pom (1st internal matter)

8/7/2019 POM (1st Internal Matter)

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/pom-1st-internal-matter 1/73

Taylor

Frederick Winslow Taylor, widely known as F. W. Taylor, was an American mechanical

engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is regarded as the father of

scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants.

Principles of Scientific Management

F irst. They develop a science for each element of a mans work, which replaces theold rule-of thumb method .

Second. They scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the workman,

whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself as best he could.

Third. They heartily cooperate with the men so as to insure all of the work being

done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.

F ourt h. There is an almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workmen. The management take over all work

for which they are better fitted than the workmen, while in the past almost all of the

work and the greater part of the responsibility were thrown upon the men.



Gantt

Harvey Bernard Gantt is an architect and politician.

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts

illustrate the start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary

elements of a project. Terminal elements and summary elements comprise the

work breakdown structure of the project. Some Gantt charts also show the

dependency (i.e, precedence network) relationships between activities. Gantt

charts can be used to show current schedule status using percent-complete

shadings and a vertical "Today" line.



Gilbreth

Lillian Moller Gilbreth, was one of the first working female engineers holding a PhD.

She is arguably the first true industrial/organizational psychologist. She and her

husband Frank BunkerGilbreth, Sr. were pioneers in the field of industrial

engineering. Their interest in time and motion study may have had something to

do with the fact that they had an extremely large family.

A time and motion study would be used to reduce the number of motions in

performing a task in order to increase productivity. The best known experiment

involved bricklaying. Through carefully scrutinising a bricklayer's job, Frank Gilbreth

reduced the number of motions in laying a brick from 18 to about 5. Hence the

bricklayer both increased productivity and decreased fatigue.

TheG

ilbreths developed what they called therbligs ("therblig" being "G

ilbreth"spelled backwards, with a slight variation), a classification scheme comprising 18

basic hand motions. 1920 Frank B. and Lillian Gilbreth develop their time and

motion studies. the Gilbreths showed the importance of the total working

environment by reducing unnecessary motions.



Fayol

Henri Fayol was a French mining engineer, director of mines and management

theorist, who developed independent of the Scientific Management a general

theory of business administration, also known as Fayolism. He was one of the most

influential contributors to modern concepts of management .

Fayolism is one of the first comprehensive statement of a general theory of

management, developed by the Fayol. He has proposed that there are five

primary functions of management:

1. planning,

2. organizing,

3. commanding,

4. coordinating, and

5. controlling.



FayolFayol also presented with 14 principles of management.1. Division of work. produces better work with the same effort.

2. Authority and Responsibility. authority is sought after where as responsibility is feared.

3. Discipline. obedience to authority, observance of the rules of service and norms of performance, respect for agreements, respect for superiors etc.

4. Unity of Command. one superior only.

5. Unity of Direction. complete identity with individual and organizational goals.6. Subordination of Individual interest to general interest. personal gratification to be given

back seat and general interest to be given priority.

7. Remuneration. should be fair, that fosters high morale and increases efficiency.

8. Centralization. balanced degree of centralization and decentralization for optimumutilization of resources.

9. Scalar Chain. orders should pass through proper channels of authority. In case of emergency authority may be short circuited for swift action. (gang plank)

10. Order. The principle of right place for everything and for every man.

11. Equity. fair treatment to all.

12. Stability of tenure of personnel. job security.

13. Initiative. freedom to think out and execute a plan. Innovation.

14. Esprit de Corps. implies team spirit (union is strength) harmony & unity



In the 1930s Max Weber, a German sociologist, wrote a rationale that described thebureaucratic form as being the ideal way of organizing government agencies.

Max Weber's principles spread throughout both public and private sectors. Even thoughWeber's writings have been widely discredited, the bureaucratic form lives on.

Weber noted six major principles.

1. A formal hierarchical structure

Each level controls the level below and is controlled by the level above. A formal hierarchy isthe basis of central planning and centralized decision making.

2. Management by rules

Controlling by rules allows decisions made at high levels to be executed consistently by all

lower levels.3. Organization by functional specialty

Work is to be done by specialists, and people are organized into units based on the type of work they do or skills they have.

4. An "up-focused" or "in-focused" mission

If the mission is described as "up-focused," then the organization's purpose is to serve thestockholders, the board, or whatever agency empowered it. If the mission is to serve theorganization itself, and those within it, e.g., to produce high profits, to gain market share,or to produce a cash stream, then the mission is described as "in-focused."

5. Purposely impersonal

The idea is to treat all employees equally and customers equally, and not be influenced byindividual differences.

6. Employment based on technical qualifications

(There may also be protection from arbitrary dismissal.)



Barnard

Chester Irving Barnard was an American business executive, public administrator, and

the author of pioneering work in management theory and organizational studies.

His landmark 1938 book, Functions of the Executive, sets out a theory of

organization and of the functions of executives in organizations.

Barnard's classic 1938 book Functions of the Executive discusses, as the title suggests,

the functions of the executive, but not from a merely intuitive point of view, but

instead deriving them from his conception of cooperative systems.

Barnard summarized the functions of the executive as follows:

Establishing and maintaining a system of communication;

Securing essential services from other members;

Formulating organizational purposes and objectives.



BarnardAuthority and incentives

Barnard formulated two interesting theories: one of authority and the other of incentives. Both are seen in the context of a communication system grounded inseven essential rules:

The channels of communication should be definite;

Everyone should know of the channels of communication;

Everyone should have access to the formal channels of communication; Lines of communication should be as short and as direct as possible;

Competence of persons serving as communication centers should be adequate;

The line of communication should not be interrupted when the organization isfunctioning;

Every communication should be authenticated.

He described four general and four specific incentives. The specific incentives were: Money and other material inducements;

Personal non-material opportunities for distinction;

Desirable physical conditions of work;

Ideal benefactions, such as pride of workmanship etc



Maslow

Abraham Harold Maslow was an American psychologist. He is noted for his

conceptualization of a "hierarchy of human needs", and is considered the

founder of humanistic psychology.



Herzberg

Frederick Irving Herzberg (19232000) was a psychologist who became one of the most

influential names in business management. He is most famous for introducing job

enrichment and the Motivator-Hygiene theory.

Herzberg proposed the Motivation-Hygiene Theory, also known as the Two-factor theory of

job satisfaction. According to his theory, people are influenced by two sets of factors:

Motivator Factors Hygiene Factors

y Achievement

y Recognition

y Work Itself

y Responsibility

y Promotion

y Growth

y Pay and Benefits

y Company Policy and Administration

y Relationships with co-workers

y Physical Environment

y Supervision

y Job Security

y Salary



Herzberg

He proposed several key findings as a result of this identification.

1. People are made dissatisfied by a bad environment, but they are seldom made

satisfied by a good environment.

2. The prevention of dissatisfaction is just as important as encouragement of motivator satisfaction.

3. Hygiene factors operate independently of motivation factors. An individual can be

highly motivated in his work and be dissatisfied with his work environment.

4. All hygiene factors are equally important, although their frequency of occurrence

differs considerably.

5. Hygiene improvements have short-term effects. Any improvements result in ashort-term removal of, or prevention of, dissatisfaction.

6. Hygiene needs are cyclical in nature and come back to a starting point. This leads

to the "What have you done for me lately?" syndrome.



Likert

American educator and organizational psychologist Rensis Likert is best known for his

research on management styles.

Exploitive authoritative system (I)

In this type of management system the job of employees/subordinates is to abide

by the decisions made by managers and those with a higher status than them in

the organisation. The subordinates do not participate in the decision making. The

organisation is concerned simply about completing the work. The organisation will

use fear and threats to make sure employees complete the work set. There is no

teamwork involved.

Benevolent authoritative system (II)

Just as in an exploitive authoritative system, decisions are made by those at thetop of the organisation and management. However employees are motivated

through rewards (for their contribution) rather than fear and threats. Information

may flow from subordinates to managers but it is restricted to what

management want to hear.



Likert

Consultative system (III)

In this type of management system, subordinates are motivated by rewards and adegree of involvement in the decision making process. M anagement will constructively use their subordinates ideas and opinions. However involvement isincomplete and major decisions are still made by senior management. There is agreater flow of information (than in a benevolent authoritative system) from

subordinates to management. Although the information from subordinate tomanager is incomplete and euphemistic.

Participative (group) system (IV)

Management have complete confidence in their subordinates/employees. There islots of communication and subordinates are fully involved in the decision makingprocess. Subordinates comfortably express opinions and there is lots of teamwork .

Teams are linked together by people, who are members of more than one team.Likert calls people in more than one group linking pins. Employees throughoutthe organisation feel responsible for achieving the organisations objectives. Thisresponsibility is motivational especially as subordinates are offered economic rewards for achieving organisational goals which they have participated insetting.



McGregor

Douglas M cGregor was a Management professor at the MIT Sloan School of

Management. His book The Human Side of Enterprise had a profound influence

on education practices. In the book he identified an approach of creating an

environment within which employees are motivated via authoritative, direction

and control or integration and self-control, which he called theory X and theory Y,

respectively.

Theory x ('authoritarian management' style)

The average person dislikes work and will avoid it he/she can.

Therefore most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work

towards organizational objectives.

The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security above all else.



McGregor

Theory y ('participative management' style)

E ffort in work is as natural as work and play.

People will apply self-control and self-direction in the pursuit of organisational

objectives, without external control or the threat of punishment.

Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with theirachievement.

People usually accept and often seek responsibility .

The capacity to use a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in

solving organisational problems is widely , not narrowly, distributed in the

population.

In industry the intellectual potential of the average person is only partly utilised .



Making the Right Decision

How is a manager operating in an organization to know what is the right

decision when faced with questionable or unfamiliar circumstances of

doing business? Here is a suggested sequence:

± Consult the laws of both the home and the host countries

± Consult the International Codes of Conduct for MNEs ± Consult the companys code of ethics

± Consult your superiors

± Use your own moral code of ethics

± Follow your own conscience



Social Responsibility

Includes the expectation that corporations

concern themselves with the social and

economic effects of their decisions

The only responsibility

of a business is to

make a profit

Business should anticipate

and try to solve problems

in society

The two extreme opinions related to social

responsibility ± Domestic firms



Decision making is the selection of only one

alternative out of various possible alternatives.

Decision-making is such a function which managers

decide to accomplish in a specific situation.

DECISION MAKING



Decision-making may be defined as an authority

consciously performs a task with the application of

his:

Intellect and wisdom

Power of judgement

Ideas and thoughts and power of anticipation



Types of Decision Making

1. According top Importance

Major or Primary

Minor or Secondary

2. According to Purpose

Routine

Strategic

3. According to Nature And Objective Policy

Administrative

Operational

4. According to Methods

Programmed (repeating nature) Non-Programmed.

5. Matters relating to Process

Individual decision making

Group decision making.



Decision Making Process

DECISION

IMPLEMENTATION

SELECTING

ALTERNATIVE

PROBLEM

AWARENESS

FEED BACK

EVALUATING

ALTERNATIVE

GENERATINGALTERNATIVE

DEVELOPING

OBJECTIVE



Rational Decision Making



Decision Making Process:

Identifying the problem

Analyzing the problem

Developing alternative solutions

Comparing the alternative solutions

Choosing the best solution

Implementing and verifying the decision.



Basis for Decision Making:



Programmed decisions

Decisions which are routine and repetitive, are called

programmed decision.

A programmed decision can be one in which decisions

are taken as a habit, as a clerical routine in terms of standard operating procedures



Non- Programmed Decisions

The moderns way of handling non-programmed

decisions is through operations research, which includes

mathematical analysis, Models, computer simulation and

electronic data processing.

In the traditional way of decision- making, there is use

of judgement, intuition and creativity. There is also rulesof thumb and selection and training of executives



Group-aided Decision Making

Analysis of the situation for decision making:

1. Nature of problem.

2. Time availability

3. Quality of Decision.

4. Climate of Decision making.5. Legal requirement.

Techniques for improving Group Decision Making:

1. Brainstorming is a technique to stimulate idea generation for decision making.

2. Nominal Group Technique is a structured group meeting which restricts verbal

communication among members during decision making process.

3. Delphi Technique members do not have face to face interaction for group

decisions.

4. Consensus Mapping technique of group decision making tries to pool the ideas

generated by several task groups to arrive at a decision.



Decision under Uncertainity

Decision Criteria:

1. Maximax Criterion Maximising the maximum possible payoff (optimistic)

2. Maximin Criterion Maximising the minimum possible payoff (pessimistic)

3. Minimax Criterion minimising the maximum possible regret (regret)

4. Insufficient reason Criterion Assuming equal likely probabilities for occurrence of each possible state of nature.

Situation: Demand for Product

Lo Mid Hi

Centralised

Distribution

30 15 20

Decentralised

Distribution10 15 35

Situation: Demand for Product (Regret)

Lo Mid Hi

Centralised

Distribution 0 0 15

Decentralised

Distribution20 0 0



Approaches to Problem Solving

1. Routine Approach by traditional way of referring to SOPs (repeated)

2. Scientific Approach orderly system of processing information, a system in which

certain steps follow others in fixed order.

3. Quantitative Approach emphasis is on mathematical modeling of systems.

4. Creative Approach should not be viewed as a logical action, i.e. the problemneed not be defined and strictly rational steps need not be taken to decide what to

do.

Creative thinking is a process of bringing a problem before ones mind clearly, by

imagining, visualizing, supposing, musing, contemplating or the like, and then

originating an idea, concept, picture or realization along new or unconventional

lines. It involves study and reflection rather than action.Stages of Creative Process: 1) Saturation, 2) Preparation, 3) Incubation, 4) Illumination,

and 5) Verification.



INFORMAL ORANIZATION

The informal organization grows out of the personal

needs and group needs of the organizational members.

Informal organization refers to the personal

relationship developing spontaneously as people work

together out-side the formal organizational structurelike friendship etc., which are unconsciously

coordinated.



In this case, a subordinate may offer an advice, to his superior

as his friend. This, however is not possible in a formal

organization.

A manager can establish or cancel any of the formal

organization. However he can neither create nor cancel an

informal organization.

Basis for such organizations may be provided by affinities of age, sex, religion, caste, place, occupation, personal interests or

any other special issues etc,.

INFORMAL ORANIZATION



The major difference between formal and informal organizations

The formal organization is created and established by some higher authority,but informal organization arises spontaneously.

The size of the formal organization are stable in nature whereas the informal

organizations are dynamic in nature.

Formal organizations is based upon Authority and regulations. Informal

organization is based upon needs and attitudes.

Formal organization specifies the freedom of action for each subordinate.

Informal organization has strong group attitudes and a manager can increase

his effectiveness by winning the confidence of the informal group.



Line Organization

Line organization is the most oldest form of organization.

According to this theory only one man in the top-level will be all in

all.

Overall, the authority flows in the form of a straight line from

top-level executive to the lowest level. That is why, it is known as

line organization.

Each individual is the boss of his subordinates and the

subordinates would remain accountable to his immediate boss.



Line and Staff Organization

Line and staff organization refers to such type of organization where staff

personnel render advice to the line managers to perform their duties.

When the volume of activities increases much, the managers need the help of experts to perform their function.

The staff members render such type of advice to the line managers since the

former are each one a specialist in their respective fields.

They have the power to give advice or suggestion but have no right to execute

in orders.



Line and Staff Conflict

Factors leading to line-staff conflict can be grouped into 3 categories, view point of

line, view point of staff and nature of line-staff relationship.

View Point of Line Managers

1. Lack of responsibility

2. Encroachment of line authority

3. Dilution of authority

4. Theoretical basis

Viewpoint of staff managers

1. Lack of proper use of staff

2. Resistance of new ideas

3. Lack of proper authority

Nature of line-staff relationship

1. Different backgrounds

2. Lack of demarcation between line and staff

3. Lack of proper understanding of authority.



Line and Staff Conflict

Overcoming line staff conflict

1. Understanding authority relationships. - line people should have ultimate authority

for making operating decisions. Functional authority for staff people so that their

recommendations are considered. Staff people should rely on authority of

knowledge and competence rather than position.

2. Proper use of the staff line people should be encouraged to use the expertise of

staff people. Staff people to be allotted critical work in their specialty. Staff people

should be involved from the initial stages of planning. Line people should keep

staff people informed.

3. Completed staff work Recommendations are presented in as complete form as

possible. Line manger has to just give his consent or disapproval for the

recommendation.

4. Setting congenial organizational culture Is a concept of mutual trust and respect,

self restraint and control.



Functional organization

In case of such an organization, an individual receives instructions from a few

functional head ; such as, the foreman of production department receives instruction

not only from his line boss, superintendent but also from personnel manager,

marketing manager and financial manager.

Another form of functional organization is found which is complete in all respects and

is constituted with some branches in each of which there is staff specialist .

This organization will be functional when these staff experts would remain partly

responsible to the head office.

With this, there is also a central line organization where a specialist of the branch

gives report to higher level line office of that branch. As such, an individual would

remain responsible to report to two persons.



Departmentation

Departamentation consists of jobs, the combining of jobs into effective work

groups and the combining of groups into divisions are often called as

departments .

The important methods of grouping activities may be,

a. By function

b. By product

c. By customer

d. By geographical

e. By process



Process Departmentation

Whenever work that would other wise be done in several different

locations in an organization is done in one place because of the

special equipment, used, then departmentations that would result

is known as Process Departmentation.

Heavy specialized equipment such as assembling process, Painting

process, quality control process may be the various forms provide

the basis for Process Departmentation.

Each process may be headed by a senior officer, who will take

entire responsibility of that particular operation of the process



FunctionalDepartmentation

Functional departmentation occurs when organization, units are defined by the nature of

the work. Although different terminology may be use, most organisations have four major

functions- Production, sales, finance and personnel.

Each of the above functions may be further sub divided as production department may

be departmentalized into maintenance, quality control, engineering, manufacturing and

so on.

The personnel wing may be further departmentalized such as manpower planning,

training and development, wage and salaries, industrial relationships and so on.

The primary advantage of functional Departmentation is that it allows for specialization

within function. It also provides for efficient use of equipment and resources. This kind of

departmentation has some negative effects also.



Product Departmentation

Multi product organizations with wider

markets prefer to group their activities on the

basis of products or product Classes.

All functions related to particular products are

brought to gather under the roof of a product

manager, who is delegated with operatingauthority by the top management.



Departmentation by Customer

An enterprise may be divided into number of units on the basis of the

customers .A better example of this type is an organization which has one

department to handle government sector and one to handle the private

sector.

Thus a marketing or sales department may be sub divided into number of

units on the basis of customer.

The sub-divisions can be on any one of the following basis: large and smallcustomers, Rich and Poor customers, government and private customers,

child, adult, sex, income taste etc.



Departmentation by Geography

Departmentation by territories is not likely to occur

in organization which maintain number of

autonomous operating or offices.

Sales operations are spread throughout the country,

the geographical departmentation provides

opportunities for zonal managers senior branch

managers, branch managers, sales executives,

salesman etc.



Decentralization

Decentralization refers to such a state of organization structure

where topmost authority in management allocates the power of

planning and decision making, organizational and

administrative power and responsibility to the lower-level

employees.

In short decentralization refers that when higher authority

delegates power to lower level employees, it is called

decentralization.

Decentralization is established in the organization as result of

delegation of authority relating to managerial functions.



Principles of Decentralization

True delegation of authority Successful decentralization needs full and real delegation of

authority. Reporting or checking of details are allowed to be taken by the subordinates.

Based on knowledge and understanding All decisions of decentralization must be based

on theoretical understanding and practical knowledge of its effects.

Confidence in Subordinates Superiors must place full confidence in the abilities of the

subordinates to take correct decisions at the right time. They should not interfere in their

day to day functioning. They must be encouraged to exercise their discretion and use their

initiative.



Consultation between line and staff Staff, with their expertise, must advice and

encourage the practical and experienced like operators to take correct decisions

by themselves.

Full understanding of the enterprise Policies of decentralization must confirm

with the objectives organizational structure and the policies of the business.

Responsibility to be commensurate with authority For successful,

decentralization, the person must accept responsibility commensurate with the

authority which is exercised by him

Principles of Decentralization



Decentralization

Reasons of decentralization. (Contingency View)

1. Size of the organization

2. History and age of the organization

3. Philosophy of the top management

4. Ability of lower level managers

5. Strategy and organization's environment

6. Nature of management function

7. Costliness and significance of decisions



Authority

Authority" refers to a claim of legitimacy, the justification and right to

exercise power (influence to act)

Types of Authority

Formal: Delegated within an organization for e.g. superior-subordinate

authorityFunctional: Authority based on specialized knowledge like staff authority or

the authority delegated to assist line managers

Personal: Authority based on seniority and relationship

Authority is different from power, which is ability to influence or to cause aperson to perform an act.

There are 5 types of power- reward, coercive, reference, expertise &

legitimacy.



Authority Vs Power

Authority Power

It is the institutional right of a superior to

command and compel this subordinates

to perform a certain act

It is the ability of a person to influence

another person to perform an act

It rests in the chair or position It rests in the individual

It can be delegated to subordinate by his

superiorIt cannot be delegated

It is mostly well defined, conspicuous and

finite

It is undefined, inconspicuous and non-

finite

It is what exists in the eye of the law. It is

de jure conceptit is what is in fact. It is de facto concept

it serves as a basis for formal organisation it serves as a basis for informal organization



Delegation of Authority

Process off assigning work from a top

organizational level to a lower one or from

superior to subordinate and giving that person

the authority to accomplish them

A downward flow of authority from HIGHER

level in the organization to LOWER level



Delegation

A manager in an enterprise cannot himself do all the tasks necessary for the

accomplishment of organizational goals. Clearly, his capacity to do work

and take decision is limited. He therefore assigns work to his subordinates

and also gives them necessary authority to take those decisions. This

downward pushing of authority to make decisions is called delegation.

Advantages of Delegation.

1. It relieves the manager of his workload.

2. It leads to better decisions

3. It speeds up decision-making.4. It helps train subordinates and builds moral.

5. It helps create a formal organization structure.



Elements of Delegation

Authority: It is a right to take a final decisionand command others. It moves in a downwarddirection

Responsibility: It is an obligation to perform aduty. It cannot be delegated.

Accountability: subordinates must be heldanswerable to their carried out duties



Barriers to Delegation

Reluctance to delegation may be due to following reasons. (managers part)

1. Fear of loss of power.

2. The I can do it better myself fallacy

3. Lack of confidence in subordinates

4. Fear of being exposed.

5. Difficulty in briefing.

6. Inability to establish and exercise proper controls.

On part of subordinates the reasons could be:

1. Fear of criticism if they commit mistakes.

2. Lack of authority or resources to carry out their duties

3. Lack in self confidence and initiative.

4. No gains for assuming extra responsibility.



Guidelines for effective delegation

1. Before delegation authority, make the nature and scope of the task clear.

2. Assign authority proportionate to the task.

3. Make the subordinate clearly understand the limits of his authority.

4. Give the subordinate some positive incentives for accepting responsibility.

5. Train the subordinate properly.

6. Create a climate of mutual trust and goodwill. The subordinate will work

much better if he has the freedom to commit honest mistakes.

7. Do not make the subordinates accountable to more than one superiors.

8. Let there be no splits or overlaps in delegation of authority.



Span of Control

Number of subordinates that can be

adequately supervised by one supervisor

Span of control consists of two dimensions

± Narrow Span of control

± Wide span of control



Narrow span of control

The Manager supervises a small number of

people or subordinates



Advantages of Narrow Span of control

Close supervision

Close control

Fast communication between subordinatesand superiors.



Disadvantages of Narrow span of

control

Superiors tend to get too involved in

subordinates work

Many levels of management

High costs due to many levels



Wide span of control

The Manager supervises a large number of

people



Advantages of Wide span of control

Superiors are forced to delegate

Clear policies must be made

Subordinates must be carefully selected



Factors determining span of control

The competence of both the supervisor andthe subordinate

The degree of interaction between the units

or personnel being supervised Other duties of the top manager

Lower-level managers have a wider range of

span than top-level manager The similarity or dissimilarity of activities

being supervised



Factors governing Span of Management

Appropriate SOM must be determined by the specifics of the managers

particular situation:

Ability of the manager ability to handle number of people.

Ability of the employee- if they are competent and possess the required skills

they require less supervision.

Type of Work Complexity and similarity of work done by individuals.

Well defined authority and responsibility- they need not frequently call up

superiors for role clarity.

Geographic Location whether are all located in same room or locations in

different regions.

Sophisticated information and communication system this factor may help

control larger group of people.

Level of management higher the level lower the span of control.

Economic Consideration smaller spans means more managers and larger

span implies inefficiencies both incurs cost, a balance is sought.

pom (1st internal matter)

Documents