position paper usability of lca for c2c purposes

8/14/2019 Position Paper Usability of LCA for C2C Purposes

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Usability of Life Cycle Assessment

for Cradle to Cradle purposes

Position PaperDecember 2011

>> Focus on sustainability, innovation

and international


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Usabiliy of LCA for C2C purposes | 2

Executive summary

Life Cycle Assessmen (LCA) is a measuremen ool ha

has been used since he 1970s as a means of assessing

he environmenal impac of producs or services.

Cradle o Cradle (C2C) is an innovaion framework usedsince he 1990s in order o design producs and services

which are beneficial in economic, healh and environ-

menal erms.

Inroducion

A group o companies in he Cradle o Cradle (C2C)

Learning Communiy in he Neherlands are working wih

boh hese ools and wish o deermine wheher C2C and

LCA are compaible. How and o wha exen hese

companies work wih C2C and LCA varies or each company.In he experience o hese companies, he LCA mehod o

comparing producs paricularly he use o Environmenal

Produc Declaraions, EPDs dominaes in he markeplace,

while he beneficial C2C qualiies hey are aiming or are no

refleced properly by hese LCA sandards.

Terms o reerence

The remi o his assessmen is to evaluate the usability of LCA

as a measurement tool for the development and measurement of

C2C products.

This assessmen ocuses primarily on he mehods and

sysems ha are currenly in general use in he field o LCA.

I looks a LCA only rom he perspecive o implemening

C2C, no a he use o LCA or oher purposes.

Concerning he usabilityof LCA in a C2C process, companies

ha implemen C2C principles need a measuremen

insrumen ha can be used or hree key purposes: setting

goal s, monitoringdevelopmen, and external communication.

The usabiliy o LCA or C2C purposes requires a beter

undersanding o C2C dimensions in relation to LCA. C2Cs

innovaion ramework aims or a beneficial futureooprin

based on defined qualities.

These defined qualiies are based on he guiding principles

o C2C. In ac, his assessmen involves an exploraion o

C2Cs guiding principles and the extent to which they can be measured

using LCA.

Summary of findings

How useul is LCA in he C2C process?

The conclusions concerning he use o LCA or C2C

purposes are:

Seting goals, he C2C invenory: LCA can add o he C2C

invenory: know wha you have (The C2C invenory

includes daa ha goes beyond he environmenal daa

gahered in an LCA, e.g. i sars wih a complee conen

declaraion or a produc); C2C Monioring: LCA can help deermine wheher

burdens are shifed when changes are made o he

produc or process.

C2C Monioring: LCA is no designed o indicae how

much progress has been made wih a C2C produc. The

C2C roadmap and associaed measurable milesones are

more imporan or ha.

Exernal communicaion: LCA is no suiable or

communicaing he C2C-ness o a produc, and hus no

suiable or exernal C2C communicaion.

For companies ha wish o apply C2C principles, i may be

useul o know inernally how a C2C design scores using an

LCA o pu i ino he conex o governmen crieria

(susainable procuremen) and oher communicaion based

on LCA, such as EPDs, an indusry-sandard LCA wih

secor-specific produc crieria.

C2C dimensions in relaionship o LCA

During he exper discussions on measuring he C2C-ness

o a produc, hree basic conradicions were idenified

beween he C2C innovaion ramework and he LCA

measuremen ool, which are encapsulaed in he ollowing

senence.

Measuring a qualitativeAplanBfor creating a beneficialCfootprintby using a quantitativeAinstrument designed to measure an

existingBenvironmentally damagingC footprint.


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Each o he conradicions is explained urher.

A. M eas urin g qualitativesolutions with a quantitativemeasure-

ment tool

Under C2C, he principle o wase equals ood or every-

hing serves as a resource or somehing else is aken o

mean he righ maerial, a he righ place a he righ ime.

Righ basically means ha he maerials are suiable or

he use defined or hem. This valuaion depends on he

ineracion o boh he soluion-offering side (i.e. a

produc) and he soluion-using side (i.e. he user, his

surroundings and oher environmens he produc will

come ino conac wih during is lie). Wheher somehing

is righ depends on how hese qualiies, he reerences orgood and bad, are defined. Some o hese can be quanified

using an LCA, while ohers canno.

Conclusion: The exen o which he defined qualiies o a

C2C produc can be measured wih LCA depends on how ar

hey can be quanified or measuremen in LCA erms. In

oher words, on how ar hey can be described in specific

erms raher han concepually.

B. Measuring afuturesolution using currentdata

The C2C ramework concerns uure soluions and hereore

innovaion. Targes and milesones owards hose soluions

are idenified and ac as innovaion drivers. A he saringpoin, he exac naure o he ulimae soluion is no

always known.

Conclusion: The C2C-ness o producs can be measured i

hey are defined using daa ha reflec he likely naure o

he uure C2C design soluion. However, he measurabiliy

o ha daa depends on he abiliy o orecas uure oupus

accuraely. LCA is designed as a snapsho o a paricular

poin in ime on he basis o curren impacs. I is no

designed o evaluae a companys progress in compleing

seps owards a qualiaive expeced goal.

C. Measuring a beneficialenvironmental footprint with an

instrument that is designed for measuring an environmentally

damagingfootprint.

The goal o he C2C ramework is o develop a produc in

such a way ha i creaes a beneficial (posiive) environmen-

al ooprin. Three guiding principles are used o define

his beneficial ooprin: wase equals ood, use curren

solar income, and celebrae diversiy.

Conclusion: Alhough LCA has been designed o measure he

damaging (negaive) environmenal impac o producs, i

can also be used o measure he esablished beneficial

(posiive) ooprin o a C2C produc. However, here are

limis o he applicabiliy o he curren LCA approach.

The guiding principles o C2C and measuring

hese wih LCA

C2Cs defined qualiies are based on he hree guiding

principles waste equals food, use current solar income and

celebrate diversity. Wheher he C2C-ness o a produc can

be measured wih LCA depends on he exen o which he

saed qualiies o a C2C produc can be quanified in

curren LCA erms. Taking a closer look a hese qualiies (on

he basis o C2Cs guiding principles), resuls in:

Wase equals food(C2C recycling, cascades, maerials

pooling):

Under C2C a produc will be recyced afer use. C2C works

wih end-o-use scenarios and no wih end-o-lie

scenarios as under LCA. Under LCA, i is difficultomeasure he recyclabiliy o a produc and calculae he

benefis o recycling ha relae o a single produc in he

maerials cascade. Under LCA, sakeholders sill differ

abou how o accoun or his benefi and o whom i

should be credied.

Wase equals food(oxiciy aspecs deermined wih

C2Cs ABC-X mehod):

In many cases, i is not possibleo calculae o wha exen

a maerial is suiable or is conex. Under LCA, his is

done on he basis o he acual impac o oxic emissions

ino he environmen over he enire liecycle. Currenly

he LCA communiy is looking or ways o model moreypes o environmenal impac more accuraely. For

example, measuring he impac on indoor air qualiy and

local aspecs are being developed under LCA.

Use curren solar income:

A quick LCA on several renewable energy-producion

sysems will lead o he same general conclusions as C2C.

The energy consumed or a C2C produc can be measured

wih an LCA. However, he wase equals ood principle

wihin energy producion sysems is no par o a

regular LCA.

Conclusions

The exploraion o he usabiliy o LCA or C2C purposes has

led o he ollowing conclusions:

Commonly used LCAs, and especially EPDs, are not

suiable or assessing and communicaing he beneficial

qualiies o a C2C produc.

- C2C emphasizes he suiabiliy o a nurien (maerial)

o is conex (he righ maerial a he righ ime a he

righ place), hroughou all he use cycles / loops

hrough which i passes;

- Wha is righ canno be measured in LCAs currenly in

use; wihin C2C i is based on specific value-basedqualiy-saemens ha are no generally suiable or

measuremen wih LCA;


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Usability of LCA for C2C purposes | 5

Executive summary 2

Table of contents 5

1 Introduction 61.1 The Cradle to Cradle innovation framework 6

1.2 and Life Cycle Assessment as a measurement tool 6

1.3 Context of this paper 6

1.4 Terms of reference 7

1.5 Target audience 7

1.6 Structure of the position paper 7

2 C2C and LCA in the context of business development and eco-design 92.1 Cradle to Cradle as a framework for design and innovation 9

2.2 Life Cycle Assessment as a measurement tool 10

2.3 Development of materials, processes, products and systems 12

2.4 Summary 13

3 The dimensions of C2C in relation to LCA 143.1 Using a quantitative measurement tool to measure qualitative solutions (A) 14

3.2 Using current data to measure a future solution (B) 14

3.3 Measuring a (positive) beneficial environmental footprint with an instrument 15

that is designed to measure a (negative) environmentally damaging footprint (C)3.4 Summary 16

4 The guiding principles of C2C and their measurability with LCA 174.1 The first guiding principle of C2C: Waste equals food 17

4.2 The second guiding principle of C2C: Use current solar income 21

4.3 Materials management, energy used and LCA measurement 23

5 Conclusions and recommendations 245.1 Conclusions 24

5.2 Recommendations 24

6 Opinions from the Sounding Board 26

Appendices 28Appendix 1: Members of the working group, expert panel and Sounding Board 28

Appendix 2: Comparison of C2C and LCA 29

Appendix 3: C2C and LCA in a product development process 31

Appendix 4: Overview of recycling and cascading issues within C2C and LCA 33

Appendix 5: Overview of toxicity issues within C2C and LCA 34

Appendix 6: Overview of energy production in C2C and LCA 37

Appendix 7: Guide to LCA and how to measure C2C-ness 38

Appendix 8: References and Further reading 41

Table of contents


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1.2 and Life Cycle Assessmen as ameasuremen ool

In he Neherlands, a growing number o companies andlocal auhoriies are sriving o implemen he ideas behind

C2C. They are amiliar wih using Lie Cycle Assessmen,

LCA[3], as a suppor ool or decisions ha involve susain-

abiliy. LCA is also used as a measuremen ool in eco-

design[4]processes. LCA calculaions aim o model he ull

liecycle o a produc (wheher rom cradle o grave or rom

cradle o cradle) and o measure he many ways in which i

will impac on he environmen along he supply chain. As

such, LCA is no a design ool bu measures environmenal

impac. LCA does no relae o a vision o wha he world

should look like; i measures he impacs o decisions

already made.

1.3 Conex of his paper

In 2009, a group o 17 pioneering companies in he

Neherlands came ogeher o share heir experience

o implemening he principles o C2C in he Learning

Communiy C2C. Mos o hese companies waned o

answer he quesion: Why does LCA sometimes not reflect the

improvements expected from C2C?. They el srongly ha C2C

needed o be made more proessional wih a measuremen

ool ha was acceped among he LCA communiy o

incorporae eco-effeciveness ino heir LCA-based

decision-suppor ools. Addiionally, in heir experience

LCAs mehod o comparing producs paricularly hrough

he use o Environmenal Produc Declaraions, EPDs

dominaes he markeplace, while he beneficial C2C

qualiies hey are aiming or are no refleced properly in

hese LCA sandards.

The degree o which each company works wih C2C varies.

Some companies simply use C2C as a source o inspiraion

when developing heir producs. Ohers are going all ou o

become a C2C company. The resuls o he Learning

Communiy and he experiences o he paricipaing

companies were published in he bookle eniled Cradleo Cradle pays off![5].

In response o a growing awareness ha our curren

sysems of producion, consumpion and disposal

are damaging he environmen, mehods such as

eco-design and measuremen ools such as Life CycleAssessmen were developed in order o quanify and

miigae environmenal damage. The concep of

susainable developmen served as a guide in his:

developmen ha mees he needs of he presen

wihou compromising he abiliy of fuure generaions

o mee heir own needs, Brundland [1].

Among indusrial producers, he desire o minimize he

damage caused by he producion, use and disposal o

producs has grown because manuacurers wish o avoid

image problems and mee legal requiremens. Increasingly,

businesses are adoping corporae social responsibiliypolicies and aking advanage o he marke opporuniies

ha hey can offer.

Now, anoher approach is atracing he atenion o

pioneering companies. The Cradle o CradleInnovaion

Framework, C2C[2], is enabling companies o develop

producs which acually creae a posiive environmenal

ooprin. The C2C design ramework, wih is hree guiding

principles, gives clear direcion o (produc) developmen.

I uncions as a driver or innovaion in he produc chain.

1.1 The Cradle o Cradle innovaionframework

The Cradle o CradleInnovaion Framework has rapidly

become he ocus o increasing atenion. I was originally

developed in he lae 1980s, and maured during he 1990s

as a posiive approach o reconciling human aciviy and is

environmenal impac. Curren hinking on he environ-

men encourages us o reduce, reuse and recycle. However,

according o Michael Braungar and William McDonough,

ounders o he C2C concep, his will lead only o a

coninuaion o he radiional Cradle o Grave producion

model ha has already been he cause o such enormousamouns o wase and polluion. As hey see i, we should

sop rying o do bad hings less badly and insead sar

doing hings ha are inrinsically beneficial o he environ-

men insead.

1 Introduction


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Companies apply C2C in different ways

Some companies have developed heir own environmenal

oolkis wih which hey evaluae he environmenal impac

o heir producs and processes. LCA is one elemen inhese oolkis. These companies may also see C2C as an

ineresing new concep wih which o expand heir oolki.

C2C challenges exising assumpions and inroduces a

compleely new way o hinking. For hese companies, C2C

is primarily a design mehodology or an R&D concep. This

documen will help hose companies see he differen

perspecives aken on specific aspecs o environmenal

susainabiliy under boh C2C and LCA.

Oher companies involved in his work have adoped he

C2C philosophy in ull and inegraed i ino all aspecs o

heir business model. The conclusions and recommen-

daions a he end o his documen are mainly relevan

or hose companies ha have adoped C2C in ull and are

ineresed in inegraing LCA while coninuing o ollow

he C2C mehodology.

The working group, expert panel and sounding board

The paricipaing companies saed ha hey were

ineresed in he use o LCA as a decision-making ool

when developing C2C policies. Several exper sessions were

held o discuss he easibiliy o using LCA o measure C2C

producs and processes. This process was suppored and

moderaed by NL Agency (Age ntsc hap NL), a Duch govern-

men agency ha aims o promoe innovaion andsusainabiliy. This posiion paper describes he main

conclusions o hese exper panels, and has been reviewed

by an inernaional sounding board.

1.4 Terms of reference

This assessmen aims to evaluate the usability of LCA as a

measurement tool for the development and measurement of

C2C products.

We ocus primarily on he mehods and sysems generally

used in LCA, since his is he main concern or businesses

and governmens ha use LCA. The remi o his documen

includes using LCA o implemen C2C, bu excludes he use

o LCA or oher purposes.

Those companies ha are implemening he principles o

C2C need a measuremen insrumen ha can be used orhree key purposes in he C2C process:

Setting goals(vision/ambiion);

Monitoring he developmen;

External communication.

The saring poin or hese companies is o use wha is

currenly he mos widely acceped measuremen ool,

Lie Cycle Assessmen (LCA). LCA, unlike he LCA-based

Environmenal Produc Declaraion (EPD), is an open

ramework ha can be very flexible. EPDs, by conras,

are more rigid and heir Produc Caegory Rules are based

on secor consensus.

1.5 Targe audience

This paper is essenially mean or companies which are

considering implemening C2C bu are more amiliar wih

LCA. I addresses managers, designers and eco-designers,

environmenaliss, LCA specialiss and CSR specialiss

working in companies who wan o develop producs

according o he guiding principles o C2C. Bu i is also

relevan or ohers who come ino conac wih boh C2C

and LCA, who can benefi rom he comparison o he wo

conceps. As such, i will also be relevan or policymakers

and purchasers wihin local and naional governmen who

are aiming o implemen C2C, o help hem undersand

wha an LCA can be used o measure. The paper deals

mainly wih using LCA as an inpu or C2C, bu some

secions also relae o using C2C as an inpu or or alongside

an LCA process. Eco-designers amiliar wih LCA as a ool

will benefi rom he inormaion on he role o C2C and

LCA in produc-developmen processes. There is more

pracical inormaion in he appendices abou his and how

managers, designers and CSR specialiss can make use o

boh conceps.

1

Cradle to Cradlepays off!

COMPANIES OF THE C2C LEARNING COMMUNITY ABOUT THEIR EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNED
http://www.theterrace.nl/assets/cms/File/Booklet_Learning_Community_C2C-Cradle_to_Cradle_pays_off!.pdfhttp://www.theterrace.nl/assets/cms/File/Booklet_Learning_Community_C2C-Cradle_to_Cradle_pays_off!.pdfhttp://www.theterrace.nl/assets/cms/File/Booklet_Learning_Community_C2C-Cradle_to_Cradle_pays_off!.pdfhttp://www.theterrace.nl/assets/cms/File/Booklet_Learning_Community_C2C-Cradle_to_Cradle_pays_off!.pdfhttp://www.theterrace.nl/assets/cms/File/Booklet_Learning_Community_C2C-Cradle_to_Cradle_pays_off!.pdfhttp://www.theterrace.nl/assets/cms/File/Booklet_Learning_Community_C2C-Cradle_to_Cradle_pays_off!.pdf


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1.6 Srucure of he posiion paper

As saed, he objecive o his assessmen is to evaluate the

usability of LCA as a measurement tool for the development and

measurement of C2C products.

Chaper 2 explores how C2C and LCA operae in business

developmen and he produc design processes. Chaper 3

ocuses on hree imporan dimensions o C2C in relaion o

LCA as a measuremen ool. I describes how LCA could be

used o measure a beneficial uure ooprin on he basis o

defined qualiies which are in urn based on he guiding

principles o C2C. Chaper 4 explores he usabiliy o LCA or

C2C purposes by examining he guiding principles o C2Cand he poenial useulness o LCA when assessing he

applicaion o hese principles. The main conclusions and

recommendaions can be ound in Chaper 5.

The main body o his posiion paper describes he

heoreical aspecs o using LCA or he purposes o C2C,

while he appendices include urher pracical inormaion

on LCA and C2C.


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To explore he usefulness of LCA as a ool for develop-

ing and evaluaing C2C producs, his chaper of he

paper will firs examine how C2C and LCA operae in

business developmen and he produc design

processes.

2.1 Cradle o Cradle as a framework for designand innovaion

C2C is a design ramework or innovaion. I is based on a

philosophy, guiding principles and applicaion ools.

Appendix 2 shows a comparison beween C2C and LCA,

including he developmen o new maerials, processes,

producs and sysems. Companies ake varying approaches

o implemening C2C. Some op o have heir exising

producs cerified, ohers choose o opimize heir producs

firs and hen have hem cerified individually, and ohers

sill adop C2C across he enire company including all

producs and processes.

There are three guiding principleswihin he C2C ramework

or innovaion:

1) Wase equals food: producs and by-producs are

designed o ac as defined nuriens in a biological or a

echnical meabolic sysem;

2) Energy requiremens mus be me using sources derived

rom curren solar income(eiher direc or derived, hus

including geohermal and kineic energy);

3) Celebrae diversiy (biodiversiy, culural diversiy,

concepual diversiy). A diversiy o acors and conceps

will ulimaely make i possible o implemen C2C while

adhering o hese principles.

When developing C2C producs and processes, hese

principles are applied in an inegraed manner. Forexample, when developing a C2C carpe, maerials are

seleced according o heir healhiness during use as well as

heir compaibiliy wih defined uure uses. Boh he

producion and recycling o carpes involve using a range o

renewable energies. Applying he principles in an inegraed

manner also means ha hese renewable energy producion

sysems are designed according o he wase equals ood

principle.

The objecive o a beneficial environmenal ooprin is

undamenal o he C2C approach. C2C aims or producs

and processes ha improve he environmen and sociey,

add value and are eco-effecive. Progress owards his goal

is direced by he hree principles oulined above.Companies begin a C2C process by saing heir qualiaive

inenions according o hese guiding principles.

2.1.1 Seting goals (vision/ambiion)

Companies ofen define corporae goals o reflec heir

values. A corporae sraegy or policy may include eco-

effeciveness (such as conribuing o soil resoraion) and

eco-efficiency (zero wase) goals.

Implemening C2C begins wih he ormulaion o

eco-effeciveness goals based on he guiding principles o

C2C. The exen o which corporae goals are consisen wih

he C2C innovaion ramework and is guiding principles

may be refleced in he companys KPIs.

The process sars wih he C2C invenory (know wha you

have). Depending on is scope, his may include daa on an

exising produc or porolio (in he case o a redesign) or

on a produc concep. I sars wih a precise and compre-

hensive undersanding o 1) he composiion o he

produc; 2) maerial flows o which i conribues (or would

conribue) and 3) he acors involved and heir atiudes.

The C2C invenory includes a complee conen declaraion

o a produc o 100 ppm (pars per million).

C2C uses a back-casting approach. This means ha i begins

wih he objecive, and works backwards o define he

condiions necessary o achieve his objecive. Elemens are

bundled o orm milesones.

2 C2C and LCA in the contextof business development andeco-design


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In his conex, eco-effeciveness encompasses no only he

final resul bu also he interim results achieved along he

way, which represen he condiions or reaching he final

objecive. From he cusomers perspecive, buying producs

rom a company which has no ye achieved is final

objecive bu which has saed is inenion o achieve ha

objecive also represens an eco-effecive conribuion o a

beter environmen under he C2C approach (bu an

addiional challenge in evaluaing he C2C-ness o

producs).

2.1.2 The C2C Roadmap and monioring progress

Goal-seting is a he hear o he C2C design and innovaion

ramework. I is he process hrough which he coreprinciples o C2C are applied o a produc or process. The

C2C Roadmap is an imporan applicaion ool ha

describes he pahway ha he organizaion will ake o

achieve is goals. I includes clearly idenifiable and

measurable milesones, or key perormance indicaors

(KPIs), which can be used o assess he exen o which he

goals have been achieved.

Under C2C, KPIsmigh include aciviies ouside he

companys own boundaries. For example, or service

producs wih pos-use managemen o he used producs

and maerials, he sysem o KPIs could encompass: at a milestone: Logistic partners contracted for future

collecion o used producs and maerials;

at a later milestone: Rate of collection and rate of

recovery o maerials rom he used producs colleced.

Those milesones (e.g. percenage o recycled conen,

percenage o solar income, and so on) are measurable, bu

do no usually require a ull LCA. More argeed ools could

be used insead and a screening LCA or a carbon ooprin

may be enough, or example. I would be useul o explore

how seleced LCA ools could be used o evaluae he

milesones on a C2C roadmap. The selecive use o ools

could avoid cosly duplicaion on occasions when a ull LCA

is no needed.

2.1.3 C2C cerificaion (exernal communicaion)

Producs made rom maerials which are environmenally

sae, healhy and recyclable are awarded he C2C cerificae.

C2C cerificaion gives companies a way o demonsraing

he success and progress o heir producs. Consumers may

seek ou producs on he basis o wheher hey have me

his qualiy requiremen. Addiionally, he use o renewable

orms o energy, a responsible atiude o waer usage and

oher social aspecs are also considered. A C2C cerificae

remains valid or one year, afer which recerificaion isneeded. A higher level o cerificaion may be awarded i

progress has been made. Cerificaion shows he exen o

which a produc has saisfied he requiremens o C2C and

here are our differen levels o cerificaion: basic, silver,

gold and plainum. Cerificaion is planned o be carried

ou by an independen NGO, he C2C Produc Innovaion

Insiue in Caliornia[6]. The insiue is currenly imple-

mening a criical review o he cerificaion process and

is planning o release an updaed version (3.0) in early 2012.

2.2 Life Cycle Assessmen as a measuremenool

Lie Cycle Assessmen ools have been developed wihin a

broad and open communiy o expers and companies. No

one individual or organizaion owns he mehod, alhough

several privaely and publicly owned sofware ools anddaabases are used, and a number o organizaions have

produced LCA handbooks. Global guidance is provided

hrough ISO sandards 14040 and 14044, and hrough he

UNEP/SETAC Liecycle iniiaive. In Europe, he JRC in Ispra

runs an LCA cenre ha has developed is own mehods and

daabase[7].

The aim o LCA is o provide a ool o help decision makers

undersand and improve he environmenal impac o

producs and services. Sysemaic measuremen is essenial

i we wan o assess and miigae he impac o human

aciviy on he environmen. LCA is no a design concep:i ocuses on undersanding producs, wheher hey are

already in producion or will be produced in he uure.

LCA includes all possible aspecs o environmenal impac,

rom he raw maerials consumed during manuacuring

(cradle) o disposal o he produc afer use in a landfill or

incineraion sie (grave), or in he case o recycling is

new liecycle (he nex cradle). I is necessary o isolae he

impac o a single produc because producion processes

and produc sysems are ofen inerlinked.

Three key issues ha mus be addressed are:

Sysem boundaries: 1) Where do we sop modelling?

2) Wha can be omited wihou disoring resuls?

Allocaion: Indusrial processes ofen resul in more han

one produc (or service). For example, i we wan o

model he produc milk, we find ha catle arming also

produces mea, leaher, bones ec. How do we allocae a

share o he environmenal impac o catle arming o

milk in paricular?

Regional differences: The elecriciy consumed by a

company in France will use energy rom a differen source

(mainly nuclear) o a company in Denmark (mainly coal

and some wind power) or Norway, (mainly hydro-elecric

power). This means ha idenical producion processes

ha consume elecriciy can have a differen environmen-al impac depending on where hey are carried ou.

These are a ew o he complexiies involved wih model-

ling he world, wheher his is he model o a C2C world or


11/42


no. How LCAs are conduced depends on he decision

conex.

It is important to note that different choices or forecasts of how

industrial processes interact and how the market responds to

changes can lead to different models and therefore different results.

The bes way o handle he ambiguiy ha resuls rom his

complexiy is o be ransparen, clear and consisen on how

choices and inerpreaions are made. This means ha in an

LCA sudy, he purpose and goal o he sudy, which are

ofen based on he decision conex o he LCA, need o be

clearly described and jusified in agoal and scop e d ocum ent.

The goal and scope documen also describes he choicesand assumpions made (including he sysem boundaries),

he required deph o he analysis as well as he use o uure

scenarios and he main mehodological choices. Conse-

quenly, when perorming an LCA or a C2C produc, i is

essenial o speciy which aspecs o C2C will be assessed

and how. I is also wise o sae which C2C aspecs are no

aken ino consideraion. This inormaion needs o be

included in he goal and scope documen. Despie criicism

o is ambiguiy, LCA has been acceped and adoped as an

imporan ool enabling us o measure he environmenal

impac o producs and processes sysemaically.

The world o LCA is consanly improving as mehods

evolve o assess environmenal impac ever more accuraely.

This posiion paper ocuses on commonly used LCA

mehodology a he ime o wriing.

2.2.1 Seting goals

LCA can be used as a measuremen ool in eco-design

processes. One o he purposes o LCA in eco-design is o

ideniy environmenal hotspots. Hospo analysis helps

produc developers o prioriize areas or improvemen afer

an LCA has been conduced.

Akey differencerom he C2C approach is ha when

conducing an LCA, prioriies are no se a priori. Depending

on he hospo analysis, i is possible o ocus on produc

developmen o improve recycling o he used maerials,

bu equally he ocus may be on minimizing energy use,

reducing he amoun o maerials used, improving logisics,

replacing oxic maerials, and so on.

2.2.2 Monioring progress and he benefis o C2C

Anoher use or LCA in eco-design processes is in comparing

alernaive design soluions and ideniying an alernaive

ha has a lower environmenal impac. I is also possible o

compare he iniial produc design wih a redesignedproduc o reveal how much progress has been made in

reducing he environmenal impac. LCA can be used in C2C

o show wheher environmenal burdens are being shifed.

LCA-relaed sandards are ofen unable o reveal he benefis

o C2C producs. The shor guide in appendix 7 includes a

number o poins which may be relevan when analysing

C2C producs using an LCA, including he aspecs relevan

o C2C. The useulness o LCA in measuring specific

indicaors depends on he flexibiliy o LCA models. I hey

are flexible enough, LCA can play a more useul role in C2C.

2.2. Communicaion: LCA as a basis or

Environmenal Produc Declaraions

The ambiguiy o LCA resuls and is misuse in green-

washing have promped he developmen o a series o

ISO sandards. Greenwashing is common among companies

ha wish o improve heir green credenials. The sins ogreenwashing websie[8]publishes a regular overview and

ound ha only 5% o all producs invesigaed were

innocen o all he seven sins o green washing.

The ISO disinguishes our ways o communicaing

environmenal inormaion abou producs:

1. Full LCA repors as described above. These are used in

business-o-business communicaion.

2. Environmenal claims (ISO14024), such as his produc

is recyclable. The sandard describes he minimum

requiremens ha mus be me beore his claim or oher

popular claims can be made.3. Environmenal labels (ISO14021), such as he EU flower,

he Nordic Swan, he blue angel and he Duch Milieukeur.

The ISO sandard sipulaes ha a generic LCA mus be

conduced. This is hen used as one o he inpus or a

panel o expers which ses easily verifiable requiremens

or producs o mee beore hey can carry a paricular

label. The aim is o reward only he op 20% o producs

on he marke.

4. Environmenal Produc Declaraions (ISO 14025) are

declaraions o environmenal impac ha are usually

prined on he produc or packaging. There is some

parallel wih he sandardized nuriional inormaion

ound on many ood and drink producs. The idea is o

empower consumers o choose or hemselves, bu he

mos imporan applicaion seems o be in a business-o-

business conex. To minimize he problem o ambiguiy,

he sandard describes a procedure according o which a

Produc Caegory Rule (PCR) mus be defined9. The PCR

is comparable wih he Goal and Scope Documen used in

LCA. Resuls mus be calculaed in he same way wihin

each produc caegory. PCRs are also developed hrough a

ransparen sakeholder consulaion process. One source

o conusion, however, is ha hese PCRs are developed

on a naional or regional basis.

Environmental Product Declarations

Recenly some very imporan iniiaives o sreamline

Environmenal Produc Declaraions have emerged: The

greenhouse gas proocol rom he World Business Council


12/42


Susainable Developmen[10], The Susainabiliy

Consorium[11]and he PCR Harmonizaion iniiaive[12].

In he experience o he working group, hese LCA sandards

are no suiable or communicaing he C2C-ness o a

produc, and hus unsuied or exernal C2C communica-

ion. Why hey are no suiable in relaion o C2C-specific

qualiaive benefis is explained in chaper 4.

2. Developmen of maerials, processes,producs and sysems

Boh C2C and LCA can be used o develop maerials,processes, producs and sysems. The guiding principles o

C2C are based on he noion ha maerials, producs and

processes orm par o a wider sysem a biological sysem

and/or a echnological sysem in which maerials are

defined as nuriens ha inerac wih humans, he open

environmen and uure generaions. This is no o be

conused wih C2C cerificaion, which is only available or

maerials and producs. The C2C process ocuses on

changing a produc hroughou is uncional and environ-

menal uses, aking accoun o he socieal conex in which

i is embedded. The process aims a sysem change and

here is no rule abou where in he supply chain o sar, or

where o end. The invenory will move up and down he

chain. Under his mehod o sysem change, he saring

poin is usually irrelevan.

LCA looks a he whole produc chain when analysing he

environmenal perormance o a produc. I an LCA covers

he sysem in which a produc operaes, his defines he

boundaries o he LCA.

2.3.1 Produc developmen process

C2C and LCA can boh be used in he produc-developmen

process. LCA can be used as one o he ools in an eco-

design process, o measure he environmenal impac oproducs. C2C is a guiding ramework or he design

process. The able below gives an overview o boh in

relaion o eco-design.

C2C and LCA can complemen one anoher. An imporan

difference is ha in LCA he direcion or design soluions

is depending on he analysis o he impacs, and no on he

basis o guiding principles. Appendix 3 ocuses on how C2C

and LCA operae a each sage o he produc developmen

process.

Aim

Design tool

Beginning, generation of idea,

divergence

Final stage, evaluation, convergence

Table 1: C2C and LCA in a (eco-)design process.

CC

Make good producs (eco-effeciveness).

Give a clear direction, hrough he hree guiding

principles.

CC gives a clear direcion a he sar of he

design process (divergence phase). This direcion

is based on is innovaion framework and hecorresponding guiding principles. They define

he beneficial qualiies o aim for.

Qualiaive check: does he CC produc mee

he saed inenions?

Eco-design / LCA

Take environmenal impac ino accoun when

designing producs; LCA can help deermine his

impac.

Give a clear direcion by idenifying hospos

using a range of informaion sources, of which

LCA may be one.

LCA can be used o give a clear direcion a he

sar of he design process and suppor

designers in making choices.

LCA mainly comes in a he final sage of he

design process o assessa number of design

opions in quaniaive erms, and use his for

rerospecive learning and communicaion.


13/42


The companies experiences

The companies paricipaing in he working group repored

ha when ollowing he C2C ramework compleely, i was

sensible o carry ou an LCA in order o know how consum-

ers and governmens who use LCA would view heir

produc. An LCA can help o:

add in-depth knowledge and eliminate any burden

shifing (i.e. reducing one environmenal impac while

increasing anoher one);

explain the dierences and advantages of your product;

explain very clearly why certain choices were made when

quesions are asked, in he even ha he produc has a

worse environmenal impac.

For hose companies no ollowing he ull C2C ramework,

we did no ideniy elemens ha could be added o he

environmenal analysis oolki during his assessmen

because wihin C2C his is presened as an overall approach,

in which everyhing is conneced and i is hereore no

possible o isolae specific pars.

Once a company has decided o deliver a C2C-cerified

produc, an LCA is much easier o carry ou because he daa

needed or he LCA will be much more easily available. C2C

involves knowing exacly wha is in your produc, and his is

precisely he daa ha is needed o conduc a proper LCA.

2..2 When do we need an LCA, when do we no

need an LCA?

LCAs are useul i an environmenal impac assessmen

relaing o he enire liecycle is needed, or when he

environmenal impacs o muliple producs are o be

compared.

This means hey are only useul in he conex o C2C i here

is a clearly defined goal o measure, analyse and compare

lie-cycle impacs. I such a goal has no been clearly

idenified, a deailed LCA may be redundan. Bu even when

here is such a goal, here may be oher and simpler ways o

achieve he desired resul. A simple mass-flow analysis,

energy analysis, he use o LCA-based eco-indicaors, or

plain common sense may be enough.

A shor guide o LCA, which also addresses he relevan

aspecs o C2C, is included in appendix 7.

2.4 Summary

Findings of this chapter

Exploring C2C and LCA more closely in a business develop-

men and eco-design conex, we have learned ha LCA

can be used or C2C purposes whensetting goals(LCA can

conribue o he C2C invenory) and or monitoringwheher

burdens are shifing. However, curren LCA sandards are

no suiable or communicaing he C2C-ness o a produc,

and hus not suitable for external C2C communication. Neiher

are here any plans o make his a goal, as ar as he

paricipans o his projec are aware o.

Remaining questionsMonioring he progress made in a C2C process by using a

measuremen ool like LCA requires a more deailed

exploraion. We need o know more abou he relevan

dimensions o C2C in relaion o LCA. Can a beneficial future

environmenal ooprin based on definedqualitiesbe

measured wih an insrumen like LCA? Chaper 3 will

address his quesion.


14/42


Exploring wheher LCA can be used for C2C purposes

means undersanding he principles of C2C and how

hey relae o LCA. During he exper discussions on

measuring he C2C-ness of a produc, hree basic

conradicions were idenified beween he C2C

innovaion framework and he LCA measuremen ool.

These conradicions are capured in he ollowing

senence:

Measuring a qualiaiveAplanBfor creating abeneficialC

foot pri nt u sing a quaniaiveA

instrument designed to evaluateanexisingBenvironmentally damagingC footprint.

Each o hese conradicions will now be explained in more

deail and illusraed wih examples.

3.1 Using a quaniaive measuremen ool omeasure qualiaive soluions (A)

C2C is based on he qualiaive goals se ou in is hree

guiding principles. Any paricular course o acion is

evaluaed agains hese qualiaive goals, which serve as

benchmarks. Some o hese can be quanified using LCA,

bu ohers canno.

For example, qualiies such as he healh benefis o naural

ligh and access o resh air and is influence on human

produciviy are an inegral par o C2C bu are difficul o

incorporae under curren LCA mehodology. Conribuing

o a green environmen is anoher qualiy ha is hard o

measure in a quaniaive manner in curren LCA measure-

men erms.

However, qualiies ha are being accouned or under

curren LCA mehodology can be included i hey are welldefined. For example, i he producion process o exiles is

developed in such a way ha he waer leaves he process

cleaner han i came in (conaining ewer chemicals).

The exen o which he defined qualiies o a C2C produc

can be measured wih LCA hereore depends on he exen

o which hey can be quanified or LCA measuremen. In

oher words, i depends on he exen o which hey can be

described in curren LCA measuremen erms raher han

concepually or in non-LCA measuremen erms.

The measurabiliy o C2C developmens and producs

according o C2Cs guiding principles (on which he

defined qualiies are based) is discussed in greaer deail

in Chaper 4.

3.2 Using curren daa o measure a fuuresoluion (B)

The C2C innovaion ramework is abou uure soluions.

Targes are se, and milesones defined along he pah o

achieving hose arges. These uncion as drivers or

innovaion. Under he curren siuaion, exacly wha he

final soluion will look like is ofen unknown; however,

his is common in produc developmen and by no means

unique o C2C and LCA.

How can we evaluae uure developmen? I is possible o

conduc an LCA on uure echnologies i a scenario or ha

echnology can be creaed. Once a uure scenario has been

agreed (including backcasing and inerim milesones), i is

possible o evaluae uure echnologies using an LCA.

However, daa or uure echnologies can never be cerain

and all uncerainies (model uncerainies, subjecive

choices, sensiiviy analysis comparing produc a+b) need o

be documened.

Atemps are being made o address hese uncerainies. The

Prosuie projec[13]is currenly working o develop susain-

abiliy esimaes or our echnology cases (carbon sorage,nanoechnology, bio-refinery and muliuncional mobiles)

in close consulaion wih he sakeholders involved.

The dimensions of C2C in relationto LCA


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The C2C-ness o producs can be measured i hey are

defined using daa ha reflec he C2C design soluion

likely o be used in he uure. However, he measurabiliy

o ha daa is subjec o he abiliy o measure uure

oupus accuraely. LCA is designed o measure a poin

in ime based on exising impacs. I is no designed o

evaluae a companys progress in compleing seps owards

a qualiaive goal.

For example, he prediced percenage o recycled conen

can be calculaed where deailed figures are available (on

how he maerial is ranspored and recycled), and he

expeced oxiciy can be measured i deailed inormaion

on he maerial is available. However, i new maerials andprocesses will need o be developed o mee he qualiaive

goals se, LCA can only evaluae his i environmenal daa

can be esimaed on he basis o a concree scenario.

The same applies o energy producion. Available daa

should be used, i necessary assuming ha some innova-

ions will be achieved (e.g. he complee recycling o solar

cells or wind urbines, including how hey will be recycled).

3.3 Measuring a (posiive) beneficial

environmenal fooprin wih aninsrumen ha is designed o measurea (negaive) environmenally damagingfooprin (C)

The basic goal o he C2C innovaion ramework is o

develop producs ha will leave a beneficial environmenal

ooprin. This posiive ooprin could be achieved by, or

example, using solar income so ha producs generae

more energy han hey consume over heir whole lie cycle.

The hree guiding principles are used o define a beneficial

ooprin: wase equals ood, use curren solar income, and

celebrae diversiy.

..1 Eco-effeciveness under C2C

Wihin he C2C ramework, eco-effeciveness means

produc designs wih an inended beneficial impact and he

developmen processes o achieve hem. A desired sae or

ambiion is ormulaed: implemening he hree basic

guiding principles (wase equals ood, use curren solar

income, celebrae diversiy) wihin he design or he

produc or service. For example, a carpe may be designed

wih a uncional use (covering he floor) as well as oher

beneficial objecives such as cleaning he air , cleaning he

waer, or supporing biodiversiy (wheher during he

producion process or while in use).

Eco-effeciveness does no necessarily exclude eco-efficiency

and in specific cases, eco-efficiency can even lower he

hreshold or eco-effecive soluions. This applies paricu-

larly o energy use:

When eciency increases allow for the decentralized use

o energy (example: office lighing powered by phoo-

volaic cells inegraed ino he building).

The relative contribution of a given amount of energy

derived rom curren solar income in a mix increases as

energy use becomes more efficien.

..2 Measuring C2Cs eco-effeciveness wih LCA

When using LCA o evaluae a produc as par o an

eco-design process, he approach is o measureenvironmenal impac. Under C2C, LCA would no be

used o calculae damage bu o calculae he benefis

o soluions (he evaluaion o ideas) or in oher words,

he exen o which soluions conribue o he saed

inenions.

Measuring C2Cs eco-effeciveness, or example, means

measuring he benefis o collecing fine dus, cleaning

waer, or resoring depleed soil. Some o hese benefis can

be measured using LCA. The benefis o energy-producing

buildings or example can be measured using LCA. However,

measuring he environmenal benefis o relaed C2C resulssuch as design or disassembly and maerials pooling is

limied using LCA.

To conclude, LCA has been developed specifically o

measure he damaging environmenal impac o producs;

however, elemens o LCA can also be used o measure he

esablished beneficial (posiive) ooprin o C2C producs,

alhough here are limis under he curren LCA approach.

These limis relae o LCAs abiliy o measure qualiy: some

aspecs o qualiy can be measured under LCA, bu no all.

LCA aggregaes he maerials emission and resource use

figures on environmenal damage. C2C also addresses he

qualiy o producs as nuriens. This means ha he exen

o which he benefis o C2C can be measured depends on

he exen o which he saed (beneficial) qualiies can be

quanified (conradicion A). How LCA can be used o

measure quanified beneficial qualiies is described in he

shor guide on LCA (appendix 7).


16/42


This chaper has shown ha he exen o which he defined

qualiies o a C2C produc can be measured using LCA

depends on how ar hey can be quanified or LCA

measuremen. In oher words, i depends on how ar hey

can be described in erms o curren LCA measuremens

raher han concepually or in non-LCA measuremen

erms.

Remaining questions

Furher exploraion is needed on wheher and howC2C-defined qualiies can be quanified in concree curren

LCA erms. These qualiies are defined on he basis o C2Cs

guiding principles, so exploring he usabiliy o LCA or C2C

purposes hereore brings us back o C2Cs guiding

principles and how compaible hey are wih LCA assess-

men. In oher words, which indicaors, based on he

guiding principles o C2C, can be measured? Chaper 4 will

consider his quesion.

Quality Quantity

Future Present

Benefits Damage

CC

Qualitativesaemens are he saring poin.

Futuresoluions.

Create and developa beneficialenvironmenal

fooprin.

LCA

Quantitative assessmen.

Current daa generally used.

Measurement tool developed o measure

damagingenvironmenal impac.

3.4 Summary

Findings of this chapter

An overview o he conradicions beween C2C and LCA:


17/42


The C2C innovaion framework is based on hree

guiding principles, and hese also form he basis for

C2C cerificaion. A closer look a hese guiding

principles can indicae wheher LCA can be used o

measure he C2C-ness of a produc. I should be noed

ha in his paper we only focus on he firs wo

principles of C2C. The hird guiding principle,

Celebrae diversiy, was no sudied during he exper

sessions due o ime consrains.

4.1 The firs guiding principle of C2C:Wase equals food

According o C2C, wase should serve as ood, meaning

ha nuriens remain nuriens or everyhing should

become a resource or somehing else. I is undersood as

the right material, at the right place at the right time , where

right means he suiabiliy o maerials or a defined use in

a defined conex. This evaluaion depends on he inerac-

ion o boh he soluion-offering side (he produc) and he

soluion-using side (he user and is environmen). The

produc and he maerials i conains may have an impac in

a sric sense (is effec on he user) and in a wider sense

(such as erilizing he soil afer use).

For example, in he caseo he paper cascade(biosphere,

see also figure 1), office paper can be recycled up o seven

imes as office paper. When he fibres become oo shor,

he nex sages in he cascade include reuse as cardboard,

issues or oile paper beore he maerial reurns o he

biosphere as a nurien (via wase waer, compos or ash).

This requires all producs in he cascade o be developed in

such a way ha hey can saely ener he biosphere and be

used or erilizaion and soil reconsrucion. This helps he

culivaion o new rees, and a new cascade sars.

The example o he paper cascade illusraes ha he righ

maerial in he righ place a he righ ime is highly

conex-dependen and localized. I also shows ha all used

maerials are defined as ood (=resource) or somehing

else and ha emissions can nourish organisms ha hey

come ino conac wih. In case o he paper cascade, he

design and composiion o office paper already akes ino

accoun he subsequen sages o he paper cascade, i.e. all

he ingrediens used o manuacure he office paper mus

be suiable as nuriens/resources or he nex seps o he

cascade, including he las sep which could be composing,defined combusion or digesion.

All his requires a very clearly defined use scenarioor a

produc. Afer use, every par or subsance in he produc

should serve as a nurien or somehing else. A nurien

is a resource, a subsance ha conribues owards he

producion o a new beneficial produc in a new conex.

This means ha he maerials used mus be suiable o all

he conexs ha i will pass hrough, rom he exracion o

raw maerials, he producion process o he various usage

cycles ha are planned or he maerials. I will hus be

decided a an early sage wheher a maerial will be used in a

echnical conex or in a biological conex. C2Cs suiabiliy

o conex is a careully balanced combinaion o cascading

and oxiciy. C2Cs nurien managemen hus relaes o

resource managemen, which akes accoun o recycling

and oxiciy rom a susainabiliy perspecive. The ollowing

secions will examine boh o hese opics more closely.

The guiding principles of C2C and their measurability with LCA


18/42


Figure 1: Example of a cradle to cradle paper cascade.

forestry

field

return nutrients

to agriculture

and forestry

paper use

paper collectionpaper recycling

production of virgin paper

recycled paper

recycled

paper

recycled

paper

recycled

paper

usable

fibres

usable

fibres

usable

fibres

unusable fibresunusable

fibres

unusable

fibres

unusable

fibres

unusable fibres

OLD

OLD

OLD

OLD

energy

possible routes:

combustion

digestion

compost


19/42


20/42


emissions (LCA), his is a oally differen viewpoin hen

he conen approach o C2C. In effec, hese wo oxiciy

approaches are no comparable wih one anoher a all.

Anoher poin is ha very low levels o emissions are ofen

omited rom an LCA i hey seem irrelevan. However, i

very low emissions occur over he enire lie cycle, hey mus

be included. In his case, where no daa is available, an

esimae mus be made. This brings uncerainy in an LCA.

Under C2C, i hese low emissions also represen scarce

resources, he risk or he uure availabiliy o resources

(nurien managemen) mus also be esimaed.

Around 145,000 chemicals are used in indusry (REACHpreregiser). Abou 6,000 o hese are subjec o regulaion

due o proven oxiciy. Some chemicals are no regulaed

because hey have been deemed o be non-oxic. The vas

majoriy, however, are simply no classified. The mos

comprehensive LCA impac assessmen mehod, Useox,

includes profiles or 5,000 subsances. Much less emphasis

is pu on oxiciy issues compared wih C2C. Under LCA, ISO

generally requires a cu-off ha fis he goal and scope o

he LCA sudy. Normally 99% o all environmenal impac

mus be accouned or. This means ha any subsance ha

is relevan in erms o is environmenal impac will be

included in an LCA, regardless o he level o emissions.In C2C, maerial composiion is known o a level o a leas

100 ppm (pars per million).

Cerain health issuesare imporan in C2C ha have ye o

be defined under LCA. For example, aspecs relaing o he

sensiizaion poenial or skin or he respiraory sysem

are excluded in an LCA. No all aspecs o C2C can be

included in an LCA.

Local effects: LCA impac assessmen can be criicized or is

lack o sie-specificiy, and is lineariy. This is a simplifica-

ion, alhough much work is now being done o ackle his.

Fuure daabases will suppor GIS-based (Geographic

Inormaion Sysem) coordinaes or beter modelling.

I is difficul o measure oxiciy wih precision and his

problem is no LCA-relaed bu exends o all sysems ha

aim o assess oxiciy. The wo main problems are:

Exposure: wha racion o an emission is ingesed or

inhaled? This depends on he climae, populaion

densiy, and in he case o indoor emissions, venilaion.

Indoor exposure is no assessed as sandard under LCA,

bu i is being worked on.

Toxic impact: once he exposure has been esablished, he

oxic impac needs o be assessed. Human esing is noeasible, so oxicologiss exrapolae on daa or lower

organisms or es animals. Exrapolaion o humans

involves uncerainy o up o hree orders o magniude.

4.1.3 Nurien (mis)managemen: he example o CO2Under LCA, CO2and is role in climae change play a very

imporan role. Major releases o CO2are relaed o energy

producion rom ossil uels. Energy is also required o

esablish maerial flows. Under C2C, energy should be

produced rom sources derived rom curren solar income.

The energy necessary or maerials pooling (ranspor and

recycling processes) should come rom hese sources as

well. So energy consumpion and producion is par o he

C2C supply chain parnership. Secion 4.2 examines C2Cs

second guiding principle on energy.

From a C2C poin o view, CO2is a nurien ha has been

mismanaged during recen decades. There is oo much CO2in he amosphere, which is causing climae change. When

CO2is released during he coninuous maerial flows

surrounding producs, his CO2also needs o be managed

as a maerial. For example, greenhouses or growing

vegeables and rui will benefi rom CO2. They could be

posiioned near a acory ha emis CO2as a by-produc.

Algae urn CO2ino valuable nuriens which can be

convered ino plasics, uels and many oher maerials.

Amospheric carbon can be sequesered hrough he plan

cycle and urned ino sable humus carbon, where i can be

sored long erm.

4.1.4 Findings: Wase equals ood

I is very difficul or impossible o quaniy he wase equals

ood principle using LCA:

Recycling and C ascading:

Under LCA, part of thematerials cascade is usually

calculaed, bu is difficul o calculae when recycling is

involved. Who is credied or he recycling process he

recycler, he user or he source o he recycled maerial?

Among he commissioners o LCA sudies, here is no

consensus on his ye.

LCA cannot measure the recyclability of a product.

Furhermore, recyclabiliy has no meaning under LCA.

The recycling process can only be aken ino accoun in an

LCA i realisic assumpions can be made abou he

anicipaed recycled percenage.

So, if a C2C product (which is part of a materials cascade)

is assessed using LCA, his should be clearly described in

he goal and scope definiion. In he assumpions and

scenario definiion, he percenage o recycling and

figures in he ranspor and recycling processes can be

included.

Toxicity:

Very differen approaches are aken o oxiciy under C2Cand LCA. C2C looks a he suiabiliy o a maerial o he

conex in which i is used and a he properies o he

maerial. LCA ocuses on emissions o he maerial during

is lie cycle.


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LCA bases toxicity on emissions into the environment.

C2C on he oher hand looks a he oxiciy o he

maerials. LCA ofen omis minor subsance flows, which

appear o be irrelevan in comparison o he overall

environmenal impac along he whole lie cycle. The C2C

sraegy is o choose maerials which are suiable or heir

pre-defined use and conex. There is a lack o daa, which

means ha producs wih a low impac measured wih

LCA, can include highly oxic chemicals which consiue

a subsanial local risk. LCAs can hereore appear

inadequae when i comes o oxicology.

Toxicity as a general theme is relatively unimportant

under LCA compared o C2C. I oxiciy accouns or less

han 1% o he oal environmenal impac in an LCA, i isno aken ino accoun. Under C2C he composiion o a

maerial should be known o a leas 100 ppm (pars per

million).

So, the suitability of a material to its context cannot be

calculaed under LCA. A very specific LCA can only be

made in some very well-defined cases. For insance,

calculaing he impac o a maerial on indoor air qualiy

wih an LCA is difficul a he iniial phase o develop-

men, bu no impossible.

4.2 The second guiding principle of C2C:Use curren solar income

The principle o using curren solar income is largely

consisen wih he concep o renewable energy as i is

generally undersood. Sources ha use curren solar income

include wind urbines, solar panels, wave-powered,

bio-powered, kineic and shallow geohermal energy

sysems.

Around 10,000 imes more solar energy is available on earh

oday han is consumed. Hihero, he only limiaion has

been our abiliy o harness his energy. In effec, his is

anoher issue ha relaes o he managemen o maerial

flows and as such he second principle o C2C is closely

linked o he firs: renewable energy is only renewable when

he maerials used or producing energy are renewed in he

same period as hey are used. The implemenaion o C2Cs

second principle ends owards increasingly decenralized

energy producion.

Companies can incorporae he second principle ino heir

sraegy by using renewable energy, bu jus as imporan is

heir capaciy o influence suppliers by including i as par o

heir purchasing crieria or raw maerials. C2C hus

encourages making curren solar income usable by indusrywhile applying he wase equals ood principle o all

maerials including hose used o generae and disribue

energy.

The approach o using renewable energy in he whole

produc chain is one o greaes challenges and also one o

he main reasons why C2C producs do no always perorm

well in an LCA. The curren underuilizaion o curren solar

income in he supply chain ofen generaes a negaive

oucome under LCA. C2C aims or a qualiy saemen which

considers how energy is produced and how effecively i is

used, whereas LCA considers he amoun o energy used

hroughou he liespan o he produc. In LCA, he

producion and use o ossil energy is seen as a main source

o many o odays environmenal problems. Energy use

hroughou he lie cycle appears o be he mos imporan

cause o environmenal damage or many producs.


22/42


Clarification to the figure:

Comparing the energy system for each impact category: = wind (EU average); = biofuel, in his case wood (Sweden);

= solar (he Neherlands); = nuclear (EU average) and = coal (EU average).

The chart compares the production of 1KWh using dierent energy sources.

Please note: the highest alternative is rated at 100% for each impact category. This does not mean each impact category scores equally

highly or ha boh are equally imporan. The impac of solar cells occurs mainly during producion and disposal. The laes echnologyenables solar panels to be 85% recycled, but this is not included.

4.2.1 Measuring energy producion sysems wih LCA

The environmenal impac o differen energy producion sysems (solar panels, wind mills, regular mix

(coal ec.) and nuclear) was calculaed using currenly available daa. The char below shows he resuls.

Figure 2: Comparison of environmental impact of energy production systems in SimaPro.

Fossil depleion

Meal depleion

Naural land ransformaion

Urban land occupaion

Agriculural land occupaion

Marine ecooxiciy

Freshwaer ecooxiciy

Terresrial ecooxiciy

Freshwaer europhicaion

Terresrial acidificaion

Climae change Ecosysems

Ionising radiaion

Pariculae maer formaion

Phoochemical oxidan formaion

Human oxiciy

Ozone depleion

Climae change Human Healh

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100


23/42


4.2.2 Energy and LCA

The opion ha has he leas environmenal impac varies

according o he locaion. The daa on he char shows ha

using curren echnology, German wind power has less

environmenal impac han German solar power, bu in he

Sahara solar power may be much beter han wind or

example. Also i can be seen ha under an LCA comparison,

renewable sources like solar power sill have an impac. This

impac occurs mainly during he producion and disposal o

solar panels. Furhermore, solar panel echnology is

developing rapidly and his is hard o keep up wih in LCA

daabases. So a he momen o calculaion, daa can quickly

become ou-daed compared o he newes solar

echnology.

However, LCA does no claim o be exac or comprehensive,

as he discussion on nuclear energy demonsraes. LCA

usually excludes he possibiliy o accidens and considers

only he environmenal impac o normal operaion. I does

no consider he birds killed by wind urbines or he

beween 10,000 and 100,000 deahs ha occur in coal

mining every year, or example. As such, LCA canno be

ollowed blindly. Decision makers use a range o ools and

approaches and he scope o any LCA should be considered

careully.

4.2.3 Energy and C2C

The hree basic principles o C2C clearly incenivize he

developmen o cerain energy opions and he eliminaion

o ohers.

Nuclear energy is no an opion under he C2C approach

because i is inconsisen wih boh he firs principle

(wase equals ood) and he second (use curren solar

income). Furhermore, nuclear power is associaed wih

risks which are unaccepable wihin he C2C innovaion

ramework (as illusraed by he nuclear accidens in

Chernobyl, Ukraine and Fukushima, Japan), which are no

included in he curren LCA model.

Neiher is energy sourced rom burning ossil uels

accepable under C2C because i is inconsisen wih boh

he second principle (coal is no curren solar income) as

well as he firs (he wase producs rom ossil uel

combusion do no currenly find a producive ae in he

environmen, quie he conrary). There are also oher

significan aspecs such as he injuries and aaliies ha

occur in he mining indusry. This kind o damage is no

included in he curren LCA model. Under C2C, CO2is a

nurien ha should be managed by supplying i o green

houses or sequesering i ino organic orms or use inopsoil, or example.

The impac figures associaed wih supplying renewable

energy are calculaed using he non-renewable energy orms

ha are currenly used o produce he required inrasruc-

ure (wind urbines, solar panels and so on). As such, hey

represen a snapsho or a given poin in ime. As he

inrasrucure needed o capure renewable energy becomes

more widespread, he share o renewable energy used o

produce he nex generaion o renewable energy inrasruc-

ure will also increase, causing a reducion in is impac

profile. The apparen objeciviy o curren (or slighly

ou-daed) figures can impac negaively on decisions o

develop his inrasrucure. This endency o slow down he

inroducion o a poenially effecive shif in energy

producion is inrinsic o he more conservaive LCAapproach. An observer is never objecive. He influences a

sysem by he way he observes i. I is hereore imporan

o describe he goal and scope o he LCA. The Prosuie

approach[13], which involves calculaing easible uure

scenarios (including he recyclabiliy o he energy delivery

sysems), may help o inroduce more objeciviy.

4.2.4 Findings: Use curren solar income

Energy producion: A quick LCA shows ha solar energy has

he lowes overall environmenal impac; his is consisen

wih C2Cs second guiding principle, Use curren solar

income.Resricions wih curren LCA mehodology: measuring

solar energy wih LCA does no include he laes echno-

logical developmens; inormaion on he recyclabiliy o

producion sysems is also missing.

4.3 Maerials managemen, energy used andLCA measuremen

Under C2C, he prevailing lack o energy derived rom solar

power in an indusrially usable orm is no a valid excuse

or ailing o develop he Wase equals ood dimension

o producs in areas oher han energy supply. For example,

ransporaion energy, which currenly mees neiher he

Wase equals ood nor he Use solar income crieria, is

no reason or no beginning he pos-use managemen o

producs o recover he scarce resources hey conain.

The applicaion o LCA invenory mehods or mapping

energy demand in supply chains makes a grea deal o

sense rom a C2C perspecive when i comes o ideniying

opporuniies or he raional use o energy (irrespecive

o wheher i is obained rom curren solar income or no)

and changing how energy is supplied.


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This posiion paper has explored no only wheher

LCA can be useful a key momens in he process of C2C

business developmen (seting goals, monioring and

exernal communicaion), bu also he limiaions ofhe compaibiliy beween he wo sysems. This secion

sums up our findings and includes a number of

recommendaions for companies and expers in C2C

and LCA abou he usabiliy of LCA for C2C purposes.

5.1 Conclusions

Cradle o Cradle is a ramework or innovaion based on

hree guiding principles. Lie Cycle Assessmen, by conras,

is an assessmen ool and no a universal design approach.

I is designed or use as a measuremen ool in eco-designprocesses.

Overall, i has proved very difficul o make an objecive

comparison beween LCA and C2C, because he wo

conceps do no share he same aims:

C2C states clear objectives at the beginning of the design

process and is an innovaion driver ha aims o bring

abou qualiy improvemens. C2C objecives are based on

hree guiding principles and C2C amouns o a way o

hinking, creaing normaive guidelines and giving credi

or wha are deemed o be seps in he righ direcion and

hereby conribuing o a uure where producs have a

posiive environmenal ooprin.

LCA measures the environmental burden of a product or

service (which may or may no have been designed wih

he environmen in mind), ideniying hospos and/or

comparing he environmenal impac o poenial design

soluions. I leaves he inerpreaion o hese measure-

mens o hose assessing he findings and ses down no

normaive sandards. Under LCA, normaive conclusions

are lef o he analys.

Considering his, we can conclude:

C2C and LCA can be used to complement one another.

LCA can only be used to evaluate clearly dened quantita-ive goals.

The usefulness of LCA for measuring specic indicators

based on he guiding principles o C2C depends on he

flexibiliy o LCA models. The rigid Produc Caegory

Rules o EPDs in paricular ofen ail o reflec C2C

qualiies properly, since some imporan esablished

environmenal benefis are no included (e.g. recycling

and healh benefis). Overall, LCA cannot be used to assess or communicate the

C2C-ness o a produc. The Wase equals ood principle

in paricular, which is abou nurien managemen,

canno be measured effecively using LCA. Cascading and

oxiciy, which are given paricular emphasis in C2C,

canno be considered adequaely using LCA.

Furhermore, i may be useul o know how a C2C design

scores under LCA in order o compare i o governmen

crieria (susainable procuremen) and oher LCA-based

communicaion such as EPDs, an indusry-sandard LCA

wih secor-owned produc crieria.

Daily pracice has augh us ha once a company has

reached he sage o delivering a cerified C2C produc,

an LCA is much simpler o carry ou.

5.2 Recommendaions

On he basis o his exploraion, we can make wo

recommendaions o improve he usabiliy o LCA or C2C

purposes. A recommendaion is also made on he usabiliy

o C2C or LCA purposes.

5.2.1 Recommendaion on using LCA ools o monior

a C2C process

Future applicability of selected LCA tools to the C2C Roadmap

The milesones on a C2C Roadmap (secion 2.1.2) are

measurable, bu do no usually require a ull LCA. More

argeed ools can be used.

Expers in he field o C2C and LCA should joinly indicae

how seleced LCA ools could be used o evaluae

milesones on a C2C roadmap. The selecion o ools

could help companies o avoid cosly repeiion a ull LCA

a various sages o a roadmap i a ull LCA is no

necessary.

Conclusions and recommendations


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Improving the measurability of C2C, beginning with its

guid ing pri ncip les

Progress is necessary on making C2C more measurable,

or companies and governmens ha wan o commi o

he C2C ramework. Transparency on wha can and wha

canno be measured will enable companies applying C2C

o communicae wih heir cusomers and wih governmen

bodies.

Expers in he field o C2C and LCA should invesigae he

exen o which C2Cs guiding principles can be quani-

fied. Which o he inenions saed in advance (based on

he guiding principles) can be measured using LCA, and

how can his be done. The guide (appendix 4) and

Chaper 4 (guiding principles) are a firs sep in hisdirecion.

5.2.2 Recommendaion on using EPDs o compare

producs on he marke

App lyin g EP Ds to c omp are pro duct s on the mar ket

Purchasers who wan o compare producs on he marke,

should be very careul i hey are aiming or C2C or oher

C2C-relaed objecives, such as a healhy environmen or a

circular economy. The rigid Produc Caegory Rules o EPDs

(ha are being defined in a muli-sakeholder process) do

no usually reflec beneficial C2C qualiies effecively.

Purchasers should look a he uncionaliy o heproduc, and hink o which environmenal, social and

healh benefis hey wan o achieve by buying and using

he produc in he firs place, especially i hey wan o

avour a paricular end-o-use sraegy (re-use, recycling,

incineraion, land-fill) or a healhy (working)

environmen.

5.2. Recommendaions on developing a sandard or

communicaion including he benefis o C2C

A n ew sta ndar d f or c omm unic atio n

For companies developing C2C producs ha are looking

or ways o communicae he benefis achieved wih a C2C

produc, i would be useul o develop a new common

sandard or communicaion.

These companies are used o working wih EPDs, which

generally do no include aspecs ypical o C2C. C2C

aspecs can only be described in he remarks secion.

For communicaion purposes, i may be useul o develop

a sandard or carrying ou EPDs or C2C producs. The

guiding principles used in C2C could hen be inegraed

ino hese EPDs by describing heir own specific Produc

Crieria Rules.

The erm EPD is resriced o he environmen. The scope

o C2C, however, is overall produc qualiy wih environ-

menal qualiy as a specific enry. A disincion could be

inroduced beween convenional LCA-based EPD and a

C2C Qualiy Declaraion (C2C QD) o avoid conusion.

C2C expers should reflec on a meaningul srucure or

a C2C QD, and ideniy which condiions would need o

be ulfilled beore issuing hem.

5.2. Recommendaions on he usabiliy o C2C

or LCA purposes

Usability of C2C for LCA purposes

For companies ha have no ye adoped he ull C2C

ramework, no elemens were idenified during hisassessmen ha could be added o he environmenal

analysis oolki. This is because i is presened as an overall

approach wihin C2C, in which all aspecs are conneced.

I is hereore impossible o pick ou specific pars in

isolaion.

For companies amiliar wih LCA, i migh be ineresing

o reormulae he quesion as: In wha way can LCA

praciioners benefi rom C2C?.


26/42


K. Chrisiansen (Dansk Sandard)

I do no agree ha i is no possible o develop a LCA-based

C2C assessmen mehodology, bu I do agree ha i is no

available now. I do agree on he noion o keeping differenassessmen mehodologies apar bu as in lie cycle cosing

(economic LCA) or social LCA, he boundary seting and daa

qualiy ec. should be he same or all mehodologies o

assure a common basis or decision making.

ISO 14040/44 clearly saes o be or environmenal aspecs

and impacs only, bu also ha he mehodology can be

used or assessmen o oher aspecs or impacs e.g. social

and economic. I he qualiies o C2C can be quanified, hey

can be included in he LCA, and i no how can you hen

assess an improvemen?

ISO 14040/44 inroduces shorly differen approaches o LCA

and consequenial LCA is acually uure oriened. Thisapproach is no assessed in he documen.

ISO 14040/44 is abou poenial environmenal impacs.

Using wording like exising environmenally damaging

or curren impacs is hereore misleading and mis-

inerpreing he sandards.

ISO 14000 series uses impac as boh poenially posiive

and negaive. ISO 14040/44 does no explicily include

posiive impac caegories bu his can be done wihou

conflicing wih he sandards. Adequae mehods have

been described e.g. in he Danish EPA unded mehodology

or he handling o recyclabiliy and in consequenial LCA.

ISO 14025 ses a ramework or EPD including Addiional

environmenal inormaion hereore i would easily be

possible o add inormaion rom a C2C assessmen as

qualiaive or semi-quaniaive daa.

M.Z. Hauschild and A. Bjrn

(Technical Universiy o Denmark)

This is a very imporan documen or companies inspired

by C2C ha look or guidance on synergeic effecs and

conflics beween C2C and Lie Cycle Assessmen. We hink

he documen has a high level o deail and addresses he

main issues on he subjec in a proessional manner. Overall

he documen does end o be somewha biased owards

C2C and does no always describe LCA objecively (mosnoably he secions on oxiciy and energy use). Also he

classificaion o C2C as qualiaive (as opposed o he

quaniaive LCA) is arificial, since mos aspecs o C2C can

in ac be quanified.

E.J. van Hatum (O2 Global Nework)

The conclusions and recommendaions are o high ineres

or (indusrial) designers, innovaors and any oher person

involved in Eco-design, LCA and C2C. Also worhwhile omenion are he discussions and schemes in he paper as

suppor or he design process.

L. Heine (Clean Producion Acion, Alaska, USA)

This paper makes he imporan disincion beween resuls

rom produc design and developmen based on design

principles inended o provide social and environmenal

benefis including susainable maerial flows- and produc

design and developmen opimized o minimize cerain

measurable environmenal and/or human healh-relaed

impacs. I illusraes he challenge o using efficiency-based

merics when no all benefis are angible or efficien especially when new maerial flow sysems are firs being

esablished. A he same ime i recognizes he imporance

o merics or communicaion and or driving progress

oward any goal. This paper will provide odder or

discussion abou he various exising and developing ools

or measuring atribues o chemicals, maerials, producs

and business sysems, and how hey can bes be used eiher

independenly or in combinaion o achieve desired resuls.

Scholars in he field o decision heory and susainabiliy-

relaed sciences may be amiliar wih he inheren synergies

and conflics described beween ools such as LCA and

principle based innovaion rameworks such as C2C design.

Likewise, here is opporuniy or scholars and praciioners

o urher advance merics and indicaors or C2C design and

o coninue o prooype producs based on he C2C

principles and o measure and compare resuls over ime.

G. Korevaar (Technical Universiy o Delf,

he Neherlands)

This repor shows very well he useulness o one o he

undamenal ools on environmenal impac analysis, Lie

Cycle Assessmen (LCA), or a more pracical and business-

oriened approach like Cradle o Cradle (C2C). In his way,

environmenal science mees susainable innovaion and

ha combines he bes o wo worlds. I also showsweaknesses o LCA a he one hand and C2C a he oher

hand, which gives relevan opporuniies o improve a

boh sides:

The LCA community could be more open and exible

Opinions from the Sounding Board


27/42


o alernaive inerpreaions o susainabiliy, like C2C,

and could work more on how o incorporae hose new

insighs along he exising impac caegories.

The C2C community could be more specic in seing

a clear baseline wihin heir projecs and reporing

undispuable resuls owards susainabiliy, on which

he LCA field could share insighs in defining sysem

boundaries, goal, scope, and measurable impac

reducion in a srucured and scienific way.

Wih his posiion paper, he C2C communiy in The

Neherlands obains a clear challenge o cooperae more

wih exising fields o experise on environmenal analysis,

susainable design, and innovaion managemen. So, I am

highly ineresed in geting involved in ha new uure pahha we have sared here.

P. Luscuere (Technical Universiy o Delf,

he Neherlands)

The curren ile: Usabiliy o LCA or C2C purposes gives

a proper reflecion o he conen o he repor.

The objecive as saed in he Terms o reerence is

limiing isel o producs. Though i is saed in he repor

ha boh C2C as LCA can suppor processes, he C2C

approach gives a more holisic and goal oriened suppor

o hese processes as LCA can, which C2C is no credied or

due o his limiaion.The summary o findings gives a good overview o he

shorcomings o LCA in C2C perspecive as well as a proper

idenificaion o hose areas where i can be supporive.

Much o he difficulies in quaniying effecs using LCA

reer o he basic concep o using exising daa, where C2C

provides a ramework or innovaion. Some o he resuling

improvemens can be quanified where ohers canno or a

leas i is, in LCA erms, unclear who should be credied or

he improvemen.

The recommendaions are useul and relevan, especially

he las one: How can LCA praciioners benefi rom C2C?

M. Sevenson (World Wildlie Fund)

I have worked wih boh sysems C2C and LCA and

heir applicaion oward he design o beter producs

and sysems. I consider neiher approach a panacea oward

susainabiliy assessmen and find boh o be oo produc-

ocused o resul in significan, sysemic change given our

curren global crises. This repor has resuled in a solid se

o recommendaions ideniying C2C and LCA as differen

approaches, bu complemenary and his requires urher

inquiries ino he inerace o qualiaive and quaniaive

assessmen. Globally, many discussions are underway ha

suppor hese same conclusions when examining he

nexus o various assessmen mehods and cerificaions.Unorunaely, in his repor I ound he pah o hese

conclusions heavily biased oward he posiive aspecs o

C2C and a misinerpreaion o he LCA mehodology

(e.g., he daa collecion sysems could be incredibly

powerul when combined, opporuniies in PCR develop-

men o represen boh approaches). Many o he asserions

made abou LCA conradiced is mehodology. I was

hopeul ha his posiion paper would resul in he

idenificaion o useul complemenary inormaion

one sysem ocused on final produc and he oher on

he producs supply chain. However, his opporuniy

was no realized in avor o deending C2C as an approach.

O. Vilaca (World Business Council Susainable

Developmen)This Posiion Paper will dramaically help businesses willing

o incorporae susainabiliy in heir core sraegy beter

undersand how LCA and C2C differ and overlap. In ac,

urning susainabiliy ino sraegy can be quie challenging

and complex as i requires a firm grip on new measuremen

ools, such as LCA, and a shif oward new sraegy rame-

works, such as C2C. The links beween hese differen

conceps and mehodologies are no always obvious and

easy o ideniy, and I am glad o see some o he mos

advanced companies in he field o susainable develop-

men willing o share he findings o heir work on his

specific opic. This working group is he kind o complexcoaliions ha are needed o speed up he ransiion

oward a more susainable world. I hope his example will

be ollowed by many oher businesses and sakeholders.

8/14/2019 Pos

position paper usability of lca for c2c purposes

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