Three Groupings in United States Cities

Exodus from the rural south to urban ghettos ◦ After World War I: a trickle ◦ After World War II: mass migration

Informal covenants kept African Americans in ghettos

Even more extensive in southern cities

Booker T. Washington as spokesman for individualistic integration

NAACP – first national African American advocacy group

Civil Rights Movement & African American Establishment ◦ Returning veterans from World War II◦ SCLC and Martin Luther King Jr. ◦ African Urban Churches

Martin Luther King: “I have a dream”

Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale

Elijah Muhammad Established Muslim

Temple in Detroit (1934) Complete separation

from white society

Louis Farrakan: current leader

Began as a collaborator of Elijah Muhammad

Mission to the urban poor

Radical anti-white perspective that modified toward the end

Assassinated – 1965

Trajectory of Riots/Urban Violence◦ Cleveland 1966◦ Newark 1967 ◦ Detroit 1967◦ Washington, D.C. 1968 ◦ Los Angeles again 1992 ◦ Cincinnati 2001

Triggered by arrest for drunk driving by California patrol

People gathered and resentment toward police boiled over

Anger over repeal of fair housing act

$35 million in property damage – mostly in African-American areas

34 people killed 1032 injured

1965 Voting Rights Act ◦ Federal government could appoint voting

examiners who could register people◦ Suspended literacy tests◦ Justice Department must approve changes

voting laws and voter qualifications ◦ Attorney General has authority to enforce

provisions of the act

Controversy Surrounding “at large” elections

Courts and at large elections◦ Rejected attempts to move from ward to at

large elections◦ Hasn’t struck down existing at large systems◦ When changes requested federal government

has forced cities to guarantee representation to minorities

Nature of redistricting How much minority population should a

minority district have? 65% majority rule of thumb

Levels of political incorporation◦ Weak mobilization and exclusion◦ Protest and exclusion (Oakland before 1977)◦ Weak mobilization and incorporation (San

Francisco during 1970’s)◦ Biracial electoral alliance and strong incorporation

(Berkeley)

Mayor Tom Bradley of Los Angeles, 1973-1993

050

100

1st

Qtr

3rd

Qtr

Expands public sector opportunities for minorities

African American Mayors (strategies of responsiveness) ◦ Private sector investment in areas where there

are large numbers of African-Americans◦ Aggressive affirmative action in competition

for public sector jobs in the cities

Hispanics constitute the largest minority group in the United States

Hispanics account for 41.3 million people in the US

14.3 % of the US population is of Hispanic origin

Growth rate for Hispanics is 3.6 % compared to 1.0 % overall population growth

Hispanic population in each region:◦ Northeast – 9.8 %◦ Midwest – 4.9 %◦ South – 11.6 %◦ West – 24.3 %

Top Three States:◦ New Mexico – 42.1 %◦ California – 32.4 %◦ Texas – 32 %

2006: ◦ 73 % voted Democrat◦ 26% voted Republican

2004:◦ 55 % voted Democrat◦ 42% voted Republican

Cubans and Colombians tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans

Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominicans lean more towards the Democrats

Mexicans make up approximately 63% of all Hispanics in the US while Cubans only constitute 4%. Dominicans and Puerto Ricans make up another 13%.

Note that the location of the Hispanic population also influences party affiliation.

California Latinos voted 63-32 for John Kerry in 2004 Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56-43 margin Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly Florida Latinos (mostly being Cuban American) backed

President Bush by a 54-45 margin.

◦ Hispanics voted overwhelmingly Democrat, with a lopsided 69-30 margin. For the first time Florida Latinos were split evenly.

◦ The key element leading to this voting behavior was the heated immigration debate and H.R. 4437 (The Border Protection, Anti-terrorism, and Illegal Immigration

Control Act of 2005).

- H.R. 4437 passed the House by a vote of 239 to 182, with 92% of Republicans supporting, 82% of Democrats opposing.

70% are Roman Catholic

23% are Protestant, 85% of which are Evangelical or Pentecostal.

Less than 1% are Jewish.

◦ Most are descendants of Ashkenazi Jews who migrated fromEurope particularly to Argentina.

Less than 1% are Muslims.

MEXICANS

Pre-Colonization: Southwest inhabited by Native Americans and Spanish

1810: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla – Mexican Independence

1821: Mexico opens borders to United States◦ Trade regions◦ Hunting ◦ Settlement

Highly unstable government U.S.-Mexico War: 1846 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo: 1848

◦ $15 million for the northern third of Mexico◦ Recognized prior land grants in the

Southwest◦ Offered citizenship to any Mexicans residing

in the area 1845-1854: the United States acquires half of Mexico

1848: <15,000 Mexican Americans (outside of New Mexico)

1890: 75,000+ Mexicans had migrated to the United States.

1900: Mexicans (immigrants and native-born) totaled between 381,000 and 562,000

Cycles of mass immigration from Mexico followed by efforts at deportation and voluntary departure

Correlation between the need for labor and the increase/decrease of Mexican immigrants

Make up 64% of the Hispanic population in the United States.

Cities with high Mexican population: ◦ Chicago (IL) ◦ Houston (TX)◦ Los Angeles (CA)

Median Income of Mexican-American families (2000): $27,600

The Catholic Church Unions

◦ Industrial Workers of the World◦ United Mine Workers of America◦ United Farm Workers

Democratic Party Republican Party

Making undocumented immigrants legal Defense of immigrant workers’ rights.

Growing numbers of Mexican Americans in 1960s/1970s

Annexation in 1975 Diluted Mexican American voting strength Council seat districts created to insure representation

to African Americans and Mexican Americans Broad coalition elects Henry Cisneros

CUBANS

Former Spanish Colony Independence movement – Ten Years’ War (1868) Short truce, then Spanish American War (1898) U.S. granted Cuba independence with certain

guidelines (1902) Fall of the Cuban Republic government and U.S.

relations – Depression, Batista, Mafia (1902-1959) Rise of Fidel Castro and the fall of U.S.

investments. (1959)

1st Wave (1960-1980):◦ Followed Castro’s Cuban Revolution◦ Hundreds of thousands, upper/middle classes

2nd Wave (1980s):◦ Followed economic downturn◦ Est. 120,000 – some from jails/mental asylums◦ Mariel Boatlift Crisis – disliked by Cuban Americans

3rd Wave (1994):◦ Followed political turmoil◦ Est. 35,000 during summer months◦ Aug. 23: 3,253 intercepted by Coast Guard◦ Balsero Rafter Crisis

Largest populations of Cuban Americans◦ Miami, FL◦ Hialeah, FL◦ Union City, NJ◦ New York, NY◦ Key West, FL◦ Tampa, FL

Transformed Miami into a distinct modern city

Outside of Miami, have assimilated into American Culture

States with high Cuban population growth:◦ California◦ Georgia◦ Illinois◦ North Carolina◦ Virginia

1.5 million Cuban Americans 4 % of US Hispanic population Compared to overall Hispanic population

◦ Older◦ More educated◦ More wealthy

Felt most markedly in city of Miami◦ Cubans a slight majority of population

Anti-communism and conservatism more important than in other Hispanic-American communities

Tensions in African-American - Cuban relations in Miami

Corruption & electoral fraud led voters to approve (1997) a strong mayor system

Puerto Ricans

Pop. of 3.95 million living on the island Puerto Ricans have US citizenship,

currency, and defense Can’t vote in presidential elections Spanish and English are the official

languages Racial breakdown

◦ Spanish (European)◦ Taino (Amerindian)◦ Africans

Peak period of migration came after World War II. ◦During the 1940s, the population grew

from 70,000 to 226,000. By 1970

◦ 810,000 Puerto Rican migrants and another 581,000 mainland-born Puerto Ricans lived in the United States.

Currently there are 3.4 million Puerto Ricans living on the U.S. mainland

Puerto Ricans are the second largest Latino group in the United States

Employment◦ In 2003, 20.7% were in professional-managerial

occupations, 33.7 percent were in service-sales jobs.

Poverty◦ 22.8 % for families

Education◦ Of those 25 years and older, 63.2 % have

graduated from high school ◦ 9.9% have 4 yr. college degree

BRAZIL

Largest and most populous country in South America

Only Portuguese speaking country in the Americas

Multiracial Largest Roman Catholic population in the

world Largest protestant population in Latin

America

87 % of Brazilians in US born in Brazil 70% of Brazilians in US are illegal Why Immigrate?

◦More than ½ have friends or relatives already in US

◦¼ Permanently Immigrate

Largest Brazilian Settlements on East Coast

By Population◦Boston: 150,000◦New York: 80,000-150,000◦Florida: 65000◦California: 20,000◦Houston: 10,000◦Washington D.C.: 10,000

Central Pacific working from Sacramento toward Nebraska

9,000 – 12,000 Chinese worked for Central Pacific

Paid only 60% of wages received by European immigrants

3,336,966(1.2% of the US population)

First wave of Japanese immigrants to provide agricultural labor

Hawaii sugarcane and pineapple plantations, California fruit and produce farms

1924 United States Immigration Act banned immigration from Japan (Yellow Peril)

Japanese Americans placed in internment camps during Second World War

President Regan and Congress apologize for internment

Current number of Japanese-Americans 1.2million (0.4% population)

Battle of Manila Bay U.S. colonialism

(1898 – 1946) Second largest

source of immigrants in some years of 1990’s

2.2 million in the USA

1943 Republican Clara Booth Luce and Democrat Emanuel Celler introduce a bill to open naturalization to Indian immigrants to the US.

Immigrants from India are generally well educated and high achieving

2,479,4240.9% of US population

SubrahmanyanChandrasekhar (shown above) and Har Gobind Khorana are the 2 Indian Americans to have won the Nobel Prize

1,418,3340.5% of the US population

Concentrated in: California, Texas, Washington, Virginia

Disproportionately large number of Vietnamese-Americans are Christians

South Vietnamese civilians scramble to board aUS helicopter during the American evacuation of

Saigon.

◦ Immigration

◦ Bilingualism

◦ Jobs