politics and society in la (2015)

7/25/2019 Politics and Society in LA (2015)

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POLITICS & SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA PUZZLE-UL LATINO

PERIOADA: AL 2LEA SEMESTRU 2014/2015

TITULAR : LECTOR DR. CATERINA PREDA([email protected])


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FISA CURSULUI / COURSE OUTLINE / FICHE DU COURS

2013/2014

Titlul cursului / Course title / Intitul du cours : POLITICS AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA.

The Latin American puzzle

Tipul cursului / Course type / Type du cours : obligatoriu / compulsory / obligatoire

op!ional / elective / optionnelfacultativ / voluntary / facultatif

Numele "i prenumele responsabilului de curs / Name of the person in charge of the class / Nom etprnom du responsable de cours : CaterinaPreda

Gradul didactic / Academic title / Titre acadmique : Lector Dr.

Semestrul / Semester / Semestrul I II

Descriere sintetic!a cursului / Brief description of the course / Description synthtique

du cours

This is an introductory class for 2nd

year students meant to present the political study of LatinAmerica. So as to comprehend current events and trends of Latin American politics one hasto first have a comprehensive view of modern political history of Latin America. How else

could one understand the election of Daniel Ortega at the presidency of Nicaragua in 2006 ifnot by a return on the Sandinist revolution? The current debate on neo-populism can also beunderstood solely by knowing the history of populisms in Latin America. This type of

questions will find an answer at the end of this introductory class.

Bibliografie general!/ References / Bibliographie gnraleSkidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 2010 (7thedition)

+ the texts for each weekly discussion by email or online on my professor page(fspub.unibuc.ro)

Forme "i criterii de evaluare / Requirements and evaluation / Formes et critresdvaluation

1. Attending the classes is mandatory.2. The final examination consists of a written exam of 20 to 24 very specific questions

evaluating the information presented during the classes andseminars.

NOTA :Studen!ii sunt obliga!i s" cunoasc" politica de probitate intelectual" a Facult"!ii: plagiatul,copiatul, n#el"toria, multipla utilizare a unui referat, recursul nem"rturisit la surse bibliografice

sau la internet vor conduce la anularea notei #i a creditelor alocate cursului.

Students should be aware of the Departments policy of academic integrity: cheating,falsification, forgery, multiple submission, plagiarism, complicity and computer misuse willresult in the invalidation of both grade and creditsLes tudiants sont tenus connatre la politique de la Facult en matire dhonntetintellectuelle : le plagiat, la contrefaon, le dpt multiple des travaux, la falsification, lerecours inavou aux sources bibliographiques et lInternet entranent lannulation des

crdits et de la note du cours.


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5.. The years of prosperity (1914-1930); the Southern Cone

- The First World War- reformism (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile)- American imperialism consolidated (North American policies)

Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Three pp. 69-82; Chapter Four. pp.110-122.

Discussion: presidentialism in LAScott Mainwaring and Matthew S. Shugart, Juan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy: A

Critical Appraisal, Comparative Politics, 29:4 (1997): 449-471Scott Mainwaring, Presidentialism in Latin America, Latin American Research Review,25:1

(1990): 157-179Arturo Valenzuela, Latin American presidencies interrupted, Journal of Democracy 15:4(2004): 5-19

6. Populism and neo-populism: from Vargas and Peron to Chavez and FujimoriFrom the crisis to the search of new solutions (1930-1960)

- The 1929 economic crisis; the imports substitution model and the industrial takeoff- The political crisis: military governments and populisms (Argentina, Brazil)

Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Three pp. 82-98; Chapter Five. pp. 157-164.

Discussion: Populism of ancients and moderns neopopulism: Hugo Chvez/Fujimori

Steve Ellner, The Contrasting Variants of the Populism of Hugo Chvez and Alberto

Fujimori, Journal of Latin American Studies, 35:1 (2003): 139-162Kurt Weyland, Neopopulism and Neoliberalism in Latin America: How Much Affinity?, Third

World Quarterly, 24:6 (2003): 1095-1115Kurt Weyland, Neoliberal Populism in Latin America and Eastern Europe, ComparativePolitics, 31:4 (1999):379-401

7. Cuba: a portrait since independence

- The Cuban revolution (1959) and the Castro system- The failure of continental revolution; the Nicaraguan revolution (1979-1990)- Rural (Central America) and urban (Southern Cone) guerillas: differences and

specificities

Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Nine pp. 296-355.

Discussion: Cuba and the after Fidel a new model?

Mark P. Sullivan, Cuba after Fidel Castro: issues for US policy, CRS Report for Congress(2005)Daniel P. Erikson, Charting Castros possible successors, SAIS ReviewXXV:1 (2005): 89-103.

Tim Anderson, Contesting Transition The US plan for a Free Cuba, Latin AmericanPerspectives32:6 (2005): 28-46

8. State terrorism in the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay)- the role of the military in LA politics; the National Security doctrine and authoritarian

regimes

Discussion: Latin American originality: terrorist states and The Condor Operation (Brazil,Chile, Argentina, Uruguay)

J. Patrice Mc Sherry, Tracking the Origins of a State Terror Network Operation Condor,Latin American Perspectives 29:1 (2002): 38-60.

9. Democratic transition in Latin America; Brazil

- The lost decade: 1980s- 1989 in Latin America (Panama, Stroessner, Pinochet#); consolidated democracies?

Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Five. pp. 139-180.


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8. Linz, Juan & Stepan Alfred, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown andReequilibration, Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1978

9. Linz, Juan, Totalitarian and Authoritarian regimes,Boulder & London: Lynne Rienner Publishers,2000

10. Mainwaring, Scott & Valenzuela Arturo, Politics, society and Democracy: Latin America, Boulder,Colorado: Westview Press, 1998

11. Mainwaring, Scott and Prez-Lin Anbal, Level of Development and Democracy. Latin

American Exceptionalism, 1945-1996, Comparative Political Studies36:9 (2003): 1031-106712. ODonnell, Guillermo & Schmitter Philippe C., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule. Tentative

Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins UniversityPress, 1986

13. Prez-Lin, Anbal, Democratization and Constitutional Crises in Presidential Regime. TowardConstitutional Supremacy?, Comparative Political Studies38:1 (2005): 51-74

14. Valenzuela, Arturo, Latin American presidencies interrupted, Journal of Democracy 15:4 (2004):5-19

Websites

1. Latin American Database http://pdba.georgetown.edu/2. Latin American Network Information Center http://lanic.utexas.edu/3. Amrica Latina. Portal Europeo http://www.red-redial.net/

4. El portal sociopoltico de Iberoamrica http://www.nuevamayoria.com/ES/

5. Internet Resources for Latin America http://lib.nmsu.edu/subject/bord/laguia/6. The World Fact book http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html7. Maps http://www.worldatlas.com

8. Elections in AL 2006 http://www.observatorio2006.org/9. BBC http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/default.stm

10. http://www.amelatine.com/11. http://www.latinreporters.com/12. http://www.americas-fr.com/actualites/actualites.html13. Analysis (Spanish and English) www.nuevamayoria.com/ES/

14. Reuters LA http://lta.today.reuters.com/news/default.aspx15. Angus Reid analyses http://www.angus-reid.com/16. http://www.latinnews.com17. Project Syndicate http://www.project-syndicate.org/


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Argentina(Repblica Argentina/Nacin Argentina)

Capital: Buenos AiresSurface: 2.8 millions km!Population: 40.3 million (Indians 3%)

Independence: 9 July 1816

Federal presidential republic: 23 provinces and the federal district of Buenos Aires (24 districts).

Voting system: Presidency: double tour majority (TRS) 4 years mandate1;

Congress: PR closed lists (perfect bicameralism)Constitution: 1853 (reformed in 1860, 1898, 1957 and 1994)Suffrage: universal and mandatory since 18 years

Executive: President (4 years) Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner(2007) http://www.presidencia.gov.arVice-president: Amado Boudou

Legislative: Senate 72 members elected for 6 years (one third renewable every 2 years)2

Chamber of Deputies 257 members elected for 4 years (half renewable every 2 years) according

to the DHondt formula with a threshold of 3%. 3

Last presidential election results (2011)

Cristina Kirchner (Frente para la Victoria)/PJ 53.96Hermes Binner (Frente Amplio Progresista)/PS 16.87

Ricardo Alfonsin (Union para el Desarrollo Social)/UCR 11.5Alberto Rodriguez Sa (Compromiso Federal) /PJ 7.98

Legislativ (Congreso Nacional) are dou camere: Camera Deputa"ilor (257) #i Senat (72 senatori dinprovincii & Buenos Aires).

Main political parties

1. Alianza Frente Para la Victoria (electoral coalition of the justicialists)www.frenteparalavictoria.org

2. PJPartido Justicialista www.pj.org.ar3. UCRUnin Civica Radical www.ucr.org.ar4. FrePaSoFrente Pas Solidario

5. ARAccin por la Repblica www.ar-partido.com.ar6. ARIAfirmacin para una Republica Igualitaria www.ari.org.ar

7. Recrear Recrear para el crecimiento www.recrearargentina.org8. Partido Socialista www.partidosocialista.com.ar 9. Movimiento Libres del Sur www.libresdelsur.org.ar

1The president and the vice-president are elected together. They can only exert two successive mandates.2

Since 2001 they are elected directly and not anymore through provincial legislatures. The mandate has beenshortened also from 9 to 5 years and the number of senators grew from 48 to 72 (Constitutional reform of1994, enacted for the 2001 elections).3http://www.congreso.gov.ar


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Argentina - Chiefs of state

Presidente de las Provincias Unidas del Ro de la PlataBernardino Rivadavia (1826-1827)Director Provisorio a cargo de las Relaciones ExterioresJusto Jos de Urquiza - 1852Presidente de la Confederacin Argentina elegido por la Constitucin de 1853Justo Jos de Urquiza (1854-1860)

Presidente de la Confederacin Argentina elegido por la Constitucin de 1853.1. Santiago Derqui (1860-1861)2. Bartolom Mitre (1861-1862)3. Bartolom Mitre (1862-1868)4. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1868-1874)5. Nicols Avellaneda (1874-1880)6. Julio Argentino Roca (1880-1886) 1st mandate7. Miguel Jurez Celman (1886-1890)8. Carlos Pellegrini (1890-1892)9. Luis Senz Pea (1892-1895)10.Jos Evaristo Uriburu (1895-1898)11.Julio Argentino Roca (1898-1904) 2nd mandate12.Manuel Quintana (1904-1906)

13.Jos Figueroa Alcorta (1906-1910)14.Roque Senz Pea (1910-1914)15.Victorino de la Plaza (1914-1916)16.Hiplito Yrigoyen (1916-1922) 1st mandate17.Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear (1922-1928)18.Hiplito Yrigoyen (1928-1930) 2nd mandate19.Jos Flix Uriburu (1930-1932)20.Agustn Pedro Justo (1932-1938)21.Roberto Marcelino Ortiz (1938-1942)22.Ramn S. Castillo (1942-1943)23.Pedro Pablo Ramirez (June 1943-Feb 1944)24.Edelmiro Julin Farrell (1944-1946)25.Juan Domingo Pern (1946-1952) 1st mandate

26.Juan Domingo Pern (1952-1955) 2nd mandate27.Eduardo Lonardi (20 sept 13 nov 1955)28.Pedro Eugenio Aramburu (1955-1958)29.Arturo Frondizi (1958-1962)30.Jos Mara Guido (1962-1963)31.Arturo Umberto Illia (1963-1966)32.Juan Carlos Ongana (1966-1970)33.Roberto Marcelo Levingston (1970-1971)34.Alejandro Agustn Lanusse (1971-1973)35.Hctor Jos Cmpora (25 May 12 July 1973)36.Ral Alberto Lastiri (12 July-12 October 1973)37. Juan Domingo Pern (12 Oct. 1973 -1 July 1974) 3rd mandate 38. Mara Estela Martnez de Pern (1974-1976)

Military dictatorship

1. Jorge Rafael Videla (24 March 1976-1981)2. Roberto Eduardo Viola (29 March 22 Dec 1981)3. Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri (22 Dec 1981 -1 July 1982 )4. Reynaldo Benito Bignone (1 July 1982-10 Dec 1983)

Democracy

1. Ral Ricardo Alfonsn (1983 -1989)2. Carlos Sal Menem (1989-1995) 1st mandate3. Carlos Sal Menem (1995-1999) 2nd mandate4. Fernando De La Ra (10 Dec 199-20 Dec 2001)5. Federico Ramn Puerta (20-23 Dec 2001)6. Adolfo Rodriguez Sa (23-30 Dec 2001)7. Eduardo Oscar Camao (30 Dec 2001-1 Jan 2002)8. Eduardo Alberto Duhalde (1 Jan 2002 22 May 2003)9. Nstor Carlos Kirchner (25 mai 2003-2007)


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Bolivia (Repblica de Bolivia)

Capital: La Paz seat of government (Sucre capital)Surface:1.084.390 km!Population:9.1 million (62% Indians4)Independence: 6 August 1825

Presidential republic divided in 9 departments.Constitution: 2009

Voting System: president & vice-president elected together for 5 years;Legislative: Chamber of Deputies: 68 deputies elected in departmental circumscriptions and 62 inuninominal circumscriptions for 5 years; Senate: 36 senators elected in departmentalcircumscriptions for 5 years.

Executive President: Evo Morales (2006) - MASVice-president: lvaro Garca Linera

Last elections (12 October 2014) %Evo Morales(Mi$carea c%tre socialism MAS) 61.3%Samuel Doria Medina (Unitatea na&iona%) 24.23%Jorge Quiroga (Partidul Cre$tin Democrat) 9.04%

previous elections (6 December 2009) %

Evo Morales5

(Alianza para la Refundacin de Bolivia MAS IPSP) 64.22Manfred Reyes Villa (Plan Progreso para Bolivia Convergencia Nacional) 26.46Samuel Doria Menida (Alianza para el consenso y la unidad nacional) 5.65Ren Joaquino Carlos (Alianza Social) 2.31Previous elections (18 December 2005) %Evo Morales(Movimiento al Socialismo-MAS)6 53.7Jorge Quiroga (Poder Democrtico y Social PODEMOS) 28.5

Legislative: National Congress: Chamber of Deputies (Cmara de Diputados) 130 5 years &Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores) 36 5 years (PR)

Last elections (12 october 2014) Senate DeputiesMAS 25 88

Democratic Unity 9 25Christian Democratic Party 2 10

(6 December 2009) Deputies SenateAlianza para la Refundacin de BoliviaMAS IPSP 88 26Plan Progreso para Bolivia Convergencia Nacional 37 10Alianza para el consenso y la unidad nacional 3Alianza Social 2

25 January 2009 Constitutional referndum: Yes 61%, No 39 %

Presidents since the transition

Hernn Siles Zuazo (UDP) 1982-1985 3rd mandateVictor Paz Estenssoro 1985-1989 4th mandate

Jaime Paz Zamora 1989-1993Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada (MIR) 1993-1997Hugo Banzer Suarez7 1997-2001Jorge Quiroga Ramrez 2001-2002Gonzalo Snchez de Lozada 2002-2003Carlos Mesa Gisbert 2003-2005Eduardo Rodrguez Veltz June 2005-January 2006

4 In a 2001 census, 62% of the population of more than 15 years identified itself with one of the Indian peopleswww.evomorales.net5Evo Morales had participated to the preceding elections (2002) and had won: 20,9% of the votes (1,6% behind

the victorious Snchez de Lozada). At the legislative elections of 2002 MAS had won 11.9% (27 deputies and 8senators).6Movimiento Al Socialismo (Evo Morales) http://www.masbolivia.org7Ex dictator 1971-1978


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Brazil (Repblica Federativa do Brasil)

Capital: BrasiliaSurface:8 514 877 km!(35 times Romania)Population: 201 millions8Independence: 7 September 1822 (of Portugal)

Presidential federal republic9: 26 states and the federal district of Brasilia (27 federal unities)Constitution: 1988 (reformed several times)

Voting system(mandatory)President: uninominal majoritarian in two roundsSenators (Federal Senate): uninominal majoritarian in two rounds.Federal deputies (Federal Chamber of deputies): proportional with open listsGovernors: uninominal majoritarian in two roundsState deputies (Legislative Assembly of the federated states): proportional with open listsMayors: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds.Members of the Municipal Chambers (vereadores): proportional with open lists

ExecutivePresident & Vice-president (4 years)10: Dilma Roussef (2011) PT; Michel Temer

Results of last presidential elections (5/26 October 2014)

Dilma Roussef(PT/PMDB) 51.64%Aecio Neves (PSDB) 48.36%

Previous elections (October 2nd/ 31st2010)Dilma ROUSSEFF (PT) 56.01%Jose SERRA (PSDB) 43.99%

Legislative: National Congress: Chamber of deputies (Cmara dos Deputados) & Federal Senate(Senado Federal)Federal Senate(81 representatives) 8 years (elections every 4 years for alternatively 1/3 and 2/3 ofthe seats); 2/3 renewed (or 54 senators) .

Chamber of Deputies(513 repr. ) 4 years 4 years Senate (81)Coalition of government power to the people 304 53PT Workers' Party 70PMDB Brazilian Democratic Movement Party 66PSD Social Democrat Party 37PDT Democratic Labor Party 19PP Progressive Party 36PRBRepublican Party 21PROS Republican Party of social order 11PCdoB Comunist Party 10

Coalition Change Brazil 128 19

Coalition United for Brazil 53 7

others 28 2

82000 census: 6%-Blacks and 39% -pardaor mulata(black and white blood), mesticaor mameluca(white and

Indian blood), cafuza(black and Indian blood) or simply Indians.9Except for the period 1961-1963 when a parliamentary system was imposed.10Through a constitutional amendment in 1997, the president and vice-president can be reelected for a successivemandate for the first time.


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Brazil - Heads of stateMonarchy

United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarve: 18151822First Empire(don Pedro): 1822-1831Second Empire: Regency Counsel: 1831-1840

Pedro II: 1841-1889Old Republic (1889-1930)

1. Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca (Nov 15 1889-Nov 23 1891)2. Marshal Floriano Peixoto (1891- 1894)

3. Prudente de Morais (1894- 1898)4. Campos Sales (1898- 1902)5. Rodrigues Alves (1902- 1906)6. Afonso Pena (1906- 1909)7. Nilo Peanha (1909- 1910)8. Marshal Hermes da Fonseca (1910-1914)9. Rodrigues Alves (died before inauguration)10. Delfim Moreira (1918- 1919)11. Epitacio Pessoa (1919- 1922)12. Artur Bernardes (1922- 1926)13. Washington Luiz (1926- 1930)14. Julio Prestes elected but was not inaugurated

Vargas dictatorship (1930-1945)1. Provisionary junta (24 oct 1930 3 nov 1930) : General Augusto Fragoso, General Menna

Barreto, Admiral Isaas de Noronha2. Getlio Vargas(3 nov 1930 29 oct 1945)3. Jos Linhares (29 oct 1945-31 jan 1946)

The 1946 republic (1945-1964)

1. Marshal Gaspar Dutra 91946-1951)2. Getlio Vargas (1951-1954) elected3. Caf Filho (1954-1955)4. Carlos Luz (9-11 nov 1955)5. Nereu Ramos (1955-1956)6. Juscelino Kubitschek (1956-1961)

7. Jnio Quadros (31 jan-25 aug 1961)8. Jnio Quadros (25 aug-7 sept 1961)9. Joo Goulart (1961-1964)

Military dictatorship (1964-1985)

1. Ranieri Mazzilli (2-15 april 1964) President of the Chamber of Deputies provisionarypresident

2. Marshal Castelo Branco (1964-1967) military dictator elected by the Electoral Collegeformally as all the others

3. Marshal Costa e Silva(1967-1969) military dictator4. Junta militaire (31 aug-30 oct 1969): Admiral Augusto Rademaker, General Aurlio Lyra,

Brigadier Mrcio de Souza e Mello5. General Garrastaz Medici(1969-1974) military dictator

6. General Ernesto Geisel(1974-1979)7. General Joo Figueiredo (1979-1985)

The new republic (since 1985)

1. Tancredo Neves (died before inauguration)2. Jos Sarney (1985-1990)3. Fernando Collor (1990-1992)4. Itamar Franco (1992-1995)5. Fernando Henrqiue Cardoso (1995-2003)6. Luiz Incio Lula da Silva (2003-2007; 2007-2011)


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Chile (Repblica de Chile)

Capital:SantiagoSurface:748.800 km!Population:16 millionIndependence: 18 September 1810

Presidential republic: 15 regions with Easter Island overseas territoryConstitution: 198011

Voting systemPresident: majoritarian with two rounds mandate of 4 years12Congress: binominal - Chamber of Deputies: plurinominal vote in binominal circumscriptions &Senate: binominal circumscriptions with a dHondt system; half of the representatives are renewedevery 4 years.

Executive: Prsident :Michelle Bachelet (2014) Partido Socialista

Last presidential elections 1st (17 Nov 2013) % 2nd (15 Dec 2013) %Michelle Bachelet(Nueva Mayoria) 46.7% 62.1%Evelyn Matthei (Alianza) 25.03 37.8

Previous presidential elections 1st round (11 Dec 2005) % 2nd round (15 Jan 2006) %Michelle Bachelet(Concertacin) 45.95 53.50Sebastian Piera (RN) 25.41 46.50Joaquin Lavin (UDI) 23.22

Legislative: National Congress (Congreso Nacional): Chamber of deputies (Cmara de Diputados)and Senate of the Republic (Senado de la Repblica)

Chamber of deputies (120)Nueva Mayoria 67Alianza 49Independen&i 3Si tu quieres Chile cambia 1

Senate of the Republic (38)Nueva Mayoria 21Alianza 16Independen&i 1

Presidents since the transition (all from Concertacion)Patricio Aylwin 1990-1994Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle 1994-2000Ricardo Lagos 2000-2006Michelle Bachelet 2006-2010Sebastian Pinera 2010-2014

11Reformed in 1989, 1991, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, and 2005.12Through the electoral reform, the presidential mandate was reduced from 6 to 4 years. Reelection fora successive mandate is forbidden.


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Colombia (Repblica de Colombia)

Capital:BogotSurface:1.038.700 km!Population:44.3 millionIndependence: 20 July 1810 (until 1830 part of Grand Colombia with Venezuela and Ecuador)

Presidential republic: 32 departments and 1 capital district

Constitution : 1991Voting systemPresident: majoritarian with two rounds (since 1991)13.Legislative:proportional system

Executive: President: Juan Manuel Santos(2010) 4 years mandate.Vice President Angelino Garzon

Last presidential elections (25 May/15 June 2014)Juan Manuel Santos(Partido de la U) 50.9%Oscar Ivan Zuluaga (Centro Democratico) 45%

Previous elections (30 May/20 June 2010) %Juan Manuel Santos (U Party) 69.06%Antanas Mockus (Green Party) 27.52

Previous presidential elections (21 May 2006) %Alvaro Uribe Velez(Primero Colombia) 62Carlos Gaviria Daz (Polo Democrtico Alternartivo) 22Horacio Serpe Uribe (Partido Liberal Colombiano) 11

Legislative: Bicameral Congress (Congreso) elected for 4 years: Chamber of representatives(Cmara de Representantes)and Senate of the Republic (Senado de la Repblica)

Last elections (14 March 2010) Senate (102) Chamber of Representatives (163)U Party (Social National Unity Party) 21 39Democratic Center 20 12PC (Partido Conservador Colombiano) 18 27PL (Partido Liberal de Colombia ) 17 37PCR (PRadical Change) 9 16Green Party 5 6Citizenship Option 6PDA (Alternative Democratic Pole) 3Pour un Huila Mejor 1Movimiento Independiente de Renovacion Absoluta Green Party 3other parties 13

List of the presidents since the end of the National Front in 1974Alfonso Lpez Michelsen (PL) 1974-1978Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala (PL) 1978-1982Belisario Betancur (PC) 1982-1986Virgilio Barco Vargas (PL) 1986-1990Csar Gaviria Trujillo (PL) 1990-1994Ernesto Samper Pizano (PL) 1994-1998Andrs Pastrana Arango (NFD) 1998-2002Alvaro Uribe(Primero Columbia) 2002-2010

FARC(Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) http://www.farcep.org

13Until 2006 when the president Uribe modified the Constitution so that he can be reelected for a 2nd mandate,immediate reelection was forbidden.


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Costa Rica(Repblica de Costa Rica)

Capital: San JosSurface:50.660 km!Population:4 million14Independence: 15 September 1821.

Presidential republic divided in 7 provincesConstitution: 1949 (modified)

Voting system: Presidential TRS; if one of the candidates gets 40% he wins from 1stround

Legislative: PR with blocked lists and a minimum of 40% women candidates (from 1999)

Executive: President:Luis Guillermo Solis(2014) (PAC); 2 vice-presidents.They are elected together for 4 years15.

Last elections (2 Feb/6 April 2014)Luis Guillermo Solis (PAC) 77%

Johnny Araya (PLN) 22%

Previous election (7 February 2010) %Laura Chinchilla(PLN) 46.76Otto Solis (PAC) 25.16Otto Guevara Guth (PML) 20.8

Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Lgislativa) has 57 members elected for 4 years.

Last Elections 7 February 2010 no preliminary results yet

Previous elections (2 February 2014) 57Partido Liberacin Nacional PLN 18Partido Accin Ciudadana PAC 13Movimiento Libertario 4Partido de Unidad Socialcristiana PUSC 8

Partido Frente Amplio 9Partido Restauracin Nacional 1Partido Accesibilidad sin Exclusion 1

Alianza Democrata Cristiana 1

Renovaccion Costarricense 2

14 electoral cycles since the Ulate-Figueres pacts of 1948Luis Rafael Otilio Ulate Blanco 1949-1953Jos Figueres Ferrer 1953-1958Mario Echandi Bolmarcich (PLN) 1962-1966Jos Joaqun Trejos Fernandez (PLN) 1966-1970Jos Figueres Ferrer (PLN) 1970-1974

Daniel Oduber Quirs (PLN) 1974-1978Rodrigo Alberto Carazi Odio (PUSC) 1978-1982Luis Alberto Monge Alvarez (PLN) 1982-1986Oscar Arias Snchez (PLN) 1986-1990Rafael Angel Caldern Fournier (PUSC) 1990-1994Jos Mara Figueres Olsen16(PLN) 1994-1998Miguel Angel Rodrguez Echeverria (PUSC) 1998-2002Abel Pacheco de la Espriella (PUSC) 2002-2006Oscar Arias (PLN) 2006-2010

14Indigenous population: 1% of the total population.15

Between 1969 and 2003 the constitution forbade the candidacy of an ex-president or vice-president(art. 132). The article was modified April 4th, 2003 so as to allow the candidacy of Oscar Arias for anew presidential mandate. Still no possibility to run for a successive mandate.16The son of Jos Figueres Ferrer.


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Cuba (Repblica de Cuba)

Capital: HavanaSurface:110. 860 km!Population: 11.4 millionIndependence: 20 May 1902(from Spain in 1898 and administered by US 1898-1902)

Republic divided in 14 provinces and a municipality (Havana).Constitution: 1976 (reforms: 1992 and 2002)17Suffrage: universal (16 years)

Executive18

(http://www.cubagob.cu)

President of the Council of State (Consejo de Estado) and of the Council of ministers:Ral Castro (2006)19

First vice-president of the Council of State and of the Council of ministers: MiguelDiaz-Canel Bermudez

Council of Ministers proposed by the president of the Council of State and nominatedby the National assembly or by the Council of State of 31 members.

Elections: the president and the vice-president elected by the National Assembly for 5years. Only two mandates allowed.

Last elections February 2013: Raul Castro elected president 100%

Legislative(http://www.parlamentocubano.cu)

National Assembly of Popular Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular) has614 members elected for 5 years through a list of municipal delegates of theCommunist Party of Cuba (PCC)

Legislative elections in Cuba1993 elected deputies 5891998 elected deputies 6012003 elected deputies 609202008 - elected deputies - 6142013 elected deputies - 612

Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) http://www.pcc.cu/pccweb/Youth Communist Union (Union de jovenes comunistas UJC)Defense committees of the revolution (Comits de Defensa de la Revolucin CDR)

17http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Cuba/cuba2002.html18

http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Executive/Cuba/cabinet.html19 Fidel Castro transfered power to his brother Raul, July 31, 2006. Before that date Fidel had heldpower since 1959.20 http://www.parlamentocubano.cu/


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Dominican Republic (Repblica Dominicana)

Capital: Santo DomingoSurface:48.380 km!Population: 9.3 million (Mulattoes 73%, White 16%, Blacks 11%)Independence: 27 February 1844 (of Haiti)

Presidential Republic divided in 31 provinces and 1 district.Constitution: 1966 (reformed in 2002)21

Universal mandatory suffrage

Executive: - President: Danilo Medina (2012) PLD22Vice-president: Margarita Cedeno de Fernandez(2012) PLD

President and vice-president are elected together for 4 years. They can be reelected for

a successive mandate.

Last elections (20 May 2012) %

Danilo Medina - Partido de la Liberacin Dominicana 51.21%Hipolito Mejia - Partido Revolucionario Dominicana 46.95

Legislative: Bicameral congress: Chamber of deputies (Cmara de Diputados)23

with 178 members, elected for 4 years (PR in each province) and Senate (Senado)24with 32 members, elected for 4 years.

Last elections (20 May 2012)

Chamber of deputies and Senate 178 32

Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) 105 31Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD) 75

Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC) 3 1

21

http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/DomRep/domrep02.html22http://www.presidencia.gov.do 23http://www.camaradediputados.gov.do/portalsilcamara24http://www.senado.gov.do/PortalSILSenado


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Ecuador (Repblica del Ecuador)Capital: QuitoSurface:276.840 km!Population:13.7 million (mestizo : 65% Indians : 25%)Independence: 24 May 1822 (until 1830, part of Grand Colombia with Colombia and Venezuela)

Presidential republic divided in 22 provincesConstitution: 2008

Voting system:President & vice-president elected for 4 years majoritarian vote with two rounds.Legislative: the most complicated voting system in the world which mixes list voting and uninominal. Thereform of the voting system is debated.Mandatory vote (+ 18 years, facultative for illiterate persons and +65 years) (art. 27.Constitution of 1998)

Executive - President: Rafael Correa (2007) 4 years & Vice-president: Lenn Moreno.Since the 2008 constitutional amendment the president can seek immediate reelection.

Last presidential elections 17 februarie 2013 %Rafael Correa (Alianza Pas) 57.17Guillermo Lasso (CREO) 22.68Lucio Gutierrez (Partido Sociedad Patritica 21 de Enero) 6.73

Legislative:National Assembly of Ecuador (2009) 137 members for 4 yearsLast legislative elections (17 Feb 2013) 137

Alianza PAIS 100CREO 11Partido Sociedad Patritica 21 de Enero 5Partido Social Cristiano 6Unidad Plurinacinal de las Izquierdas 5Partido Roldosista Ecuatoriano 1SUMA 1Partido Avanza 5Accion regional por la Equidad 1Integracion democratica de Carchi 1

MPCNG 1Constitutional reform15 April 2007 referendum on the organization of a Constituent Assembly29 November 2007 the Constituent Assembly dissolves Congress and assumes legislative power29 September 2008 - the new constitution was approved by referendum (Yes 64%)

Presidents since 197925: Jaime Roldos (1979-1981)26 Osvaldo Hurtado (1981-1984) Len Febres Cordero(1984-1988) Rodrigo Borja (1988-1992) Sixto Alfonso Durn-Balln (1992-1996) Abdal Jaime BucaramOrtiz27(1996-Feb. 1997) Fabian Alarcon (6-9 Feb 1997) Rosalia Arteaga Serrano (9-11 Feb 1997) FabianAlarcon (11 Feb 1997 10 Aug. 1998) Jamil Mahuad28 (1998-2000) Coup detat in Jan 2000: Junta desalvacion nacional 21-22 Jan. 2000; Gustavo Noboa29(22 Jan 2000 Jan 2003) Lucio Gutierrez (2003-2005)April 2005 coup dtat Alfredo Palacio (2005-2006)

25 Military regime: 1972-1979 (General Rodriguez Lara 1972-6). Since 1996, 7 presidents succeeded. The 3 presidentselected: Abdala Bucaram, Jamil Mahuad and Lucio Gutirrez did not finish their mandates. To Abdal Bucaram succeededhis vice president revoked in ten days by a Constitutive assembly led by Fabin Alarcn. Gustavo Noboa, as vice

president, succeeded to Mahuad in January 2000 following the coup dtat of January 21st led by the colonel LucioGutirrez, elected in 2002 to the presidency. www.observatorio2006.org26

Mort dans un accident davion: son vice-prsident Hurtado assuma le mandat.27Deposed by Congress in 1997 for mental incapacity.28Deposed by an alliance of Indian organizations and army 21 January 2000.29The vice-president of Mahuad.


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El Salvador (Repblica de El Salvador)

Capital:San Salvador

Surface:20.720km!Population: 6.8 million (mestizo 90%, White 9%, Indian 1%)Independence: 1821 (of Spain); 1839 (of the Central-American Federation)

Presidential Republic divided in 14 departments.Constitution: 1983

Executive: President: Sanchez Ceren (FMLN) (2014-2019)

Vice president: Oscar Ortiz

Last elections (2 feb/9 March 2014)Sanchez Ceren(FMLN) 50%

Norman Quijano (ARENA) 49.8%

Previous elections (15 March 2009)

Mauricio Funes (FMLN) 51.3Rodrigo Avila (ARENA) 48.6

Previous elections (21 March 2004)

Antonio Elas "Tony" Saca - ARENA 57.7Schafik Jorge Handal FMLN 35.6Hctor Silva Argello CDU-PDU 3.9Jos Rafael Machuca Zelaya PCN 2.7

Legislative:Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) 84 members elected for 3

years

Last elections (10 March January 2012) 84

Partido Farabundo Marti para la LiberacionNacional-

31Alianza Republicana Nacionalista- ARENA 33Grande Alianza por Unidad Nacional - GRAN 11Concertacion Nacional 7Partido de la Esperanza 1Cambio Democratico - CD 1

Historical reminderSince the 1930s the military were in power

Between 1979 and 1990 civil war interrupted by brief returns to electoral

competitions. The FMLN, now in Parliament, was the main guerilla formation in the

80s.


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Guatemala(Repblica de Guatemala)

Capital: Ciudad de Guatemala

Surface: 108.430 km!Population:12.7 million (mestizo & European 59.4%; K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Maya 8.6%, Indians non-Mayas 0.2%)30Independence: 15 September 1821

Presidential republic divided in 22 departments

Constitution: 1985 (reforms in 1993)

Executive: President Otto Perez Molina (2011) PP (Partido Patriota) and Vice-presidentRoxana Baldetti.Elected together for a 4 year mandate. The president cannot have two successive mandates.

Last elections (1st tour, 11 September 2011 and 2nd tour, 6 November 2011)Otto Perez Molina (PP Partido Patriota) 36.1% 53.74%Manuel Baldizon (Lider) 22.68 46.2 %

Legislative:Republic Congress (Congreso de la Repblica)158 members elected for 4 years.

Last legislative elections (11 septembrie 2011) seatsPartido Patriota (PP) 56Unidad Nacional de la Esperanza (UNE) 32Lider 14Frente Republicano Guatemalteco (FRG) 9Viva 3Encuentro por Guatemala (EG) 3Partido Unionista (PU) 2Centro de Accin Social (CASA) 4.8 5Partido de Avanzada Nacional (PAN) 4.5 3

Union del Cambio Nacionalista (UCN) 4 5Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca (URNG) -MAIZ 3.2 2Unin Democrtica (UD) 1.4 1

End of the civil war of 30 years in 1996 (1960-1996) through the Peace Agreementsbetween the government and URNG.

30https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gt.html


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Haiti (Rpublique d'Hati/Republik dAyti)

Capital: Port-au-PrinceSurface:27.560 km!Population:8.7 million (Black 95%, White and mestizo 5%)Independence: 1 January 1804 (of France)Official languages: French & Creole French

Presidential republic divided in 10 departmentsConstitution: 1987 abrogated several times: return to constitutional order in 2006.Voting system: President: majoritarian for 5 years (cannot be reelected); Legislative: majoritarian in two rounds.

Executive:President (5 years): Ren Prval(2006-2011)

Last presidential elections (1sttour 28 November 2010; 2ndtour 20 March 2011)31Mirlande Manigat (Rassemblement des Dmocrates Nationaux Progressistes d'Hati)Michel Martelly (Reponz Peyizan)Jude Celestine (INITE)

Previous presidential elections (2ndtour 19 March 2006)Ren Prval (Front de lEspoir/Plate-forme LESPWA) 51.21%

Francois Leslie Manigat (Rassemblement des Dmocrats Nationaux Progressistes RDNP) 12.40%Baker Charles Hanry Jean Marie (Respect/Resp) 8.24%Jeune Jean Chavaunes (Union Nationale Chrtienne pour la Reconstruction dHatiUNION) 5.59%

Legislative: NationalAssembly: Chamber of Deputies (99) 4 years; Senate (30) 6 years, 1/3 renewableevery 2 years

Last elections32Chamber of Deputies Results Senate(1stround: 28 Nov 2010 2ndround 16 Jan 2011) (1stround: 28 Nov 2010 2ndround 16 Jan 2011)AlternativIniteLavniPont

Solidarit

Historical reminder

1957 -1986 Duvalier dynasty: Francois (1957-71) and Jean-Claude (Baby Doc) 1971-861990 democratic regime inaugurated1990 1991 Jean Bertrand Aristide, ousted1994 occupation force of the US1994-6 Aristide back in office1996-2000 Ren Prval2000-2004 Aristide2004-2006 US Marines2006-2011 Ren Prval; certain restabilization

January 2010 earthquake (316.000 dead, over 1 mln homeless)

31No definitive results yet (February 2011), just the positions of the first two candidates.32No definitive results yet (February 2011)


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Mexico(Estados Unidos Mexicanos)

Capital:Ciudad de MxicoSurface: 1.923.040km!Population:108.7 million (mestizo 60%, Indian 30%, White 9%)Independence: 16 September 1810 (of Spain) recognized in 1821

Presidential federal republic divided in 31 States and 1 federal districtConstitution: 1917

Voting system33

President: elected with simple majority (1 round)

Chamber of Deputies: 300 representatives in uninominal circumscriptions and 200 members

elected by PR in plurinominal circumscriptions

Chamber of Senators: 96 in trinominal circumscriptions and 32 through PR

Executive: President (6 years34):Enrique Pena Nieto (2012) PRI

Legislative:Union Congress (Congreso de la Unin):

Chamber of Deputies (Cmara Federal de Diputados) 500 members for 3 years

Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores) 128 members elected for 6 years

Last presidential elections (1 July 2012)Enrique Pe!a Nieto(PRI) 38.2 %Josefina Vazquez Mota (PAN) 25.4 %Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (PRD) 31.535%

Last legislative elections (1 July 2012)36 Chamber of Deputies Chamber of SenatorsPRI 207 52PAN 114 38PRD 101 22PVEM 33 9PT 19 4Nueva Alianza 10 1Movimiento Ciudadano 16 2

Main political partiesPartido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) 1929-2000 in governmentPartido Accin Nacional (PAN)

Partido de la Revolucin Democrtica (PRD)

33Voting is mandatory34The president cannot be reelected. Senators and deputies cannot be reelected for a successivemandate.35

La alegerile precedente, diferen"a 'ntre cei 2 candida"i, Caldern #i Obrador a fost de 0.56 (sau233.831 de voturi). Vezi decizia Tribunal Electoral del Poder Judicial de la Federacin du 5septembre 2006 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/142535.html36Mandate


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Mexico Chiefs of state

Mexican Empire1821-1823 Agustin de Iturbide

The republic (1823-1864)1823 Pedro Celestino Negrete; Mariano Michelena; Nicols Bravo; Miguel Domnguez1823-1824 Vicente Guerrero; Miguel Domnguez; Mariano Michelena

1824Nicols Bravo; Guadalupe Victoria; Vicente Guerrero; Miguel Domnguez1824-1829Guadalupe Victoria1829 Lucas Alamn; Luis Quintanar ; Jos Mara Bocanegra; Vicente Guerrero; Pedro Vlez1830 - 1832 Anastasio Bustamante1832 Melchor Mzquiz1832-1833Manuel Gmez Pedraza1833Valentn Gmez Faras; Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna1833 - 1834 Valentn Gmez Faras1834 - 1835 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna1835 - 1836 Miguel Barragn1836 - 1837 Jos Justo Corro1837 - 1839 Anastasio Bustamante

1839 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna ; Nicols Bravo1839 - 1841 Anastasio Bustamante1841 - 1841 Francisco Javier Echeverra1841 - 1842 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna1842 - 1843 Nicols Bravo1843 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna1843 - 1844 Valentn Canalizo1844 Valentn Canalizo; Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna; Jos Joaqun de Herrera1844 - 1845 Jos Joaqun de Herrera1845 - 1846 Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga1846 Nicols Bravo; Jos Mariano Salas1846 - 1847 Valentn Gmez Faras1847 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna; Pedro Mara Anaya; Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna;Manuel de la Pea y Pea1847 - 1848 Pedro Mara Anaya1848 Manuel de la Pea y Pea1848 - 1851 Jos Joaqun de Herrera1851 - 1853 Mariano Arista1853 Juan Bautista Ceballos; Manuel Mara Lombardini;1853 - 1855 Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna1855 Martn Carrera; Rmulo Diaz de la Vega; Juan Alvarez1855-1857 Ignacio Comonfort1857 - 1861 Benito Jurez1858 Flix Mara Zuloaga1858 - 1859 Manuel Robles Pezuela1859 Jos Mariano Salas1859-1860 Miguel Miramn1860 Jos Ignacio Pavn; Miguel Miramn1861 - 1865 Benito Jurez1863 Pelagio Antonio de Labastida; Juan N. Almonte; Jos Mariano Salas1863-1864 Jos Mariano Salas; Pelagio Antonio de Labastida; Juan N. Almonte

Empire1864-1867 Maximilien Ide Habsburg(empereur)

The republic (1867-today)1865-1872Benito Jurez


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1872-1876 Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada1876Porfirio Diaz1876-1877 Jos Mara Iglesias1876-1877 Juan N. Mndez1877-1880Porfirio Diaz1880-1884Manuel Gonzlez

Porfiriato

1884-1910Porfirio Diaz

37

During the Mexican revolution1911 Francisco Len de la Barra1911-1913Francisco Madero1913Pedro Lascurain1913-1914Victoriano Huerta1913-1917Venustiano Carranza1914 Francisco Carvajal1914-1915Eulalio Gutirrez1915 Roque Gonzlez Garza1915 Francisco Lagos Chzaro

After the constitution of 19171917-1920Venustiano Carranza1920 Adolfo de la Huerta1920-1924 Alvaro Obregn

PNR(Revolutionary National Party)1924-1928Plutarco Elas Calles1928-1930Emilio Portes Gil1930-1932Pascual Ortiz Rubio1932-1934Abelardo L. Rodrguez

PRM (Mexican Revolution Party)1934-1940Lzaro Crdenas

PRI (Revolutionary Institutional Party)

1940-1946 Manuel vila Camacho1946 - 1952 Miguel Alemn Valds1952 - 1958 Adolfo Ruiz Cortines1958 - 1964 Adolfo Lpez Mateos1964 - 1970 Gustavo Daz Ordaz1970 - 1976 Luis Echeverra1976 - 1982 Jos Lpez Portillo1982 - 1988 Miguel de la Madrid1988 - 1994 Carlos Salinas de Gortari1994 - 2000 Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Len

Democracy2000-2006Vicente Fox - PAN2006- presentFelipe Caldern PAN

371876-1880, 1884-1888, 1888-1892, 1892-1896, 1896-1900, 1904-1910, 1910-1911.


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Nicaragua(Repblica de Nicaragua)

Capital: ManaguaSurface:120.254 km!Population:5.6 million (Mestizo 69%, White 17%, Black 9%, Indian 5%)Independence: 15 September 1821

Presidential republic divided in 15 departments and 2 autonomous regions (AtlanticoNord and Atlantico Sur).Voting system: president & vice-president elected together for 5 years (one round, thecandidate that obtains 45% or at least 35% with a difference of 5% of the followingcandidate); legislative: vote proportional (PR). Since 2014 the president can beelected without any term limits.Constitution: 1987

Executive - President: Daniel Ortega (2007-2012)Vice-president: Jaime Rene Morales Carazo

Last elections (6 November 2011)Daniel Ortega FSLN 62%Fabio Gadea Partido Liberal Independiente 31.1%Arnold Aleman PLC 5.6%

Preceding elections (5 November 2006)Daniel Ortega FSLN 38%Eduardo Montealegre Rivas ALN 29%Jos Rizo Castellon PLC 26%Edmundo Jarquin Calderon MRS 6.4%Eden Atanacio Pastora Gomez AC 0.2%

Legislative: National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) 9438 members for 5 yearsFrente Sandinista de Liberacin Nacional FSLN 62Alianza Liberal Independiente 26Partido Liberal Constitucionalista PLC 2

Historical reminder1936 1979 Somoza dynasty 391979 1990 FSLN40government (Sandinist Front of National Liberation)

Presidents since the transition in 1990

Violeta Barrios Torres de Chamorro (UNO) 1990-1997Jos Arnoldo Alemn Lacayo (PLC) 1997-2002

Enrique Bolaos Geyer (PLC) 2002-2007Daniel Ortega (FSLN) 2007-2012

3820 deputies elected in national circumscriptions and 70 in departmental circumscriptions and autonomousregions. Are part of the Assembly the ex-president and ex-vice-president as well as the candidates for the

posts of president and vice-president that came second at the last elections http://www.asamblea.gob.ni39

Anastasio Somoza Garca 1937-1947, 1950-1951 et 1951-1956 (assassinated). Luis A. SomozaDebayle 1956-1957 after the death of his father and then elected : 1957-1963 et Anastasio SomozaDebayle 1967-1972 ; 1974-1979.40www.fsln-nicaragua.com/


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Panama(Repblica de Panam)

Capital: Ciudad de PanamSurface:75.990 km!Population:3.2 million (mestizo 70%, Indian 20%, White, 10%)Independence: 1903 (of Colombia)41

Presidential republic divided in 9 provinces and 1 territoryConstitution: 1972 (reformed in 1978, 1983, 1994, and 2004)Voting system: President: majority. Legislative: mixed (majority and PR)

Executive: President: Juan Carlos Varela(2014) PAN

1stvice-president: "#$%&' ($)*+ ,$'- Elected together for 5 years and cannot be reelected immediately (must wait 10 years).

Last elections (4 May 2014) %Juan Carlos Varela (Partido Panamenista) 39.1

Jose Domingo Arias (Cambio Democratico) 31.4

Juan Carlos Navaroo (PRevolucionario Democratico) 28.1

Previous elections (3 May 2009)Ricardo Martinelli(Alianza por el cambio) 59.97%

Balbina Herrera (Un pas para todos) 37.7

Previous elections (2 May 2004) %Martn Erasto Torrijos Espino42(PRD) 47Guilleromo Endara- Solidaridad 30Jos Miguel Alman - Partido Arnulfista 10

Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) 71 members elected for 5 years

Last elections (2014) 71Partido Revolucionario Democrtica PRD 25Cambio Democrtico CD 20Partido Panameista PAN 12Movimiento Liberal Republicano Nacionalista Molirena 2Partido Popular PP 1Independen"i 1

Presidents since the fall of Noriega in december 1989

Guillermo Endara Galimany (ADOC43

) 1989-1994Ernesto Prez Balladares (PRD) 1994-1999Mireya Moscoso (PA) 1999-2004Martn Torrijos Espino (PRD) 2004-2008

The Panama Channel

15 aug 1914:Inauguration of the Panama channel20 dec 1989:the US invades the country and deposes the general Manuel Noriega.31 dec 1999: the channel is given to Panama. During this time, the US reserves the right tointervene militarily any time so as to guarantee the neutrality of the Channel.+since the 1994 constitutional reform (Art 305) Panama has no army

41Panama won its independence from Spain and joined in 1822 Grand Colombia de Simn Bolvar.42Son of the ex dictator Omar Torrijos (1968-1981)

43Elected in may 1989 from the ADOC - Alianza de Partidos Polticos de Oposicin.


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Paraguay (Repblica de Paraguay/Tet Paraguay)

Capital: AsuncinSurface:397.300 km!Population:6.6 million (mestizo 95%, others 5%)Official languages: Spanish & Guaran

Independence: 14 May 1811 (of Spain)

Presidential republic divided in 17 departments and the capitalConstitution: 1992

Voting system: President: majoritarian in two rounds; Legislative: PR with lists

Suffrage: 18 years, universal and mandatory (until75 years)

Executive: President(5 years): Horacio Cartes(2013) PC, Vice-president: Juan AfaraElected together for only one mandate of 5 years

Last presidential elections (21 April 2013) %Horacio Cartes(Partido Colorado) 45.83

Efrain Alegre (Alianza Paraguay) 36.9Mario Ferrero (Avanza Pais) 5.8

Anibal Carrillo (Frente Guasu) 3.3

Legislative National Congress (Congreso Nacional) :

Chamber of Deputies (Cmara de Diputados) - 80 for 5 years (PR)

Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores) 45 for 5 years (PR)

Last legislative elections (21 April 2013) 80 45Asociacin Nacional Republicana/Partido Colorado (ANR) 45 19Partido Liberal Radical Autntico (PLRA) 26 13Unin Nacional de Ciudadanos ticos (UNACE) 2 2Frente Guasu 1 5Avanza Pais 2 2

Partido Encuentro Nacional 2 1Pasion Chaquena Alliance 1 -Patria Querida PPQ 1 -Partido Democratico Progresista - 3

Presidents elected since the fall of Stroessner (1954-1989)Gnral Andrs Rodrguez Pedotti44(PC) 1989-1993

Juan Carlos Wasmosy Monti (PC) 1993-1998

Ral Cubas Grau (ANR-PC) 1998-1999

Luis Angel Gonzlez Macchi45(ANR-PC) 1999-2003

Nicanor Duarte Frutos (ANR-PC) 2003-2008

Fernando Lugo 2008-2012 evicted from power by theParliament in a coup.

44Stroessners son in law he takes power after the coup dtat of February 3 1989 and is elected 1 may1989.45The president of the Chamber of Senators who assumed power after president Cubas left.


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Peru (Repblica del Per)

Capital: LimaSurface:1.285.220 km !Population:28.6 million (Indian 45%, White 15%, Black, Japanese, Chinese and other 3%)Official languages: Spanish & QuechuaIndependence: 28 July 1821 (of Spain)

Presidential republic divided in 25 regions and a province Lima.Constitution: 1993Voting system: president: majoritarian in two rounds + 2 vice-presidents elected together fora mandate of 5 years and can be reelected but not immediately; legislative preferential vote

one national circumscription, dHondt formulaSuffrage: 18 years universal and mandatory (until 70 years)

Executive: President: Ollanta Humala (2011) - 5 years

Vice-presidents: Marisol Espinoza; Omar Chehade Moya

Last presidential elections (10 April & 5 June 2011) 1st% 2nd%

Ollanta Humala(Alianza Gana Peru) 31 51Keiko Fujimori (Fuerza 2011) 23 48

Legislative:Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la Repblica) 120 members for 5 years

(PR).

Last legislative elections (10 April 2011) seatsGana Per 47Fuerza 2011 37Alianza Electoral Per Posible 21Alianza por el Gran Cambio 12Alianza Solidaridad Nacional 9

Partido Aprista Peruano 4

Presidents since 198046

Fernando Belaunde Terry 1980-198547

Alan Garca Prez 1985-1990

Alberto Fujimori48 1990-2000

Valentn Paniagua 2000-2001

Alejandro Toledo 2001-2006

Alan Garca Prez 2006-2011

461968-1980 military government47First mandate 1963-196848At the 1990 elections Fujimori won face to the writer Mario Vargas Llosa.


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Uruguay (Repblica Oriental del Uruguay)

Capital:MontevideoSurface:173.620 km!Population:3.4 million (White 88%, mestizo 8%, and black 4%)Independence: 25 August 1825 (of Brazil)Languages: Spanish and Portunol (Spanish with Portuguese spoken at the Brazilian frontier)

Presidential republic divided in 19 departmentsConstitution: 1966 (reforms in 1989 and 1997)Voting systemPresident: majoritarian in two rounds (since 1996)Legislative: PR with blocked lists using Double Simultaneous VoteSuffrage: 18 years, universal and mandatory

Executive: President: Tabare Vazquez(March 2015) FAVice-president: - Raul Sendic. Elected together for 5 years

Last presidential elections (2014) % %

Tabar Vzquez (Broad Front - FA) 49 56Louis Alberto Lacalle Pou (PN) 31 43

Previous elections (1st: 25 Oct 2009 2nd: 29 Nov 2009) % %Jos Mujica(Frente Amplio) 47.9 52.3Luis Alberto Lacalle (PN) 29 43Pedro Bordaberry49(PC) 17

Previous presidential elections (31 October 2004) %Tabar Ramn Vzquez Rosas(FA-EP-NM) 50.5Jorge Larraaga (Partido Nacional-Blancos) 35.1

Jorge Luis Batlle Ibez(Partido Colorado) 10.3Legislative: General Assembly (Asamblea General): Chamber of Deputies (Cmara de

Diputados)and Chamber of Senators (Cmara de Senadores)

Chamber of Deputies (99) 5 years PRChamber of Senators (31) 5 years PR 30 senators + the vice-president who presides

Last legislative elections (25 October 2009) 99 31Frente Amplio 50 50 16Partido Nacional-Blancos PN 30 9Partido Colorado PC 17 5Partido Independiente PI 2

Presidents since the transitionJulio Mara Sanguinetti (Colorado) 1985-1990Luis Alberto Lacalle (Blanco) 1990-1995Julio Mara Sanguinetti (Colorado) 1995-2000Jorge Batlle (Colorado) 2000-2005Tabar Vzquez (Frente Amplio) 2005-2010

49Son of former dictator Juan Maria Bordaberry (1973-1976)50

FA is formed of: Asamblea Uruguay AU; Confluencia Frenteamplio CFA; Corriente 78 C78;Movimiento de Participacin Popular MPP; Partido Demcrata; Cristiano del Uruguay PDCU;Partido Comunista del Uruguay PCU; Partido de los Comunes PdlC; Partido Socialista del Uruguay

PSU; Vertiente Artiguista - VA


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Venezuela (Repblica Bolivariana de Venezuela)

Capital: CaracasSurface:882.050 km!Population:26 million

Independence: 5 July 1811 (until 1830 part of Grand Colombia with Columbia and Ecuador)

Presidential federal republic: 23 states and a federal district with a federal dependencyConstitution: 1999Voting system: president (6 years, can be reelected once) majoritarian with 1 round; legislative: PR, 5years (renewable twice)

Executive: President - Nicolas Maduro (2013)Vice-president: Jorge Alberto Arreaza (2013) named by the president.6 year term with no limitations toreelection.

Last elections (14 April 2013) %Nicolas Maduro (PSUV) 50.6%Henrique Capriles (MUD) 49.1

Last election of Chavez (7 October 2012) %Hugo Rafael Chvez Fraz (Gran Polo Patriotico) 55Henrique Capriles (MUD) 44

Legislative:National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) 16751members with a 5 years mandate

Last elections (September 2010) 167PSUV(Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela) 96MUD (Mesa de la Unidad democratica) 64PPT(Patria Para Todos) 2

Previous elections (4 December 2005) 167Movimiento Quinta Repblica MVR 116Por la Democracia Social Podemos 18Patria para Todos PPT 9Partido Comunista de Venezuela PCV 7Consejo Nacional Indio de Venezuela CONIVE 2MiGente 2Other 10

Chronology Hugo Chavez4 Feb. 1992 missed coup of Chavez

6 Dec. 1998 he is elected president15 Dec. 1999 - referendum on the new Constitution30 July 2000 - reelected12 April 2002 missed coup against him15 August 2004 - Referendum for his revocation (59% against)3 Dec. 2006 reelected for a new mandate of 6 yearsDecember 2007 referendum for the Constitutional reform (eliminate term limits) 51 % No15 February 2009 the same referendum was approved (54% Yes)

513 seats reserved to Indians.


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The most important regional organizations

ALBA

Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas2004 6 Cuba, Venezuela, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Honduras

and Dominica.CANAndean Community of Nations(Andean Pact 1969-1996)

1996 4 Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru(until recently also Venezuela)

MERCOSURSouthern Common Market

1991 5/10 Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela(associated countries: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia,Ecuador, Peru)

FTAA

Free Trade Area of the Americas(project to extend NAFTA)

Plannedfor 2005replaced

by FTAs

34 The same as OAS without Cuba

NAFTANorth American Free Trade Agreement

1994 3 Canada, United States, Mexico

CAFTA DR - US 2004 6 Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala,Honduras, Dominican Republic

UNASUR

Union of South American Nations(project not yet approved by all countries )

2008 12 The member countries of MERCOSUR and CANwith Chile, Guyana and Suriname (=the 12countries of South America)

OASOrganization of American States

1948 35 (1948) Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia,Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Ecuador, El Salvador,United States, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras,Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Venezuela.Have also joined: Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago,Jamaica, Grenada, Suriname, Dominica, St Lucia,Antigua and Barbuda, St Vincent and Grenadines,Bahamas, St Kitts and Nevis, Canada, Belize andGuyana.

SICACentral American system of integration

1991 7 Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,Nicaragua, Panama and Belize (DominicanRepublic is an associated state and Mexico has thestatute of regional observer)

CARICOMCaribbean Community

1973 15 Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados,Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti,Jamaica, Montserrat, St Lucia, St. Kitts and

Nevis, St. Vincent and Grenadine, Suriname,Trinidad and Tobago. (associated states: Anguilla,Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands,Turks and Caicos Islands)


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The discovery of Latin America52

The discovery voyages ofChristopher Columbus1. The first journey 3 august 1492: the discovery of America: October 12 149253

(Columbus is admiral and vice-king & perpetual governor of the lands hediscovers accordingly to the capitulacionessigned with the Kings in Santa Fe)- He discovers Bahamas, Cuba and Santo-Domingo- He is ennobled and is officially named Admiral of the Oceanic Sea and Vice-

king General Governor of the Indies.2. 2ndjourney of confirmation (25 October 1493)

Treaty of Tordesillas (7 June 1494): draw a line between the two poles (aparallel was changed for a meridian saving thus the localization of whatColumbus already discovered: Portugal had thus open road to the Indies andfor Castile this guaranteed that what Columbus discovered remained under its

property). The line of demarcation was fixed at 370 leagues west from the CapVert between the lands attributable to the two countries. The Portuguesecolonize then Africa, China and India whereas the Spanish seize the Americas.

3. the 3rdjourney (30 May - 31 August 1498) the letter narration of Columbus ofthis voyage is among the most important as it includes among others: a new visionof the Earth, a new geodesic order replacing that of Ptolemy, the explanation and

placement of terrestrial paradise (on the coast of Venezuela)54.

Francisco de Bobadilla is appointed replacing governor (21 May 1499) andarrives in Santo Domingo 23 August 1500. Columbus returns in Spain and isimprisoned and then liberated by the kings; follows a period of two years of

processes with the Crown before the last voyage of 1502.

4. 4th

and last journey of Columbus: 1502. He leaves as an explorer and docks inPanama where he finds gold.

Juan de Fonseca was responsible of the discoveries (1499-1509) after the dishonor ofColumbus following his 3rd voyage. He will be in charge of the discoveries of theterra firma (Isthmus of Panama).55

1. The voyage of Alonso de Ojeda, Juan de la Cosa and Amrico Vespucio (30May 1499).

2. The voyage of Cristbal Guerra et Alonso Nio (June 1499)3. The voyage of Vicente and Aez Pinzn (December 1499): discover Brazil

which they called el Rostro Hermoso (The beautiful face) (24 January 1500)56.

4. The voyage of Diego de Lepe (January 1500) who discovers a part of theBrazilian coast.

52Sources: Jess Varela Marcos, Los descubrimientos espaoles en el Nuevo Mundo in Juan B.Amores Carredano (ed.),Histora de Amrica(Barcelona: Ariel, 2006), pp.165-215.53At that date Columbus and his people dock on the island of Guanahami in the Bahamas, which theycall San Salvador (the sacred flavor).54He calls Indians slaves and Queen Isabel imprisons him, he loses then his title as Vice-king but keepsthat of Admiral.55

The discovery of the new continent was represented in the painting of the map of Juan de la Casa of1500. In 1507 a first book called for the first time the New World based on the book Mondus Novusof Amrico Vespucio.56Varela Marcos, p. 193


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Colonial administration of Latin America59

During the 16th and 17th c. two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Nueva Espaa1535)and Peru (1543) included all the territories South of Panam. They were rejoined at theadministrative level by the Audiencia of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo).

Garca-Gallo established the following stages (juridical-institutional nature):1. viceroyalty of Christopher Columbus (1492-1499)

2. system of provinces and governments (gobernaciones) (1500-1511)3. reestablishment of the Columbian viceroyalty (1511-1523)4. return to the system ofgobernaciones(1524-1535)5. the great districts (1535-1565): the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru and the

Audiencias: Santo Domingo, Guatemala, Santa Fe & Manilla.6. the consolidation of the system (1565-1750)

Territorial restructuration in the 18th

c.

1. viceroyalty of New Spain (1535)2. viceroyalty of Peru (1543)3. viceroyalty of New Grenade (1739) Santa Fe (audiencias of Santa Fe, Panam and

Quito with the gobernaciones of Venezuela, Margarita and Nueva Andaluca or

Cuman)4. viceroyalty of Ro de la Plata (1776) (gobernacionesof Charcas, Tucumn, Cuyo,

Paraguay and Buenos Aires)5. The general commandment of the North interior provinces of New Spain (1776)6. Capitana General of Caracas (1777) gobernaciones of Caracas, Maracaibo,

Cuman, Guayana, Margarita, Guayana and Trinidad (later forming the Venezuelannationality).

7. Capitana General of Chile 1778 (independent from the viceroyalty of Peru)

1. Metropolitan institutions of government (16th

- 18th

c.)

! Casa de Contratacin(The House of Trade) trade and immigration(Decrees of 1503 revised in 1510, 1531, 1539 and 1552)Having as a reference the Portuguese Casa de India, the Catholic kings established in1503 the Casa de Contratacin with the headquarters in Seville. The new institution was

born with the clear purpose of dealing with the organization of the Indian trade and of allthat was related to it. It was an organism destined to the control, inspection, register andtax of all that affected the relations and contracts with the New World.The competences of the Casa de Contratacin covered 4 domains: control and tax of thetrade with the Indies, control of the passengers (control of the population that immigratedeach year in the Indies), civil and criminal jurisdiction (acted as an independent tribunalfrom the Audiencia of Seville) and diffusion of knowledge on navigation (1552 the firstschool of navigation of Europe).

! Council of the Indies(El Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias)

60

In 1524 was nominated its first president Garca de Loaysa, bishop of Osma andconfessor of Charles V. The Council was since its creation the superior organism incharge of the universal government of Indian affairs, distinct and independent of the otherCouncils of the Peninsula. Together with the creation of the Real Audiencia of Hispaniolait confirmed the character of kingdom of the new lands. A kingdom incorporated to theCrown of Castile as another part of the Hispanic Monarchy. Until its creation, all thequestions regarding the New World were dealt with by the Council of Castile.The faculties of the Council extended to all that was relative to the administration,government and direction of the affairs concerning the Indies, always establishing itselfas a supreme instance. The Council was formed initially of a president, three councilors, a

59Miguel Molina Martnez, La organizacin administrativa de las Indias in Juan. B. AmoresCarredano,Historia de Amrica(Madrid: Ariel, 2006), pp. 261-283.60La normativa plasmada en laRecopilacin de Leyes de los Reinos de Indias de 1680.


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secretary, a prosecutor (the defense of the royal jurisdiction, of the patronage of themonarch of the Indian Church and the Real Hacienda as of the Indians), a lawyer, arelator, an accountant and a guardian. In 1528 was created the post of great chancellorand in 1571 the one of cosmographer and major chronicler (in charge of writing theofficial history of the New World).

2. Institutions of government in the Indies! The Vice-King

Personal representative of the monarch, this post was the pillar on which stood since themid 16th c. the foundation and consolidation of the Kingdom of the Indies. In whatconcerns the government, the vice-king acted as the maxim executive power to administerthe viceroyalty in all its issues except those that the monarch reserved for himself.

! The presidents-governors & governors (gobernadores)An important figure in the Indies, the governor was nominated by the king and exertedthe political government at the territorial level of gobernaciones or provinces. Major

provinces were those that had the same district as that of a Real Audiencia and that hadthe capital in the headquarters of the gobernacion. Those that were not conforming to thismodel were minor provinces or simply gobernaciones, generally situated in the mostremote zones. In the first case, the holders were presidents-governors and in the second,

simply governors. The presidents-governors exerted their jurisdiction on all the district ofthe Audiencia and were invested by the same superior government as the vice-kings ofthe New Spain or Peru.

Major Mayors (alcaldes mayores) (New Spain) & corregidores (Peru) Representatives of the government at the local level (mayors)Alcaldes mayores prevailed the juridical aspect & corregidores major weight of the

political

! Cabildos (municipal council)The local level of the Indian political-administrative structure was represented by theCabildos. The Cabildo appeared as the manifestation of the political power of the cities

recently founded and as spoke-person of the demands and aspirations of their inhabitants.Those responsible were the alcaldes/mayors (justice) and regidores/counselors(regiments). The regidores constituted the city administration. When, at the beginning ofthe 17thc. the selling of the posts was generalized and the institution lost grand part of itsrepresentative character and facilitated the access of pressure groups or families thatcontrolled them.The Cabildo abierto(open) consisted of the reunion of neighbors to debate the problemsand adopt agreements that concerned them.The Cabildo de indios (of Indians) base of the political organization of the Indian

people. Its structure was a true reflection of the castellan model and was composed of twomayors and other 2 or 4 regidores, all Indian.

! Audiencias justice (civil and criminal jurisdiction)Their creation was the answer to the necessity of give justice between vassals, to itsdefense face to the abuses of the governors and, in the same time, to the imperative of

protecting its own rights to what was linked to the Real Patronato or to the RealHacienda. From the beginning the juridical competences in the Indies were in the handsof Christopher Columbus and the first tribunal was created in Hispaniola in 1511. Theterritorial delimitations of the districts of the Audiencias were always imprecise becauseof the geographical ignorance that the Council of the Indies itself had at the time of itscreation.

In the 17thc. there were 3 types:

1) Viceroyal audiencias were those presided by the viceroy and that had theirheadquarters in the capital of the viceroyalty (Mexico and Lima)


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2) Audienciaspretorialescorresponded to those controlled by the presidents-governors ofthe province (Santo Domingo, Santa Fe, Guatemala, Buenos Aires and Manila);3) Subordinated audiencias those that had as president none of the authorities(Guadalajara, Qito, Charcas, Chile).They were formed of: a president, oidores(magistrates next to the king that judged thecauses) and the prosecutors (especially what was related to the church patronage), tothose was added in the 18thc. the figure of the regent.

!

Real Hacienda (Treasury)Since their discovery, the Indies were considered the royal patrimony of the Catholic Kings aswell as of their successors that possessed them as their own goods and could establish thusany type of privilege and tributary imposition. 61 Four functions since 1501: treasurer,accountant, factor (control of the selling and distribution) and veedor (taxes). In 1605,through the creation of the Tribunals of Accounts of Mexico, Lima and Santa Fe, thisstructure was modified; the latter begun to be responsible for the taxation of the work of royalofficials. In fact, they acted as true Audiencias in what regards treasury.

! War (defense of the new lands & protection of the maritime traffic)This branch of government depended of the council of the Indies and since the beginning ofthe 17thc of the Junta of War. Even if this can seem strange, the defense of the Indies was not

in the hands of a regular army. Nonetheless, the prolonged war in Chile with the Araucanos(Indian people from the South) led to the creation of a professional army in 1602.

" Spanish defensive systemThree echelons: the defense of Atlantic routes, of the maritime routes of theCaribbean and the Pacific and the terrestrial population nucleus established there.

" American piracy62

Lasted almost two centuries and ended with the peace of Ryswick of 1697.Manuel Lucena Salmoral divided piracy in 5 periods:1521-1568 French piracy dominates1569-1621 the continuation of the English sea dogs and the beginning of

Dutch piracy1622-1655 the great Dutch offensive and Libertarian: buccaneers and beginningof the filibusters; ends with the take of Jamaica in 16551656-1671 apogee of filibusters and ends with the take of Panama by Morgan1672-1697 the agony of filibusters that chased by England is used only byFrance as a support of its crews in the Caribbean.

September 30 1697, France, Spain, England and Holland signed the peace ofRyswick that also meant the reconnaissance of the French sovereignty on thewestern part of Hispaniola and the end of the filibusters. Piracy disappeared whenit ceased to be functional.

! Visits & residence judgments controls of functionaries and institutions.

The 18th c. reforms

The arrival of the Bourbons on the Spanish throne supposed the beginning of a period ofsignificant and prolonged changes for the Indies. Even if it is commonly considered that thereforms that affected Latin America happened essentially in the 2nd half of the 18th c., it isfrom the beginning of the century that the Spanish Crown was looking for new formulas to

61El quinto real tax on the fifth part of the minerals extracted.62Piratewas the maritime attacker that acted on his own which distinguished him from the corsairwho acted at the service of a crown that entrusted a free pass in exchange of a part of the plunder. The

buccaneerswere pirates exclusively American that took their name form the Caribbean word, boucan,which signified to roast meat as well as the artifact that they used for this purpose. Filibustersappeared as true libertarian pirates but afterwards were used by different European countries in theircolonial pretentions. Ibid., p. 298.


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revitalize and maintain the international power of Spain: modernize and reactivate to obtain amajor economic development capable to generate revenues.

Political-administrative and defense reforms (reaffirm the authority of the monarch)1714 Secretary of the Marine and the Indies the Council of the Indies remained thus as aconsultative organ and a justice tribunal.1754 Fernando VI separated the two secretaries and created one more specialized, theSecretary of Universal Dispatch of the Indies dedicated exclusively to Indian questions

1787 Charles III divided the Secretary and created two new ones: one for ecclesiastic affairs,grace and justice and another for war, treasury, trading and navigation. They werecoordinated by a Supreme State Junta.1790 Charles IV suppressed the two Secretaries and distributed the affairs of the Indies in 5Spanish secretaries centralizing and unifying the administration of the kingdom.

Territorial restructuration:1717 New Grenada; Audiencias of Quito and Panam suspended until 1720 when they werereestablished as parts of the viceroyalty of Peru and in 1739 they passed again to NewGrenadeThe ministry of the Indies of Jos de Glvez (1776-1787) reinforces the defense anddevelops the economy of the great zones until then marginal

1776 Viceroyalty of Ro de la Plata1776 The general commandment of the Northern Interior Provinces of New Spain with thepurpose of tracing a defensive line that united the territory comprised between California andthe Gulf of Mexico.1776 Intendencia of Caracas1777 Capitana General de Venezuela1778 Capitana General de Chile separated of the viceroyalty of Peru.

Important modifications in the administration of justice

1776 is created the Regente de audiencia control the tribunals. Thus appears a juridicalbureaucracy more efficient and independent. The introduction of the system of intendencias since 1765 to control more effectively Indian administration. This system encountered the

important opposition of the authorities (as in Cuba in 1764) and of the Council of the Indiesand thus its expansion was suspended. Afterwards, the 1stintendencia was created in Caracasin 1776. The promulgation of the Ordinance of Army Intendentes and Province of Rio de laPlata in 1782: creation of 8 provinces. In 1784 the regime of intendencia is applied in Peru:7 intendencias with a superintendencia in Lima. In Chile 3, in Cuenca in the Audiencia ofQuito and in the Audiencia of Guatemala 4 provinces. The unique territory that remainedoutside this project was that of New Grenade. The main success of intendencias must besituated in the economic field because this brought an augmentation of revenues.

Commercial liberalization

The decree of October 1765 authorized Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, Margarita andTrinidad to trade directly with other peninsular ports without navigation license and with amore simple fiscal system. In the years that followed, the new system was extended toLouisiana, Campeche, Riocacha and Santa Marta in New Grenade, while was authorizedtrading inter-regionally between the different American areas (1774).1778 Free Trade Regulation authorized trade directly between 12 ports and 24 of the Indieseven though reserving them exclusively to the Spanish merchants and products. Initially freetrade was excluded in Venezuela and New Grenade.Real Hacienda Modifications to the territorial organization were also introduced bymodifying the number, distribution and functioning of the cajas reale (fiscal districts) thatcomplicated the bureaucratic system. Thus, the fiscal districts were structured departing fromthe Ordinance of Intendentes in 4 categories: general cajas (capital of the viceroyalty), maincajas (Intendencias capitals), foreign cajas (on the territory of the Intendencia) and minor

subordinate treasuries (distant places and with less economic volume).


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Independence in Latin America 1804-1903

63Panama won its independence from Spain and rejoined in 1822 Grand Colombia of Simn Bolvar.

Country yearHaiti 1804 of FranceChile 1810

Mexico 1810

Columbia 1810 until 1830 member of Grand Colombia withVenezuela , Ecuador

Paraguay 1811

Venezuela 1811 until 1830 member of Grand Colombia withEcuador , Colombia

Argentina 1816Guatemala 1821

Honduras 1821

Nicaragua 1821

Costa Rica 1821

Salvador 1821 1839 of the Central-American FederationPeru 1821

Ecuador 1822 until 1830 member of Grand Colombia withVenezuela , Colombia

Brazil 1825Bolivia 1825

Uruguay 1825

Dominican Republic 1844 of HaitiCuba 1902 of Spain in 1898 and administered by the US 1898-

1902

Panama63

1903 of Colombia


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North American policies in Latin America 19th c. beginning of the 20th c.64

1823 MonroeDoctrine: America to the Americans the right to intervene andwarning for Europeans. This doctrine couldnt be applied and Spain could intervenemilitarily in the Dominican Republic in 1861 and in Peru in 1862, Napoleon IIIattempted to annex Mexico and Maximilian was emperor between 1864-7.

Th. Roosevelthad added in 1904 to the Monroe Doctrine a corollary that justified thepolicy of Big Stick(intervene to ensure economic stability).

William Howard Taft (1909-1913) inaugurated Dollar diplomacy, more directlyconcerned by the defense of economic interests. Numerous countries were convertedin financial protectorates: 1905-1941 the duty rights of the Dominican Republic

passed to the US and for Haiti the same thing happened during 1915-1934.

Woodrow Wilson(1913-) Wilsondoctrine refuse to recognize a government thatis not the result of elections (applied in Central America but not in Peru where thearrival in power of Legua was not contested). Wilsonian diplomacy organizeelections and try to make respected the result when needed by occupation and tocreate the public security forces capable of maintaining order once troupes werewithdrawn. This proved counterproductive because the police forces were at the originof prolonged dictatorships.

Franklin D. Roosevelt(FDR) in power in the US in 1933 Good Neighborpolicy(1933-1945) with Latin America (approach favored by the fascist advance and theweakness of American capitalism following the crisis of 1929).

64Olivier Dabne,LAmrique latine lpoque contemporaine, Paris : Armand Colin, 2005 (5medition)


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Truth and reconciliation commissions in Latin AmericaArgentina

CONADEP (National Commission on the disappearance of persons) 1983The Report Nunca ms of CONADEP spoke of 9.000 disappearedThe organizations of human rights estimate at 30.000 the number of dead and disappeared

Chile

Rettig Commission (National Commission of Truth and Reconciliation) 19903 196 victims (2.905 of the military: 1.720 dead and 1.185 disappeared)

Valech Commission (National Commission on Political prisoners and torture) 200328.459 imprisoned and tortured[In May 2005 a supplementary Report added 1.204 victims more]

Guatemala

CEH (Historical Clarification Commission) 1994The Report Guatemala: Memory of Silence (1999) documented 42.275 victims (of which 6.159 disappeared)Human rights organizations estimate at more than 200.000 the number of victims of the civil war of 36 years (1960-1996).

Salvador Truth Commission 1992 [primary sources: 7.000 victims, secondary sources: 20.000]Non-official sources: more than 70.000 victims

Peru

Commission of Truth and Reconciliation (2001)The Report of 2003 documents the victims of the period 1980-2000 speaks of 69.000 dead and disappeared.

Bolivia (1st Truth commission in LA)

National Commission of Investigation of the Disappeared (1982-4): 155 disappeared; no final reportCommittee to judge Garcia Meza [in power between 1980-1] non-officialSpeaks of 14.000 detainees, 6.000 exiled, 70 disappeared

Ecuador

Truth Commission and justice (1996) [studies the period 1979-1996]: 176 victimsReport "De la Locura a La Esperanza" (From craziness to hope)

Brazil

Proyecto Brasil Nunca ms (1979-1985) coordinated by the archbishop of Sao Paulo, Cardenal Paulo Evaristo Arns:125 cases of disappeared

In 1995 the government gives the law of reparation to 36 families of disappeared

2007 the Report The right to memory and truth of the Special commission on the political dead and disappeared(since 1996): 479 disappeared; the report recognizes the state responsibility.

Uruguay

Several non-official commissions as the Commission of Investigation on the situation of the Persons disappeared andthe responsible facts (1985): 164 disappeared

Commission for Peace (2000): Report of 2003 speaks of 38 disappeared (of which 25 dead).

ParaguayTruth and justice commission established in 2000 (about the regime of Stroessner 1954-89)An anterior commission established by the World Council of churches (1976-1990) documented that 360.000 personshad been detained (of a population of 3 million) and 1.5 million were in exile.

Panama- in 2001 the president Mireya Moscoso established a commission for the study of crimes of the period 1968-89 (dictatorships of Torrijos and Noriega) [150 disappeared]

Hati In 1994 was formed the National Commission of truth and justice (Report of 1996)


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politics and society in la (2015)

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