polypyrrole-magnetite dispersive micro-solid...
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POLYPYRROLE-MAGNETITE DISPERSIVE MICRO-SOLID PHASE
EXTRACTION FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RHODAMINE 6G AND
CRYSTAL VIOLET IN TEXTILE WASTEWATER
AMIRAH FARHAN BINTI KAMARUDDIN
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
POLYPYRROLE-MAGNETITE DISPERSIVE MICRO-SOLID PHASE
EXTRACTION FOR THE DETERMINATION OF RHODAMINE 6G AND
CRYSTAL VIOLET IN TEXTILE WASTEWATER
AMIRAH FARHAN BINTI KAMARUDDIN
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Science in Chemistry
Faculty of Science
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
APRIL 2017
iii
To my beloved husband and mother
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah I have managed to complete this research. I am greatly indebted to
a number of people. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest appreciation
to my supervisors, Dr. Aemi Syazwani Abdul Keyon and Prof. Dr. Mohd Marsin Sanagi
for their endless guidance throughout this research. Also, special thanks to my
colleagues who sincerely helped me regardless of the time. I am really thankful for their
priceless supervision and guidance, inspiring discussion and fruitful collaboration, all
their invaluable hours to provide constructive critics, enthusiasm and continuous
feedback. Without their continued support and patience, this dissertation would not have
been the same as presented here.
In preparing this valuable piece of work, I also received much excellent
encouragements, guidance and advices from Mr. Abdullah Ubaid Rahimi bin Che Mohd
Rahim, my beloved husband who gave me all the necessary support needed for success,
as such, I owe him a duty to be appreciative. This dissertation would not have been
possible without warm love of my family, who had always supported me in breathless
moments to happiness shelters despite of the distance. They showered me with love and
compassion and enrich my life like no other. Therefore, this work is dedicated to them.
I would like to thank all the laboratory assistants and staffs for their enlightening
companionship and encouragement of trudging through all the moments to complete this
dissertation. May ALLAH rewards all of you with His blessing.
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ABSTRACT
Polypyrrole-magnetite (PPy-Fe3O4) dispersive micro-solid phase extraction
(PPy-Fe3O4-D-µ-SPE) method combined with ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis)
spectrophotometry was developed for the determination of the selected basic dyes in
textile wastewater. PPy-Fe3O4 was used as adsorbent due to its stability and excellent
conductivity as well as capable of adsorbing the studied dyes. Two basic dyes,
Rhodamine 6G (Rh 6G) and Crystal Violet (CV) were chosen as model compounds.
Several important D-µ-SPE parameters were evaluated and optimized including sample
pH, amount of adsorbent, extraction time and type of desorption solvents. The optimum
PPy-Fe3O4-D-µ-SPE conditions were sample solution pH 8, 60 mg of PPy-Fe3O4
adsorbent, 5 min of extraction time and acetonitrile as the desorption solvent. Under the
optimized conditions, PPy-Fe3O4-D-µ-SPE method showed good linearity in the range
of 0.05-7 mg/L with coefficient of determination R2 > 0.998. The method showed good
limit of detection (LOD) for the basic dyes (0.05 mg/L) and good analyte recoveries
(97.4 to 111.3%) with relative standard deviations (RSD) < 10%. The developed method
was successfully applied to the analysis of real textile wastewater where the
concentration found was 1.03±7.9% mg/L and 1.13±4.6% mg/L for Rh 6G and CV
respectively. From the result, it can be concluded that PPy-Fe3O4-D-µ-SPE method can
be adopted for the extraction and analysis of trace level basic dyes in short time (total
analysis time < 15 min).
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ABSTRAK
Pengekstrakan fasa pepejal-mikro serakan ferum oksida bersalut polipirola (PPy-
Fe3O4-D-µ-SPE) bergandingan dengan ultraviolet (UV-Vis) spektrofotometri telah
dibangunkan bagi penentuan dua pewarna beralkali terpilih dalam air sisa tekstil. PPy-
Fe3O4 telah digunakan sebagai penjerap disebabkan kestabilannya, mempunyai
konduktiviti yang baik, luas permukaan yang tinggi dan juga mempunyai kebolehan
untuk menjerap pewarna yang dianalisis. Dua pewarna bes, rodamin 6G (Rh 6G) dan
kristal ungu (CV) telah dipilih sebagai sebatian model. Beberapa parameter yang penting
telah dinilai dan dioptimumkan termasuk sampel pH, amaun penjerap, masa
pengekstrakan dan jenis pelarut penyahjerapan. Keadaan optimum PPy-Fe3O4-D-µ-SPE
ialah pH 8, 60 mg penjerap PPy-Fe3O4, masa pengekstrakan selama 5 min dan asetonitril
sebagai pelarut penyahjerapan. Di bawah keadaan optimum, kaedah PPy-Fe3O4-D-µ-
SPE menunjukkan kelinearan yang baik dalam julat 0.05-7.00 mg/L dengan pekali
penentuan R2 > 0.998. Kaedah ini menunjukkan had pengesanan (LOD) yang baik untuk
pewarna beralkali yang dikaji (0.05 mg/L) dan pengembalian analit yang baik (97.4 to
111.3%) dengan sisihan piawai relative (RSD) < 10%. Kaedah yang dicadangkan telah
berjaya diaplikasikan pada analisis sampel air sisa tekstil yang sebenar di mana
kepekatan Rh 6G yang dikesan adalah 1.03±7.9% mg/L manakala CV mempunyai
1.13±4.6% mg/L. Dari hasil kajian ini, dapat dirumuskan bahawa kaedah PPy-Fe3O4-D-
µ-SPE boleh digunakan dalam pengekstrakan dan analisis pewarna beralkali pada tahap
yang rendah dalam masa yang singkat (jumlah masa analisis < 15 minit).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Research 1
1.2 Problem Statement 5
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Research 6
1.4 Scope of Research 6
1.5 Significance of Study 7
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2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Materials 8
2.2 Polypyrrole-Magnetite Adsorbent 9
2.3 Dispersive Micro-Solid Phase Extraction 11
2.4 Basic Dyes 19
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Characterization of Polypyrrole and
Polypyrrole-Magnetite
23
3.2 Chemicals and Reagents 24
3.3 Apparatus and Instruments 25
3.4 UV Conditions for Analysis of Basic Dyes 25
3.5 Preparation of Standard Solutions 25
3.6 Study on Surface Charge of PPy-Fe3O4
Nanocomposite
26
3.7 D-µ-SPE of Dyes and Its Optimization Procedure 27
3.8 Method Validation 28
3.9 Preparation of Batik Textile Wastewater Sample 29
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Characterization of Polypyrrole-Magnetite,
PPy-Fe3O4
30
4.1.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 30
4.1.2 Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy 32
4.1.3 X-ray Diffraction Analysis 33
4.1.4 Nitrogen Adsorption Analysis 34
4.1.5 Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscopy
34
4.1.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis 35
4.2 Surface Charge of PPy-Fe3O4 Nanocomposite 36
4.3 UV-Vis Determination and Standard Calibration
for Dyes
38
4.4 Optimization of D-µ-SPE Method 40
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4.4.1 Effect of Sample pH 40
4.4.2 Effect of Adsorbent Mass 41
4.4.3 Effect of Extraction Time 42
4.4.4 Effect of Desorption Solvents 43
4.5 Regeneration and Reusability Study of Adsorbent 44
4.6 Validation of D-µ-SPE Method 45
4.6.1 Linearity and Limit of Detection (LOD) 45
4.6.2 Precision and Accuracy 47
4.7 Application to Real Batik Textile Wastewater 48
5 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
5.1 Conclusion 49
5.2 Suggestions 50
REFERENCES 51
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Chemical structures and physicochemical
properties of studied dyes.
22
4.1 Percent composition of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
chlorine, iron in PPy-Fe3O4 nanocomposite by
EDAX analysis.
33
4.2 Analytical features of the D-µ-SPE coupled with
UV-Vis method for the analysis of basic dyes.
48
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
3.1 Schematic diagram for the determination of
surface charge of PPy-Fe3O4 nanocomposite
26
3.2 Schematic diagram for D-µ-SPE optimization
procedure.
27
3.3 Schematic diagram for the preparation of batik
textile wastewater sample.
29
4.1 FTIR spectra of (a) original PPy and (b) PPy-
Fe3O4 nanocomposite.
31
4.2 EDAX spectrum of PPy-Fe3O4 nanocomposite. 32
4.3 XRD patterns of (a) original PPy and (b) PPy-
Fe3O4 nanocomposite.
33
4.4 FESEM image of (a) PPy and (b) PPy-Fe3O4
nanocomposite with average particle size
measurement of 90 nm.
35
4.5 TGA/DTA curves of (a) PPy and (b) PPy-
Fe3O4 nanocomposite.
36
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4.6 Determination of the pH of zero point of charge
(pHZPC) for PPy-Fe3O4 nanocomposite (40 mL
0.1 M NaNO3, 0.1 g PPy-Fe3O4 adsorbent,
stirring speed 220 rpm, ambient temperature).
37
4.7 UV-Vis spectra of the basic dyes. 38
4.8 Standard calibration graph of Rh 6G. 39
4.9 Standard calibration graph of CV. 39
4.10 Effect of sample pH. D-µ-SPE conditions:
adsorbent amount: 40 mg, extraction time: 2
min, desorption solvent: 500 µL methanol.
41
4.11 Effect of adsorbent amounts. D-µ-SPE
conditions: sample pH: pH 8, extraction time: 2
min, desorption solvent: 500 µL methanol.
42
4.12 Effect of extraction time. D-µ-SPE conditions:
sample pH: pH 8, adsorbent amount: 60 mg,
desorption solvent: 500 µL methanol.
43
4.13 Effect of desorption solvent. D-µ-SPE
conditions: sample pH: pH 8, adsorbent amount:
60 mg, extraction time: 5 min.
44
4.14 Method calibration curve for Rh 6G. D-µ-SPE
conditions: sample pH: pH 8, adsorbent amount:
60 mg, extraction time: 5 min, desorption
solvent: 500 µL of ACN. UV analysis at 527 nm.
46
4.15 Method calibration curve for CV. D-µ-SPE
conditions: sample pH: pH 8, adsorbent amount:
60 mg, extraction time: 5 min, desorption
solvent: 500 µL of ACN. UV analysis at 590 nm.
46
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
PAHs - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs - Polychlorinated biphenyls
OPPs - Organophosphorus pesticides
OCPs - Organochlorine pesticides
Rh 6G - Rhodamine 6G
CV - Crystal Violet
D-µ-SPE - Dispersive micro-solid phase extraction
PPy-Fe3O4 - Polypyrrole coated iron oxide
HPLC - High performance liquid chromatography
UV-Vis - Ultraviolet-visible
SPE - Solid phase extraction
FTIR - Fourier transform infrared
FESEM - Field emission scanning electron microscope
EDAX - Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy
XRD - x-ray diffraction
TGA - Thermogravimetric analysis
BET - Brunauer-Emmett-Teller
AC - Activated carbon
Fe3O4 - Magnetite
γ-Fe2O3 - Maghemite
PPy - Polypyrrole
xiv
LLE - Liquid-liquid extraction
µ-SPE - Micro-solid phase extraction
CNTs - Carbon nanotubes
Ag-SiO2-PDPA - silver nanoparticles-doped silica-polydiphenylamine
TiO2 - Titanium dioxide
MWCNTs-PVA - multiwalled carbon nanotubes/polyvinyl alcohol cryogel
composite
DEHP - di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate
D-SPE - Dispersive solid phase extraction
CTAB - cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
zeolite NaY - sodium Y zeolite
NiZn:S - mixture of zinc acetate and nickel acetate with thioacetamide
MOF - metal-organic framework
MIL-101 - Material Institute Lavoisier 101
MNPs - Magnetic nanoparticles
HKUST - Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
EU - European Union
TAM - triarylmethane
C.I - Colour index
Mw - Molecular weight
log Kow - Octanol/water partition coefficient
N2 - Nitrogen gas
MeOH - Methanol
ACN - Acetonitrile
HEX - Hexane
NaNO3 - Sodium nitrate
NaOH - Sodium hydroxide
HNO3 - Nitric acid
pHZPC - pH of zero point of charge
HCl - Hydrochloric acid
xv
rpm - Revolution per minute
ppm - Parts per million
LOD - Limit of detection
RSD - Relative standard deviation
K - Kelvin
IUPAC - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
R2 - Coefficient of determination
2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Research
Environmental pollution has been a hot topic many years ago due to the
release of hazardous materials into environment. Furthermore, they exist beyond the
permitted limits. These hazardous materials are referring to environmental pollutants
or contaminants that can be any substances occurring naturally or man-made
including heavy metals (Li, Ma, van der Kuijp, Yuan, & Huang, 2014), polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Gavrilescu, Demnerova, Aamand, Agathos, & Fava,
2015), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) (Gavrilescu et al., 2015; Noguera-Oviedo
& Aga, 2016), organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs), organochlorine pesticides
(OCPs), triazines herbicides (Noguera-Oviedo & Aga, 2016), phenolic compounds
(Deblonde, Cossu-Leguille, & Hartemann, 2011), triclosan (Dhillon, Kaur,
Pulicharla, Brar, Cledon, Verma, & Surampalli, 2015), textile dyes (Ashfaq &
Khatoon, 2014; Ribeiro & Umbuzeiro, 2014) and so on. Their presences are of
concern because they possess high toxicity and pose threat to public health even at
low concentration.
Therefore, the development of better analytical techniques always becomes
the top priority in any qualitative and quantitative research study. This is important in
order to study the properties of those pollutants such as physical state, oxidation
state, complexation form and others, as well as to extract and preconcentrate them at
trace level. Besides, monitoring activities for these contaminants in different food
and environmental samples such as soil, air and water can also be done in order to
2
avoid long term exposure. However, it is not easy to analyze unknown or known
species at trace levels especially in complex environmental matrices.
Textile industry, for example in the process of batik painting, requires a large
quantity of dyes and other chemicals, as well as large volume of water for washing.
The problem lies when this industry discharges wastewater containing harmful dyes
into the environment without appropriate treatment. This discharge of dyes has posed
difficulty to be decolorized and decomposed biologically due to their resistant
against the light exposure, water and many chemicals. The dyes in wastewater can
increase not only environmental degradation like depletion of dissolved oxygen
needed by marine life, loss of soil productivity, but also risks human illness for
example the bad quality of drinking water for human consumption.
As this industry generates effluents containing large quantity of dyes into the
environment, the waste is considered as pollutants due to their threats to public as
such they consist of carcinogens like benzidine (Padhi, 2012). In addition, they have
large variety of functional groups which contribute to their diverse properties. That is
the reason the detection of these dyes becomes a major wastewater challenge. The
highly undesirable presence of dyes at low concentration in wastewater is indeed a
concern due to their toxicity, carcinogenic, and other harmful effects either to aquatic
life or even human health for example bladder cancer in humans (Padhi, 2012).
The maximum concentration of dyes in water of more than 1 mg/L caused by
untreated textile effluents can harm the public health (Carmen & Daniela, 2012). In
addition, high concentrations of textile dyes in water bodies can prevent the re-
oxygenation capacity of the receiving water and cut-off sunlight. Consequently, it
would affect the biological activity in aquatic life and also the photosynthesis process
of aquatic plants or algae (Carmen & Daniela, 2012). The targeted dyes to be
analyzed are Rhodamine 6G (Rh 6G) and Crystal Violet (CV) because they are the
commonly used basic dyes in the textile batik industry. Furthermore, they are readily
available in the laboratory and not costly. Therefore, it is imperative to develop much
simpler and low cost techniques. This technique is important not only due to its
4
economical aspect but can also improve the quality of drinking water resources that
have been contaminated with pathogens originating from wastewater.
During past decades, many conventional methods have been reported in dye
analysis, yet they are high in cost and often less adaptable in wastewater containing
dyes. A simple and economical technique known as dispersive micro-solid phase
extraction (D-µ-SPE) is developed in this new application of dye analysis. Not only
it is easy to operate, it is also effective as such the mode of its mechanism is an
adsorption process. Importantly, since D-µ-SPE method requires the use of
adsorbent, the economic aspect of the whole procedure including the search of less
costly adsorbent material becomes the top priority especially in wastewater
treatment.
Adsorption is known as an economical, effective and simple method to
extract targeted species from aqueous matrix (Gupta, Ali, Saleh, Nayaka, & Agarwal,
2012) and commonly applicable in industry and laboratories for green extraction
purposes. Many kinds of adsorbents have been developed for example natural
materials like agro-waste products (Gupta & Suhas, 2009; Tran, Ngo, Guo, Zhang,
Liang, Ton-That, & Zhang, 2015), clay (Srinivasan, 2011; Gupta & Suhas, 2009),
biopolymer (Sanagi, Loh, Wan Ibrahim, Pourmand, Salisu, Ali, 2016; Tran et al.,
2015), zeolite (Delkash, Bakhshayesh, & Kazemian, 2015), ion exchange resin
(Bilal, Shah, Ashfaq, Gardazi, Tahir, Pervez, & Mahmood, 2013; Nagarale, Gohil, &
Shahi, 2006), activated carbons (Sharma, Kaur, Sharma, & Sahore, 2011) and many
more. Agro-waste products, clays and biopolymers are environmental friendly and
can be found in large amount. However, they had low adsorption capacity (Sharma
et al., 2011; Yang & Han, 2005) and insufficient stability data in real wastewater
sample (Tran et al., 2015). As a result, some modification steps are required to
overcome their drawbacks but still, the production cost is high depending on the
modification conditions.
3
4
Zeolites, they have two kinds of them which are natural and synthetic
zeolites. Natural zeolites can also be found in abundance and inexpensive price, but
they had capability to degrade the water quality when they have low content of
zeolite. They should not contain any water-soluble impurities in order to prevent
contamination of water sample (Delkash et al., 2015). For synthetic zeolites, they are
more expensive than the natural one but they have high efficiency and high cation
exchange capacity. The recovery, enrichment as well as the removal of ionic
pollutants can be performed by ion exchange resins but the problem with these
adsorbents is when there is a change in concentration of ionic solutions, they have
low selectivity, low mechanical stability and high degree of swellness or shrinkage
(Nagarale et al., 2006). Activated carbon which is a commonly used adsorbent due to
its efficiency and applicable to wide range of analyte adsorption, its usage could still
be restricted due to economical consideration, poor regeneration ability and
generation of large amount of greenhouse gases during its production stage (Shankar,
2008; Gupta & Suhas, 2009).
The main highlight of this study is the use of synthetic organic-inorganic
hybrid based nanomaterials; polypyrrole-magnetite (PPy-Fe3O4) as adsorbent for the
adsorption and desorption of textile dyes. The organic-inorganic hybrid-based
adsorbent has gained attention in many separation studies for instance as adsorbents
for water treatment purpose (Samiey, Cheng, & Wu, 2014), packing materials in high
performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column (Xiong, Yang, Huang, Jiang,
Chen, Shen, & Chen, 2013) and others (Souza & Quadri, 2013). These are all
because of their high selectivity, permeability, mechanical and chemical stability
(Kango, Kalia, Celli, Njuguna, Habibie, & Kumara, 2013). They are also very
flexible to adjust their structure and properties depending on the synthesis process
and conditions they possess. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometer is a
commonly used detection technique in dyes analysis and mostly available in most
laboratories, thus, it is used in the current study.
4
1.2 Problem Statement
In Southeast Asia, textile industry especially batik production is very famous
and the generation of dye wastewater indeed becomes a concern. This untreated
wastewater can cause cancer and abnormalities (Koay, Ahamad, Nourouzi, Abdullah,
& Choong, 2013). Furthermore, in Malaysia, a 2013 year statistic showed that the
percentage of clean rivers was reduced by 1 % (Manan, Chai, & Samad, 2015).
Likewise, there had been also a case in United States where the government had to
spent around USD 76.6 billion to treat the children affected by this environmentally
mediated diseases like prenatal methylmercury exposure, lead poisoning, childhood
cancer, intellectual disability and other related diseases (Trasande & Liu, 2011). It
showed that the emergence of these environmental pollutants is indeed harmful
towards public health especially young generation by slowing down the development
and learning ability of an individual. Besides, these water and air pollution problems
can also lead to death (Prüss-Üstün, Bonjour, & Corvalán, 2008). Many conventional
treatments had been done to treat wastewater for example oxidation, photo-
degradation process and ozonation (Hozhabr Araghi & Entezari, 2015) but these
methods have shortcomings of producing more toxic intermediates compared to the
original compound. Adsorbents like agro-waste products, clays and biopolymers,
they are environmentally friendly but they had low adsorption capacity and unstable
in real wastewater samples. Therefore, advances in the analysis of wastewater make
it possible to detect the dyes present in textile wastewater by employing adsorption
process of newly developed solid phase extraction (SPE) technique termed D-µ-SPE.
As D-µ-SPE method being developed with the introduction of better performance
adsorbents, magnetic nanoparticles come in the interest of researchers due to their
high surface area and easy separation from aqueous media using external magnet.
The combination of organic and inorganic materials termed organic-inorganic
hybrid-based nanocomposite is introduced as the studied adsorbent together with D-
µ-SPE method as the heart of this study.
5
4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of Research
The aim of this study is to develop an improved microextraction method
using organic-inorganic hybrid-based adsorbent for the determination of basic
dyes from water sample. In order to achieve the aim, several objectives are
proposed to:
i. Characterize previously prepared in-house polypyrrole-magnetite
(PPy-Fe3O4) nanocomposite.
ii. Utilize the material as adsorbent in dispersive micro-solid phase
extraction (D-µ-SPE) method for the extraction of Rhodamine 6G (Rh
6G) and Crystal Violet (CV) dyes.
iii. Optimize and validate the D-µ-SPE method for the analysis of dyes in
water.
iv. Apply the developed D-µ-SPE method to the analysis of dyes in real
wastewater sample from batik textile industry.
1.4 Scope of Research
This research focuses on the characterization of a new composite material,
PPy-Fe3O4 to be utilized as adsorbent in D-µ-SPE method. For this study, in-house
synthesized material (PPy-Fe3O4) is used as an adsorbent for the extraction of Rh 6G
and CV. PPy-Fe3O4 nanocomposite is characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared
(FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM),
energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX), X-ray diffraction (XRD),
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and nitrogen adsorption analysis (BET), and its
performance as D-µ-SPE adsorbent is investigated.
6
4
This study then focuses on the optimized D-µ-SPE procedure required where
the parameters involved are sample pH, adsorbent mass, extraction time and type of
desorption solvents. The analysis is carried out using UV-Vis spectrophotometer. It
involves the mechanism of adsorption process as it is a suitable treatment option for
organic contaminants (Pirkarami & Olya, 2014). The optimized and validated
methods are then applied to analyze the targeted dyes in real wastewater sample from
a batik factory in Kota Bharu, Kelantan.
1.5 Significance of Study
This study is very important to study the capabilities of the newly applied
adsorbent in the extraction of the basic dyes in wastewater prior to their
determination by UV-Vis spectrophotometer instrument. The adsorbent studied is
thermally stable and can be reusable generally while the extraction technique used is
environmentally friendly, faster and efficient. In addition, it is also expected that the
developed low-cost and efficient technique will be a useful tool for the
preconcentration of other analytes in various water samples.
7
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