotheirserviceinthepostcolonial

government,werealsoimportantfigureswithinSWAPOpriortoindependence,and

many,suchasHageGeingob,continuetoholdofficerpositionswithintheparty.The

inclusionofthisportraitwithinthenewstatehouseeffectivelyequatesmembersofthe

SWAPOelitewiththerealizationofthenew,postcolonialgovernment.Referencesto

Resolution435orotherNamibiansinvolvedintheinternationally‐mediatedtransferof

powerfromSouthAfricaareabsentwithinstatehousedecoration,privilegingthe

effortsofSWAPOeliteinthenarrativeofthenation’sfoundingoverlessglamorous

diplomaticefforts.

AthemeofthenewNamibianStateHousewassaidtobetheWelwitschiaplant,

apeculiarplantspecies,knownlocallyas“n’tumbo,”or“onionofthedesert,”uniqueto

theNamibDesertinnorthwesternNamibia(Fig.74).79AnadultWelwitschiaconsistsof

onlytwoleaves,astembaseandroots,butcangrowtooverametertallandeight

meterswide.TheWelwitschialeavesarethelongest‐livedintheplantkingdom,withan

averagelifespanbetween500‐600yearsandthelargestspecimensupto2000yearsof

78Sibeene,Petronella.“Namibia:StateHouseInauguratedinStyle.”NewEra,March25,2008.79Senters,AnnaE.“WelwitschiamirabilisCultivation.”AERGENewsletter,Vol.10(2)Summer1997p.5.

36

age.80Thelong‐lifeandenduranceoftheWelwitschiaaswellasitsendemismtothe

NamibDesertmaketheWelwitschiaanidealbotanicalsymbolforthenewnation.

Theideaofintegratingasymbolicplantintothestatehousedesignmaywell

havecomefromNorthKoreawhereemblematicplantssuchasthemagnoliaandazalea

areubiquitousinthedesignsoftheofficialMansudaeprojectsinPyongyang.For

instance,theKimilsunigaandthemagnoliaareincludedinthecarvedbasketsofflowers

thatdecoratethebothsidesoftheJucheTower,representingthepeople’sdesireto

bringtheJucheideaintobloom(Fig.75).81

TheomnipresenceoftheWelwitschiaintheNamibianStateHouseismost

clearlyobservedinthegoldenemblemsadorningtheexteriorfencesandwalls,and

cabinetdoors(Fig.76–Fig.79).TheWelwitschiaplantalsofeaturesprominentlyina

paintingintheStateHousebanquethall(Fig.80andFig.81).Situatedbehindthehead

table,thispaintingincludesthreedifferent‐sizeddepictionsoftheplant,withthelargest

extendingthelengthofthewall.Theplantsareisolatedfromanyparticularcontext,set

againstastarkbluebackground,whichpushesthemforwardwithinthepictureplane.

Theseparationoftheplantspeciesfromitsnaturaldesertenvironmentsuggestsits

interpretationasarecognizableemblemoftheNamibiannation.Again,whilethe

WelwitschiaplantisspecificallyNamibian,itsuseasarecurringmotifrecallsNorth

KoreanpracticeandrepresentsanotherwayinwhichthevisualcultureofPyongyang

wasabsorbedandrecastforNamibia.

80Notten,Alice.“Welwitschiamirablis.”KirstenboschNationalBotanicalGarden.

Kirstenbosch:CapeTown,March2003.81JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,92;44.

37

LawrenceVale,inhisdiscussionofpostcolonialcapitaldesigns,acknowledges

thatforeignarchitects,inadaptingtheirdesigns“tothechallengesofculturalpluralism”

mustoftenmake“visibleassumptionsaboutthesocialandculturalpreferencesoftheir

clients.”82InsinglingouttheWelwitschiaasasignifieroftheNamibiannation,the

MansudaedesignforegroundsaesthetictropescommontoNorthKoreanvisualculture,

andindoingso,formulatesculturallyspecificsymbolsthathavelittlerelationto

contemporaryNamibianculture.FredericFreschidescribesthe“incorporationof

regionalelementsascodingdevices”asan“attempttoengageasenseofplace,”yet

acknowledgesthatalltoooften,thisresultsinclichédportrayalsofan“‘African

aesthetic’”insteadofindigenousreferences.Thispracticeisexemplifiedthroughthe

indiscriminate,widespreadintegrationoftheWelwitschiaplantsintheStateHouse

design,andalsothroughtheanimalsculpturesadorningthegroundsthatencirclethe

building.Sculpturesofelephants,zebras,oryxandothercommonAfricanmammals,in

anattempttoculturallylocatetheNamibianStateHouse,endupdrawingattentionto

thetouristicartificeofthesymbolicprogramcharacterizingtheNorthKoreandesign.

OtherparallelsbetweentheinteriordecorationoftheNamibianStateHouseand

MansudaeprojectsinPyongyangincludethemosaicoftheNamibianflag(Fig.82and

Fig.83),andextravagantchandeliers(Fig.84).ThemosaicdepictingtheNamibianflag

thatadornsthewalloftheCabinetRoommightbecomparedtomanymosaicmurals

decoratingPyongyangbuildings.MosaicsareaspecialtyoftheMansudaeArtStudio,

82 Vale,Architecture,PowerandNationalIdentity,322

38

andfigureprominentlywithinthevisualcultureofPyongyang,includingtheMetro.83

Also,thedomedceilinginthecabinetchambersandtheornamentalchandeliersinthe

cabinetareasaswellasbanquethallrecallthelightingdesigninMansudaebuildings

suchastheGrandPeople’sStudyHouse(Fig.85)andthePyongyangsubwaystations.

AnothercharacteristicofthePyongyangbuildingssharedbytheStateHouseisthe

extensiveuseofcostlypolishedstonefloors,pillarsandwalls.IntheNamibianState

House,theMansudaedesignersuseddifferentcolorsofgranite–back,greenand

maroon–foreachfloorofthebuilding.84Theseexamplesattesttobreadthof

correlationsbetweeninteriordesignmotifswithintheNamibianStateHouseandwith

otherprojectscompletedbytheMansudaeArtStudioinPyongyang.

Takentogether,thenumerouswaysthattheHeroes’AcreMonumentandthe

newNamibianStateHouserecastthevisualcultureofPyongyangtosuittheNamibian

contextarestriking.BothNamibianprojectsareofparticularnationalsignificance:the

StateHouseemblematicofthenewnationanditsindependentgovernment,andthe

Heroes’AcremonumentatributetoNamibia’sstruggleforself‐rule.Theaesthetic

outsourcingoftheirdesignswasacontroversialdecision,andultimatelyrepresentsa

concertedefforttoreplicatethepowerofPyongyang’svisualcultureinNamibiaforthe

purposesofimprintingtheauthorityandlegitimacyofthepost‐colonialgovernment

withinthepublicsphereandbyextensionthepublicconsciousness.

83JanePortal,ArtUnderControlinNorthKorea,148.84CatherineSasman,“Namibia:NewStateHouseforNewNation,”NewEra,March20,2008.

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IV.IndependenceMemorialMuseum

ThemostrecentNamibiancommissiongiventotheMansudaeOverseasProjectisthe

IndependenceMemorialMuseum,whichisscheduledtobecompletedintheSummer

of2011(Fig.86).85Thisgrandioseconcretetower,identifiedbytheNamibianMinistryof

PublicWorksasthesecondphaseoftheoftheHeroes’Acreproject,wasoriginally

plannedtoopeninMarchof2010incommemorationofthetwentiethanniversaryof

Namibia’sIndependencefromSouthAfrica,butconstructionwasputonholddueto

budgetaryconcerns.86

BoththeHeroes’AcreandthenewNamibianStateHousevisuallyassertthe

authorityoftherulingSWAPOpartythroughtheuseofaestheticprogramsborrowed

frommonumentsandbuildingsinPyongyang,butthisprocessisevenmoreovertinthe

IndependenceMemorialMuseum.Whiletheformeremployelementsoftheimported

visualculture,theynonethelessincorporateNamibianreferencesintotheirsubject

matterandasserttheauthorityoftherulingSWAPOpartyinclear,yetnuancedways.

TheIndependenceMuseum,however,isfirstandforemostanaggressivesymbolof

nascentnationalismandtheNamibiangovernment’striumphoverthecolonialregime.

ThesitechosenforthismuseumisthehighestpointincentralWindhoek,atthe

intersectionofRobertMugabeandFidelCastrostreetsadjacenttotheiconicGerman

colonialChristuskirche.Theplacementofthemuseuminthislocationnotonlyspeaksto

thegovernment’sdesirenotonlytoestablishnewvisualidentitiesfortheyoungNation,

85“Namibia:MemorialMuseumGettingOfftheGround,”NamibiaEconomist,11September2009.86“IndependenceMemorialMuseum.”http://visitwindhoek.net/menu‐seedo/menu‐museums/menu‐independence(accessedonOctober19,2010).

40

butalsoconstitutesametaphoricalconfrontationwithiconsofthecolonialperiod.The

museumcanbeseenthroughoutthecity,anditsstark,solidformforcefullychallenges

thecurvaceousfaçadeofthechurch(Fig.87).87Thistypeoficonoclasticpractice

directedatcolonialstructureshasampleprecedentoutsideofNorthKorea,nonetheless

thevisualforceMansudaedesignisaparticularlyeffectivemeansofachievingthisaim.

AlongwiththeIndependenceMuseum’saggressivejuxtapositionwiththe

GermancolonialChristuskirche,thechoiceofsitealsorepresentsanassertionof

authoritybycurrentregimeovertheformercolonizers.Inordertobuildthemuseumon

thisspot,officialshadtodismantleandrelocateanotablesculpturecommemorating

Germanwarvictory,the“Reiterdenkmal.”Thesculpture,amanwithoutstretchedarm

mountedonahorseoverlookingthecityofWindhoek,wasinauguratedinJanuaryof

1912asaremembrancetotheGermanSchutztruppesoldiersthatdiedduringthewar

againsttheHereroandNamapeoplesofnorthernNamibia(Fig.88andFig.89).88

Althoughformanymovingthisstatuethiswasareprehensibleactagainstamonument

thatwaspartofmodernNamibianhistory,89forothersitrepresentedawelcomephase

87NamibianarchitectJacobWasserfalloriginallytookpartinthegovernmentmeetingsreviewingthedesignproposalfromtheMansudaeOverseasProjectfortheIndependenceMuseum.AthissuggestionthatthegovernmentconsiderusinganexistingstructureacrosstheroadfromtheMuseum’scurrentlocationWasserfallwastoldbySamNujomathattheIndependenceMuseumwastobetallerthananycolonialstructure,andassuchhissuggestionwasnotadequateforthecommission.JacobWasserfall,PersonalCommunication,13August2010.88ChristofMaletsky,“CityIcontoTakeLastRide,”TheNamibian,October6,2008.89NamibiamaintainscloseandcordialrelationswiththeGermangovernmentandtheresomefearedthatthisactionagainstthestatuewouldbeviewedunfavorablybyGermanofficialsandperhapsmoreimportantly,Germantourists.See:BrigitteWeidlich,“Let’sNotMoveHistory,DTALeaderProposes,”TheNamibian,December6,2008.

41

ofthedecolonizationprocess.90Ultimately,themonumentwasmoved,butnotfar.It

nowstandsabout100yardstothenorthinfrontofthestateAlteFestehistorymuseum,

anotherstructureerectedbyGermancolonizers(Fig.90andFig.91).Nonetheless,the

symbolicvalueofitsdisplacementtomakewayfortheIndependenceMuseum,in

concertwiththedwarfingoftheemblematicChristuskirche,wasaboldrepudiationof

thepast.

TheNamibianInstituteofArchitects(NIA)wasoneofthemanyvoicesin

oppositiontothemoveoftheReiterdenkmaltomakewayfortheIndependence

Museum.Thearchitectsassociationbelievedthattheselectionofasiteinthe

Windhoekbusinessdistrictwasinappropriateforamuseumdedicatedto

commemoratingthenation’sindependence.ThePresidentoftheNIA,PaulMunting,

speakingonbehalfoftheInstitute,urgedthegovernmenttoconsideranalternative

locationoutsideofdowntownWindhoek:

“TakingthemuseumtoKatutura,Mondesa(Swakopmund)orKuisebmond(WalvisBay)91wouldmeanitwouldformpartofthedailylivesofthosewhowereinthestruggle.AtpresenttherearefewincentivesavailabletodrawtouriststoKatuturaandasaconsequencethetouristexpenditureinWindhoekisconcentratedinthecentralbusinessdistrictandsurrounds.”92

Thearchitect’sfeelingsregardingthismatterwerealsorepresentedbyothersinthe

publicmedia.Oneeditorial,writteninresponsetothearticlepublishedinTheNamibian

90See:PhanuelKaapama,“MemoryPolitics,TheReiterdenkmalAndTheDe‐colonizationoftheMind”TheNamibianAugust22,2008.91SwakopmundandWalvisBayarecitiesontheNamibiancoast;MondesaandKuisebmondarebothtownships(informalsettlementareas)withinthesecities.92ChristofMaletsky,“ArchitectsSayMoveofMonument‘flawed’”,TheNamibian,July

17,2008.

42

thatoutlinedthearchitect’sobjections,states:“[themuseum]isrightinthemiddleof

thegovernmentandadministrativearea,awayfromtheverypeoplewhosefreedomit

issupposedtorepresent.”93Asprecedentforthelocationofculturallysignificant

monumentsinhistoricallydisadvantagedareas,thearchitectscitedtwomuseumsin

SouthAfrica:theRedLocationMuseumintheNelsonMandelaMunicipality(Port

Elizabeth)andtheHectorPietersenMuseuminSoweto,Johannesburg.94

Thearchitectsalsovoicedconcernovertheprocessthroughwhichthe

museum’sdesignwaschosen.TheNIAmembersandmanyothersobjectedtothe

absenceofanopenarchitecturalcompetitionforthedesign,andfailuretosolicit

qualifiedNamibianarchitects.Moreover,thesecrecysurroundingthedesignplansuntil

theywereapprovedwas,formany,anaffronttothespiritoftheproposedproject.

Localarchitects,suchasNinaMaritz,pointtothenewlyerectedConstitutional

CourtinSouthAfricaasanexampleofhowtheNamibiangovernmentmighthave

awardedofthecommissionfortheIndependenceMuseum.Inthiscase,thedesign

submittedbyateamofSouthAfricanarchitectswaschosenfromapoolofinternational

anddomesticproposalsinanopencompetition.Informationaboutthenationalitiesof

thearchitectswasnotmadeavailabletothepanelofjudgespriortotheirselection,and

finalistswerechosensolelyonthemeritsoftheirdesign.Oncethefinalistshadbeen

pickedthedesignsweresubmittedtothepublicforcomment,andtheirinputwas

93“AppropriateMemorial,InappropriateSite”TheNamibian,June13,2008.94Ibid.

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weighedheavilyintheeventualawardingofthecommissiontotheSouthAfrican

architectsAndrewMakin,JaninaMasojadaandPaulWygers.95

ThedesignoftheSouthAfricanConstitutionalCourtincorporatesportionsofa

notoriousApartheideraprison,andindoingsoreferencesthestrugglesagainstpast

injusticesatthesametimeasitlookstowardsabrighterfuture.TothispointLaw‐

Viljoennotes:

ItistherealizationofthedreamofmanytohaveabuildinginthenewSouthAfricathatwouldcelebratetheidealsofaprogressiveConstitution,commemoratethesufferingandstrugglesofthecountry’spastwithoutslavishlydoingobeisancetohistoryandgivevisibleformtothebeliefthatallareequalbeforethelaw.96

ForarchitectssuchasMaritztheIndependenceMemorialMuseumlackssuchabalance

betweenrecognitionofthepastandcommemorationofthehopefulpresent,and

missesanopportunitytogiveNamibiancitizensachancetoengageincivicdiscourse

aboutthemeaningoftheirindependence,andtohelphealthelingeringwoundsofthe

apartheidpast.97Effectively,intheawardingofthecommissiontotheMansudaefirm,

Namibialostachancetobringitsdiversecitizenstogetherandinvolvetheminthe

processofcreatingamonumentrepresentativeoftheirpost‐colonialunity.

95BronwynLaw‐Viljoen,LightonaHill:BuildingtheConstitutionalCourtofSouthAfrica(Parkwood,SouthAfrica:DavidKrut,2006):796ibid.97NinaMaritz,PersonalCommunication,August112010.

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V.Conclusion

InMarchof2008KimYongNampaidanofficialstatevisittoWindhoekontheoccasion

oftheeighteenthanniversaryofNamibia’sindependenceandtoattendthe

inaugurationofthenewStateHouse.Asanhonoredguest,KimYongNamgavea

speech,andtogetherwithSamNujomaandcurrentPresidentHifikepunyePohamba,

unveiledatabletofpeacetoofficiallyopenthenewseatofthenationalgovernment.98

InhisaddressKimYongNampraisedthecontinuedpositiverelationsbetweenNorth

KoreaandNamibiaanddescribedthenewStateHouseasasymboloffriendship

betweenthetwocountries.99Hecontinued,declaringthattheStateHousehadsprung

fromthegoodrelationsfirstbegunbetweenKimIlSungandSamNujomaduringthe

Liberationstruggle.Reflectingthesesentiments,NamibianPresidentHifikepunye

PohambapraisedtheableNorthKoreantechniciansanddeclaredthattheStateHouse

wouldactasasymbolofthesovereigntyanddignityoftheNamibianpeople.Pohamba

alsoexpressedhisthankstotheNorthKoreaforitsmoralsupportandmaterialaid

duringNamibia’sstruggleforindependence.100

AjointcommuniquéfromthetwonationsdetailstheremainderoftheNorth

Koreanleader’sgoodwillvisit.ItnotesthatKimYongNamandhisdelegationvisitedthe

HeroesMonumentandlaidaceremonialwreathatthefootofthestatueofthe

98BBCMonitoringAsiaPacific–Political.“NorthKorea’sKimYongNamAttendsNamibiaEvents.”March21,2008.99JointCommunique.“JointcommuniqueissuedontheoccasionoftheofficialvisittotheRepublicofNamibiabyhisexcellency,KimYongNam,PresidentofthePresidiumoftheSupremePeople’sAssemblyoftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea.”100BBCMonitoringAsiaPacific–Political.“NorthKorea’sKimYongNamAttendsNamibiaEvents.”March21,2008.

45

unknownsoliderandtraveledtoothersitesinWindhoek.101Inaddition,the

communiquéexpressesthatthevisitwasasuccessandrelaysKimYongNam’s

convictionthatthevisitmarksanimportantmilestoneindeepeningthefeelingsofthe

twopeoplesandgivinga“freshimpetustothebilateralrelations.”102Anofficial

invitationtovisitPyongyangwasalsoextendedtoPresidentPohamba.103

ThisaccountofrelationsbetweenNamibiaandNorthKoreaontheoccasionof

theStateHouseinaugurationrepresentsacommitmentonthepartofbothnationsto

strengthenthetiesthatbeganduringNamibia’syearsofstruggletoattain

independence.ThesenseofobligationfeltonthepartoftheNamibianleaderstowards

NorthKorealendssupporttotheargumentthatthecommissionoftheMansudae

OverseasProjectforthebuildingoftheHeroes’AcreMonument,StateHouseand

IndependenceMuseumrepresentsanactofcalculateddiplomacy.Yet,theremarkable

fidelitybetweentheNamibianworksandextantMansudaeworksinPyongyang

suggeststhatmotivationsforcommissioningtheNorthKoreanfirmextendedbeyond

fosteringfavorablerelationsandmoreclearlydemonstratedthegovernment’sdesireto

establishacollectivenationalidentitythrougharchitecturalworks,basedonasetof

memoriesfavorabletothepostcolonialgovernmentandapartfromWesternreferences.

101KoreanCentralNewsAgency.“WreathLaidbeforeHeroesCemeteryinWindhoek”http://www.kcna.co.jp/item/2008/200803/news03/24.htm102JointcommuniquéJointCommunique.“JointcommuniqueissuedontheoccasionoftheofficialvisittotheRepublicofNamibiabyhisexcellency,KimYongNam,PresidentofthePresidiumoftheSupremePeople’sAssemblyoftheDemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea.”103Ibid.

46

AsLawrenceValedescribes,edificesandmonumentsthataretoutedasbeing

representativeanation’sidentity,aretypicallyameansoffulfillingthreeotherneeds:

“theneedtore‐assertthesub‐nationalityofthesponsoringregimebyequatingitsown

specificethnicheritagewith‘thenational’;theneedtoextendinternationalidentity

throughstakingsomenewclaimtonoteworthymodernity;andtheneedtodevelopa

personalidentityoftheclientordesigner,whoviewsanysinglebuildingprojectasa

highlyindividualizedimprintofself.”104ViewedinrelationtotheNamibiancommissions,

hiringtheMansudaeOverseasProjectmaybeseenasanattempttomeetthefirsttwo

“needs”describedbyVale.TheforegroundingoftheSWAPOnarrativeinachieving

NamibianindependenceintheHeroes’Acreandthemural‐sizedportraitofSWAPOelite

againstanaturalized,NamibianlandscapeintheStateHouseportraitbothspeaktothe

desireforasub‐nationalentitytoequateitselfwiththe‘national.’Theerectionofanew

StateHouse,distinctfromoneusedduringthecolonialera,repletewithinnocuous,

clichédiconsintendedtoconveyasenseofNamibianidentityspeakstotheneedfora

commonmeansofforgingidentityandlegitimacywithinthedomesticaswellas

internationalspheres.Similarly,theindependencemuseum,whosedesignmakesitfirst

andforemostametaphoricalaffronttocolonialstructures,servesasadeclarativevoice

forthepowerandmightofthenewregimeinthepostcolonialera.

Insum,thispaperhasspeculatedonthemotivationsbehindtheawardingof

commissionsforthreeofthemostculturally‐significantbuildingsinWindhoektothe

MansudaeOverseasProject.Ihaveidentifiedtheuniquewaysinwhichthemonuments

104 Vale,Architecture,PowerandNationalIdentity,99.

47

echothereverentialvisualcultureofPyongyang,andarguedthatthishadaprofound

impactonSamNujoma.Givenhisfamiliaritywiththecity,itispossibletoviewthe

monumentsinWindhoekasconsequencesofhisdesiretorealizeasimilarvisualregime

forhisownnation.Byexaminingthemechanismsthroughwhichthecommissionsare

realized,howthesitesarechosen,andhowthedesignswereselected,wecanseehow

worksinspiredbyNorthKoreaandproducedbyNorthKoreanartistsarebeingusedto

assertthepowerandauthorityofthepost‐colonialgovernmentinthepublicsphereas

wellasanationalisticsentimentbasedontheactionsoftheSWAPOelite.

48

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Figure 1: Independence Museum, viewed from Robert Mugabe Avenue, Windhoek. Source: Photograph taken by author.

54

Figure 2: View of Heroes’ Acre Memorial central “Unknown Soldier” sculpture, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

55

Figure 3: Aerial view of Namibian State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

56

Figure 4: Portrait of current President Hifikepunye Pohamba (left) and Founding President Sam Nujoma at Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Portraits of the two leaders appear together frequently in offices throughout the capital city of WindhoekSource: Photograph taken by author.

57

Figure 5: Sam Nujoma greets North Korean citizens during a diplomatic visit to North Korea. Accompanying caption read: “President Sam Nujoma on a visit to North Korea meets female soldiers, 1983.” Source: Namibian National Archives.

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Figure 6: Sam Nujoma with Kim Il-Sung in North KoreaSource: Namibian National Archives.

59

Figure 8: View of Juche Tower from below.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaru-ka/2945684478/in/set-72157608060704314.

Figure 7: View of Juche Tower towards Grand People’s Study House.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaru-ka/3560068203/.

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Figure 9: Entrance to Martyr’s Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kernbeisser/424812977/.

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Figure 9: Entrance to Martyr’s Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kernbeisser/424812977/.

Figure 10: View of Entrance Gate, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365871.

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Figure 11: View towards Cemetery, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365874.

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Figure 12: Sculpture Group at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365879.

Figure 13: Detail, Sculpture group at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365877.

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Figure 14: Inscription from Kim Il Sung, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365881.

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Figure 15: View of Martyr’s Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/kernbeisser/424815605/.

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Figure 16: Side view of granite sculptures depicting revolutionary heroes, Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK

Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/2982123644/sizes/l/in/set-72157608451672128/.

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Figure 17: View of gravestones at Martyrs’ Cemetery, Pyongyang, DPRK. Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365888.

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Figure 18: View of Kumsusan Memorial Palace, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365852.

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Figure 18: View of Kumsusan Memorial Palace, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116365852.

Figure 19: Kim Il Sung statue at Kumsusan Memorial Palace, Pyongyang, DPRK. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/mytripsmypics/2520830134/.

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Figure 20: View of Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK. Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rawbean/180734835/.

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Figure 21: Interior, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/stiofandebrun/3696810219/.

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Figure 23: View of gravestones, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Photograph taken by Author.

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Figure 24: Bronze mural depicting Namibia’s struggle for independence, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 25: Entrance to Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 26: View of sculpture flanking entrance to Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 27: Stone sculpture symbolizing youth. Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 28: View of stadium seating, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 29: View of Heroes’ Medal, Eternal Flame and obelisk, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 30: View of graves from behind, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.

Source: Photograph taken by author.

Figure 31: Grave, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.

Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 32: View of Unknown Statue overlooking desert, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 33: Statue of the Unknown Solider, holding grenade an AK-47, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pyrex/2159653362/in/photo-stream/.

Figure 34:Side view of Unknown Soldier statue, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 35: Victory Monument, Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Memorial, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/langsx2/5104311451/sizes/z/in/photostream/.

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Figure 36: Rear view, Victory Monument, Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Memorial, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116357212.

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Figure 37: Victory Monument, Victorious Fatherland Liberation War Memorial, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116357218.

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Figure 38: Plaque reading “Glory to the Fallen Heroes and Heroines of the Motherland Namibia, Sam Nujoma, 26th August, 2002,” Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 39: View of the Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/3118941172/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.

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Figure 40: View of the Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/3118941354/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.

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Figure 41: View of interior relief, Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/3118941260/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.

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Figure 43: View of interior relief, Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/zaruka/4037987541/sizes/z/in/set-72157611400240356/.

Figure 42: View of interior relief, Monument to the Party Founding, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.pbase.com/bmcmorrow/image/116357440.

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Figure 44: First half of bronze mural depicting Namibia’s struggle for independence, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by author.

Figure 45: Last half of bronze mural, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 46: First scene in bronze mural depicting Namibia’s independence struggle, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by author.

Figure 47: Second scene in bronze mural depicting Namibia’s independence struggle, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 48: View of third scene, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph taken by the author.

93

Figure 49: View of end of fourth scene and beginning of final scene, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by the author.

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Figure 50: Final scene of bronze mural depicting Namibia’s inpependence struggle, Heroes’ Acre, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Photograph taken by author.

95

Figure 51: Entrance to State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

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Figure 52: Animal sculptures in State House grounds, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.

97

Figure 54: Animal sculptures (Oryx), State House entrance, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.

Figure 53: Animal sculptures at State House entrance, Windhoek, Namibia. Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.

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Figure 55: Media Briefing Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Rebublikein.

99

Figure 56: Credential Area, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

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Figure 57: Floor, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRKSource: Photo courtesy of Dr. Marsha Haufler.

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Figure 58: Pyongyang Maternity Hospital, Pyongyang, DPRK.Photo courtesy of Dr. Marsha Haufler.

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Figure 59: Kim Il Sung Statue, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: Photography courtesy of Dr. Marsha Haufler

103

Figure 60: President Bill Clinton and his delegation with Kim Jong Il.Source: http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/2009/08/09/2009-08-09_n_korea_leader_uses_bill_visit_to_groom_minikim.html.

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Figure 61: Accompanying caption read: “President Sam Nujoma establishing ties for the future SWAPO with North Korean leader (to his right), the late Kim Il Sung in Pyongyang, North Korea, 1986”Source: Namibian National Archives.

105

Figure 62: Fish River Canyon Painting, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

Figure 63: Fish River Canyon Painting, full view, State House, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

106

Figure 64: Epupa Falls Painting, State House,Windhoek, Namibia.

Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

Figure 65: Epupa Falls Painting, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

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Figure 66: Painting of the Namibian Spitzekopfe, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Courtesy of Die Republikein.

108

Figure 67: Adolph Jentsch, Swarte Kuppe, 1941. Oil on canvas Collection of the National Gallery of Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

Figure 68: Adolph Jentsch, Landscape with Trees, 1941. Oil on canvas. Collection of the National Gallery of Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 69: Painting of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/langsx2/5126629140/sizes/z/in/set-72157625181417574/.

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Figure 70: Picture of Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il in field of Kimilsungia and Kimjongilia flowers.Source: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_dhZOqRGa-uA/RlyErOGbe4I/AAAAAAAAAAM/RLmf1hE_Et8/s1600-h/kimilsungia.

Figure 71: Kimjongilia flower.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pric-ey/478837511/sizes/z/in/photostream/.

Figure 72: Kimilsungia flower.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pric-ey/478837291/sizes/z/in/photostream/.

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Figure 73: Portrait of Namibian cabinet, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.

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Figure 74: Welwitschia, Namib desert, Swakopmund, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 75: View of carved Kimilsungia and magnolia flowers carved into side of Juche tower.Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.uriminzokkiri.com/Newspaper/english/JucheIdeaTower/PHOTO.HTM.

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Figure 76: Welwitschia adornments on exterior State House fence, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

Figure 77: View of exterior wall and Welwitschia adornments, State House,Windhoek, Namibia.

Source: Photograph taken by author.

115

(Above) Figure 78: View of Cabinet Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia

Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein

Figure 79: Welwitschia adornments on State House paneling, State House, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein

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Figure 80: Banquet Hall, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.

Figure 81:Wall Painting, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.

Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.

117

Figure 82: View of mosaic of Namibian flag, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.

Figure 83:View of Cabinet Chamber Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.

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Figure 84: Chandelier in Cabinet Chamber Room, State House, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph courtesy of Die Republikein.

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Figure 85: Chandelier, Grand People’s Study House, Pyongyang, DPRK.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/stiofandebrun/3696810219/.

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Figure 86: View of Independence Museum in relation to the Christuskirche, Robert Mugabe Avenue, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

121

Figure 87: View of the Independence Museum from Independence Avenue, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.

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Figure 88: Reiterdenkmal monument in its original location.Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/53741353@N05/4970912133/sizes/z/in/photo-stream/.

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Figure 89: View of Reiterdenkmal monument in relation to the Christuskirche, Windhoek, NamibiaSource: http://www.flickr.com/photos/globe-photography/4244195080/sizes/z/in/photo-stream/.

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Figure 91: Reiterdenkmal in new location in front of Alte Feste Museum, Windhoek.Source: Photograph taken by author.

Figure 90: View of the Reiterdenkmal in its new location in front of the Alte Feste mu-seum, Robert Mugabe Avenue, Windhoek, Namibia.Source: Photograph taken by author.