post cold war global developments and foreign policy discourse...

Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs, Vol. 2, No. 3, Fall 2011, pp. 35-64

Post Cold War Global Developments and Foreign Policy Discourse of Iran

Mahmoud Vaezi∗

Abstract Since the changes in the international system resulting from the end of the Cold War and those arising from such global processes as economic globalization and information revolution the role and position of foreign policy in improving political, economic, cultural and security situation of countries have gained more importance. The present paper seeks to answer the question as to what has been the impact of global developments, resulting from changes in the international system and globalization, over the Iran’s foreign policy of Iran in the past two decades. This author is of the view that, pursuant to these developments, economic and cultural tools in furthering foreign policy goals have become more important and, despite the continued emphasis on the earlier principles and ideals of the Islamic Revolution, the country’s foreign policy discourse underwent changes, including the export of revolution discourse, attention to economic variables in foreign policy and changes in foreign policy language.

Keywords: Globalization, Information and Telecommunication Revolution, the Islamic Republic of Iran’ Foreign Policy, International System

∗ Deputy of Foreign Policy in Center for Strategic Research.


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Introduction The end of the cold war ideological and nonconsequently, the creation of new conditions in the international system, on the one handeconomic globalization and telecommunication revolutionother, were among global developments that began iand affected different aspects policies. While, following the collapse of the rival superpower, the US acquired a prevailing status and endeavored for two decades to stabilize its position as tfaced major challenges due to important developments in these two decades and the US efforts, the absolute unipolar system or any new, sustainable and stable structure could not take shape. Instead, the term ‘transitional period’ could be evoked to describe the international system that prevailed in the aftermath of the Cold War. Moreover, globalization, be it economic or sociathe role of foreign policy in improving the political, economic, cultural and security situation. At the same time, the increase in complexity of the international system and the world situation has made the path towards achieving the goals ofuneven for countries such circumstances global developments affect policy and Iran foreign policy could not be an exception to this rule.

On the other hand, more thaRevolution, questions are being asked about the fundamental

r Global Developments and Foreign Policy Discourse of Iran

old war ideological and non-ideological rivalriese creation of new conditions in the international

ne hand, and changes in global processes arising from ization and telecommunication revolution, o

ng global developments that began in the early erent aspects of political life, including states’ foreign ollowing the collapse of the rival superpower, the US ailing status and endeavored for two decades to ion as the only indisputable superpower, however, it lenges due to important developments in these two US administrations weakness. Thus , despite all its

olute unipolar system or any new, sustainable and could not take shape. Instead, the term ‘transitional e evoked to describe the international system that aftermath of the Cold War. Moreover, globalization, r social, led to the attachment of more importance to eign policy in improving the political, economic, urity situation. At the same time, the increase in he international system and the world situation has owards achieving the goals of foreign policy more tries as compared to the past. It is obvious that under ces global developments affect all states foreign oreign policy could not be an exception to this rule. er hand, more than three decades after the Islamic stions are being asked about the fundamental

Iran

es and, ational g from on the y 1990s foreign the US des to ever, it se two all its

le and sitional m that zation, ance to nomic, in the

on has y more t under foreign rule.

Islamic mental

principles, policies and approaches of Iran’s foreign policy. One of these questions relates to changes or ups and downs with respect to the foreign policy discoupublications on the nature of Iran’s foreign policy and the approaches of the different Iranian Islamic Republican policy are already available. However, this paper seeks, in particular and beyond the fluctuations in question as to how global developments, whether development in international power structure or developments in sociostructure, have affected assume that, due to considerable global developments and to the continued emphasis on the earlier principles and ideals of the Islamic Revolution, the country’s foreign policy discourse underwent changes, including changes in the revoluteconomic variables in foreign policy and changes in foreign policy literature.

I. Conceptual Frameworka. The Impact of Developments in the International System on Foreign Policyverify the above assumption, the impact of gthe Iranian foreign policy will be discussed in two parts. The first part deals with changes in the structure of the international system, i.e., change in power distribution. And the second part reviews global processes, in particulinternational system and the type of power distribution are among international factors that affect foreign policy of states in one way or another. James Rosenau refers to the international system as one offive factors that have an effect on the decisionin the field of foreign policy (Sondermann also believes that foreign policy of each country correlintimately with the international system and iin foreign interactions the bi-polar system and changes in the international system, the United

Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs

es and approaches of Iran’s foreign policy. One of elates to changes or ups and downs with respect to licy discourse. A great deal of researches and he nature of Iran’s foreign policy and the approaches ranian Islamic Republican administrations to foreign y available. However, this paper seeks, in particular e fluctuations in domestic politics, to answer thew global developments, whether development in

wer structure or developments in socio-ecoffected Iran’s foreign policy in the past two deca

to considerable global developments and in parallel emphasis on the earlier principles and ideals of the

on, the country’s foreign policy discourse underwent g changes in the revolution discourse, new focus on les in foreign policy and changes in foreign policy

rameworkevelopments in the International System on Foreign Policyassumption, the impact of global developments over

gn policy will be discussed in two parts. The first part ges in the structure of the international system, i.e., r distribution. And the second part reviews global icular socio-economic globalization.The nature of the em and the type of power distribution are among ors that affect foreign policy of states in one way or osenau refers to the international system as one of

have an effect on the decision-making of governments foreign policy (Rosenau, 1966: 120-123). believes that foreign policy of each country correle international system and it is impossible to ignore it tions (Sondermann, 1961). Following the collapse of m and changes in the international system, the United

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37

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licy: To ts over rst part m, i.e., global of the

among way or of the

nments Fred

orrelate gnore it apse of United


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States, which saw itself as the victorious in the Cold War, made a great deal of efforts to be the architect of 'the new international order', thereby stabilizing the unipolar system and establishing its global hegemony. However, the developments in the aftermath of the Cold War and the general trend of the decline of the hegemon thwarted fulfillment of what the US sought

Though the nonthe reality of unjust and inequitable power distribution, the actors' 'relative power' has undergone few changes and different unew opportunities as well as restrictions, thus changing the potentials of active agencies. The key concept of international relations, i.e., power, has undergone fundamental changes. At the present time, as compared to what was the case during factor had a determining role in definingeconomic, technological as well as soft power are among the factors that underpin power. Therefore, despite the importance of military power in the past, new elemethat are all indicative of the fact that power is now multilayered. Consequently, a military victory is not necessarily translatable any more into a political victory and national power at the present time is increasingly derived from a combination of material powers, predominantly military, and nonsetting, information, institution

Different constellations depicting the position and interconnection of big powers in relsystem are presented. However, due to the complexity of the situation, a single theory cannot elucidate the international system. Under the present circumstances, disorder is more in plain sight now than during the Cold Wfor the international system under the current condition, structure and power distribution are not the major determining factor anymore and regional powers, nonmaterial elements, trends, norms, international regimes, even small


itself as the victorious in the Cold War, made a great o be the architect of 'the new international order',

ng the unipolar system and establishing its global ever, the developments in the aftermath of the Cold eral trend of the decline of the hegemon thwarted at the US sought (Overbeek, 2005: 39-56).

non-fulfillment of the unipolar system did not abate just and inequitable power distribution, the actors'

has undergone few changes and different units faced s as well as restrictions, thus changing the potentials

es. The key concept of international relations, i.e., rgone fundamental changes. At the present time, as at was the case during the Cold War when military termining role in defining power, other factors as ological as well as soft power are among the factors ower. Therefore, despite the importance of military t, new elements intervene in conceptualizing power

cative of the fact that power is now multilayered. military victory is not necessarily translatable any

ical victory and national power at the present time is ived from a combination of material powers,

military, and non-material elements, including normon, institution-building, etc, constellations depicting the position and

of big powers in relation to the current international ented. However, due to the complexity of the e theory cannot elucidate the international system.

nt circumstances, disorder is more in plain sight now Cold War and different propositions are conceivable nal system (Onuf & Frank, 1998: 167-168). Bt condition, structure and power distribution are not mining factor anymore and regional powers, nons, trends, norms, international regimes, even small

Iran

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t abate actors'

s faced tentials ns, i.e., ime, as military tors as factors

military power

ayered. ble any time is owers, norm-

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are not , non-

n small

countries, non-gcertain events, simpactful.

There are serious disagreements among political scientiststhe formation of the new international system. Some are still optimistic about the unipolar system some others are of the view that the formation of bithe US pole versus a coalition of other poles, is Zoysa & Newmanpolar system in horizon and others discuss the hierarchical system. Such theoretical disagreements aside, fluidity and hesitancy are felt at the international level now more tthat gives rise to many opportunities for countries to play role.

One of the traits characteristic of the transitional period in the international system is the existence of a sort of normative vacuum, which could besovereignty, the legitimacy of resorting to force and universal norms of human rights are examples in this respect. Elements in these concepts either change or face challenges. Moreover, the ways the new norms internalize and spread may differ.

Under such circumstances, the transition period becomes generally tense and fraught with dangers and, as the actors may feel facing a total win or lose situation during the onpotentiality for conflicmay posit that, in this conditions, the costs of rivalry in some cases may be unbearable and, ultimately, some actors may risk losing all their capitals (Moinuddin

In general, the current phatraits characteristic as follows:may take few more decades. In other words, this is a protracted transitional period, which by itself may serve as a pattern for defining the current system of international relations.power is multilayered and atomized and it requires redefinition.


governmental organizations, individuals and even such as the 11 September attacks, could be also

erious disagreements among political scientistsof the new international system. Some are still

the unipolar system (Golub, 2004: 770-773of the view that the formation of bi-polar system, i.e., rsus a coalition of other poles, is perceivable (De an, 2009). Certain political scientists view a multihorizon and others discuss the hierarchical system. disagreements aside, fluidity and hesitancy are felt at level now more than any time else in the past –many opportunities for countries to play role. traits characteristic of the transitional period in the

em is the existence of a sort of normative vacuum, noticed in a number of fields. The concept of

legitimacy of resorting to force and universal norms are examples in this respect. Elements in these

change or face challenges. Moreover, the ways the nalize and spread may differ. h circumstances, the transition period becomes nd fraught with dangers and, as the actors may feel n or lose situation during the on-going rivalry, the onflict and instability is relatively strong. Thus, we n this conditions, the costs of rivalry in some cases ble and, ultimately, some actors may risk losing all oinuddin, 1995: 38-40).the current phase in the international system has the ic as follows: 1-The process of the structural change

more decades. In other words, this is a protracted d, which by itself may serve as a pattern for defining m of international relations.2-At the current phase, ayered and atomized and it requires redefinition.

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39

d even be also

about re still 3) and m, i.e., le (De multi-

system. felt at

– a fact

in the acuum, ept of norms these

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ecomes ay feel ry, the us, we e cases sing all

has the change tracted efining phase,

inition.


40

Despite the fact that military power is still a determinant factor, such non-military elements as economic power, technology, prdistributing information and the capacity for building consensus are also important. In this condition, if we consider the capacity for producing and distributing information as a replacement for power and wealth, then, this factor will play a the international system will be heading. In these circumstances, governmental and nonnorms, utilizing a combination of soft and hard powers.multiplying and appropriate conew actors. In the transition period, the possibility for coalescing and befriending is more available than in the preceding periods and, even, those countries that are integrated and given in to the structure couldplay a more effective role.one fraught with numerous ambiguities. The regional crises turning into an international crisis in a short period of time shows that fact that other crises could also entail dangers and prevailing conditions in the traditional period allow the actors to rise or lose their status. It is likely that an actor descend to a lower step on the power hierarchy as a result of a miscalculation.the relationship bother words, an actor with a given less material power could be more effective and influential.

Despite the fact that the international system has entered into the transitional period in the aftermath of States of America still continues to be the main power in different areas of military, economy and technology. Due to its access to the sources of power, the US is still capable of orienting some international institutions, rules aand encourage other players to remain committed thereto or, for the same reason, bring pressure to bear on them.

b. The Impact of Global Trends on Foreign Policymulti-dimensional. In this paper, t


that military power is still a determinant factor, such ments as economic power, technology, producing and

mation and the capacity for building consensus are In this condition, if we consider the capacity for istributing information as a replacement for power , this factor will play a determinant role on the way

system will be heading. In these circumstances, nd non-governmental actors try to globalize their a combination of soft and hard powers.3-Actors are appropriate conditions are created for the activity of e transition period, the possibility for coalescing and

ore available than in the preceding periods and, even, hat are integrated and given in to the structure couldctive role.4- The transitional period is a dangerous

h numerous ambiguities. The regional crises turning onal crisis in a short period of time shows that fact

could also entail dangers and ambiguities. ions in the traditional period allow the actors to rise

us. It is likely that an actor descend to a lower step on chy as a result of a miscalculation.6-In this period,

between the power volume and its impact changes. In actor with a given less material power could be more uential.

fact that the international system has entered into eriod in the aftermath of the Cold War, the United a still continues to be the main power in different economy and technology. Due to its access to the

wer, the US is still capable of orienting some itutions, rules and norms in a way to serve its interest ther players to remain committed thereto or, for the ng pressure to bear on them.ct of Global Trends on Foreign Policy: Global trendsal. In this paper, two major factors that affect the

Iran

r, such ng and sus are ity for power

he way tances, e their ors are vity of ng and , even,

e couldgerous

turning hat fact

5-The to rise tep on period, ges. In e more

ed into United fferent to the some

nterest for the

nds are ect the

foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, i.e., economic globalization and globalization of communication,

Economic Globalization:international relations agree onmay have over foreign policies of countries. These trends may lead to the increase in the speedier movement of goods, individuals, information, ideas, beliefs as well as threats across national borders, which, coupled political institutions, can create opportunities for and impose limitations on the nationdevelopments arising from the global trends. In other words, these trends and the repercussions related thereto in the areas of economic globalization and communication revolution affect the foreign policy of countries and could be considered, at the same time, as advantages and challenges for their national security

We should also recognize that, with the globalization trend, many concepts that we inherited from the past century are being redefined. Thus, while reviewing foreign policy and its changes, we need to pay attention not only to the traditional varianew ones emanating from the trends that globalization generated.

To understand how foreign policy is influenced by the economic globalization, we need to first deal with the relationship between economy and foreign policy, which is defineas a tool to advance foreign policy and as a goal policy:Economy as a tool to advance foreign policy serves governments in their quest for achieving their political, security and military objectives beyond their borders. in this respect, a means used to encourage or threaten another political unit with a view to inducing it towards acting in a certain way. Granting loan, providing assistance or imposing economic sanctions are examples in this repolicy refers to welfare and developmental or financial and commercial goals of a particular country. Here, foreign policy should


of the Islamic Republic of Iran, i.e., economic globalization of communication, are reviewed.

lobalization: The overwhelming majority of experts in tions agree on the impact that international trends

oreign policies of countries. These trends may lead to the speedier movement of goods, individuals,

as, beliefs as well as threats across national borders, with the emergence of social networks and new ions, can create opportunities for and impose e nation-states. Foreign policy is influenced by the ising from the global trends. In other words, these percussions related thereto in the areas of economic communication revolution affect the foreign policy

could be considered, at the same time, as advantages r their national security (Held, 2005: 14-17). also recognize that, with the globalization trend,

that we inherited from the past century are being while reviewing foreign policy and its changes, we

ntion not only to the traditional variables, but also to ing from the trends that globalization generated.

and how foreign policy is influenced by the economic e need to first deal with the relationship between reign policy, which is defined in two ways: economy dvance foreign policy and as a goal of foreign

as a tool to advance foreign policy serves their quest for achieving their political, security and s beyond their borders. In other words, economy is, a means used to encourage or threaten another h a view to inducing it towards acting in a certain oan, providing assistance or imposing economic mples in this respect. Economy as the goal of foreign o welfare and developmental or financial and s of a particular country. Here, foreign policy should

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onomic .

perts in trends lead to

viduals, orders, d new mpose by the , these

onomic policy

antages

trend, being

ges, we also to d.

onomic etween onomy foreign serves

ity and omy is, nother certain

onomic foreign al and should


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help achieve the concerned economic objectives.With economic globalization and, as a r

interdependency in the global economy, resulting from the weakening of such obstacles as physical impediments, tariff and nontariff barriers, the sharp increase in the international trade and investment and the globalization of production,and new challenges are created for all sides involved. On the one side, a state that aims to turn economy into a means at the service of its foreign policy faces some limitations created by the global economy. Such a state cannot any furpunishing means, because the globalized economy enables every government to always find somewhere to procure goods, services, investment and technology. It is also possible to conduct an active foreign policy with diveachieving development, financial and commercial objectives.

On the other side, in the current structure of the international system, the admission into the economic institutions and being active therein require a and economic principles. As an example, admission into the World Trade Organization is not merely an economic issue. It is sometimes subject to certain political conditions and an appropriate relationship with influential members could be a considerable leverage. Thus, economic globalization not only affects the economic orientation of countries, but also it can have an impact on their decisionmechanisms in the field of foreign policy and their relaother countries, especially those who are active and influential in international organizations.

Moreover, we notice increasing transnational integration in the economic and investment sectors, and that economic management further needs kindnation-state structures. Multinational Companies and institutions account for one third of the world’s productsinvestment and two thirds of global trade


concerned economic objectives.omic globalization and, as a result, further in the global economy, resulting from the

ch obstacles as physical impediments, tariff and nonhe sharp increase in the international trade and the globalization of production, new opportunities

ges are created for all sides involved. On the one side, to turn economy into a means at the service of its

ces some limitations created by the global economy. not any further use economy as an encouraging or s, because the globalized economy enables every always find somewhere to procure goods, services, technology. It is also possible to conduct an active ith diversified groups of countries with a view to pment, financial and commercial objectives.er side, in the current structure of the international ssion into the economic institutions and being active minimum implicit acquiescence to certain political

rinciples. As an example, admission into the World on is not merely an economic issue. It is sometimes

n political conditions and an appropriate relationship members could be a considerable leverage. Thus, ization not only affects the economic orientation of so it can have an impact on their decision-mhe field of foreign policy and their relationship with especially those who are active and influential in

anizations. we notice increasing transnational integration in the nvestment sectors, and that economic management d of relationship and institutions that expand beyond ctures. Multinational Companies and institutions third of the world’s products, % 80 of the global

wo thirds of global trade (Amin, 1977: 126). Thus, in

Iran

further m the d non-

de and tunities ne side, e of its onomy. ging or

every ervices,

active iew to

ational g active olitical World

metimes onship Thus,

tion of making p with

ntial in

in the gement beyond tutions global

hus, in

general, the government subsided and the nonof maneuver. As, at the national and international levels, most factors of power interact in the field of economy, the emergeactors and relationships in the same field subject the positions and powers of governments to change in the political field.Information and Communication Technologycommunication technologies has greatly affected hulife of nation-states. This phenomenon has revolutionized views and concepts and formed new perceptions foreign policy of all states in different ways. In addition to transforming classical diplomacy through the communication revolution can place the objectives of foreign policy at the center of the world’s attention and on the agenda of international organizations through using the newer and faster mass media. It also can benefit frintelligence agencies and data banks and affect their foreign policy.

The tool of public diplomacy that aims to directly contact foreign peoples and value their role in conducting foreign policy open channels for quicktheir views. In light of the telecommunication revolution, these channels are being developed and carrying out the tasks in the shortest possible time that the classic diplomacy could hardly accomplish thdemarches.(Sajadpour

In fact, winning legitimacy in the eyes of the world’s public opinion requires mustering the power of persuasion and agenda setting towards the sought objectives. Such a power, in turn, requassets such as agreeable and attractive culture, values and policies at the international level arising from communication revolution have blurred borders between domestic (or national) and international affboundaries. These communicative developments place every element


ernment involvement in managing the economy has non-governmental sector has gained a larger margin at the national and international levels, most factors

ct in the field of economy, the emergence of new onships in the same field subject the positions and nments to change in the political field.ommunication Technology: Progress in information and echnologies has greatly affected human life and the tes. This phenomenon has revolutionized views and med new perceptions (Doking, 1991: 1) and affected of all states in different ways. In addition to ssical diplomacy through creating public diplomacy, ion revolution can place the objectives of foreign nter of the world’s attention and on the agenda of anizations through using the newer and faster mass can benefit from the virtual highway to infiltrate cies and data banks and affect their foreign policy. of public diplomacy that aims to directly contact nd value their role in conducting foreign policy open k contact with these peoples with a view to affecting light of the telecommunication revolution, these ing developed and carrying out the tasks in the e time that the classic diplomacy could hardly hrough dozens of verbale notes and pour,1386: 34) nning legitimacy in the eyes of the world’s public

mustering the power of persuasion and agenda he sought objectives. Such a power, in turn, requreeable and attractive culture, values and policies at level (Melissen, 2005).Moreover, the developments munication revolution have blurred borders between onal) and international affairs and cross geographical e communicative developments place every element

s

43

my has margin factors of new ns and

on and nd the ws and ffected on to omacy, foreign nda of r mass

nfiltrate icy. contact y open fecting

these in the hardly

and

public agenda equires icies at pments etween aphical lement


44

in its own environment and, thereby, form new ways of creating facts(Akhavan Zanjani

Information and knowledge are essential factors in independent decision making and, thus, form one of the foundations of power (Rothkopf, 1998:

Compared to the recent past, the new communication systems are very cheap and utilizing them doesnot require complicated knowledge or expertise. Thus, they could be employegroups or individuals communication revolution reduces the onegovernments over communication and public opinion and may create new allegiances. From a legal perspective, states are soveHowever, their control over communication systems are getting increasingly difficult because the regulatory process. The expansion of the privatization process in this field confirms and intensifies the said phenomenon. The logical consequences of tweakening and erosion of governments’ sovereignty in the area of communication and dissemination of informationcommunication revolution and the free movement of information affect peoples and governments. At the level of peopleand ample access to information, in particular news and world events in the fields of politics and economy as well as social, cultural and legal issues, leads to the formation of new interests, new demands and new perception. In addition, theothers grows and becomes stronger. Particularly, the abundance of information and expansive communication lead to more awareness and sensitivity of public opinion about the decisionfield of foreign policofficials in charge as a result of receiving more information and tending more to compare politicians and decisionthe views of their own people and domestic actors as well as the views of other peoples and foreign governmental , non


ronment and, thereby, form new ways of creating anjani,1381 : 120) n and knowledge are essential factors in independent

and, thus, form one of the foundations of power 354).

to the recent past, the new communication systems and utilizing them doesnot require complicated

xpertise. Thus, they could be employed by small viduals (Druker, 1997: 160). Consequently, the revolution reduces the one-sided domination of r communication and public opinion and may create From a legal perspective, states are sove

control over communication systems are getting cult because the regulatory process. The expansion of process in this field confirms and intensifies the said he logical consequences of the above trend are the erosion of governments’ sovereignty in the area of

and dissemination of information.revolution and the free movement of information nd governments. At the level of peoples, their free

to information, in particular news and world events politics and economy as well as social, cultural and to the formation of new interests, new demands and

In addition, the tendency to compare one’s society to d becomes stronger. Particularly, the abundance of expansive communication lead to more awareness

f public opinion about the decision-making in the policy and the formation of more demands from the ge as a result of receiving more information and compare (Rodan, 1998:133).At the government levelecision-makers should take into consideration, both, eir own people and domestic actors as well as the eoples and foreign governmental , non-governmental

Iran

reating

endent power

ystems licated

small y, the ion of create

ereign. getting sion of he said are the area of

The mation eir free events

ral and ds and

ciety to nce of areness in the

om the on and t level,, both, as the mental

and international actors. In this respect, attention should be paid to the following points:policy and persuading public opinion within and outside country with a view to preserving credibility and legitimacy.

The role of communicationlegitimacy and expanding the field of foreign policy is of great importance. Regional and world powers make always efforts to infuse their culture, policies, objectives and values benefiting from the developed communication systems, thus achieving three sets of objectives in foreign policy as follows:

Winning legitimacy in preserving the world order with a view to maximizing their material and immaterial benefit from the international structure; neutralizing counter opinions and counter forces;culturally dominating others as a means to create cultural structures similar to one’s own in other societies.(Dadndish

Resort to communication systems in furthering foreign policy means relying on the idea maintaining that gaining cultural power is the prerequisite for gaining political poweacts require cultural power

In view of the above, eyeindustries has effectively decreased geographical distances and access time in a way that the cultural dimension of globathe globalization of communication, has created numerous opportunities and challenges for political units. In other words, change in the technological levels in each fields increases the speed; facilitates doing jobs and reduces humat the same time; creates new threats for the society concerned as a whole and the particular field in which technology is being utilized on the other. As the time and difficulty of doing jobs decrease, the time and difficulty to abuse and infiltrate the same field can decrease at the same rate too. It can create more opportunities and challenges for foreign policy and, in some cases, can even lead to qualitative changes


actors. In this respect, attention should be paid to oints: taking note of the new demands in foreiading public opinion within and outside country with ing credibility and legitimacy. communication and culture in increasing soft power,

expanding the field of foreign policy is of great onal and world powers make always efforts to infuse

olicies, objectives and values benefiting from the munication systems, thus achieving three sets of ign policy as follows:

egitimacy in their actions towards creating and orld order with a view to maximizing their material

benefit from the international structure; neutralizing and counter forces;culturally dominating others as a cultural structures similar to one’s own in other

sh,1390:148) ommunication systems in furthering foreign policy

n the idea maintaining that gaining cultural power is for gaining political power. In other words, historic ral power (Zizeck, 1997: 34). f the above, eye-catching progress in highfectively decreased geographical distances and access t the cultural dimension of globalization, in particular n of communication, has created numerous d challenges for political units. In other words,

chnological levels in each fields increases the speed; obs and reduces human errors on the one hand, and, ; creates new threats for the society concerned as a rticular field in which technology is being utilized on time and difficulty of doing jobs decrease, the time

abuse and infiltrate the same field can decrease at the t can create more opportunities and challenges for d, in some cases, can even lead to qualitative changes

s

45

paid to foreign ry with

power, f great infuse

m the ets of

g and material ralizing ers as a

other

policy ower is historic

gh-tech access

rticular merous words, speed; d, and, ed as a zed on

he time e at the ges for hanges


46

in processes. An example in this respect is the releasethe confidential documents of the US State Department, which gave rise to startling developments in relevant approaches. Development in diplomacy, including in the way the negotiations are conducted, could be one of the consequences of thedocuments. The demand by public opinion of being aware of diplomatic undertakings, which are normally conducted behind closed doors, could lead to considering more transparency in the conduct of diplomacy in the future. the State Department by Wikileaks, which include routine reports and analyses by the US diplomats and reflect the view points of the US foreign policy’s apparatus, has been the source of huge difficulties for that US Government in foreign and domestic policy.

II. The Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Irana. The Impact of the international System on Iran’s Foreign Policyto which Iran’s foreign policy has been affected by the new international system is subject to much discussion due to the particularities of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which include: Iran’s geopolitical positionresources, (Cooperof the international systemSariolghalam, 2001identity, (Aysha,security and geo-s

In the Cold War and bistates was to be maintained mainly through their alignment with one of the two superpowersrevolution, its foreign policy reflected the mottoWest’, and Iran chose independence as one of the fundamental principles of its foreign policy, and, accordingly, rejected any kind of reliance on the Eastern and Western blocks 532). During the Cold War


example in this respect is the release by Wikileaks of documents of the US State Department, which gave evelopments in relevant approaches. Development in ding in the way the negotiations are conducted, could nsequences of the leakage of confidential diplomatic

demand by public opinion of being aware of takings, which are normally conducted behind closed to considering more transparency in the conduct of future. The gradual release of 250,000 documents of

ment by Wikileaks, which include routine reports and US diplomats and reflect the view points of the US pparatus, has been the source of huge difficulties for

ment in foreign and domestic policy.

Policy of the Islamic Republic of Irane international System on Iran’s Foreign Policy: The extent

foreign policy has been affected by the new tem is subject to much discussion due to the the Islamic Republic of Iran, which include: Iran’s ion, (Furtig, 2007: 632-635); Iran’s abundant natural per, 1998: 473)Iran’s emphasis on the unjust natuational system, (Moshirzadeh, 2007: 53301: 115);Iran’s particularities in cultural and religious 2006: 240-245); Iran’s power structure, and Iran’s

strategic position,( sariolghalam, 1379 : 23-34)d War and bi-polar environment, the security of all maintained mainly through their alignment with one perpowers. Following the victory of the Islamic oreign policy reflected the motto ‘neither East nor

chose independence as one of the fundamental foreign policy, and, accordingly, rejected any kind of astern and Western blocks (Moshirzadeh, 2007e Cold War, Iran’s foreign policy could take an

Iran

eaks of h gave

ment in , could omatic are of closed

duct of ents of rts and the US ties for

extent e new to the

Iran’s natural nature

33-535; eligious

Iran’s

y of all th one Islamic ast nor mental kind of 7: 529-ake an

idealistic and revolutionary approach and give priority to cooperation with the Islamic and nonand political and spiritual support for the Islamic liberation movements and restrict itsuperpowers. In this period, Iran’s foreign policy went through a difficult and somehow contradictory situation. Affected by the revolutionary ideals and conditions inside the country, it felt committed to rejectsupport the revolutionary and progressive currents across the world. At the same time and due to its foreign and international goals, it needed to act within the framework of bilateral and multilateral relationship with countries and structures of the international order and benefit from international norms and regulations. In the aftermath of the Iranenvironment of the transitional period arising from the collapse of bi-polar system, Iextent with this contradiction in its foreign policy and adopt a more active foreign policy at the regional level.

Following the end of the bipositions vis-à-vis other actors as well as with regard to norms, regulations and international organizations. Iran’s foreign policy was not an exception to this general attitude, and, in some phases with due regard to prevailing conditions and developments iinternational system, it adopted interactive or confrontational positions, benefiting from or paying cost for (Ashraf & Banuazizi, 2001). After the Cold Warwhich emanated from the requirements of the biinternational system, disappeared and, naturally, gave rise to changes in visions and positions of Iran’s foreign policy.

b. The Impact of Economic Globalization and Information Technology on Iran’s Foreign Policyto the world economy are few, Iran could not remain indifferent to economic globalization in its decision making process. Privatization


olutionary approach and give priority to cooperation and non-aligned countries, support for the oppressed nd spiritual support for the Islamic liberation restrict its interactions and cooperation with the two this period, Iran’s foreign policy went through a

mehow contradictory situation. Affected by the eals and conditions inside the country, it felt

eject the domineering system in all its aspect and lutionary and progressive currents across the world. e and due to its foreign and international goals, it

within the framework of bilateral and multilateral countries and structures of the international order

m international norms and regulations. In the e Iran-Iraq war, coupled with the relatively open he transitional period arising from the collapse of Iran could, since the early 1990s, get away to some contradiction in its foreign policy and adopt a more licy at the regional level. he end of the bi-polar system, states began to adopt is other actors as well as with regard to norms, nternational organizations. Iran’s foreign policy was

n to this general attitude, and, in some phases with prevailing conditions and developments i

stem, it adopted interactive or confrontational ting from or paying cost for (Ashraf & Banuazizi, Cold War, many constraints of Iran’s foreign policyfrom the requirements of the bi-polar nature of the em, disappeared and, naturally, gave rise to changes sitions of Iran’s foreign policy. ct of Economic Globalization and Information Technology on cy: Even though the links connecting Iran’s economy nomy are few, Iran could not remain indifferent to ization in its decision making process. Privatization

s

47

eration pressed eration he two ough a by the it felt ct and world. oals, it ilateral l order In the y open

of the o some a more

adopt norms, cy was es with in the ational

nuazizi, policy,of the

hanges

ology on onomy rent to ization


48

of the state-run industries, streamlining government bureaucracy, attempting to attract foreigeconomic policies in order to adapt to the trends in the world economy are among the effects of economic globalization on Iran’s policies. For instanceConstitution, which wer

Reducing the financial and managerial burden of the Government in running economic activities; empowering private and cooperative sectors and lending support to them in order to help Iranian products compete ifacing sensibly with the rules of global trade in a gradual and targeted process and thwarting the influence and domination of foreigners over the national economy

These points referred to above confirm that some indeconomic globalization such as privatization have not escaped the attention of the Iranian policy makers. Heeding the need for downsizing the government, increasing the role of nonactors, devising mechanisms for competing at internand coordinating with the rules of the world trade are all indicative of monitoring by Iran of global trends. The above measures are drafted in a way to enable the Government to lead and oversee economic affairs. Therefore, while the countryeconomic sector, including on the attraction of capital and technology, are influenced by global developments, efforts are always being made to safeguard such fundamental principles as independence and barring foreign dom

The impact of globalization on the country’s economic strategy and more general impacts such as seeking opportunities for skirting the big powers’ misuse of economy, i.e., sanctions, or the requirement of accepting some political pthe world economy have led to the redefinition of tasks and search for new solutions in Iran’s foreign policy, aimed at utilizing opportunities and lessening the impact of the pressures arising from


industries, streamlining government bureaucracy, attract foreign investment and adjusting some es in order to adapt to the trends in the world ong the effects of economic globalization on Iran’s ance, the general policies based on Article 44ich were adopted in June 2005, include the followingthe financial and managerial burden of the unning economic activities; empowering private and ors and lending support to them in order to help

compete in international markets; preparing for ith the rules of global trade in a gradual and targeted

warting the influence and domination of foreigners economy.

ts referred to above confirm that some indicators of ization such as privatization have not escaped the e Iranian policy makers. Heeding the need for overnment, increasing the role of non-governmental mechanisms for competing at international market with the rules of the world trade are all indicative of

an of global trends. The above measures are drafted ble the Government to lead and oversee economic e, while the country’s policy-making activities in the r, including on the attraction of capital and nfluenced by global developments, efforts are always o safeguard such fundamental principles as d barring foreign domination in all sectors. of globalization on the country’s economic strategy

al impacts such as seeking opportunities for skirting misuse of economy, i.e., sanctions, or the requirement me political principles in exchange for participating in

my have led to the redefinition of tasks and search ons in Iran’s foreign policy, aimed at utilizing d lessening the impact of the pressures arising from

Iran

ucracy, some world Iran’s of the owing:

of the ate and o help ng for argeted eigners

tors of ed the ed for mental market ative of drafted onomic

in the al and always es as

trategy kirting rement ting in search tilizing g from

economic globalization. The nature of globalization, expressed in nosovereignty over technology, the weakening of the governments’ role and the blurring of frontiers, facilitates the movement of goods and services across the globe and can results in the following: Firsgoods and services remain within the exclusive domain of any particular country in a way that it can use them as a tool to further its policy and bring pressure to bear on the others. And

Second, the fast movement of goods and services makes its control difficult at the origin. Consequently, the resulting lack of monopoly makes it difficult to turn economy into a tool for imposing sanctions on the others. Thus, the new condition at the global level is one of the reasons behind the failure to achievsome western countries seek from the unilateral and even multilateral sanctions imposed on Iran by the UN Security Council.

Iran’s visionary documents are indicative of accepting the increasing role of economic globalization trends, trole of competition in the world’s markets, the role of nongovernmental actors in economy and regional and international economic blocks as well as the realization of economic interests in the framework of an active and dynamic foreign pinteraction. The overarching documents of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which is put together following extensive expert and scientific efforts and taking into consideration all viewpoints as well as conditions. The adoption of the Document is the result of maturity and benefiting from all subjective and objective capacities of the political system in place. It is stressed in this Document that Iran will be a developed country iregion from the economic, scientific and technologic perspectives, enjoying its Islamic and revolutionary identity, inspiring the Islamic world and upholding constructive and effective interaction in its international relations. In fact, this Document emphasizes Iran’s development through a constructive and effective interaction in


zation. The nature of globalization, expressed in notechnology, the weakening of the governments’ role of frontiers, facilitates the movement of goods and

he globe and can results in the following: Firsices remain within the exclusive domain of any y in a way that it can use them as a tool to further its pressure to bear on the others. And e fast movement of goods and services makes its at the origin. Consequently, the resulting lack of it difficult to turn economy into a tool for imposing

others. Thus, the new condition at the global level is ons behind the failure to achieve all objectives that untries seek from the unilateral and even multilateral d on Iran by the UN Security Council.

onary documents are indicative of accepting the f economic globalization trends, the more important ition in the world’s markets, the role of nonctors in economy and regional and international as well as the realization of economic interests in the

an active and dynamic foreign policy based on e 20-Year-Visionary Document is one of the uments of the Islamic Republic of Iran, which is put ng extensive expert and scientific efforts and taking n all viewpoints as well as all regional and global adoption of the Document is the result of maturity from all subjective and objective capacities of the n place. It is stressed in this Document that Iran will country in 2025, occupying the first place in the economic, scientific and technologic perspectives,

mic and revolutionary identity, inspiring the Islamic olding constructive and effective interaction in its ations. In fact, this Document emphasizes Iran’s rough a constructive and effective interaction in

s

49

in no-ts’ role ds and st, less of any ther its

kes its ack of posing level is es that ilateral

ng the portant f non-ational s in the ed on

of the h is put

taking global

maturity of the an will in the

ectives, Islamic

in its Iran’s

ion in


50

international relations. Given the role and effects of the communication revolution and

domestic and foreign public opinion, the foreignRepublic of Iran in the past two decades has paid attention rather to the legitimacy and suitability of its decisions inside and outside the country; even though different governments pursued this overarching policy in different ways

c. The Approach and Discourse of the Foreign Policies of the Iranian Governments in the Aftermath of the Cold WarWar, the approach and discourse of Iran’s foreign policies have gone through different phases. In order to depicit is imperative to consider the approach and discourse prevailing in Iran’s foreign policy in the past two decades. To do so, a cursory look will be taken at the general foreign policy lines pursued under the presidencies of H

Reconstruction Phase, the administration of Hashemi1997): The final years of the both Iran and the whole international system. At the international level, the world was witnessing the end of the Cold War between the two superpowers and the onset of multilayered changes, referred to as globalization. At the same time, it also experienced challenges such as the first Persian Gulf War. In Iran, too, the finwere the scene for some major events: the Iranend, Imam Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic, passed away and finally Hashemichanges at the domestic and internatioapproach in the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The priority accorded to economic development and reconstruction under Hashemi required the removal of tensions and the development of relations with different countriein Iran’s adjacent areas. To achieve these goals, removing tension and building confidence with the neighboring and regional countries as well as with all other non


tions. ole and effects of the communication revolution and eign public opinion, the foreign policy of the Islamic in the past two decades has paid attention rather to

nd suitability of its decisions inside and outside the ough different governments pursued this overarching t ways.roach and Discourse of the Foreign Policies of the Iranian Aftermath of the Cold War: Since the end of the Cold

ch and discourse of Iran’s foreign policies have gone t phases. In order to depict every aspect of the issue, o consider the approach and discourse prevailing in licy in the past two decades. To do so, a cursory look the general foreign policy lines pursued under the

Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Khatami and Ahmadinejad: n Phase, the administration of Hashemi-Rafsanjani years of the 1980s were full with decisive changes for he whole international system. At the international was witnessing the end of the Cold War between the

and the onset of multilayered changes, referred to as the same time, it also experienced challenges such as Gulf War. In Iran, too, the final years of the or some major events: the Iran-Iraq War came to its meini, the founder of the Islamic Republic, passed

Hashemi-Rafsanjani assumed the presidency. The domestic and international levels led to a new foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The to economic development and reconstruction under

d the removal of tensions and the development of ferent countries, especially the promotion of stability areas. To achieve these goals, removing tension and

nce with the neighboring and regional countries as other non-belligerent countries were included in the

Iran

on and Islamic ther to de the

arching

Iranian e Cold e gone e issue, iling in ry look der the d:

(1989-ges for ational

een the d to as

such as 1980s

e to its passed y. The a new n. The

n under ment of

tability on and tries as in the

foreign policy, thus letting the relationship with neighbors entering into a whole new phase. The relations with Europe and Asia expanded as well to the extent that the countries of these regions took part in many Iranian economic activities.

On the other hand, expanded, paving the way for Iran to successfully host the Summit of the Organization of the Islamic Conference later by the initiative of Iran, the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and its membership grew from Tehran. One of the features of Hashemi’s foreign policy was its active and constructive approach towards the developments in the region. In the period under discussion, Iran, as a mediator, played a constructive roleand civil strife in Tajikistan

The end of the biUnion created a new security situation for the international system and the region, thus chsurrounding Iran as well. The new situation affected the Iranian foreign policy in several ways: First, removing the limitations put in place by the bisuperpower aimed aincluded its presence in Iran’s adjoining areas. Second, the collapse of the Soviet Union meant the disappearance of the superpower that was supportive of the Arabs in their conflict with Israel.of the bi-polar system deprived Iran from the advantage of exploiting the rivalry between the two superpowers.

Fourth, adopting the policy of balancing against the US, which found expression in expanding relation with Russia and normalizing relations with Europe through ‘critical dialogue’ and opening up to the region (Firoozabadi

The emergence of newly independent countries in Central Asia and the Caucuses on Iran’s borders on the one hand, and the US military presence in region po


hus letting the relationship with neighbors entering ew phase. The relations with Europe and Asia to the extent that the countries of these regions took

nian economic activities. ther hand, cooperation with the Islamic world g the way for Iran to successfully host the Summit of

of the Islamic Conference later by the initiative of omic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and its

w from 3 to 10 countries during the OIC Summit in he features of Hashemi’s foreign policy was its active approach towards the developments in the region.

under discussion, Iran, as a mediator, played a in helping resolve the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

Tajikistan(Vaezi,1388 : 281,283) f the bi-polar system and the collapse of the Soviet

new security situation for the international system thus changing the security situation in the areas

n as well. The new situation affected the Iranian several ways: First, removing the limitations put in i-polar system. The US as the only remaining d at establishing an order suiting its interests, which

ence in Iran’s adjoining areas. Second, the collapse of meant the disappearance of the superpower that was Arabs in their conflict with Israel. Third, the end stem deprived Iran from the advantage of exploiting

en the two superpowers. opting the policy of balancing against the US, which n in expanding relation with Russia and normalizing urope through ‘critical dialogue’ and opening up to zabadi,1388 : 394-396) ence of newly independent countries in Central Asia s on Iran’s borders on the one hand, and the US in region poised to liberate Kuwait and attack Iraq,

s

51

ntering d Asia ns took

world mmit of

tive of nd its

mmit in active

region. ayed a onflict

Soviet system

e areas Iranian put in

maining which

apse of hat was he end ploiting

which malizing

up to

al Asia he US k Iraq,


52

on the other, required appropriate handling in a way to dispel threats and try to turn them into opportunities. The new situation in Iran’s northern and southern frontiers and the positioning of the US forces could be a threat to the country due to the US hostile policy towards Iran. Consequently, multilateralism and development of relations with the regional countries and some big powers were placed on the agenda of Iran’s foreign policy. On such a basis and followiadoption of the ddifferences and expand relationship with the European powers and relative progress along this line was made. The onset of negotiations with the European Union was an example in thfew challenging issues, regional crises and endeavoring to portray itself as a conventional actor were among the actions undertaken within the discourse of Iran’s foreign policy under the

After the end of the imposed Iraqi war on Iran and given the extensive negative propaganda against Iran by some western and Arab countries and their news media, the Hashemi’s administrations, while trying to facilitate to pursue an interactive, cooperative and peaceful approach, take steps towards removing tension with the West and building confidence with regional and neighboring states, thereby enhancing its legitimacy and credibility at the international level while keeping with the principles and values of the Islamic revolution. These goals were pursued, inter alia, through providing explanations to public opinion and domestic and foreign actors, benefiting from infocommunication system. Iran’s foreign policy at this stage could be defined as moderate and constructive, which led, among other things, to neutralizing the adverse publicity by some western and Arab countries( Ramazninormalizing relations and the policy of with the neighbors in the Persian Gulf and better relationship with Europe. All in all, the Hashemi’s administration, which was


uired appropriate handling in a way to dispel threats hem into opportunities. The new situation in Iran’s

uthern frontiers and the positioning of the US forces to the country due to the US hostile policy towards

tly, multilateralism and development of relations with untries and some big powers were placed on the

foreign policy. On such a basis and followindétente policy, extensive efforts were made to reduce expand relationship with the European powers and along this line was made. The onset of negotiations

an Union was an example in this respect. Apart from ssues, the adoption of peaceful approaches visnd endeavoring to portray itself as a conventional ng the actions undertaken within the discourse of icy under the Hashemi-Rafdanjani administration. nd of the imposed Iraqi war on Iran and given the e propaganda against Iran by some western and Arab eir news media, the Hashemi’s administrations, while e the situation for economic cooperation, endeavored teractive, cooperative and peaceful approach, take removing tension with the West and building regional and neighboring states, thereby enhancing

d credibility at the international level while keeping es and values of the Islamic revolution. These goals nter alia, through providing explanations to public

mestic and foreign actors, benefiting from information system. Iran’s foreign policy at this stage could be rate and constructive, which led, among other things, the adverse publicity by some western and Arab zni, 1388:16). The fundamental actions aimed to tions and the policy of détente helped improve ties ors in the Persian Gulf and better relationship with

all, the Hashemi’s administration, which was

Iran

threats Iran’s forces

owards ns with on the ng the reduce rs and iations

rt from is-à-vis ntional urse of ion.

ven the d Arab , while avored h, take uilding ancing

keeping e goals public

mation uld be things,

d Arab med to ve ties p with h was

established following the Irandiscourse prevailing during the war with respect to some western and Arab countries into an interactive and cooperative discourse and take serious steps on the path of confidence building.administration, helped bring about an ovinfrastructures after the war. As a result, the flow of foreign capital into the country increased considerablyconstitutes a good example of the intimate relationship between foreign policy and globapolicy helped build a sort of confidence in all fields, including economy, and paved the way for attracting foreign investors and accessing the world’s markets.

Iran’s orientation in foreign policy in the reconcould be termed as reformist nonmaintained its critical approach towards the prevailing unjust international order, while abstaining from totally rejecting the nationstate system and the rules and regulationapproach believed that for changing the system one needed to work therein in order to be able to criticize and reform it. Promoting alliance and coalition with the nonto normalize relations withparticipating actively at the works of such multilateral forums as the United Nations, the Nonrelations with the Persian Gulf, Central Asia, Caucasus countries in the framework ofChina in the reconstruction period took place on the basis of reformist non-alignment.

The Reformist Period Continuing with the interactive and cooperative approaadministration emphasized the policy of building and, while initiating and publicizing the idea of dialogue among civilizations, portrayed Iran as a noneyes of world public opinion. These message


wing the Iran-Iraq War, could change the radical ing during the war with respect to some western and nto an interactive and cooperative discourse and take on the path of confidence building.Hashemi elped bring about an overhaul of Iran’s economy and fter the war. As a result, the flow of foreign capital

increased considerably(Rohani,1389:407)This phase od example of the intimate relationship between d global economy, because the pursuit of the uild a sort of confidence in all fields, including aved the way for attracting foreign investors and rld’s markets.tation in foreign policy in the reconstruction period

d as reformist non-alignment, under which Tehran critical approach towards the prevailing unjust er, while abstaining from totally rejecting the nationd the rules and regulations that underpin it. This d that for changing the system one needed to work to be able to criticize and reform it. Promoting

tion with the non-aligned and South countries, trying tions with Europe and reduce tension with the US, vely at the works of such multilateral forums as the the Non-Aligned Movement, the OIC, expanding

e Persian Gulf, Central Asia, Caucasus countries in f regionalism and cooperating closely with Russia and econstruction period took place on the basis of gnment.ist Period (Khatami’s administration 1997 –the interactive and cooperative approach, Khatami’s mphasized the policy of détente and confidence hile initiating and publicizing the idea of dialogue ons, portrayed Iran as a non-violent country in the ublic opinion. These messages that were effectively

s

53

radical rn and

nd take ashemi my and capital phase

etween détente

cluding rs and

period Tehran unjust

nation-t. This o work moting , trying he US, as the

anding tries in sia and asis of

2005):atami’s fidence ialogue in the

ectively


54

communicated to global public opinion and international actors helped with Iran’s image building and portraying its major approaches towards the issues at hand.In the fragmented world emerging from the Cold War, the motto ‘dialogue cultural strength for promoting Iran’s image in global public opinion, turned into the major instrument in Iran’s foreign policy. It was natural that such cultural point of strength could help pave the way for political cooperation as well. As an example, the ‘critical dialogue’ between Iran and Europe turned into the ‘constructive dialogue’, which was a clear allusion to the improvement of relationship between the two parts. The mutual visits by the Iranian and European officials at different levels, including Khatami’s visits to Germany, France and Italy, are another example in this respect.

The terrorist attacks on attention to threats emanating from extremism, fueled by certain groups, created more appropriate environment for listening to Iran’s words about tolerant and peaceful Islam and its emphasis on the need for all civilization to talk to each other. The United Nations proclaimed the year which helped create better environment for more understanding between Iran and the West.

Even though the tension removing policy had somehow begun under the reconstruction Government, it was developed under the Katami administration and becaforeign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The removal of tension means reducing differences and conflicts in relations with other countries and peaceful resolution of disagreements by political and diplomatic instrumenthis respect, the emphasis is on cooperation, convergence, dialogue and confidence building, and they are employed to further the national security instead of resorting to military and violent methods. Far from ignoring and undermining the national interest and security, the policy based on the removal of tension could


o global public opinion and international actors s image building and portraying its major approaches es at hand.In the fragmented world emerging from he motto ‘dialogue among civilization’, as a point of for promoting Iran’s image in global public opinion, major instrument in Iran’s foreign policy. It was cultural point of strength could help pave the way

eration as well. As an example, the ‘critical dialogue’ nd Europe turned into the ‘constructive dialogue’, ear allusion to the improvement of relationship parts. The mutual visits by the Iranian and European

rent levels, including Khatami’s visits to Germany, are another example in this respect. st attacks on 11 September 2001 and the ensuing ats emanating from extremism, fueled by certain more appropriate environment for listening to Iran’s rant and peaceful Islam and its emphasis on the need on to talk to each other. The United Nations ear 2001 as the year of Dialogue among Civilization, reate better environment for more understanding d the West.gh the tension removing policy had somehow begun struction Government, it was developed under the ration and became one of the main lines of the the Islamic Republic of Iran. The removal of tension differences and conflicts in relations with other

eaceful resolution of disagreements by political and ments instead of resorting to violence and force. In emphasis is on cooperation, convergence, dialogue building, and they are employed to further the instead of resorting to military and violent methods. g and undermining the national interest and security, on the removal of tension could promote it in an

Iran

actors oaches g from oint of pinion, It was he way alogue’ logue’, onship ropean rmany,

nsuing n salafi Iran’s

e need Nations zation, anding

begun der the of the ension other

cal and rce. In ialogue er the ethods. ecurity, t in an

essential, sustainable and less costly way.Throughout those years, Iran never deviated from its basic principles. However, itactics to certain tangible changes in comparison be in the years following the Islamic Revolution. As an example, Iran organized its support for the Palestinian cause and liberation movements such as Hamas and Hezbollainternational law. The following up on these principles were linked at that stage with the legitimate fight against occupation and the right to self-determination, which are recognized in international law.

Under prevailing circumstasystem and with the possibility of the new actors affecting the course of events and regional crises turning into globalcould arrange some meetings and engage in some negotiations with a view to helping create stability and security in the region. In this respect, the reference could be made to the cooperation between the two countries in the process of forming the new Afghan Government following the collapse of the Taliban in the Bon Conference and rounds of negotiations between them on Iraq. The US participation in the 5+1 meetings on Iran’s peaceful nuclear programme is another instance in this respect.

The concept ‘reformist nonpolicy during the reform periodreconstruction period. This kind of nonindependence from the global centers of power on the one hand and undertaking efforts to reform the established international order and system on the other. In Iran’scriticizing the status quo, opposing domineering order and unilateralism and endeavoring towards the reform of the United Nations. These goals were to be pursued in a peaceful way and through dialogue

Principalist Period relationship between Iran and the West, especially the US, took again a backward slide with differences growing and tensions rising. The


able and less costly way.Throughout those years, Iran from its basic principles. However, it subjected its tangible changes in comparison to what they used to

ollowing the Islamic Revolution. As an example, Iran upport for the Palestinian cause and liberation h as Hamas and Hezbollah in the framework of

The following up on these principles were linked at he legitimate fight against occupation and the right to n, which are recognized in international law. vailing circumstances after the end of the bithe possibility of the new actors affecting the course ional crises turning into global ones, Iran and the US me meetings and engage in some negotiations with a create stability and security in the region. In this ence could be made to the cooperation between the the process of forming the new Afghan Government lapse of the Taliban in the Bon Conference and ations between them on Iraq. The US participation in gs on Iran’s peaceful nuclear programme is another espect. pt ‘reformist non-alignment’ guided Iran’s foreign he reform period as it was the case under the period. This kind of non-alignment warranted om the global centers of power on the one hand and rts to reform the established international order and her. In Iran’s foreign policy, it translated, in fact, in status quo, opposing domineering order and

d endeavoring towards the reform of the United goals were to be pursued in a peaceful way and

Period (Ahmadinejad’s Administration 2005- )ween Iran and the West, especially the US, took again

with differences growing and tensions rising. The

s

55

rs, Iran ted its

used to le, Iran eration ork of nked at ight to

i-polar course the US with a

In this een the rnment nd few tion in nother

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56

two main reasons for the new atmosphere setting in are as follows:first, the inclusion of Iran in the soBush, second, the efforts by the western countries to refer Iran’s nuclear file from the IAEA to the UN Security Council in a bid to bring pressure to bear on Iran and the adoption byCountries, especially the US, of unfriendly approaches towards Iran leading to the imposition of unilateral sanctions and the adoption of Security Council resolutions against Iran.

The above actions, which took place despite Iran’s cooperationwith the West at the Bonn Conference in facilitating the formation of Karzai Government in Afghanistan, helped radicalize the environment inside Iran. Consequently, the new administration endeavored towards the East on the one hand, and began to adopt tough positions against the West on the other. The foreign policy of Ahmadinejad’s administration in regards to the established international order and international organizations has had its own particularities, distinguishing it from that of the previous twadministrations. While under the Reform and Reconstruction administration the established international order and the prevailing relations therein were criticized, however, the policy was to temporarily admitting the order while making efforts towards itgradual reform. But under the Ahmadinejad administration, the policy has been to openly and toughly criticizing and totally rejecting the international order and anything associating therewith as well as emphasizing the need for fundamentally changing it

Given the increase in the ability of smaller powers in playing role at the global arena due to the conditions prevailing in the aftermath of the Cold War, world) was another important line of Ahmadinejad’s foreign finding expression in interacting and developing political and economic relationship with African and Latin American countries. The expansion of relations with Africa and Latin America was on the agenda of the preceding administrations too and lend


s for the new atmosphere setting in are as follows:n of Iran in the so-called axis of evil by President

he efforts by the western countries to refer Iran’s the IAEA to the UN Security Council in a bid to

o bear on Iran and the adoption by the western ially the US, of unfriendly approaches towards Iran

mposition of unilateral sanctions and the adoption of resolutions against Iran.actions, which took place despite Iran’s cooperationthe Bonn Conference in facilitating the formation of ment in Afghanistan, helped radicalize the side Iran. Consequently, the new administration ards the East on the one hand, and began to adopt against the West on the other. The foreign policy of administration in regards to the established er and international organizations has had its own istinguishing it from that of the previous twWhile under the Reform and Reconstruction

he established international order and the prevailing n were criticized, however, the policy was to itting the order while making efforts towards it

But under the Ahmadinejad administration, the policy nly and toughly criticizing and totally rejecting the

der and anything associating therewith as well as need for fundamentally changing it.increase in the ability of smaller powers in playing

bal arena due to the conditions prevailing in the Cold War, tiermondism (looking towards the third

her important line of Ahmadinejad’s foreign on in interacting and developing political and nship with African and Latin American countries. f relations with Africa and Latin America was on the eceding administrations too and lending support to

Iran

ollows:esident

Iran’s bid to

western ds Iran tion of

erationtion of e the tration adopt

olicy of blished ts own s tworuction vailing

was to rds itspolicy

ng the well as

playing in the e third policy,

al and untries. on the

port to

third world and nonespecially against imperialism, was among the principles of Iran’s foreign policy since the Islamic Revolution, and different governments adopted policies and undertaken certain acrespect. However, American, especially those who follow an anti American line, was highlighted and gained importance in Ahmadinejad’s foreign policy, in comparison to that of the preceding ad

The Ahmadinejad the power of domestic and global public opinion and, as a result, further relies on and believes in the need of using the media. Thus, directly addressing world public opinion, mostwestern countries, this administration treats Iran’s nuclear programme as part of the right of the Iranian people and impossible to forgo. Relying on popular demands, it tries to encourage the dissenting countries to succumb to Iran’opinion. The administration always emphasizes the need to be represented at the international forums and appear on television as well. While placing the fight against ‘existing unjust order’ high on his agenda, Mr. Ahmadiparticipate at the annual session of the UN General Assembly. The letters written by the Iranian President to a number of heads of other States, including the President of the United States, is another important point wdegree of attention Ahmadinejad’s administration pays to employing the tools of public diplomacy and Iran’s soft powers in realizing its goals. Therefore, Iran’s foreign policy in the past two decades hbeen both affected by the communication revolution and tried to benefit from it in achieving its goals.


d non-aligned countries and oppressed peoples, t imperialism, was among the principles of Iran’s

since the Islamic Revolution, and different opted policies and undertaken certain actions in this r, tiermondism and interaction with African and Latin ially those who follow an anti American line, was ained importance in Ahmadinejad’s foreign policy, in at of the preceding administrations. dinejad administration attaches great importance to omestic and global public opinion and, as a result, and believes in the need of using the media. Thus,

ng world public opinion, mostly the citizens of the s, this administration treats Iran’s nuclear programme ght of the Iranian people and impossible to forgo. ular demands, it tries to encourage the dissenting cumb to Iran’s right and persuade global public

dministration always emphasizes the need to be he international forums and appear on television as ng the fight against ‘existing unjust order’ high on his hmadinejad travelled 7 times to New York to

annual session of the UN General Assembly. The the Iranian President to a number of heads of other the President of the United States, is another

within this policy. These activities demonstrate the on Ahmadinejad’s administration pays to employing lic diplomacy and Iran’s soft powers in realizing its

Iran’s foreign policy in the past two decades hted by the communication revolution and tried to achieving its goals.

s

57

eoples, Iran’s

fferent in this

d Latin e, was

olicy, in

nce to result, Thus,

of the ramme forgo.

senting public to be

sion as on his

ork to y. The f other nother ate the ploying zing its des has ried to


58

III. The Impact of Global Developments on the Discourse of Iran’s Foreign Policy Discourse changes in Iran’s foreign policy shows that along with changes in the international situations and power relations, the tone of the country’s foreign policy underwent changes as well. In the past few decades, the importance of the discourses in foreign policy of countries has increased due to the information ctechnology and the need to be responsive to and using a persuasive language in dealing with public opinion. On such a basis, a government’s discourse in foreign policy could swiftly pave the way for closer or farther relations and convergence actors. The speed and dimensions of consequences arising from foreign policies’ discourses in the present world could be explicitly observed in the Iran as well. In the previous administration, the discourse of removing tension domia time when limited actions had already been carried out. In fact, concrete actions in relation to the policy of administration and the policy based on dialogue among civilization in Khatami’s administNonetheless, these discourses by themselves had their own consequences, including the relative favorable reactions they generated in the news media and world public opinion and the actual refinement on the inAlthough, under the current administration, the nature of Iran’s foreign policy remains unchanged, however, its discourse is different from those of the previous Governments.

The prevailing discourse in Ahmadinconfrontational in relation to big powers as well as international order. Nonetheless, this discourse has sometimes shown very flexible and penchant towards negotiation. Moreover, in this period and despite this prevailing discoursvital interest and no acts were undertaken against Israel. However,


of Global Developments on the Discourse of Iran’s

es in Iran’s foreign policy shows that along with nternational situations and power relations, the tone foreign policy underwent changes as well. In the past

importance of the discourses in foreign policy of ncreased due to the information communication he need to be responsive to and using a persuasive

aling with public opinion. On such a basis, a course in foreign policy could swiftly pave the way

her relations and convergence or friction between the ed and dimensions of consequences arising from discourses in the present world could be explicitly Iran as well. In the previous administration, the

oving tension dominated interaction and dialogue at mited actions had already been carried out. In fact,

in relation to the policy of détente in Hashemi’s nd the policy based on dialogue among civilization in nistration were far behind the relevant discourses. ese discourses by themselves had their own ncluding the relative favorable reactions they news media and world public opinion and the actual he international environment in relation to Iran.

the current administration, the nature of Iran’s mains unchanged, however, its discourse is different e previous Governments. ling discourse in Ahmadinejad’s administration is in relation to big powers as well as international ss, this discourse has sometimes shown very flexible

owards negotiation. Moreover, in this period and ailing discourse, Iran has never threatened the West’s d no acts were undertaken against Israel. However,

Iran

an’s

g with he tone he past licy of ication suasive asis, a he way een the g from plicitly

on, the ogue at n fact, hemi’s tion in ourses.

own they

actual o Iran.

Iran’s fferent

tion is ational flexible od and West’s wever,

Iran has been portrayed as a threat in world public opinion in a way that the possibility of conducting negotiations and reaching an understanding wicircumstances, we witness from time to time a show of preparedness by the Ahmadinejad administration with no precedent in the previous administration. This administration has failed to achieve any success in its several attempts to reach understanding with the world’s big powers in respect to the bilateral ties and important international issues and setting out negotiations with the United States due to the appearance of its declared policies and its foreigdiscourse. Thus, it could be safely posited that discourses pave the way for actions.

The fact that discourses take lead over actions in foreign policy is consequential. Accordingly, the process of changes in the discourse of Iran’s foreign policy since the Islamic Revolution is discernable and important in understanding Iran’s foreign policy and its evolutionary course in general. As indicated earlier, the power of information and communication in today’s world constitutes new ways orealities and Iran’s foreign policy, affected by communication trends and certain newly important concepts and discourses, displays different shapes of its own. Under current circumstances, sometimes taking a position in the framework of foreignprojection of a different image from the whole political system of the country. Given the performance and complication of the world’s information-communication environment and its role in building public opinion and government posthrough foreign policy’s discourses are so powerful that changing or adjusting them could be a difficult undertaking.


rtrayed as a threat in world public opinion in a way lity of conducting negotiations and reaching an ith the counterparts seems very remote. Under such e witness from time to time a show of preparedness jad administration with no precedent in the previous

This administration has failed to achieve any success empts to reach understanding with the world’s big ct to the bilateral ties and important international g out negotiations with the United States due to the s declared policies and its foreign policy’s prevailing it could be safely posited that discourses pave the

at discourses take lead over actions in foreign policy Accordingly, the process of changes in the discourse policy since the Islamic Revolution is discernable and

derstanding Iran’s foreign policy and its evolutionary . As indicated earlier, the power of information and in today’s world constitutes new ways of creating ’s foreign policy, affected by communication trends

wly important concepts and discourses, displays of its own. Under current circumstances, sometimes in the framework of foreign policy could lead to the ifferent image from the whole political system of the the performance and complication of the world’s munication environment and its role in building

and government positions, the creation of realities policy’s discourses are so powerful that changing or ould be a difficult undertaking.

s

59

a way ing an er such edness revious success d’s big ational to the vailing

ave the

policy course

ble and tionary on and reating trends

displays metimes

to the of the

world’s uilding ealities ging or


60

Conclusion Following the collapse of the binature of power in thein the international system in which nondiplomacy or the somore importance. Despite the effort made by the US to redefine the new order in accordance with its interest, the international system is still in its transitional period. The particularities of this period and the spread of globalization and information and communication technology have had their effects on foreign policyattacks and the priority accorded to security issues in the region, coupled with the US growing presence in the Middle East, have also had their impacts on the regional countries.The subject matter of this paper consists of considering the impact ofchanges in power structure and globalization, on the discourse of Iran’s foreign policy in the past two decades. And the assumption guiding the research is that these developments have led to changes in the discourse of the Revoluin foreign policy, despite the continued emphasis on the early principles and ideals of the Islamic Revolution.

As discussed earlier, the change in the structure of the international system and global trends have Iran’s foreign policy. The economic globalization and government downsizing trends and their effects, including undertakings under Article 44 of the Constitution and efforts towards joining the WTOand the information revolution and iundertakings in Iran’s public diplomacy, are examples of the impacts of global trends on Iran’s foreign policy. across tangible and discernable changes in the general principles of Iran’s foreign policy undethis paper, we can still talk of change in approaches and discourses introduced by them. These different approaches within the


ollapse of the bi-polar system and the multilayered in the period that followed, new conditions emerged onal system in which non-military power, public

so-called soft power, besides military power, gained . Despite the effort made by the US to redefine the ordance with its interest, the international system is

onal period. The particularities of this period and the balization and information and communication

had their effects on foreign policy. The 11priority accorded to security issues in the region, US growing presence in the Middle East, have also

s on the regional countries.The subject matter of this f considering the impact of global developments i.e, er structure and globalization, on the discourse of olicy in the past two decades. And the assumption rch is that these developments have led to changes in the Revolution due in part to the economic variables y, despite the continued emphasis on the early

eals of the Islamic Revolution.ed earlier, the change in the structure of the tem and global trends have had their impacts on olicy. The economic globalization and government ds and their effects, including undertakings under Constitution and efforts towards joining the WTO

mation revolution and its effects, including new ran’s public diplomacy, are examples of the impacts on Iran’s foreign policy. Although we donot come nd discernable changes in the general principles of

olicy under the different administration, covered in an still talk of change in approaches and discourses them. These different approaches within the

Iran

layered merged

public gained ine the stem is and the ication

1 Sept. region, ve also of this nts i.e,

urse of mption nges in ariables e early

of the cts on rnment

under WTO,

g new mpacts t come ples of ered in courses n the

framework of the established principles were undertaken by each of these three governmunderstanding of the situations and structures, their assessment of the new or emerging international trends as well as their cost and benefit analysis. Obviously, the approaches and discourses by each of these governments entailed consequences, opportunities and threats, which are out the scope of this paper.

Essentially, states foreign policy is generally predicated on their Constitutions and the general principles underpinning their legitimacy, we cannot expect tin a short period of time unless fundamental changes occur in the established political system. Thus, as the legitimizing bases of states usually remain unchanged, change of government could normally produce changes extent. These changes, however, could facilitate overtures in foreign relations and political and economic development or bring about damages and restrictions. In other words, we cannot imagine that only either staying on the determined path or fundamentally changing early principles would result in a beneficial and sound foreign policy. Change and adjustment are more rational and wise if they could lead to predictable and calculated consequences. developments in the nature of the international system have affected the foreign policy of many countries, including that of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Global trends, including the economic globalization, as they create interdependency ampolitical and economic issues, have affected Iran’s foreign policy. Economic globalization has had the authorities to look into some aspects of foreign policy all together with economic observations. The improvement of relatistrengthening of ties with economic partners, especially after the end of Iran-Iraq War as well as the requirements of the country’s development, warranted the introduction of certain changes in foreign policy’s appr


e established principles were undertaken by each of ernments on the basis of their knowledge and the situations and structures, their assessment of the international trends as well as their cost and benefit

sly, the approaches and discourses by each of these ailed consequences, opportunities and threats, which of this paper. states foreign policy is generally predicated on their nd the general principles underpinning their nnot expect that it will undergo fundamental changes d of time unless fundamental changes occur in the cal system. Thus, as the legitimizing bases of states

unchanged, change of government could normally in foreign policy only to a limited and predictable

anges, however, could facilitate overtures in foreign litical and economic development or bring about rictions. In other words, we cannot imagine that only the determined path or fundamentally changing early

result in a beneficial and sound foreign policy. stment are more rational and wise if they could lead d calculated consequences. Global trends and the the nature of the international system have affected y of many countries, including that of the Islamic Global trends, including the economic globalization,

nterdependency among countries as well as among onomic issues, have affected Iran’s foreign policy. lization has had the authorities to look into some gn policy all together with economic observations. nt of relations with the regional countries and the ties with economic partners, especially after the end

ar as well as the requirements of the country’s arranted the introduction of certain changes in pproaches. The globalization of communication has

s

61

ach of ge and

of the benefit f these which

n their their

hanges in the

f states ormally dictable foreign

about at only

ng early policy. ld lead nd the ffected Islamic zation, among policy. some

vations. nd the he end untry’s ges in on has


62

also affected foreign policy as it led to the more importance of discourse issues, the more spread of knowledge, the burgeoning of interests and popular demands as well as the need for greater efforts in persuading domestic and foreign public opinion. It could be also exploited as an instrument at the service of foreign policy. Today, after three decades of experience in foreign policy, all traditions, experiences and changes in this era are valuable and could guide for the country’s foreign policy in the future and for achieving loftier goals. These goals could only be achieved in the light of correct and realistic understanding of global developments and trends.


reign policy as it led to the more importance of the more spread of knowledge, the burgeoning of

pular demands as well as the need for greater efforts mestic and foreign public opinion. It could be also instrument at the service of foreign policy. Today, des of experience in foreign policy, all traditions, changes in this era are valuable and could serve as

untry’s foreign policy in the future and for achieving se goals could only be achieved in the light of correct erstanding of global developments and trends.

Iran

nce of ning of efforts

be also Today, ditions, erve as hieving correct

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