political warfare and psychological operations

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N A T I O N A L S T R A T E G Y I N F O R M A T I O N C E N T E R , INC.

1 5 0 E a s t 5 8 t h S t r e e t , N e w Y o r k , N Y 1 0 1 5 5

F R A N K R . B A R N E T T *

President

D O R O T H Y E . N I C O L O S I *

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President

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President

hxiCO United States, Inc.

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Attorney at LawM O R R I S I . L E I B M A N

Sidley & Austin

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IValter L Brown Professor of Law

and Director, Center fo r Ocean Law

and Policy, University of Virginia

A D M I R A L T H O M A S H . M O O R E R ,

U S N ( R e t . )

D R . R O Y G O D S O N

Director

( 2 1 2 ) 8 3 8 - 2 9 1 2

O F 1 F I C E R S

R E A R A D M I R A L W I L L I A M C .

M O T ' l - , U S N ( R e t . ) *Vice President and General Counsel

D R . I I E R B E R T I . L O N D O N

Vice President and Director

of National Security EducationO M E R P A C E

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Treasurer

D I R E C T O R S

L L O Y D N O B L E

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President and Chief Executive

Officer

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President

Denver West Ltd." 1" O~ O W . T A N A K A

J A M E S C . W H E A T , J R .Wheat First Securities, Inc.

M A J O R G E N E R A L R I C H A R D A .

Y U D K I N , U S A F ( R et . )

Senior Vice President, RetiredOwens-Corning Fiberglas

Corporation

W A S H I N G T O N OFFICE

1 7 30 R h o d e I s la n d A v e n u e N WW a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 0 36

( 2 0 2 ) 4 2 9 - 0 1 2 9

K E N N E T H d e G R A F F E N R E I D

Senior Fello w

(Associate Professor of Government

Georgetown University)

* A l s o D i r e c to r s

~" O n L e a ve

A B R A M S H U L S K Y

Senior Fellow

J E D S N Y D E R

Senior Research Fellow

WEST COAST R E P R E S E N T A I I V E

H E L G A W A L T E RSpecial Projects Officer

F o r ~ a le I)y t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f I ) o c u n l e n t s , I J .S . G o v e r n m e n t l ' r l n t i n g O f fi c e

W a s h i n / z t o n , I ). C . 2 0 4 0 2



POLITICAL WARFARE

and

PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS



P O L I T I C A L

W A R F A R E

and

P S Y C H O L O G I C A L

O P E R A T I O N S

R E T H I N K I N G the U S A P P R O A C H

Edited by

FRANK R. BARNETT

CARNES LORD

1989

~ National Defense University Pressin cooperation with

National Strategy Information Center, Inc.0



N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s P u b l i c a t i o n s

T o i n c r e a se g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e a n d i n f o r m d i s cu s s io n , N D U P r e ss

p u b l i s h e s b o o k s o n s u b j e c t s r e l a t i n g t o U S n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y .

E a c h y e ar , t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y , t h r o u g h t h e I n s t i t u te f o r N a -

t i o n a l S t r a t e g i c ~ ; t u d i e s , h o s t s a b o u t t w o d o z e n S e n i o r F e l l o w s w h o e n g a g e

i n o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h o n n a t i o n a l s e cu r i t y is su e s. N D U P r e s s p u b l i s h e s t h e

b e s t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h .

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e P r e s s p u b l i s h e s o t h e r e s p e c i a ll y ti m e l y o r d i s t i n g u i s h e d

w r i t i n g o n n a t i o n a l s e c u r it y , a s w el l a s n e w e d i t i o n s o f o u t - o f - p r i n t d e f e n s e

c la ss ic s , a n d b o o k s b a s e d o n U n i v e r s i t y - s p o n s o r e d c o n f e r e n c e s c o n c e r n i n g

n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a f f a i r s .

C o p y r ig h t , v 1 9 8 8 b y th e N a t io n a l S t r a t e g y In fo rma t io n C e n te r , In c . P r in te d b y p e r -

mis s io n .

O p i n i o n s , c o n c l u s i o n s , a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s e x p r e s s e d o r i m p l i e d i n t h i s v o l u m e

a re s o lely th o s e o f th e a u th o rs a n d d o n o t n e c e s s a ri ly r e p re s e n t th e v ie w s o f th e N a -

t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y , t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e , o r a n y o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t

a g e n c y o r p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

E d i t o r i a l R e s e a r c h A s s o c i a t e s , W a s h i n g t o n D C , c o p y m a r k e d t h e f i n a l m a n u s c r i p t ,p r o o f r e a d p a g e p r o o f s , a n d p r e p a r e d t h e i n d e x f o r t h i s b o o k u n d e r c o n t r a c t .

N D U P r e ss p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e s o ld b y t he U S G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e . F o r o r d e r -

i n g in f o r m a t i o n , c a ll (2 02 ) 7 8 3- 3 2 3 8 o r w r i te t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f D o c u m e n t s , U S

G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f fi c e , W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 04 02 .

F i r s t p r in t in g , J a n u a ry 1 9 8 9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

P o l i t i c a l w a r fa re a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l o p e ra t io n s .

In c lu d e s b ib l io g ra p h ie s a n d in d e x .

1 . P s y c h o l o g i ca l w a r f a r e . 2 . U n i t e d S t a t e s -

M i l i t a ry p o l i cy . I . B a r n e t t , F ra n k R . I i . L o rd ,

C a r n e s .

U B 2 7 6 . P 6 5 1 9 8 8 35 5.Y 4 Y0 97 3 8 8 - 3 4 4 6 9



Contents

F o r e w o r d

I n t r o d u c t i o n

T h e M o d e r n C o n t e x t

Fred C. lkle

T h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l D i m e n s i o n i n N a t i o n a l S t r a t e g yCarnes Lord

C o m m e n t

Paul A. Smith, Jr.

Richard G. Stilwell

M i l i t a r y P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a t i o n s

Alfred H. Paddock, Jr.C o m m e n t

Richard Brauer

Barry Zorthian

P o l i t i c a l W a r f a r e

Angelo M. Codevilla

C o m m e n tDonald F. B. Jameson

Abram N. Shulsky

P o l i t i c a l S t r a t e g i e s f o r R e v o l u t i o n a r y W a r

Richard H. Shultz, Jr.

C o m m e n t

Joseph D. Douglass, Jr.

Robert C. Kingston

ix

xi

13

38

45

66

77

102

111

139



Pol i t i ca l S trateg ies for

C o e r c i v e D i p l o m a c y a n d L i m i t e d W a r

A l v i n H . B e r n s t e i n

C o m m e n t

J o s e p h G o l d b e r g

E d w a r d N . L u t t w a k

145

1 60

P ol i t i ca l S t ra t eg i e s f or Gen era l War:

T h e C a s e o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e

H e n r y S . R o w e n

C o m m e n t

A l e x a n d e r A l e x ie v

E d w a r d A t k e so n

1 69

198

A f t e r w o r d - - T w e l v e S t e p s t o R e v i v i n g A m e r i c a n P S Y O P

F r a n k R . B a r n e t t

2 0 9

T h e E d i t o r s 2 2 5

C o n t r i b u t o r s 2 2 5

I n d e x 2 2 9



Foreword

THE P O TE N T IA L D E ST RU CT IV E N ES S o f o p e n w a r f a r e be tw e e n

t h e s u p e r p o w e r s h a s te n d e d t o s h if t E a s t- W e s t c o m p e t i t i o n to

t h e l o w e r e n d o f t h e " s p e c t r u m o f c o n f l i c t , " t o w a r d p o l i t i c a l

a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e . W h i l e t h e S o v i e ts h a v e a c t iv e l y

w a g e d p o l i t i c a l w a r a g a i n s t t h e W e s t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s ,

t o a l a rg e e x te n t , s h i e d a w a y . T h e n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s in

t h e W e s t o f t h e w o r d propaganda s u g g e s t w e h a v e t r e a t e dp o l i t ic a l w a r a s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h d e m o c r a t i c v a l u es a n d

t r a d i t i o n s .

T h i s b o o k , b a se d o n a s y m p o s i u m c o s p o n s o r e d by th e

N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y , t h e N a t i o n a l S t r a t e g y I n f o r m a -

t i o n C e n t e r , a n d t h e G e o r g e t o w n U n i v e rs i ty N a t i o n a l S e c u r i-

t y S t u d i e s P r o g r a m , c o n s i d e r s w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s c a n d o

t o o v e r c o m e t r a d i t i o n a l A m e r i c a n a v e r s i o n t o p o l i t i c a l w a r -

f a r e a n d c o m p e t e b e t t e r i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e t h a tc h a r ac t e ri z e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e la t io n s t o d a y . T h e s y m p o s i u m

b r o u g h t to g e th e r p r a c t i t i o n e r s - m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n - a n da n a l y s t s t o a d d r e s s t h e s e i s s u e s . T h e p a p e r s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s

v o l u m e r e v e a l b o t h s u c c e s s e s a n d m i s t a k e s o f t h e p a s t , a n d

p r e s e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r i m p r o v i n g U S e f f o r t s t o d a y a n d i n

t h e f u t u r e . A l t h o u g h d i s a g r e e i n g o n s p e c i f i c i s s u e s a n d t a c -

t i cs , t h e v a r io u s a u t h o r s u n a n i m o u s l y b el ie v e t h a t t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s m u s t u p g r a d e i t s p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l -p s y c h o l o g i c a l a r e n a .

W i l li n g o r n o t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is i n v o l v e d i n t o d a y ' s

i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l- p s y c h o l o g i c al c o n f l ic t . T h i s b o o k s u g -

g e s ts h o w t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c a n a c t t o c o u n t e r S o v i e t p o l i t ic a lw a r f a r e , a n d t o b u i l d a n d d e p l o y i t s o w n p o l i t i c a l a n d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c a p a b i l it i e s.

B r a d l e y C . H o sr a e r

Lieutenant Genera l , US Air Force

Pres iden t , Na t iona l Defense

Univers i ty

/x



I ntroduction

PERHAPS NO OTHER COMPONENT of US national security

policy has been so neglected in recent years as the one that

forms the subject of this book. Even the terminology of thefield is likely to seem strange to many readers, including

many with long experience in the uniformed military and in

other agencies of the US government. P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s (frequently abbrevia ted PSYOP) is a long-standing term

of military art designating the employment of certain

dedicated communications assets (principally broadcasting

and printing equipment and thc platforms and personnel

associated with it) in support of combat operations.However, the term is sometimes also used in a broader and

less technical sense to refer to a range of psychological war-

fare activities conducted by civilian as well as military

organizations. P o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e is a term that is less well

established in usage and doctrine, but one that seems useful

for describing a spectrum of overt and covert activitiesdesigned to support national political-military objectives.

In the spirit of the adage that it is necessary to crawlbefore one can learn to walk, the present volume is modest in

its scope and intention. Its primary purposes are to stimulate

serious thought about a forgotten aspect of strategy, and to

lay the groundwork for a revival of psychological-political

planning and operations within the larger framework of US

national security policy as a whole. It approaches this task in

all modesty and with due skepticism, in recognition of the

enormous difficulties any such project must encounter giventhe nature of our society and the particular cultural and

political constraints that currently work to limit any

American or Western efforts in this area.

Psychological warfare has a long history. An impressive

understanding of the psychological dimension of war is evi-

x i



x ii L V T R O D U C T I O N

d e n t i n t h e c l a s s i c t r e a t i s e o n t h e a r t o f w a r b y t h e C h i n e s e

s t r a t e g i s t S u n T z u , w r i t t e n o v e r t w o t h o u s a n d y e a r s a g o .H i g h l y e f f e c t i v e m i l i t a r y s t r a t e g i e s w i t h a m a j o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p o n e n t h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d b y i m p e r i a l

p o w e r s s u c h a s an c ie n t R o m e , t h e M o n g o l s o f t h e M i d d l e

A g e s , a n d t h e E u r o p e a n c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t ra t eg i e s h a v e o f t e n

p r o v e n a t t r a c t i v e t o w e a k s t a t e s f o r c e d t o r e l y f o r t h e i r s u r -

v iv a l o n d i p l o m a t i c m a n e u v e r a n d d e c e p t i o n ; t h e B y z a n t i n e

E m p i r e i s p e r h a p s t h e c l a s s i c c a s e . W i t h t h e r i s e o f m i l i t a n tr e l i g i o n s a n d ( i n o u r o w n t i m e ) o f m e s s i a n i c i d e o l o g i e s , n e w

o p p o r t u n i t i e s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e f o r w a g i n g

p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e . I n d e e d , it b e c a m e i n c re a s i n g p o s s i b l e

t o d i v o r c e t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f s t ra t e g y f r o m a c-

t u a l w a r f a r e , a s id e o l o g y a n d r e li g i o n p r o v e d e f f e ct i v e t o o l s

f o r w e a k e n i n g h o s t i l e s t a t e s a n d e x t e n d i n g o n e ' s o w n p o w e r

w i t h l i t t l e o r n o m i l i t a r y e f f o r t .

P s y c h o l o g i c a l- p o l it ic a l p e n e t r a t i o n a n d s u b v e r s i o n o ff o r e i g n s t a t e s a n d o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d

m o v e m e n t s r e m a i n s a d i s t in g u i s hi n g f ea t u re o f t h e c o n t e m -

p o r a r y s t r a t e g i c e n v i r o n m e n t . T h o u g h t a k i n g p l a c e i n

p e a c e t i m e ( o r w h a t c u r r e n t l y p a ss e s u n d e r t h a t t e r m ) , s u c h

a c t i v i t y i s n o n e t h e l e s s i n t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h v i o l e n c e . T e r -

r o r i s m , r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n c i e s , a n d t h e im p l i c it v i o l e n c e

o f l a r g e m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n b e i n g s u p p l y m u c h o f t h e c u r r e n c y

in w h i c h p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e t o d a y t r a d e s . I ts p r i m a r yp r a c t i t i o n e r is , o f c o u r s e , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . I n c r e a s i n g l y ,

h o w e v e r , t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e

a r e b e in g m a s t e r e d a n d e f f e c ti v e ly u s e d n o t o n l y b y T h i r d

W o r l d M a r x i s t- L e n i n i s t m o v e m e n t s a n d r e g i m e s ( s uc h as th e

S a n d i n i s t a s i n N i c a r a g u a ) b u t a l s o b y s t at e s o f w h o l l y d i f-

f e r e n t id e o l o g i c a l o u t l o o k ( s u c h as I r a n ) .

P a r t o f t h e r e a s o n f o r th e c u r r e n t n e g l e ct o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is t h e p e r -v a s iv e n o t i o n t h a t w h a t i s i n v o l v e d h e r e is f u n d a m e n t a l l y a

c o m p e t i t i o n i n i d e a s w h o s e e f f e c t o n t h e n a t i o n ' s c o n c r e t e

s e c u r i t y in t e r e s t s is m a r g i n a l a t b e s t . T o h o l d t h i s n o t i o n is t o

u n d e r e s t i m a t e s e r io u s l y t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h S o v i e t ( a n d S o v i e t



I N T R O D U C T I O N x i i i

surrogate) psychological-political activities form an integral

part of Soviet policy and strategy generally-and in par-ticular, the extent to which they support and are supported by

the use of force. It also reflects a failure to identify and

assimilate the lessons of the chief defeats the United States

has suffered internationally in the postwar period. Above all,

the Vietnam War was won by the Communists, and lost by

the United States, at the psychological-political level of

conflict.

The scope and structure of the present volume are in-tended to help correct these errors. Rather than focusing on

more familiar aspects of the broader psychological-political

strugglc with the Soviet Union, the volume concentrates on

those instrumentalities of national policy in this area that are

now or have traditionally been the responsibility primarily of

US military and intelligence organizations. At the same time,

considerable emphasis is given to the overall policy

framework that must control the use of these instrumen-talities and lend them strategic meaning.

How can or should the United States respond to the long-

standing challenge of Communis t psychological-political war-

fare? What opportunities exist in this field for the United

States to advance its own political-military interests? What

are the lessons of past American efforts? What is the situa-

tion today? What are the prospects for the future? What are

the conceptual, political, cultural, and bureaucratic obstaclesto a more effective use by the United States of psychological-

political approaches and techniques?

These are the questions raised and addressed in the pres-

ent volume. The papers included here were originally

presented at a symposium jointly sponsored by the National

Defense University, the National Strategy Information

Center, and the Georgetown University National Security

Studies Prog ram, held at the National Defense University inWashington, DC, 21 and 22 November 1986. This sym-

posium was modeled on a similar conference sponsored by

these same organizations in March 1983 on the subject of

special operations, out of which grew the book S p e c i a l



xiv INTRODUCTION

Operations in US Strategy, p u b l i s h e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l

D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . T h e m o r e r e m o t e i n s p i r a t i o n f o rt h e s e c o l l e c t i v e i n q u i r i e s i n s e n s i t i v e p o l i c y a r e a s r e l a t i n g t o

l o w - in t e n si ty o r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r f a re w a s p r o v i d e d b y t h e

s er ie s o f s y m p o s i a o r g a n i z e d o v e r a p e r i o d o f s e v e ra l y e a rs b y

t h e N a t i o n a l S t ra t eg y I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r u n d e r t h e a eg is o f

t h e C o n s o r t i u m f o r t h e S t u d y o f I n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e p r o -

c e e d i n g s o f t h e s e s y m p o s i a , p u b l i s h e d i n a s i x - v o lu m e se rie s

w i t h t h e g e n e r a l t i tl e Intelligence Requirements for the 1980s,

h a v e b e e n w i d el y a c k n o w l e d g e d a s a n i n v a lu a b l e s o u rc e o fd i s p a s s i o n a t e a n a l y s i s a n d d i s c u s s i o n o f s e n s i t i v e a n d c o n -

t r o v e r s i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e p o l i c y i s s u e s .

A l l o f t h e s e c o n f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n a t t e n d e d b y i n -

d i v i d u a l s w i t h o p e r a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i n th e r e le v a n t d is -

c i p li n e s, a s w e ll as b y o t h e r e x p e r ts . T h e s y m p o s i u m o n

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e w a s a t t e n d e d

b y s o m e 100 p e r s o n s , i n c l u d i n g f o r m e r a n d c u r r e n t l y ac t iv e

s p e c ia l is ts in m i l i t a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d c o v e r t a c-t i o n a n d e x p e r t o r i n t e r e s t e d o b s e r v e r s f r o m a v a r i e t y o f

g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s , c o n g r e s s i o n a l s ta f fs , t h e m e d i a , a n d

t h e a c a d e m i c w o r l d . F r o m t h e o u t s e t , i t w a s h o p e d t h a t t h e

s y m p o s i u m w o u l d l ea d to a p u b l i c a t i o n t h a t w o u l d p r o v e

u s e f u l f o r g o v e r n m e n t ag e n c i es , s er v ic e s c h o o l s a n d w a r c o l-

l e g e s , a n d n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y s t u d i e s c u r r i c u l a i n c o l l e g e s a n d

u n iv e rs it ie s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y .

T h i s v o l u m e o p e n s w i t h a p a p e r b y t h e H o n o r a b l e F r e dC . I k l e , f o r m e r u n d e r s e c r e t a r y o f d e f e n s e f o r p o l ic y . D r . I k l e

d i sc u s se s th e i m p o r t a n c e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i ti c a l c o n -

f l ic t in t h e c u r re n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d a r g u e s th a t

s u c h m e t h o d s a r e n o t o n l y l e g i ti m a t e b u t n e c e s s a ry f o r th e

U n i t e d S t a t e s if i t is t o s u s t a i n t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e F r e e W o r l d

o v e r t h e l o n g t e r m .

I n t h e n e x t p a p e r , D r . C a r n e s L o r d , f o r m e r s ta f f

m e m b e r o f t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u ri ty C o u n c i l , p r o v id e s a b r o a d

o v e r v i e w o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l it i c a l d i m e n s i o n in U S

s t ra t c g y . H e b c g i n s b y r e v ie w i n g th e r o le o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

w a r f a r e p l a n n i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n s in U S n a t i o n a l s e c u r i ty in

t h e e a r l y p o s t w a r y e a r s , a n d t h e n a t t e m p t s t o s o r t o u t t h e



I N T R O D U C T I O N x v

c o n c e p t u a l d i f f i cu l ti es th a t c o n t i n u e t o i m p e d e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e s e a c t i v it ie s . H e a r g u e s t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l w a r -

f a r e h a s b e e n t o o o f t e n i d e n t if i e d w i t h t h e c o n f l i c t o f i d e a s,

o p i n i o n s , a n d i d e o l o g y , w h e r e a s i t is " a ls o a b o u t c u l t u r a l a n d

p o l i t i c a l s y m b o l s , a b o u t p e r c e p t i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s , a b o u t t h e

b e h a v i o r o f in d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s u n d e r s tr es s , a b o u t t h e

c o h e s i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d a l li a n c es . "

A f t e r a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t e r m p u b l i c d ip lo m a cy

a n d i t s i n a d e q u a c y a s a g e n e r a l r u b r i c f o r t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n

q u e s t i o n , h e g o e s o n t o c h a r a c t e r i z e pol i t ica l war fare as ag e n e r a l c a t e g o r y o f a c t i v i t i e s t h a t i n c l u d e s poli t ical act ion,

coercive d ip lomacy, a n d covert poli t ical warfare, t h e l a t t e r

c o r r e s p o n d i n g r o u g h l y t o t h e c o v e r t a s p e c t s o f w h a t t h e

S o v i e t s r e f e r t o a s " a c t i v e m e a s u r e s " ; a n d h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e

t e r m psycho log ica l opera t ions s h o u l d b e r e s e r v e d f o r u s e i n

t h e p u r e l y m i l i t ar y s p h e r e . D r . L o r d t h e n p r o c e e d s to a d d r e s s

t h e g e n e ra l q u e s t i o n o f t h e c u l tu r a l a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c f a c t o rs

i n h i b i t i n g e f f e c t i v e e n g a g e m e n t i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a lc o n f l ic t b y th e U n i t e d S t a t e s, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

c u r r e n t r o le o f t h e A m e r i c a n m e d i a . H e n o t e s t h a t U S e f f o rt s

i n t h i s f ie l d in th e p a s t h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y s u f f e r e d f r o m t h e i n -

a d e q u a c y o f i n t e g r a t e d s t r a t e g i c p l a n n i n g a n d d e c i s i o n -

m a k i n g a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , a s w e l l a s f r o m i n s t i t u t i o n a l

r e s i s t a n c e w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y b u r e a u c r a c y . H e c o n -

c l u d e s w i th a d i s c u s s i o n o f m i l i ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

t h a t s tr es s es t h e n e e d f o r a fu l le r in t e g r a t i o n o f n o r m a lm i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s i n a P S Y O P f r a m e w o r k , a s w e l l a s g r e a t e r

a t t e n t i o n t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s in w a r p l a n n i n g

a n d c r i s i s m a n a g e m e n t .

I n r e s p o n s e t o D r . L o r d ' s p a p e r , M r . P a u l A . S m i t h , J r . ,

f o r m e r e d i t o r o f t h e j o u r n a l P r ob le m s o f C o m m u n i s m , ra i se s

a q u e s t i o n a s t o t h e p r o p e r t e r m i n o l o g y f o r d e s c r i b i n g

p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t . H e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e t e r m

pol i t ica l war i s a n a c c e p t a b l e g e n e r a l d e s i g n a t i o n f o r a l lp s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l a c t iv i t ie s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t h o s t i l e

s t a t e s .

G e n e r a l R i c h a r d G . S t i lw e ll , f o r m e r l y d e p u t y u n d e r

s e c r e ta r y o f d e f e n s e f o r p o l i c y w i t h s p e c ia l r e s p o n s i b i li t ie s



xvi INTRODUCTION

in t h e a r e a o f i n t e l li g e n c e a n d m i l i t a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s , a l s o w o n d e r s w h e t h e r t h e t e r m psychological opera-

tions s h o u l d n o t b e u s ed b r o a d l y t o c o v e r n o n m i l i ta r y as w ell

a s m i l it a r y a s p e c ts o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e . G e n e r a l

S t i l w e l l g o e s o n t o d i s c u s s t h e p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h i n

t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t in i m p l e m e n t i n g N a t i o n a l S e c u ri ty D e c i-

s i o n D i r e c t i v e 1 3 0 , w h i c h c a l l e d f o r a r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o fp s y c h o lo g i c al o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f en s e

w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a g e n e ra l r e vi ew o f U S i n t e r n a t i o n a l in -

f o r m a t i o n p o l i c y . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e is a n e e d t o r e s t r u c t u r ea n d i m p r o v e t h e in t e ra g e n c y m e c h a n i s m a n d p r o c e d u r e s

g o v e r n i n g p u b l i c d i p l o m a c y a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l- p o l i t i ca l w a r -

f a r e g e n e r a l l y .

C o l o n e l A l f re d H . P a d d o c k , J r . , f o r m e r c o m m a n d e r o f

t h e 4 th P S Y O P G r o u p a t F o r t B r a gg , N o r t h C a r o l in a , a n d

u n t il r e c e n t ly d i r e c t o r o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e O f -

f i c e o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e , n e x t d i s c u s s e s t h e h i s t o r y ,

c u r r e n t s t a t u s, a n d f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -t io n s w i th i n t h e U S m i l it a r y e s t a b l i sh m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o C o l -

o n e l P a d d o c k , a r e v i e w b y S e c r e t a r y C a s p a r W e i n b e r g e r o f

D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d n e e d s i n t h e a r e a o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s l e d in 1985 to t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a

c o m p r e h e n s i v e P S Y O P " M a s t e r P l a n , " w h i c h n o w s er ve s a s

t h e f r a m e w o r k f o r a n o n g o i n g r ev i ta l iz a t io n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t .

T h e n e e d f o r c o m p r e h e n s i v e j o i n t d o c t r i n e i n t h is a r ea ,f o r i m p r o v e d p l a n n i n g , f o r i m p r o v e d e d u c a t i o n a n d t ra i n in g ,

a n d f o r a m o d e r n i z e d P S Y O P f o r c e s t r u c t u r e a r e b r ie f ly

d i s cu s s e d . C o l o n e l P a d d o c k t h e n a d d r e s s e s tw o i ss ue s o f p a r -

t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e f u t u r e o f m i l i t a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s : t h e r e l a ti o n s h i p o f P S Y O P a n d s p e ci al o p e r a t i o n s

a n d t h e p r o s p e c t i v e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a J o i n t P s y c h o l o g i c a l

O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r. H e s t r o n g l y d e f e n d s th e s e p a r a t i o n o f

P S Y O P f r o m s p ec ia l o p e r a t i o n s a n d i ts i n t e g r a t i o n w i th c o n -v e n t i o n a l m i l i t a r y p l a n n i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n s .

C o l o n e l R i c h a rd B r a u e r , c o m m a n d a n t o f t h e A i r F o rc e

S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s S c h o o l a t H u r l b u r t F i e ld , F l o r i d a , s h a r e s

C o l o n e l P a d d o c k ' s v ie w o f t h e n e e d f o r a b r o a d e n e d c o n c e p t



I N T R O D U C T I O N x v i i

of psychological operations. PSYOP should not be

understood to be solely an Army responsibility; it should in-

volve a strategic perspective, and it should make use of a

variety of non-PSYOP resources to accomplish its mission.

Mr. Barry Zorthian, former director of the Joint United

States Public Affairs Office of the US Military Assistance

Command-Vietnam, stresses the importance of integration

of military and civilian PSYOP programs and personnel in

situations of low-intensity or revolutionary conflict.

In the next paper, Dr. Angelo Codevilla, senior research

fellow at the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and

Peace of Stanford University, addresses the general subject

of political warfare. Beginning from the premise that political

warfare is "the forceful political expression of policy," Dr.

Codevilla argues that the chief difficulties facing the United

States in this area stem from the inconsistencies and failures

that have marked American foreign policy or national

strategy generally. Dr. Codevilla defines political warfare as

"the marshaling of huma n support, or opposition, in order to

achieve victory in war or in unbloody conflicts as serious as

war." As such, political war fare is in a sense coextensive with

all international action and is not confined to the tools

specifically associated with political warfare operations.

Political warfare may be overt or covert, but it must provide

foreigners true and convincing reasons why they should iden-

tify themselves and their cause with the United States.

Dr. Codevilla goes on to analyze the elements of politicalwarfare as conducted historically by the United States and

their relationship to American policy, with particular atten-

tion to gray propaganda, black propaganda, agents of in-

fluence, and political support operations. He argues that

there is a fundamental moral issue involved in providing sup-port for foreign states and movements in cases where the

United States lacks the political will or competence to ensure

their success. Finally, he addresses the future of political war-fare, arguing that while the potential usefulness of the tools

of political warfare is great and increasing, there are fewgrounds for optimism concerning the ability of the US

government to make effective use of them.



xviii INTRODUCTION

M r . D o n a l d F . B . J a m e s o n , a f o r m e r C I A o f f ic i a l w i t h

e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f ie ld o f c o v e r t a c t i o n , a r g u e s i n r e s p o n s e t o

D r . C o d e v i l l a t h a t " w h a t ' s w o r t h d o i n g is w o r t h d o i n g

b a d l y , " r e f e rr in g t o t h e s u c c es s t h e U n i t e d S t a te s h a s e n j o y e d

i n c e r t a i n o f i t s p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e e n d e a v o r s ( n o t a b l y , i n s u p -

p o r t i n g n o n - C o m m u n i s t in t el le c tu a l a n d c u l tu r a l f o r c es in

E u r o p e a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I) in s p it e o f p e r s is t i n g a m b i g u i ti e s

in n a t i o n a l p o l ic y . D r . A b r a m N . S h u l s k y , fo r m e r l y m i n o r i t y

s t a f f d i r e c to r o f t h e S e n a t e S e le c t C o m m i t t e e o n I n te l li g e n c e,

s h a r e s s i m i l a r r e s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g D r . C o d e v i l l a ' s a r g u -m e n t . W h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e l i nk b e -

t w e e n p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e o p e r a t i o n s a n d p o l i c y , h e s u g g e s t s

t h a t U S p o l i cy t o w a r d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n in p a r t i c u l a r w ill

a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l y la c k th e k i n d o f c la r i ty D r . C o d e v i l la s e e m s

t o d e m a n d o f i t. H e f u r t h e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t i t is f a r f r o m c le a r

t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s c a n b e h e l d m o r a l l y c u l p a b l e

w h e n i t p r o v i d e s p o l it ic a l a n d m a t e r ia l s u p p o r t t o f o r e ig n e r s

w h o o p p o s e C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s f o r g o o d a n d s u f f i c i e n tr e a s o n s o f t h e ir o w n .

D r . R i c h a r d H . S h u l tz , J r . , o f t h e F l e tc h e r S c h o o l o f

L a w a n d D i p l o m a c y o f T u f t s U n i v er s i ty , n e xt ta k e s u p t h e

q u e s t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t ic a l s t ra t e g ie s i n t h e

U S a p p r o a c h t o r e v o l u t io n a r y w a r. R e v o l u t io n a r y w a r is

d i s t in g u i s h e d f o r th e p u r p o s e s o f th i s p a p e r f r o m o t h e r f o r m s

o f l im i t e d o r l o w - i n t e n s i ty c o n f l ic t . A t i s s u e is t h e s u p p o r t t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s c a n u s e f u ll y p r o v i d e e i th e r t o g o v e r n m e n t s

s e e k i n g to s u p p r e s s C o m m u n i s t - o r i e n t e d i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s o r to i n su r g e n ts se e k in g t o o v e r t h r o w C o m m u n i s t

r e g i m e s . D r . S h u l t z a r g u e s t h a t w h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s t r u e

r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f r o m o t h e r f o r m s o f g u e rr il la o r i rr e g u la r

w a r f a r e i s p r e c i s e l y t h e p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m e a n s a s

w e l l a s t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e s t r u g g l e . I n r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r ,

t h e f i n a l o b j e c t i v e o f t h e i n s u r g e n t s is to r e p l a c e t h e e x i s t in g

r e g i m e w i th a n e w r e g i m e ; t h e y s e e k t o a c h i e v e t h is o b j e c t i v e

t h r o u g h p r o p a g a n d a a n d p o l i ti ca l a c t i o n , m a s s m o b i l i z a ti o n ,

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a p o l i ti c a l -m i l it a r y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , m i l it a r y

a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y t a c ti c s , a n d o u t s i d e a s s is t a n c e .



I NT R O D U CT I O N x i x

D r . S h u l t z e m p h a s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n t r o le t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n a n d i t s s u r r o g a t e s h a v e a c c o r d e d t o p o l i t i c a l a n dp s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s in t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a a s a f o r m

o f a s s i s t a n c e t o i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s . T h e s e m e a s u r e s i n -

c l u d e p r o p a g a n d a , i n t e r n a t io n a l f r o n t o r g a n iz a t io n s , a n d

p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n w i t h i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a -

t i o n s .

A f t e r d i s c u ss in g t h e p r o b l e m s w i th U S c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n -

c y a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s e f f o r t s in V i e t n a m , D r .

S h u l t z p r o c e e d s t o a d d r e s s r e c e n t U S e x p e r i e n c e s in C e n t r a lA m e r i c a . H e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s h a s te n d e d i n E l

S a l v a d o r - m u c h a s in V i e t n a m - to e n c o u ra g e a c o n v e n t i o n a l

w a r f a r e a p p r o a c h b y th e S a l v a d o r a n m i l i t ar y a n d g o v e r n -

m e n t , w i t h s u f fi c ie n t a t t e n t i o n t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

a n d c i vi c a c t i o n . W i t h r e s p e c t t o N i c a r a g u a , h e a r g u e s t h a t

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s s o f a r f a i l e d t o a s s i s t t h e C o n t r a s i n

d e v e l o p i n g a n i n t e g r a t e d p o l i t i c a l - m i l it a r y s tr a t e g y o r i n

l e g i ti m i z i n g t h e m s e l v e s in t h e r e g i o n a l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n -t ex t . H e c o n c l u d e s b y o u t l i n i n g t h e e l e m e n t s o f a c o m p r e h e n -

s iv e a p p r o a c h t h e U n i te d S ta te s m i g h t a d o p t i n s u p p o r t o f in -

s u r g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r in s u r g e n c y e f f o r t s in t h e T h i r d W o r l d .

G e n e r a l R o b e r t C . K i n g s to n , f o r m e r c o m m a n d e r o f t h e

U S C e n t r a l C o m m a n d , a g re es w i t h D r. S h u l tz c o n c e r n i n g t h e

c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s f o r in s u r g e n -

c y a n d c o u n t e r in s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s , a n d e m p h a s i z e s th e

n e e d f o r P S Y O P p l a n n i n g a n d o p e r t io n s t h r o u g h a ll p h a s e so f s u c h c o n f l ic t . D r . J o s e p h D . D o u g l a s s , J r . , w h o h a s w r it -

t e n e x t e n s i v e l y o n v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f S o v i e t m i l i t a r y t h o u g h t ,

c al ls a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e

a n d o r i g i n s o f S o v i e t s u p p o r t f o r i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l t e r r o r i s m . H e a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l

f a i l u r e w i t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o g r a s p t h e l o n g - t e r m ,

s t ra t e g ic c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s e S o v i e t e f f o r t s a n d t o d e v i s e a p -

p r o p r i a t e c o u n t e r s t r a t e g i e s .D r . A l v i n H . B e r n s te i n , c h a i r m a n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

S t r a t e g y a t t h e N a v a l W a r C o l l e g e , n e x t e x a m i n e s t h e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l it ic a l d i m e n s i o n o f U S p o l i c y r e la t i v e t o

t h e l i m i te d u se o r t h r e a t e n e d u s e o f f o r ce . N o t i n g t h a t t h e e f-



x x I N T R O D U C T I O N

f e c ti v e n es s o f d i p l o m a t i c c o e r c i o n a n d l i m i t e d m i l it a r y o p e r a -

t io n s d e p e n d s d e c is iv e ly o n a n a t i o n ' s c u m u l a t i v e r e p u t a t i o nf o r a c t u a l l y e m p l o y i n g it s m i l it a r y f o r ce s , D r . B e r n s t e i n

a r g u e s th a t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s h a s b e e n h a n d i c a p p e d s in c e t h e

V i e t n a m W a r b y a p e r c e i v e d d e c l i n e i n i t s c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h i s

a r e a . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , r e c e n t e x a m p l e s o f th e s u c c e s s f u l a p -

p l i c a t i o n o f l i m i t e d f o r c e b y W e s t e r n n a t i o n s ( t h e F a l k l a n d s

W a r , G r e n a d a , U S o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n st L i b y a) in d i c a te t h a t ,

c o n t r a r y t o a c o m m o n v i e w , m i l i ta r y f o rc e r e m a i n s v e ry

m u c h a n e f f ec t iv e i n s t r u m e n t o f n a t i o n a l p o l ic y ; a n d t h e ya l s o r e v e a l t h e c o n t i n u i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

d i m e n s i o n o f c o n f l i c t a t t h i s l e v e l .

D r . B e r n s t e i n d i s c u s s e s t h e s p e c i f i c r o l e o f n a v a l a n d a i r

p o w e r a s i n s t r u m e n t s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e , a s w e ll a s th e

p s y c h o lo g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f A m e r i c a n o r W e s t e r n

t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y i n c o n f l i c t s w i t h T h i r d W o r l d n a -

t i o n s , c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e r o l e o f

s o p h i s t i c a te d i n te l l ig e n c e c o l le c t io n , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a n do t h e r e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n o l o g i e s . H e a l s o s tr es s es t h e i m p o r t a n c e

o f d ir ec t c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f U S o b je c ti v es a n d i n t en t i o n s in

l i m i t e d c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s .

I n r e s p o n s e to D r . B e r n s te i n 's p a p e r , D r . E d w a r d N .

L u t t w a k , s e n i o r fe l lo w o f t h e C e n t e r f o r S t r a te g i c a n d I n t e r -

n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s , a d d r e s s e s t h e r o l e o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e le -

m e n t in w a r f a r e g e n e r a l ly , a r g u i n g t h a t t h is e l e m e n t i n c re a s e s

i n i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h a c o n f l i c t o f f e r s g r e a t e rs c o p e f o r r e l a ti o n a l m a n e u v e r as d i s t in g u i s h e d f r o m a t tr i t i o n .

P r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d , t h e d i sc ip l in e o f P S Y O P is a n i n te g r al

a s p e ct o f t h e c o n d u c t o f m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a n d a g e n e ra l

c o m m a n d r es p o n si b i li ty .

R e g a r d i n g c o er c iv e d i p l o m a c y , D r . L u t t w a k e m p h a s i z e s

t h e f a i lu r e o f t h e " p r a g m a t i c s t y le " o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

p s y c h o l o g i ca l i m p o r t a n c e o f a n a t i o n 's a c c u m u l a t e d r e p u t a -t i o n f o r t h e e f f e c ti v e u s e o f i ts p o w e r . D r . J o s e p h G o l d b e r g ,

p r o f e s s o r o f r e s ea r c h a t t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y , e m -

p h a s iz e s t h e p o t e n t i a l e f fe c t i v e n es s o f c o o r d i n a t e d c a m p a i g n s

o f c o e rc iv e d i p l o m a c y a n d t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f a n a d v e r sa ry 's



INTRODUCTION xxi

perceptions of US military power, and discusses the recent

case of Libya.In the final paper, Dr. Henry S. Rowen, senior research

fellow at the Hoover Institution and former director of the

National Intelligence Council, discusses political and

psychological approaches to general war with the Soviet

Union, with particular reference to allied strategy with

respect to Eastern Europe. Dr. Rowen begins by recalling

that the notion of disrupting the enemy's alliances was

recognized as a critical element of strategy by Sun Tzu, andthat the Soviets have themselves long followed this advice in

their planning for a war against NATO. In the contempor ary

West, by contrast, little has been done along these lines.

Yet the common view that the Soviets possess un-

challengeable conventional superiority in Europe rests on the

assumption that the very substantial military forces of the

East European countries will follow Moscow's orders. Recent

turmoi l in Poland, among other things, suggests that this maynot necessarily be the case; and a number of steps could be

taken by the West, Dr. Rowen suggests, to create even greater

complications and uncertainties for Soviet war planning in

the European theater. For example, NATO could signal its

intention to treat as neutrals any East European nations op-

ting out of a Soviet invasion of the West, or not to use

nuclear weapons against them. Approaches to the East Euro-

peans could be secret, through diplomatic channels, orpublic, through Western radio broadcasts. To be truly effec-

tive, however, such approaches would require a rethinking of

NATO war aims and a more plausible threat of offensive ac-

tion into Warsaw Pact territory than NATO currently poses.

Commenting on Dr. Rowen's paper, Dr. Alexander

Alexiev, senior Soviet analyst for the Rand Corporation,

agrees that the opportunities as well as the motives for NAT O

to undertake such measures are greater than ever. He suggeststhat NATO might extend these effort to parts of the Soviet

Union such as the Ukraine, as well as to Soviet forces sta-

tioned in Europe, and stresses the importance of the "infor-

mation revolution," which is giving East Europeans increasing



xxii INTR OD UC TION

access to the West. Finally, Dr. Alexiev cautions that Soviet

vulnerabilities in Eastern Europe must not be used as an ex-cuse for ignoring NATO's basic military problems.

Major General Edward Atkeson, former national in-

telligence officer for General Purpose Forces, also agrees

with Dr. Rowen's analysis. He stresses Soviet sensitivity to

Western influence on their Warsaw Pact allies, the degree of

Soviet dependence on the forces of those allies, and the lack

of incentives for the East Europeans to join in any Soviet at-

tack on Western Europe.We can conclude from the work collected.here that the

United States and the West can compete successfully in the

political-psychological struggle, but that we face a very large

task. First, we must do a great deal structurally and educa-

tionally to cnable ourselves to compete. Then, the competi-

tion itself will require intensive effort over the long term by a

broad array of people and organizations, inside and outside

government. The effort, though, is essential, because theneed to compete is compelling.

FRANK R. BARNETT

CARNES LORD



POLITICAL WARFARE

and

PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS



T he M odern C ontext

FRED C. IKLE

B OTH PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS and politicalwarfare, or PSYOP and POLWAR (all good concepts

must have acronyms), have risen in importance in the last few

years. Moreover, it is not merely the Reagan administration's

attention to these subjects that has made them impor tant but

also the current world situation. In today's world, PSYOP

and PO LWAR have become constant expressions of interna-

tional conflict.

Approximate military parity between the superpowersenhances the importance of PSYOP and POLWAR. Major

adversaries equally armed and equally capable of destroying

each other must turn away from shooting wars to settle their

genuine conflicts. POLWAR and PSYOP pose a lower risk

of escalation. Our era has become the age of terrorism, in-

surgency, and limited war because each of these is an essen-

tially political method of struggle. In this era of superpower

confrontation, it is no longer facetious to set Clausewitz' dic-

tum, "War is the continuation of politics by other means," on

its head. In our modern world, international politics is the

continuation of war by other means.

We live in an age of PO LWAR and PSYOP. So we need

to talk about the contempora ry POL WAR -PS YOP struggle

with special reference to the United States. In this paper, I

will also discuss the means available to a democracy engagedin political warfare and the POLWAR goals a democracy can

achieve. But it is crucial to bear in mind that these are but

means, not ends, and political warfare can only be under-

taken to achieve a legitimate national goal within the overall

context of US leadership of the Free World.



4 IKLE

A n y d e m o c ra c y u n d e r ta k in g P O L W A R a n d P S Y O P

m u s t f a ce t h e f ac t t h a t m o d e r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d

d e m o c r a t i c o p e n n e s s c o m b i n e t o e n s u r e t h a t c o v e r t o p e r a -

t i o n s d o n o t r e m a i n c o v e r t f o r v e r y l o n g . J o u r n a l i s t s c a n

r e p o r t i n s t a n t l y f r o m a n y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d , a n d a d v e r s a r y

s p o k e s m e n e n j o y i m m e d i a t e ac ce ss to A m e r i c a n a n d i n te r n a -

t io n a l m e d i a . T h e H a s e n f u s i n c i d e n t in N i c a r a g u a i ll u st ra t e s

m y p o i n t . A n d a d v e r s a ri e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n p o l i ti c a l s y s t e m

a r e a b l e t o u s e i t s o p e n n e s s t o p r o m o t e t h e i r s t r a t e g i c i n -

t e r e s t s . C o m a n d a n t e D a n i e l O r t e g a w a s a b l e t o t r a v e lt h r o u g h o u t o u r c o u n t r y l o b b y i n g e v e n a s C o n g r e s s v o t e d

m i l i t a r y a i d a g a i n s t h i m .

F o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e a n d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s m u s t b e s e e n w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f

o v e r a ll E a s t - W e s t c o n f l ic t . A l t h o u g h n o t e v e r y i n s u r g e n c y is

S o v i e t - i n s p i r e d , a n d n o t e v e r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n i n v o l v e s U S -

S o v i e t c o n f l i c t , t h e c r it ic a l c o n f l i c ts o f t h i s n a t u r e a r e i n d e c d

i n s p i r e d o r s u p p o r t e d b y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d i t s c l i e n t s .T h r o u g h o u t h i s t o r y , S o v i e t l e a d e r s h a v e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e i r s y s te m is e x p a n s i o n i s t . I n a s i t u a t io n o f r o u g h

m i l it a r y p a r i ty , a n d d r i v e n b y t h e n e c e s s i ty t o c o n t i n u e t o e x -

p a n d , t h e S o v ie t U n i o n a n d its s u rr o g a te s h a v e c o n c e n t r a t e d

h e a v il y o n t h e m e t h o d s o f p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r -

f a re . H o w e v e r , t h is is h a r d l y n e w , s i nc e t h e C o m m u n i s t s ,

f r o m L e n in o n , h av e b e en m a s te rs o f P O L W A R a n d

P S Y O P . I n d e e d , t h a t is h o w t h e y or ig i na l l y t o o k p o w e r .W h i l e t h e C o m m u n i s t s a re o b v i o u s l y p r o f e ss i o n a ls a t

p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e t h e

V i e t n a m W a r , h a s s h u n n e d p l a n n e d , i n te g r a te d , a n d p u r -

p o s e f u l p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e .

T h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t s a d v e r -

s a ri es c a n b e i l lu m i n a t e d b y r e c a l li n g t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e o l d

B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e . T h e E a s t e r n E m p i r e s u r v i v e d n e a r l y a

t h o u s a n d y e ar s a f te r t h e B a r b a r i a n s c o n q u e r e d R o m e . D e f i n -

i n g i t s g o a l s c a r e f u l l y , f i t t i n g i t s m e a n s a p p r o p r i a t e l y t o i t s

g o a l s, a n d u s i n g m i l i t a r y p o w e r o n l y a s a b s o l u t e ly n e c e s s a ry ,

B y z a n t i u m w a s a b l e t o m a i n t a i n i t s p o l i t i c a l i n d e p e n d e n c e

a n d r e l a t i v e p r o s p e r i t y f o r c e n t u r i e s i n t h e f a c e o f f e a r s o m e



THE MODERN CONTEX T 5

challenges. The Byzantine rulers used political warfare,

psychological operations, military force, and other elements

of national power in a controlled and judicious manner to

resist every invader and rival. The Byzantine Empire ebbed

and flowed in size but held on to its core. But the rulers of

Byzantium made one crucial error. They did not foresee that

dedicating a nation's resources to maintaining stability can-

not guarantee indefinite survival.

Yet what have the Western democracies learned from

such historical cases? To the average educated American, the

adjective Byzantine means "devious and surreptitious." This

reveals our culture's attitude toward political warfare and

PSYOP. Indeed, the Byzantines were masters of both

methods. The Byzantine rulers relied on the indirect ap-

proach, cleverness, tricks, stratagems, subterfuges, and

whatever methods of political warfare and psychological

operations could be used in that age of limited technology.

But our attitude resembles that of the British Admiral deRobeck, who, safely on his ship at Gallipoli in 1915, watched

hundreds of British Empire troops rushing to the Turkish

guns to be slaughtered. At the sight, hc remarked admiringly,

"Gallant fellows, these soldiers; they always go for the

thickest place in the fence."

In today's world, America cannot afford to "go for the

thickest place in the fence." We cannot afford the casualties,

we cannot afford the resources, and we cannot afford thedeserved lack of trust and confidence in the government that

would result. But practitioners of POLWAR and PSYOP

need to be constantly aware that de Robeck's attitude remains

embedded in Amer ican culture today, restricting use of these

less frontal methods. Despite such attitudes, though,

POLWAR and PSYOP methods are by no means inescap-

ably in conflict with the moral requirements of modern

democra tic government. Democracy's greatest strength in the

worldwide conflict will always be its fundamental moral

bases: respect for the individual and for the truth.

POLWA R and PSYOP are merely methodologies, without

moral connotation. It was the social context of knighthood



6 IKLE

that made the crossbow "immoral" - not any characteristic of

the weapon; so it is for POLWAR and PSYOP. POLWAR

and PSYOP planners who internalize the morality of

democracy become more effective against an ideologically

bankrupt adversary. None of these are new observations. Sun

Tzu said, "Those skilled in w a r . . , preserve the law and are

therefore able to formulate victorious policies." In his com-

mentary on Sun Tzu's point, Tu Mu added, "Those who excel

in war first cultivate their own humanity and justice and

maintain their laws and institutions. By these means theymake their governments invincible."

In this connection , we need to remember that every asset

of national power must contribute to political warfare.

Political maneuvering, diplomatic actions, public diplomacy,

economic strategies, cultural appeal, ideology, and military

p o w e r - a n d the media and methods by which these strengths

can be brought to bear--are all potential contributors to

achieving national goals. Yet this list is hardly inclusive. Incvery case, whatever methods are used, success will depend

on planned, integrated, and coherent use of the tools of

political and psychological warfare.

In a modern constitutional democracy, integrating andcoordinating strategic POLWAR actions is difficult. No one

has ever stopped a congressman from speaking his mind, and

the statements he or she might make are often viewed as part

of US policy by people outside our system. Yet within thepresent system it is merely difficult to devise a coherentstrategy, not impossible. As leader of the Free World,

however, the United States faces many problems in which the

American people have little interest or knowledge. Our ex-

perience in Southeast Asia at least taught us one important

lesson: in a democracy, no strategy can long be undertakenwithout the support of the people. The elected leadership of

the country must be able to articulate the issues and clearlyexplain the goals, rationale, and expected outcomes for every

POLWAR situation. Any major or long-term effort will re-

quire congressional funding, and Congress, as the Founding

Fathers intended, reflects accurately the will of the people

over time.



THE MODERN CONTEXT 7

In today's world, no important US political initiative can

remain unexamined for long. If the media does not discover it

on its own, the adversary will point it out. Then his profes-

sional propagandists will spread arguments that are plausible

in the context of our democrat ic debate, to balk the develop-

ment of a successful counterstrategy. Unfortunately, there

may be a Gresham's Law of Truth-perhaps lies drive out

truth , just as bad coinage drives out good. Only the dedicated

efforts of good men and women will keep truth in the

forefront o f debate. The healthy functioning of a democracydepends on the truth being available to its citizens. But

available truths don't necessarily become dominant in debate.

For example, the Reagan administration took over just

after the prior administration had suspended aid to the San-

dinista regime because of its illegal support for the Com-

munist insurgency in E1 Salvador. In 1982 the House In-

telligence Committee concurred in this view, concluding that

Nicaragua provides the military "life line" for the Salvadoraninsurgents. Later, President Reagan showed captured arms

from E1 Salvador at the State Department. Napoleon

Romero, a former Salvadoran guerrilla leader, stated to the

president and the media that the guns had come from

Nicaragua. Yet a letter published not long ago in the

Washington Post insisted that no credible proof of

Nicaraguan support to Salvadoran guerrillas has ever been

presented by the government. It is not surprising that it tookyears for Congress to approve support for the armed

resistance in Nicaragua. Perhaps a Gresham's Law of Truth

has indeed been in effect.

Yet a democracy cannot a fford to respond with Leninist

methods. Truth is democracy's best POLWAR and PSYOP

weapon. The facts are on our side. Specifically validating Tu

Mu's point is the fact that democratic falsehoods strengthen

the dangerous argument of moral equivalency. For the goals

of democracy can only be accomplished with methods that

are compatible with democracy. We cannot maintain stability

for its own sake, but must seek to establish a world climate

that is safe for all democracies. All true democracies are in-



8 I K L E

h e r e n t l y a n d n a t u r a l l y a ll i es . W e r e w e n o t r u l e d b y

d e m o c r a t i c a n d m o r a l p r i n c ip l es , w e c o u l d " s o l v e " a n in -

s u r g e n c y s i t u a t i o n b y " m a k i n g a d e s e r t a n d c a ll in g i t p e a c e , "

a s t h e R u s s i a n s s e e m t o b e t r y in g t o d o i n A f g h a n i s t a n . B u t

s u c h s t a b i l i t y w o u l d m a k e u s n e i th e r s a f e n o r s t ro n g .

D e m o c r a c y i s b e s t p r o te c t e d b y t h e s p re a d o f d e m o c r a c y

t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . W h e n w e s u p p o r t d e m o c r a t i c in -

s u rg e n c ie s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , w e a re p r o t e c t in g o u r s e l v e s .

A n d w e a r e h e l pi n g t o b r i n g t o o t h e r s t h e b e s t s y s t e m o f

g o v e r n m e n t .

B u t P O L W A R , a n d i ts h a n d m a i d e n , P S Y O P , m u s t b e

u n d e r t a k e n w i t h a s m u c h d e l i b e r a t i o n a s a n y s h o o t in g w a r .

T h e a i m s o f p o l i ti c a l w a r f a r e m u s t b e a s c l e a r ly d e f i n e d a s

v i c t o r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r a n y s h o o t i n g w a r . G o a l s n o t c l e a rl y

d e f i n e d w i l l n e v e r b e a c h i e v e d .

S o m e c o m m e n t a t o r s b e li ev e t h a t t h e o v e r a l l U S g o a l

o u g h t t o b e s ta b i l it y . B u t s ta b i l i t y c a n n o t b e d e f i n e d i n t e r m s

t h a t p r o v i d e g r o u n d s f o r a c t i o n . S t a b i l i t y c a n m e a n a s i tu a -t io n o f n o c h a n g e . S t a b il i t y c a n m e a n d y n a m i c e q u i l i b r iu m

a b o u t a c e n t r a l p o i n t . I f d y n a m i c s t a b i li t y is t h e g o a l , h o w

c a n a n y s t ra t e g i s t j u d g e a n y p a r t ic u l a r c h a n g e w i t h in t h e

o v e r a ll c o n t e x t o f c o n t i n u e d s t a b il i t y ? D o e s a n y p a r t ic u l a r

s m a ll c h a n g e f o re t e ll b r e a k d o w n o f t h e e n t ir e s y s te m ? H o w is

t h e s t r a t e g i s t t o d e c i d e w h e t h e r t o e n c o u r a g e a p a r t i c u l a r

m o v e m e n t o r t o r e s i s t i t w i t h a l l a v a i l a b l e m e a n s ? W e h a v e

s e en in o u r o w n t i m e n e w g o v e r n m e n t s o r ig i na l ly b e l ie v e d b yr e p u t a b l e o b s e r v e r s to b e d e m o c r a t i c s o o n p r o v e d t o b e t h e

o p p o s i t e . C u b a a n d N i c a r a g u a l ea p i m m e d i a t e ly to m i n d .

B y c o n t r a s t , w h e n g o a l s a r e c le a r a n y e v e n t c a n b e e x-

a m i n e d c l e a rl y . I f w e d e f i n e o u r g o a l t o d a y a s s ta b i l i ty , t h e n

t h e w o r l d s i t u a t i o n m u s t b e a t o t a l d i s a s t e r , f o r f u l ly o n e -

f o u r t h o f th e w o r l d ' s c o u n t r ie s a r e a t w a r i n o n e f o r m o r

a n o t h e r . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f o u r g o a l is e n h a n c e m e n t a n d

g r o w t h o f d e m o c r a c y t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d , t h e c u r re n t

s i tu a t io n is n o t a t h r e a t b u t a n o p p o r t u n i t y . W e r e N i c a r a g u a

s t ab l e , t he r e w o u l d b e n o h o p e f o r d e m o c r a c y th e r e .

A n d w e f a c e an a d v e r s a r y w h o s e e s i n s ta b i li ty a s a n o p -

p o r t u n i t y f o r p r o g r e s s . H e b a l k s t h e g o a l o f s t a b i li t y a t e v e r y



THE MODERN CONTEXT 9

t u r n . A n d b y s e e k i n g o n l y s t a b i l i t y , w e b e c o m e t h e

a d v e r s a r y ' s u n w i t t i n g a l l y .

T h e u s e o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l w a r f a r e t o i n d u c e u n b e a r a b l e

t e n s io n h a s b e e n a C o m m u n i s t t e c h n i q u e f o r a lo n g t im e .

L e o n T r o t s k y s t a te d i t q u i t e s u c c in c t ly w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e

p o l i c y o f " R e d T e r r o r . " I n Democracy Versus Dictatorship h e

w r o t e , " T h e r e v o l u t i o n . . , k il ls i n d iv i d u a ls a n d in t im i d a t e s

t h o u s a n d s . " W e k n o w t h a t C o m m u n i s t i ns u rg e n cie s u se

v i o le n c e t o b u i l d u n b e a r a b l e t e n s i o n i n t h e t a rg e t p o p u l a t i o n .

A t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t i m e , t h e t e r r o r i s t o f f e r s , a n d t h e v i c t i ma c c e p t s , a F a u s t i a n b a r g a i n . T o o b t a i n r e li e f f r o m t h e te n s i o n

o f d a i l y li fe in a n a t m o s p h e r e o f c o n s t a n t a n d a p p a r e n t l y r an -

d o m v i o le n c e , th e v i c t im s u r r e n d e r s h i s b i r t h r i g h t o f f r e e d o m

i n e x c h a n g e f o r p e a c e - l i t e r a l l y , a t a n y p r i c e . A n d t h e

s t r a t e g i s t w h o m a k e s s t a b i l i t y h i s g o a l h a n d s a p e r f e c t

m e t h o d o l o g y t o h is t o r m e n t o r , w h o m e r e ly h a s to d i s tu r b

s ta b il ity . E a c h b o m b i n g , a s s a s s in a t io n , o r k i d n a p p i n g th r o w s

t h e s ta b i li ty - s ee k e r o f f b a la n c e . T w o s te p s f o r w a r d , o n e s t e pb a c k - a n d t h e s ta b i li ty - s e ek e r p l a ys t h e t u n e f o r th is d e a d l y

d a n c e .

A n d e a c h s i t u a t i o n o f i n s t a b i l i t y i s u s e d t o p r o b e

d e m o c r a c y ' s r e a c t i o n . O n e o f L e n i n i s m ' s f a v o r i t e p l o y s i s t o

p r o b e w i t h a b a y o n e t u n t i l s t e e l i s m e t . I n t h e A n g o l a n s i t u a -

t i o n i n 1 9 7 5 , C o n g r e s s f o r b a d e a n y a i d t o t h e a n t i c o m m u n i s t

f o r c e s . R e c e n t l y C o n g r e s s r e v e r s e d t h a t v o t e , a n d i t h a s p r o -

v i d e d m i l i t a r y a i d to t h e f r e e d o m f ig h t e rs in N i c a r a g u a . T h e

m e s s a g e i s c l e a r : t h e n e x t o b j e c t t h e b a y o n e t m e e t s w i l l b e

s t e e l . F o r t h e s t e e l i s a l w a y s t h e c l e a r i n t e n t t o r e s i s t t h e

t h r u s t , t o m a k e f u r t h e r a d v a n c e c o s t m o r e t h a n t h e g a m e i s

w o r t h - o r b e t t e r y e t , t o t u r n t h e s i t u a t io n o f i n s ta b i li ty i n t o

d e m o c r a t i c v i c t o r y . T h e t r u e s t s te e l is f o r g e d o f w ill . P o l i t ic a l

w a r f a r e a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e a m o n g t h e b e st

w a y s t o m a k e c l e a r A m e r i c a n r e s o l v e .

F o r n o t o n l y c a n t h e s e m e t h o d s c o n v e y a s ig n a l, b u t t h e y

a c t u a l l y a d v a n c e d e m o c r a c y . B a c k e d u p b y m i l i t a r y a c t i o n

w h e n it b e c o m e s n e ce s sa r y , as it w a s in G r e n a d a , P O L W A R

a n d P S Y O P , w i t h in t h ei r r e a lm o f c o m p e t e n c e , c a n tu r n

s i t u a t i o n s o f d i s a d v a n t a g e i n t o v i c t o r y . V i c t o r y is t h e r e s t o r a -



10 IKLE

tion o f democracy. To return to one of my earlier points, the

best security for American democracy is a world network of

viable democracies. Despite the short-term disagreements

between democracies, in the long run, all democracies must

be partners against totalitarianism-and every present

democracy needs to understand that.

I have been discussing in a general way the context, the

means, and the goals for political warfare and psychological

operations by the United States. The context is that of a com-

plex world with instant communications making every au-dience broader than the target audience. Within that context,

we face an avowedly expansionist adversary. But American

democracy is burdened in this battle both by historical ig-

norance and by a distorted notion of what is acceptable for a

democracy engaging in political warfare. Nor can we forget

that POLWAR and PSYOP came back into prominence

because of the relative military strengths of the contending

powers. Without effective deterrence, POLWAR cannot pro-tect us from unleashed might, whether conventional or

nuclear.

Moreover, the means available to the political or

psychological war planner in a democracy appear at first to

be limited by moral scruples. Yet even a casual second glance

reveals that these limitations are the source of our greatest

st re ng th - the moral differentiation that makes the expansion

of democracy not a form of imperialism, but an inherentgood and the ultimate protection of all democracies.

Finally, we need to consider goals. To put it crudely,

those who aim at nothing are guaranteed to hit it. Goals for

political warfare and psychological operations must be as

completely and carefully defined as goals for armed conflict.

Goals specifically defined guide effective action; generalized

statements lead to defeat. Further, mere stability is an im-

possible goal for the American strategist, and sets thestrategist up for his own psychological defeat. He who seeks

stability in a dynamic world will see every change as a threat.

Eventually, his will to victory is overwhelmed by an endless

succession of self-defined defeats. Today, restoring



THE MODER N CONT EXT 11

d e m o c r a c y , a s w e d i d in G r e n a d a , o r h e l p in g in N i c a r a g u a t o

d o t h e s a m e , a r e w o r t h w h i l e a n d p u r s u a b l e g o a l s fo r p o l it ic a l

a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l p l a n n e r s .



The Psychological Dimension

in National Strategy

C A R N E S L O R D

T O R E C A L L T H E T I M E w h e n p sy c h o lo g ic a l a n d

p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e w a s w i de ly a c k n o w l e d g e d b y

A m e r i c a n s as a n i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t o f n a t io n a l s t ra t eg y

r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n e f f o r t o f h i s t o r i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n . S u c h w a s

i n d e e d t h e c a se , h o w e v e r , f r o m t h e e a rl y d a y s o f th e S e c o n d

W o r l d W a r u n t i l r o u g h l y t h e m i d -1 9 6 0 s . A l t h o u g h it is n o w

o f t e n a s s u m e d t h a t i n t e r e s t i n t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s s i m p l yr e fl ec t ed t h e p o p u l a r m e n t a l i t y o f t h e e ra o f th e K o r e a n W a r

a n d S e n a t o r J o e M c C a r t h y , t h e f a c t is t h a t t h e e x p e r ie n c e o f

W o r l d W a r I I c o n v i n c e d m a n y A m e r i c a n p o l i ti ca l a n d

m i l i ta r y le a d e r s t h a t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f c o n f l i c t

h a d b e c o m e c r i t i c a l i n t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o r l d .

M o d e r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s te c h n o lo g ie s a n d t o ta l i t a r i a n

r e g i m e s s p e c ia l i z in g in t h e u s e o f i d e o l o g y a n d s u b v e r s i o n a s

t o o l s o f a g g r e s s i o n c o n s t i t u t e d a q u a l i t a t i v e l y n e w s t r a t e g i cp r o b l e m f o r t h e W e s t . T h e l e ss o n s o f r e c e n t h i s t o r y ( a n d i n

m a n y c as es d ir e ct w a r t im e i n v o l v e m e n t ) h a d a t th e s a m e t im e

s h a r p e n e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f A m e r i c a n s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s i n p r o p -

a g a n d a o r p o l i t i ca l c o m m u n i c a t i o n g en e r a l l y as a

p h e n o m e n o n o f m a s s s o cie ty . T h e p o s t w a r y e a rs w i tn e s s e d a n

o u t p o u r i n g o f a c a d e m i c s tu d ie s in th is a r ea , m o s t o f w h i c h

t o o k f o r g r a n t e d t h e n e c e ss i t y a n d l e g it im a c y o f a v i g o r o u s

A m e r i c a n r e s p o n s e t o t h e e m e r g i n g p o l i t i c a l - i d e o l o g i c a lt h re a t p o s e d b y t h e S o v ie t U n i o n a n d t h e in t e r n a t i o n a l C o m -

m u n i s t m o v e m e n t . 1

T h e U S g o v e r n m e n t a l lo w e d its p r o p a g a n d a a n d p o l i ti ca l

w a r f a r e c a p a b i l i t i e s t o w i t h e r i n t h e y e a r s o f r a p i d

d e m o b i l iz a t i o n im m e d i a t e ly fo l lo w i n g W o r l d W a r I I. B u t t h e

13



14 LORD

creation of the Central Intelligence Agency in 1947, as suc-

cessor to the wartime Coordinator of Information (COI) andOffice of Strategic Services (OSS), provided a fresh impetus

and an organizat ional vehicle for covert psychological opera-

tions and political action in peacetime. The deteriorating

political situation in Western Europe in the late 1940s-with

strong Communist parties poised to take power in France and

Italy, Communists supported by Soviet allies fighting a civil

war in Greece, and a successful Communist coup in

Czecho slo vak ia- cre ated a theater of operations and urgentobjectives for the CIA's covert action directorate.

The coming of the Korean War stimulated im-

provements in US overt capabilities as well. In 1950, Presi-

dent Truman created a Psychological Strategy Board in the

White House to provide a high-level focus for government-

wide activities in this area. A new International Information

Administration was established within the State Department;

military psychological operations were given new life (theArmy established a Psychological Warfare Center at Fort

Bragg, North Carolina, in 1952); and a Psychological Opera-

tions Coordinating Committee attempted to provide opera-

tional coordination among the various involved agencies. 2 It

was also around this time that Radio Free Europe and Radio

Liberty (originally Radio Liberation) were established by the

CIA to broadcast to Communist-controlled areas of Eastern

Europe and to the Soviet Union. 3 In 1953, after commission-ing a comprehensive review of US policy and capabilities for

propaganda and political warfare, President Eisenhower

moved to create the US Information Agency (USIA) as an

autonomous agency reporting directly to the National Securi-

ty Council?

There can be little question that the United States'

political warfare effort scored important successes in these

years. The reconstitution of democratic political forces and

cultural life in Western Europe after the war owed much to

CIA intervention. 5 CIA covert operations with a high

psychological-political content were successfully mounted in

Guatemala and Iran. 6 US internat ional radio broadcasting



N A T I O N A L S T R A T E G Y 15

built a mass audience throughout the world, which it retains

today.Yet it can be questioned whether the US government as a

whole was able at that time to develop an effective doct rine

and organizational structure for the conduct of psychological

and political warfare. Recognizing that much of the relevant

material from these years remains classified and little studied,

it would appear, nonetheless, that sharp differences of opin-

ion existed over fundamenta l questions of strategy toward the

Soviet bloc and the role of key agencies such as the CIA andUSIA, and that operat ional coordination among the agencies

left much to be desired. 7 The Bay of Pigs disaster of 1961

revealed serious problems of coordination between the CIA

and the military in situations of low-intensity conflict. During

the Vi et na m years, in spite of some notable successes with

psychological and political techniques of counterinsurgency

warfare, the US military and the government as a whole

proved unable to devise and execute an overall strategy thattook due account of the vital importance of the

psychological-political dimension of the struggle.

It could perhaps be argued that the militarization of the

Vietnam conflict was the key factor underlying the pro-

gressive atrophy of US political warfare capabilities after the

mid-1960s. However, it seems evident that larger issues of

governmental organization and national style or culture alsofigured critically in this development. In spite of the con-

siderable strides made by Truman and Eisenhower in

establishing formal decisionmaking mechanisms that would

support genuine strategic direction of US policy, such direc-

tion was more an aspiration than a reality through the 1950s;

and in the 1960s it ceased even to be an aspiration. 8 At the

same time, it should have been clear that the assignment of

political warfare responsibilities to new agencies would noteliminate-and in certain respects would probably for-



16 LORD

ti fy -- th e sources of bureaucratic resistance to the use of this

new instrument of national power. 9 Finally, mention must bemade of the cultural revolution that took place in the United

States beginning in the mid-1960s. The shattering of the

foreign policy consensus of the postwar decades as a result of

Vietnam meant, in the first place, a questioning of the worth

of American values and the legitimacy of a leading role forthe United States in the world. Such attitudes could only spell

trouble for any strategy that depended on the confident pro-

jection abroad of America's political identity and values.Any attempt to rethink the role of political and

psychological warfare in US strategy today must take account

of these fundamenta l and persisting obstacles. Before turning

to consider them more systematically, however, it is necessary

to sketch briefly the basic features of political and

psychological warfare and their relationship to other in-

struments of national power. This sketch is necessary par-

ticularly in view of the conceptual confusion that continues tobedevil discussions of this entire subject-a confusion that

owes something to the involvement of a number of powerful

bureaucracies with very distinctive outlooks, but also reflects

an inherent problem.

The problem is indicated by the general tendency to use

the terms psychological warfare and pol i t ical warfare inter-

changeably to designate the overall phenomeno n, not to men-

tion a variety of similar terms-i deolo gical warfare, the warof ideas, political communication, psychological operations,and more. The uncertainty of reference derives partly from

the fact that this sort of warfare is waged to a considerable

extent with weapons that are not truly distinctive. There are

indeed distinctive psychological instruments-namely,

capabilities for the communication of information and ideas,such as radio broadcasting, publications of various kinds,

and educational and cultural programs. But because thesecapabilities are easier to conceptualize and easier to handle

bureaucratically, the tendency has been to give them undue

weight when it comes to defining the overall phenomenon.There is a psychological dimension to the employment of

every instrument of national power, emphatically including



NA TIONA L S TRA TEG Y 17

m i l i t a r y f o r c e a t e v e r y l e v e l . S i m i l a r l y , m a j o r i n c r e m e n t s o f

m i l i t a r y a n d e c o n o m i c p o w e r n e c e s s a ri ly g e n e r a t e p o l i t ic a l e f-

f ec ts . I n t h i n k i n g a b o u t p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i ti c al w a r f a r e ,

t h e t e n d e n c y h a s b e e n t o t h i n k a b o u t t h e c o n f l i c t o f i d e a s ,

i d e o l o g i e s , a n d o p i n i o n s . Y e t t h i s c o n c e p t i o n i s i n f a c t

s e r i o u s l y m i s l e a d i n g . P s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e i s

a l s o a b o u t c u l t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l s y m b o l s , a b o u t p e r c e p t i o n sa n d e m o t i o n s , a b o u t t h e b e h a v i o r o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s

u n d e r s t r e s s , a b o u t t h e c o h e s i o n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d

a l l i a nc e s .T o u s e t h e t e r m warfare t o d e s c r i b e U S p s y c h o l o g i c a l -

p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g y i n i t s b r o a d e s t s e n s e , f u r t h e r m o r e , i s i t s e l fp r o b l e m a t i c . P s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l it i c a l o p e r a t i o n s n e e d n o t b e

d i r e c t e d o n l y t o a d v e r s a ri e s ; i n d e e d , n o t o n l y n e u t r a l b u t a ls o

a l li e d a n d s e m i - a l li e d n a t i o n s p o t e n t i a l l y c o n s t i t u t e h i g h l y i m -

p o r t a n t t a rg e t s , s in c e t h e w e a k e n i n g o f U S a l li a n c e s t r u c tu r e s

is a k e y s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e o f t h e p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e a c t i v it ie s o f

t h e S o v ie t U n i o n . A n d , o f c o u r s e, p s y c h o l o g ic a l- p o li t i c alo p e r a t i o n s n e e d n o t b e u n d e r t a k e n o n l y i n a c o n t e x t o f

m i l it a r y c o n f l i c t. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t o d i v o r c e p s y c h o l o g i c a l -

p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s e n t i r e l y f r o m t h e a r e n a o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l

c o n f l i c t a n d n a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y - a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y i n t h eU n i t e d S t a t e s a n d o t h e r W e s t e r n d e m o c r a c i e s , f o r c u l t u r a l a s

w e ll a s b u r e a u c r a t i c r e a s o n s - r u n s t h e ri sk o f c u t ti n g t h e m

a d r if t f r o m a n y t a n g ib l e n a t io n a l p u r p o s e a n d d e s t ro y i n g th e i r

e f f e c t ive ne ss .T h e E n g l i sh la n g u a g e a p p e a r s n o t t o i n c l u d e a g o o d t e r m

t o d e s i g n a t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l it i c a l o p e r a t i o n s i n th e i r

b r o a d e s t s e n s e . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , b u t e s p e c i a ll y s i n c e t h e a r r i v a l

o f t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h e t e r m publ ic

diplomacy h a s g a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e c u r r e n c y i n W a s h i n g t o n

( i f n o t e l s e w h e r e ) . E v e n t h o u g h , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y

a u t h o r i t a t i v e p u b l i c p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p o l i c y i n

t h i s a r e a , i t s e x a c t m e a n i n g r e m a i n s u n c e r t a i n , p u b l i c

d i p l o m a c y a p p e a r s t o e n c o m p a s s t h r e e d i st in c t th o u g h c lo s el y

r e l a t e d f u n c t i o n s . T h e s e a r e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l p o l it ic a l a c t io n ( o r w h a t m a y b e c a l le d o v e r t p o l it ic a l

w a r f a r e ) , a n d p u b l i c a f f a i r s . T h e i n c l u s i o n o f p u b l i c a f f a i rs is



18 LORD

a r e c o g n i t io n o f t h e i m p o s s i b il i t y in a m o d e r n d e m o c r a c y o f

s e p a ra t in g s h a rp l y th e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o

d o m e s t ic a n d t o i n t e r n a t io n a l a u d i en c e s ; b u t t h e d o m e s t i c

f u n c t i o n a s s o c i a te d w i th p u b l ic d i p l o m a c y d i f fe r s f r o m t ra d i -

t i o n a l p u b l i c a f fa i r s b y i ts s tr a t e g ic a p p r o a c h a n d its a c t i v e e f-

f o r t to s h a p e t h e d o m e s t i c p o l it ic a l a g e n d a . ' °

T h e p u b l ic d i p l o m a c y r u b r ic s e rv e s a u s e f u l p u r p o s e , b u t

it is n o t a n d w a s n o t i n t e n d e d to b e c o m p r e h e n s i v e . C o v e r t

p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e w a s e x c l u d e d f r o m i t s p u r v i e w f r o m t h e

b e g i n n i n g . ( A f t e r s o m e in i ti al h e s i t a t io n , C I A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sw e r e n o t p e r m i t te d t o a t t e n d i n te r a g e n c y p u b l ic d i p l o m a c y

m e e t i n g s e v e n f or p u r p o s e s o f c o o r d i n a t i o n . ) N o r d o e s i t

h a v e a n y c le a r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o m i l i ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s , t o e d u c a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s , o r t o t h e r a n g e o f

U S g o v e r n m e n t ac tiv it ie s t h a t m a y b e g r o u p e d u n d e r t h e

g e n e r a l l ab e l o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l a id a n d h u m a n i t a r i a n a f f a ir s .

W h i l e r e c o g n i z i n g t h e s t a t e o f f l u x o f t h e r e l e v a n t t e r -

m i n o l o g y a n d c u r r e n t d i s a g r e e m e n t s (in s o m e c a se s s h a r p ) a s

t o t h e d e g r e e o f a s s o c i a t i o n d e s ir a b le o r n e c e s s a r y a m o n g t h e

r e l e v a n t a c t iv i ti e s, I w o u l d p r o p o s e , i f o n l y f o r t h e s a k e o f t h e

c l a r i t y o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g a n a t o m y o f b a s i c

p s y c h o l o g i c a l -p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e f u n c t i o n s .

Political warfare i s a g e n e r a l c a t e g o r y o f a c t i v i t i e s e n -

c o m p a s s i n g p o li ti c a l a c t i o n , c o e r c iv e d i p l o m a c y , a n d c o v e r t

p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e . I n g e n e r a l , t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i sp e r f o r m e d b y d i p l o m a t i c p e r s o n n e l , t h e s e c o n d b y m i l i t a r y

a n d d i p l o m a t i c p e r s o n n e l , a n d t h e t h i r d b y i n te l li g e n ce p e r -

s o n n e l . Political action m e a n s a r a n g e o f a c t iv i ti e s i n c l u d i n g

c e r t a i n k i n d s o f m u l t i l a t e r a l d i p l o m a c y , s u p p o r t f o r f o r e i g n

p o l i ti c a l p a r t ie s o r f o r c e s , a n d s u p p o r t f o r o r w o r k w i t h in t e r-

n a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s . t 1 Coercive diplomacy

r ef er s t o d i p l o m a c y p r e s u p p o s i n g t h e u s e o r th r e a t e n e d u s e o f

m i l i t a r y f o r c e t o a c h i e v e p o l i t i c a l o b j e c t i v e s . ~2 Covert

political warfare c o r r e s p o n d s r o u g h l y to t h e c o v e r t a sp e c ts o f

w h a t t h e S o v i e t s c a l l a c t i v e m e a s u r e s , a n d i n c l u d e s s u p p o r t

f o r i n s u r g e n c i e s , o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t e n e m y a l li a n c e s , in -

f lu e n c e o p e r a t i o n s , a n d b l a c k p r o p a g a n d a . 1 3




P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , o n c e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n a

g e n e r a l s en s e to d e s i g n a t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l -p o l i t ic a l o p e r a t i o n sa s a w h o l e , i s p r o b a b l y b e s t r e s e r v e d f o r u s e a s a t e r m o f a r t

t o d e s i g n a t e m i l i ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s ( P S Y O P ) . 1 4

M i li ta r y P S Y O P c a n e n c o m p a s s b o t h o v e r t a n d c o v e r t ac -

t i v i t i e s i n b o t h p e a c e t i m e a n d w a r , a n d i t s s c o p e c a n v a r y

f r o m t h e t a c t i c a l b a t t l e f i e l d t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a n d s t r a t e g i c

l e v e l s o f c o n f l i c t . H i s t o r i c a l l y , h o w e v e r , U S m i l i t a r y i n t e r e s t

in P S Y O P h a s f o c u s e d h e a v il y o n t a c ti c al a p p l i c a t i o n s i n w a r -

t i m e . S o m e t i m e s b a t t l e f i e l d P S Y O P i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o mc o n s o l i d a t i o n P S Y O P , w h i c h is g e a r e d t o s e c u r i n g t h e l o y a l t y

a n d c o o p e r a t i o n o f c iv il ia n p o p u l a t i o n s i n c o m b a t a re a s; c o n -s o l i d a t i o n P S Y O P is c lo s e ly re l a te d t o c iv ic ac t ion c o n d u c t e d

b y m i l it a r y f o r c e s i n l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s .

A n o t h e r r e l a t ed f u n c t i o n is t r o o p i n f o r m a t i o n o r e d u c a t i o n ,

w h i c h s e rv es a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s - - m u c h l ik e p u b l i c af f ai rs i n

r e l a t io n t o p u b li c d i p l o m a c y - t o c o u n t e r t h e p sy c h o lo g i ca l

o p e r a t io n s o f t h e e n e m y .I n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i s a n o t h e r g e n e r a l

c a t e g o r y t h a t i s o f t e n a p p l i e d i n v e r y l o o s e f a s h i o n . I t i s

p e r h a p s b e st u n d e r s t o o d a s e n c o m p a s s i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l in f o r -

m a t i o n a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s .

U S I A (a t o n e t im e t h e I n te r n a t io n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n s A g e n -

c y) p e r f o r m s t hi s r an g e o f f u n c t i o n s , t h o u g h o t h e r o r g a ni z a-

t i o n s - i n p a r ti c u l a r , R a d i o F r ee E u r o p e / R a d i o L i b er ty , b u t

a ls o t h e D e p a r t m e n t s o f S ta te a n d D e f e n s e - p e r f o r m i nf o r-m a t i o n f u n c t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l o r s t r a t e g i c i m p o r t a n c e a sw el l . ~

T o w h a t d e g r e e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l a f f a i r s s h o u l d

s h a r e t h e m o r e e x p l i c i t l y p o l i t i c a l a i m s o f U S i n f o r m a t i o n

p r o g r a m s r e m a i n s a c o n t r o v e r s i a l is su e , a s d o e s t h e q u e s t i o n

o f t h e a u t o n o m y o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f u n c t i o n i ts e l f r ela ti ve t o

o t h e r s tr a te g i c i n s t r u m e n t s a n d o b j e c t iv e s . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d

t h a t t h e r e ar e a n u m b e r o f g o v e r n m e n t - a d m i n i s t e r e d e d u c a -

t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s i n v a r i o u s a r e a s t h a t a r e n o t

g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t o f i n t h i s c o n t e x t , y e t h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e

p o t e n t i a l f o r f u r t h e r i n g U S s t ra t e g ic i n te r e st s . F o r e m o s t

a m o n g t h e s e a r e t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i l i t a r y E d u c a t i o n a n d



20 LORD

T r a in i n g (I M E T ) p r o g r a m r u n b y t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f

D e f e n s e , a n d t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s f o r f o r e i g n in t e ll ig e n c e a n ds e c u r i t y p e r s o n n e l .

A f u r t h e r g e n e ra l c a t e g o r y t h a t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d in

t h is c o n t e x t is w h a t w a s r e fe r r e d t o a m o m e n t a g o a s interna-

tional aid and humanitarian affairs. T h i s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s

f o re i g n e c o n o m i c a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a id , f o o d a i d ,

h u m a n i t a r i a n a s s i s t a n c e ( r e s c u e o p e r a t i o n s , d i s a s t e r r e l i e f ,

f a m i n e r e l i e f , a n d t h e l i k e ) , a n d t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e o f

v a r i o u s k i n d s . M a n y a g e n c i e s a r e i n v o l v e d i n s u c h a c t i v i t i e s ,i n c lu d i n g t h e D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t ; t h e A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a -

t io n a l D e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e P e a c e C o r p s a re o r g a n i z a ti o n s

w i t h d e d i c a t e d m i s s io n s in th i s a re a . A l t h o u g h t h e s e f u n c -

t i o n s a r e b u r e a u c r a t i c a l l y s c a t t e r e d a n d v e r y l a r g e l y

a u t o n o m o u s , t h e y h a v e a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l -

p o l i t ic a l c o m p o n e n t . W h e t h e r i n t e n t i o n a l ly o r o t h e r w i s e ,

t h e y s e rv e as s i g n i fi c a n t in s t r u m e n t s o f U S f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d

n a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y .F i n a l ly , t o r e p e a t w h a t w a s s a i d e ar li e r, a p s y c h o l o g i c a l -

p o l i t ic a l c o m p o n e n t is i n h e r e n t in e v e ry u s e o f t h e d i p l o m a t i c ,

e c o n o m i c , a n d m i li ta r y i n s t r u m e n t s o f n a t io n a l p o w e r . T h e

a r t o f n e g o t i a t i o n re st s o n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l a n d

g r o u p p s y c h o l o g y a n d a s e n si ti v it y t o c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t s . T h e

e x e r c i s e o f m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d a t a l l l e v e l s s i m i l a r l y i n v o l v e s

a n a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r e n g t h s a n d

v u l n er a b il it ie s o f t h e e n e m y c o m m a n d e r a n d h is f o rc e s;d e c e p t i o n a n d s u r p r is e a r e k e y e l e m e n t s o f t h e m i l i ta r y a rt . A

n a t i o n ' s e c o n o m i c a n d m i l i t a r y s t r e n g t h o f n e c e s s i t y c r e a t e s

p o l i t i c a l w e i g h t t h a t c a n b e e x p l o i t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s t o

a d v a n c e t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t .

T h e i m p e t u s f o r a r e t h i n k i n g o f t h e r o le o f p o l i ti c al a n d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n U S n a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y h a s c o m e

p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e r e n e w e d a t t e n t i o n t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n h a s g i v e n th e s e m a t t e r s . 16 S i n c e 1 9 81 , a m a j o r e f f o r t h a sb e e n u n d e r w a y t o m o d e r n i z e a n d e x p a n d U S g o v e r n m e n t

c a p a bi li ti e s in t h e a r e a o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , p a r -

t i c u l a r l y r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t i n g . 1 7 T h e e s t a b l i s h -

m e n t o f a r a d i o s ta t io n f o r b r o a d c a s t i n g t o C u b a ( R a d i o




Marti) revealed a new appreciation on the part of the

American political leadership of the strategic value of sur-

rogate broadcasting operations to Communist countries.~8

In June 1982, in a major policy development, President

Reagan delivered a speech to the British Parliament in which

he sketched the outlines of a new US strategy to promote

democratic institutions around the world. One result of this

initiative was the creation of the quasi-governmental Na-

tional Endowment for Democracy as a mechanism for

overseeing the disbursement of funds for the support ofdemocrat ic political and cultural institutions abroad. '9 In

1983, the White House announced the creation of the Special

Planning Group, a cabinet-level committee chaired by the

president's national security adviser, to improve coord inat ion

of interagency activities in the field o f public diplomacy. 2°

Major public diplomacy campaigns were undertaken to pro-

mote administration policy in Central America and in the

general area of defense and arms control . 2~In spite of these very considerable achievements,

however, it remains doubtfu l whether the administration has

succeeded in overcoming the internal and external obstacles

to a thorough revitalization of US psychological-political

capabilities and their full integration into national strategy. 2"

In many respects, the cultural pressures working against such

an effort are as strong as or stronger than ever. In addi tion to

a kind of generic resistance to such activities on the part ofAmericans as Americans, there has been a wholesale loss of

understanding and support of them among American elites in

recent years. But perhaps equally troublesome is the

resistance stemming from the national security bureaucracy

itself, and from the continuing weakness of integrated

strategic planning and decis ionmaking at the national level.

Painful as it may be to face squarely the question of

American cultural inhibitions in the area of psychological-political conflict, the effort is ne ce ss ar y- in order not only to

develop intelligent approaches to dealing with them but also

to achieve the cultural self-consciousness essential for effec-

tive participation in this kind of conflict. It is essential



22 LORD

because Americans tend to assume that people everywhere

are much like themselves, with similar fundamental motiva-

tions and views of the world. But blindness to differences in

national characteristics is apt to be a fatal handicap for

anyone attempting to affect the psychological orientation and

political behavior of foreign audiences.

Perhaps the most severe single limitation in the

American out look is, indeed, its tendency to discount the

relevance to political behavior of nonmater ial factors such as

history, culture, and ideas. Americans tend to assume that

concrete interests such as economic well-being, personal

freedom, and security of life and limb are the critical deter-

minants of political behavior everywhere. It is an interesting

irony that such a view is so prevalent in a country as fun-

damentally idealistic as the United States, while the impor-

tance the Soviets attribute to ideological factors stands in

some tension with the materialist basis of Marxism.

Connected with this emphasis on material considerationsis the fact that Americans, unlike many peoples, are uncom-

fortable with personal confrontation and argument and do

not customarily debate political and ideological questions in

their private lives. Americans tend to look on the political

realm as an arena not of conflict and struggle but of bargain-

ing and consensus, where strongly held opinions and prin-

cipled positions are disruptive of the process and to be

discouraged. This tendency makes it extremely difficult forAmericans to deal effectively in international settings where

basic American values are under challenge. Furthermore,

American notions of fair play and due process are subject to

serious misinterpretation abroad. Americans' insistence on a

presentation of both sides of any argument is frequently seen

as reflecting a lack of confidence in themselves. In general,

the openness and penchant for self-criticism of American

society strike many foreigners as manifestations of weaknessrather than strength.

Manifest or latent in the attitudes of many Americans

toward the practice of psychological-political warfare is a

distaste for any sort of psychological manipulation or decep-



N A T I O N A L S T R A T E G Y 2 3

t i o n . T h e i d e a t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e i s a b l a c k

a r t t h a t c a n b e m o r a l ly j u s t i f i e d o n l y u n d e r t h e m o s t e x t r e m e

c i r c u m s t a n c e s is a d e r i v a t iv e o f s u c h a t t i tu d e s . T h a t s u c h a c -

t iv i ti es n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o r d e c e p t i o n is

in a n y c a s e f a r f r o m t h e t r u t h . ( T h e c o n v e y i n g o f p u r e l y f a c -

t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n u n d e r c e r ta i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s c a n h a v e

p o w e r f u l p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c ts . ) B u t e v e n a s s u m i n g t h a t s o m e

s u c h e l e m e n t is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m e f f e c t i v e p s y c h o l o g i c a l -

p o l it ic a l o p e r a t i o n s , t h e m o r a l c a l c u l u s is b y n o m e a n s a s

c l e a r a s i s f r e q u e n t l y m a d e o u t .

M i l i t a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s s u c h a s b a t t l e f i e l d

b r o a d c a s t in g , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e as t h e ir p r i m a r y p u r p o s e t h e

s a v in g o f e n e m y a s w e l l a s f r i e n d l y l iv es . I n d e e d , s u c h a c -

t iv it ie s m a k e b o t h m o r a l a n d s t ra t e g ic se n s e . A c c o r d i n g to t h e

C h i n e s e s t ra te g is t S u n T z u , " w h a t is o f s u p r e m e i m p o r t a n c e

i n w a r is t o a t t a c k t h e e n e m y ' s s t r a te g y . . . . N e x t b e s t is t o

d i s r u p t h i s a l li a n c e s . . . . T h e n e x t b e s t is t o a t t a c k h is

a r m y . . . . T h e w o r s t p o l i c y is t o a t t a c k c i t i e s . " A s S u n T z up u t s it , " T o s u b d u e t h e e n e m y w i t h o u t f i g h ti n g i s t h e a c m e o f

s k il l, " w h i c h is t o s a y t h a t c o m p e t e n c e in t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l -

p o l it ic a l s p h e r e is o f t h e e s s e n c e o f a r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o

w a r . ~3 F a i l u r e t o a t t a i n s u c h c o m p e t e n c e w i t h i n t h e l im i t s o f

on e ' s po s s i b i l i t ie s i s a f a i l u r e t ha t is a l l t o o l i ke l y t o be p a i d

f o r i n b l o o d .

A s i m p o r t a n t a s th e e f f e c t o f t h e s e g e n e r a l c u l tu r a l b i a se s

is t h e r ol e o f th e A m e r i c a n m e d i a . D e v e l o p m e n t s in t h ec u l t u r e a n d o p e r a t i n g s t y l e o f ( e s p e c i a l l y ) t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m -

p l ic a t ed a n y e f f o r t b y t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t t o e n g a g e s e r io u s ly

in p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t . B e f o r e t h e l a t e 1 96 0s, i t

m a y b e a r g u e d , a s a t i s fa c t o r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g e x i s te d b e t w e e n

j o u r n a l is t s a n d A m e r i c a n m i l i ta r y a n d g o v e r n m e n t o f f ic i al s

r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o p e r s c o p e a n d l im i ts o f p r es s c o v e r a g e o f n a -

t i o n a l s e c u r i ty a n d f o r e i g n p o l ic y m a t t e r s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e

p r e ss in w a r t i m e t e n d e d t o a d o p t t h e n a t i o n a l c a u s e a n d t o a c -

c e p t b r o a d r e s p o n s ib i l it y n o t o n l y f o r p r o t e c t i n g s e n s it iv e in -

f o r m a t i o n b u t a ls o f o r s a fe g u a r d i n g t h e m o r a l e b o t h o f t h e

t r o o p s a t th e f r o n t a n d o f c iv i l ia n s a t h o m e . I t w a s , f o r e x a m -

p le , o n l y la te in W o r l d W a r I I t h a t p h o t o g r a p h s o f th e b o d i es



24 LORD

o f d e a d A m e r i c a n s o l d ie r s w e r e s ee n in A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r s

a n d m a g a z in e s . T h e e m o t i o n a l im p a c t , a n d h e n c e t h e

p o l i t ic a l s i g n if i ca n c e , o f v i s u al i m a g e s o f s u f f e r i n g a n d d e a t h

w a s g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d , a n d s u c h m a t e r i a l w a s a c c o r d i n g l y

t r e a te d w i th c i r c u m s p e c t i o n .

S i n ce V i e t n a m , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e h a s b e e n a d r a m a t i c

c h a n g e . 24 I n t h e g e n e r a l w r e c k o f t h e n a t i o n a l f o r e i g n p o l i c y

c o n s e n s u s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , t h e m e d i a h a v e

a d o p t e d a n i n cr e as in g l y s k e p t i c a l a t t i t u d e n o t o n l y t o w a r d t h e

s p ec if ic p ol ic ie s a n d a c t i o n s o f th e i n c u m b e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

b u t a l s o t o w a r d m a n y o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t

h a d u n d e r p i n n e d th e g lo b a l p o s i ti o n a n d r o l e o f t h e U n i t e d

S t a te s s i n ce W o r l d W a r I I . T h e l e g i t im a c y o f t h e A m e r i c a n

d e f e n s e a n d i n te l li g e n c e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s in p a r t i c u l a r h a s b e e n

s h a r p ly q u e s t io n e d , a n d s u b j e c te d t o s c r u t in y a n d e x p o s u r e

b y t h e n e w s ty le o f i n v e s t ig a t iv e j o u r n a l i s m i n a u g u r a t e d b y

t h e p r e s t ig e p r es s . M o s t s i g n if i c a n tl y , t h e m e d i a e n d e d t h e i r

d e f e re n c e to a n d i n f o r m a l c o o p e r a t io n w i th a n i n c u m b e n t a d -m i n i s t r a t i o n i n f a v o r o f a p o s t u r e o f n e u t r a l o b s e r v e r o r c ri ti c

a d ju d i c a t in g b e tw e e n t he g o v e r n m e n t a n d its d o m e s t i c - a n d

i n t e r n a t i o n a l - a d v e r sa r ie s . O n e r e s u lt o f th is sh i f t h a s b e e n a

g e n e r a l ( i f n o t a l w a y s c a t e g o r i c ) r e f u s a l t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty

f o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f m e d i a c o v e r a ge 's e ff e c t o n n a t i o n a l

s e c u r it y p o l i c y o u t c o m e s . 25

T h i s c h a n g e i n m e d i a a t t i t u d e s is w o r t h d w e l l in g o n ,

s i n c e t h e r o l e o f t h e m e d i a o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d o f t h e f u t u r e i sl ik e ly to d e c i d e w h e t h e r t h e U n i t e d S t a te s w i ll b e c a p a b l e o f

c o n d u c t i n g e f fe c t iv e m i l it a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . I n

g e n e r a l , t h e m e d i a n o w a c k n o w l e d g e a r e s p o n s i b i li t y t o a v o i d

j e o p a r d i z i n g t h e l i v e s o f A m e r i c a n s o l d i e r s e n g a g e d i n

m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s . B u t t h e y d o n o t r e c o g n i z e a n o b l i g a t i o n

t o r e f ra in f r o m p u b l ic i zi n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t d e m o r a l iz e s

A m e r i c a n t r o o p s , r e ve a ls a sp e c ts o f A m e r i c a n i n t e ll ig e n c e o r

m i l i t a r y p l a n n i n g , u n d e r m i n e s A m e r i c a n d i p l o m a t i c i n i -t ia t iv e s , o r g iv e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l a i d a n d c o m f o r t t o t h e e n e m y .

T h i s o b l i g a t i o n i s d e n i e d e v e n t h o u g h t h e u l t i m a t e e f f e c t o f

s u c h d i s c l o s u r e m a y b e t o p r o l o n g m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s a n d

c o s t A m e r i c a n l iv e s, n o t t o s p e a k o f m o r e g e n e r a ll y



NA TIO NA L S TRA TEG Y 25

damaging the international position of the United States and

its ability to avoid future conflicts. Nor do the media

recognize any obligations with respect to the domestic au-

dience.

Of particular importance in this connection is the war-

time role of television. To argue (as media spokesmen

regularly do) that television coverage is essential to informed

debate on the merits of a particular military action is uncon-

vincing, not to say disingenuous. The information content of

TV pictures is typically low or nonexistent, and the emotionssuch pictures arouse are more likely to defeat than to pro-

mote rational discussion. The rapid juxtaposition of images

of death and destruction torn out of any intelligible context,

so common in television coverage of war, inevitably en-

courages the feeling that the current war is especially futile,

immoral, or absurd. 26

Equally harmful is the practice-pursued well beyond

the point of abuse by the networks in Lebanon in 1983-ofinterviewing American GIs on their feelings and views about

the situation they happen to be involved in. To portray

soldiers (and if they are looked for they will be found) who

are confused, inarticulate, naive, or bitter about the reasons

why a war is being fought or the way it is being conducted

serves no purpose. The immediate danger to morale and the

effect on allied and enemy perceptions are only part of the

costs of such behavior. As in the case of media obsession withthe families of terrorist victims, the effect is to pander to

private concerns and emotions and to mobilize them in a way

that greatly complicates the pursuit of rational policies by the

US government.

All of this suggests that serious thought needs to be given

to restricting or even eliminating at least the television

presence on the battlefield of the future, with or without the

coopera tion of the media. Particularly difficult, of course, is

the question of censorship or restraint of the media during

limited contingencies or undeclared wars such as in Vietnam,

Lebanon, or Grenada. Because the stakes in such conflicts

are relatively low, the pressures for preserving peacetime rules



26 LORD

of media engagement are difficult to resist. Yet it is precisely

these conflicts in which the political and psychological ele-

ment in war is predominant, and which are therefore most

directly susceptible to influence by media repor ting. Devising

acceptable arrangements for limiting media coverage of such

wars in the future may well be critical if the United States is

ever to engage in them successfully.27

The Amer ican media have also affected US government

international information programs. In spite of the popular

image (and standard media treatment) of the Voice ofAmerica and Radio Free Europe /Radio Liberty as propagan-

da organs fully comparable to Radio Moscow, anyone

familiar with these broadcasting operations knows that they

have been profoundly affected by the evolution of the

American (and, in the case of RFE/RL, West European)

media over the last two decades, as well as by the general

cultural climate these media have reflected. Objectivity and

balance as understood by the new journalism have becomethe standards for these radios as well. The point here is not

that a balanced treatment of American or Soviet virtues and

vices is not in some sense desirable, but rather that the

domestic cultural context, instead of coherent analysis of

foreign target audiences and of US strategic objectives with

respect to them, shapes--to an unhealthy degree-the aims

and methods of the US international radios.

Let us, though, leave aside the role of the media and in-hibitions deriving from the American character and

American culture. The effective conduct of psychological-

political warfare by the United States is perhaps more im-

mediately constrained by bureaucratic and organizational

weaknesses within the US government itself.

In the first place, as indicated earlier, there is a connec-

tion between the inadequacy of US psychological-political

warfare efforts in the past and the inadequacy of strategicplanning and decisionmaking at the national level. Precisely

because the instruments o f psychological-political conflict are

not altogether distinctive, this arena requires fully integrated

planning and coordinated operations throughou t virtually the



NAT IONA L STRA TEG Y 27

e n t ir e n a t io n a l s e c u ri ty b u r e a u c r a c y . T h i s c o o r d i n a t i o n h a s

a l w a y s p r o v e n d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t , g i v e n t h e

n a t u r e o f p r e s i d e n t i a l p o l i t i c s a n d t h e h i s t o r i c a l l y w e a k i n -

s t i t u t i o n a l s t ru c t u r e s o f th e W h i te H o u s e a n d t h e N a t i o n a l

S e c u r i ty C o u n c i l ( N S C ) s y s te m . P a r t i c u l a r ly in v i ew o f t h e

l a c k o f a re a l d o m e s t i c c o n s t i t u e n c y f o r s u c h a f u n c t i o n , it is

n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i t h a s n o t r e c e iv e d s u s t a i n e d p o l i t i c a l s u p -

p o r t a t th e h i g h e s t le ve ls o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t . W h a t is p e r h a p s

s u r p r i si n g is t h a t t h e n e e d f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f

U S c a p a b i l it ie s i n t h is a r e a w a s n o t m o r e w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d a s

o n e o f t h e c h i e f l es s on s o f t h e g r e a te s t f a i lu r e o f U S n a t i o n a l

s e c u ri ty p o l i c y i n t h e p o s t w a r e r a, t h e lo ss o f S o u t h e a s t A s ia .

W e n e e d n o t d w e l l a t l e n g t h o n t h e c a u s es o f t h e

r e s is ta n c e t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l- p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e t h r o u g h o u t t h e

U S d i p l o m a t i c , m i li ta r y , a n d i n te l li g en c e e st a b l is h m e n t s ; t h e y

a re a p p a r e n t t o m o s t o f t h o s e w h o h a v e h a d d i r ec t ex p e r ie n c e

i n t h is f i el d . T h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t c o n t i n u e s t o p l y its t r a d e

v e r y m u c h i n th e s p ir it o f t h e f o r e ig n m i n is t ri e s o f n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u ry E u r o p e , w i th o n l y g ru d g i n g a c c o m m o d a t i o n to t h e

r ol e p l ay e d b y m o d e r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , p u b li c o p i n io n ,

i d e o l o g y , a n d p o l i t i c a l t h e a t e r i n c o n t e m p o r a r y i n t e r n a t i o n a l

a f f a i r s. 28 T h e m i l it a r y s e rv ic e s, i n t h e i r p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h

t e c h n o l o g y , m a j o r w e a p o n s y st em s , a n d t h e b ig w a r , t e n d to

n e g l e c t l o w - c o s t a p p r o a c h e s t o e n h a n c i n g o p e r a t i o n a l e f f e c -

t iv e n e s s , e s p e c ia l ly a t t h e l o w e r e n d o f th e c o n f l ic t s p e c t r u m ;

a n d t h e y t e n d t o r e g a r d p o l i ti c a l -p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e a s

s o m e o n e e ls e 's b u s i n e s s . 29

T h e f a il u re o f e i th e r t h e S t a te D e p a r t m e n t o r t h e m i l i t a ry

t o a s s u m e p o l i ti c a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l it ie s m i g h t s e e m

t o p o i n t t o t h e in te l l ig e n ce c o m m u n i t y as th e n a t u r a l h o m e

f o r s u c h a c t i v it ie s . Y e t a p a r t f r o m t h e r e c e n t s t e e p d e c l i n e i n

t h e s k i l l s , h i s t o r i c a l m e m o r y , a n d o p e r a t i o n a l d o c t r i n e s

n e c e s s a ry f o r t h e e f fe c t i v e c o n d u c t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l it ic a l

w a r f a r e , t h e C I A h a s g e n e r a ll y b e e n u n w i l l in g o r u n a b l e t o

a l lo w t h e d e g r e e o f c o o r d i n a t i o n w i th o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t a l en -

t it ie s t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a n i n t e g r a t e d n a t i o n a l s t r a t e g y i n t h i s

a r e a . T h e r e is a l so a f e e l in g a t t h e a g e n c y th a t t h e e r a o f C I A

i n v o l v e m e n t in p o l i ti c a l o r i d e o l o g i c a l s t ru g g l e s is e ss e n t ia l ly



28 LORD

p a s t - t h a t in th e a b s e n ce o f a d o m e s t ic p o l it ic a l c o n s e n s u s

c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o p e r p l a c e o f s u c h a c t iv i ti es in U S p o l i c y , a n

a g g re s si v e a g e n c y r o le c a n o n l y j e o p a r d i z e m o r e i m p o r t a n ti n s t i t u t i o n a l e q u i t i e s .

W h a t , t h e n , w o u l d b e i n v o l v e d in a re v i ta l iz a t io n o f U S

p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e c a p a b i l it ie s ? T h e f o r e g o i n g

d i s c u s s io n is n o t m e a n t t o s u g g e st t h a t f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e is

a h o p e l e s s p r o p o s i t i o n , o n l y t h a t i t is e s s e n ti a l t h a t w e b e c o n -

s c io u s o f t h e o b s ta c l e s to i t - p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e le ss t a n g i b le

o b s t a c l e s t h a t c a n n o t b e f i x e d b y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e w i r i n g o r

o t h e r s h o r t - t e r m m e a s u r e s . A t t h e s a m e t im e , u s e f u l s te p s u n -

d o u b t e d l y c a n b e ta k e n w i t h o u t a t h o r o u g h r e v o l u t io n in th e

w a y A m e r i c a n s b e h a v e o r th e U S g o v e r n m e n t c o n d u c t s its

b u s i n e s s . A s f a r a s th e p o l i ti c a l c l i m a t e is c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e a r e

e n c o u r a g i n g s i g n s o f g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n C o n g r e s s a n d

e l s e w h e r e in s t r e n g t h e n i n g s tr a te g i c p l a n n i n g a t t h e n a t i o n a l

le v el a n d i n i m p r o v i n g U S m i l it a r y c a p a b i li ti e s f o r l o w -

i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t . P s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e w i ll c e r ta i n -

l y b e n e f i t f r o m a t t e n t i o n t o b o t h t h e s e a r e a s .P e r h a p s t h e m o s t p r o m i s i n g a r e a f o r c h a n g e is in th e

f ie ld o f m i li ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s v e r y u n j u s t l y

n e g l e c t e d s u b j e c t m e r i t s s o m e f u r t h e r r e m a r k s .

T h e f ac t th a t m i li ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s h a v e

g e n e r a l l y b e e n t r e a t e d a s a s u b s p e c i a l t y o f s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s

is a g o o d i n d i c a t io n o f t h e c o n c e p t u a l a n d o p e r a t i o n a l l im i t a-

t io n s u n d e r w h i c h P S Y O P h a s l o n g l a b o r e d . 3° O f c o u r s e , t h e

v e ry i d e n t i f i c a t io n o f P S Y O P a s a s pe c ia l fo r c e s m i s s i o n h a st e n d e d t o i s o l a te it f r o m n o r m a l m i l i t a r y a c ti v it ie s a n d b r i n g i t

u n d e r a c e r t a i n s u s p i c i o n , w h i c h i t s " b l a c k " c o n n o t a t i o n s

h a v e f u r th e r s t r e n g t h e n e d . B u t P S Y O P h a s p e r h a p s s u f f e r e d

m o s t f r o m i d e n t i f i c a t io n w i th t h e h a r d w a r e a n d m i s si o n s o f

t h e ta c t ic a l b a t t l e f i e l d - t h a t is , l e a fl e t d e l iv e r y , lo u d s p e a k e r s ,a n d r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n g . A s a re s u lt o f all t h is , P S Y O P h a s

h a d v e r y l ow p r i o r i ty in t e r m s o f p e r s o n n e l , e q u i p m e n t , t r a in -

i n g , e x e r c i s i n g , a n d d o c t r i n e . I n a d d i t i o n , i t h a s s u f f e r e df r o m l o w v i s i b i l i t y a t s e n i o r c o m m a n d l e v e l s w i t h i n t h e

m i l i t a r y ( p a r t i c u l a r l y o u t s i d e t h e A r m y , w h i c h o w n s m o s t

P S Y O P a ss ets ), n o t t o s p e a k o f o t h e r U S g o v e r n m e n t

o r g a n i z a t i o n s .




This situation is now beginning to change as a result of

renewed interest within the military as well as at the nationa l

level. However, the rethinking of PSYOP roles and missions

is still at an early stage, and basic doctrinal and organiza-

tional questions remain to be worked out. The Air Force and

Navy appear not yet fully persuaded that PSYOP is a respon-

sibility of all the services and of all higher command

echelons. There is increasing recognition that PSYOP need

not be limited to the hardware- supported missions of the tac-

tical battlefield but can have important applications at the

operational and theater levels, particularly in low-intensity

conflict situations. But there is as yet little apparent consen-

sus on the role of PSYOP at the strategic level or in

peacetime.

The tendency to think of PSYOP in terms of direct ver-

bal communication is a strong one, and reflects the nature of

tactical PSYOP as historically practiced by the United States.

However, this is a tendency that must be resisted if the full

potential of nontactical PSYOP is to be realized and if the

services are to embrace the full range o f PSYOP activities as

lcgitimate and proper military missions. The uniformed

military generally acknowledge that the overriding purpose of

US military forces is not to fight wars but to deter them. But

deterrence is, of course, a psychological phenomenon, not a

simple reflection of the quantity and quality of military

forces; and there is every reason to suppose that foreign

perceptions of US military power can be shaped in various

ways to strengthen its deterrent effect, sl

Even if one accepts that it would be difficult and

possibly risky to attempt to shape Soviet perceptions of US

power ( though this is by no means evident), a strong case can

be made for the potentially high payoffs of efforts to shape

perceptions of the adversary in conflicts with Third World

countries. Within the Third World, decisionmaking is apt tobe less disciplined by adequate intelligence or orderly staff

procedures, strongly influenced by the passing impressions

and phobias of a small leadership element, and subject to

sudden internal political challenge. The lessons of the recent



3 0 L O R D

American military confrontation with Libya deserve careful

study in this connection.

To detail PSYOP possibilities in this area is beyond the

scope of the present discussion. Certainly, publications pro-

grams geared to foreign military audiences could have con-

siderable utility. But much could also be accomplished simply

through deliberate exploitation of normal US military ac-

tivities such as exercises, deployments , air and naval displays,

and technology demonstra tions . At a higher level of activity,

with the movement of military forces dedicated specifically to

a psychological-political mission, PSYOP measures shade in-

to traditional coercive diplomacy. Certainly, the United

States has used both sorts of measures in the past. But ac-

tivities such as naval port visits and presence missions have

generally not been understood as belonging within the

PSYOP framework and do not appear to have been ap-

proached in a systematic or highly coordinated manner .

A characteristic weakness of the American approach to

war and force has been the tendency to draw sharp distinc-

tions between wartime and peacetime. That the Leninist

political tradition involves a radically different approach is

hardly a secret, yet somehow it remains extremely difficult

for Americans to deal with the "spectrum of conflict" as a

true spectrum rather than a series of compartments. One

result of this dif ficu lty is the penalty it exacts in any transit ion

from peace to war in terms of organization, planning, and

general readiness. An important function of psychological-

political warfare for the United States could be to compen-

sate for temporary inadequacies in deployed US forces in

severe crises or the initial stages of war. In general, a com-

pelling case can be made for reviewing and enhancing the

psychological-political component of US war planning and

national-level crisis management operations.

The entire area of strategic war planning is of critical im-portance in this context, since it is the point at which the

military, diplomatic, and psychological-political components

of national strategy most closely converge. Any effort to

enhance and better integrate strategic planning at the national




level, as recommended by influential voices in Congress and

elsewhere, needs to focus on the difficult substantive and pro-

cedural issues involved in war planning. More generally

recognized is the need for integrated interagency planning in

crisis situations; but here as well the potential of

psychological-political warfare seems not to have been fully

realized.

The foregoing discussion should not be taken as an im-

plicit commentary on the relative utility of military and non-

military psychological-political measures. Its purpose is only

to highlight the part of this field that is the most neglected

and at the same time the most susceptible to immediate im-

provement. In low-intensity conflict theaters such as Central

America, there is scope for application o f the full range of US

psychological-political capabilities. The strategic importance

of peacetime political warfare and international communica-

tions, with respect to the Third World as well as the Soviet

Union and its empire, can hardly be overestimated. We need

not enter here into the larger question of long-range US

strategy with respect to the Soviet Union. But it seems clear

that the best hopc for an eventual diminution of the Soviet

political-military threat lies in the relentless exposure of the

Soviet population to information and ideas from the West.

The opportunities for short-term gains vis-a-vis the Soviet

empire should not be allowed to distract us from this fun-

damental strategic imperative.



32 L ORD

N otes

1. See, for example, Paul Linebarger, Psychological Warfare

(Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal Press, 1948), Leonard Doob,

Public Opinion and Propaganda (New York: Henry Holt and Co.,

1948), Daniel Lerner, ed., Propaganda in War and Crises (New

York: Stewart, 1950), William Daugherty and Morris Janowitz,

eds., A Psychological Warfare Casebook (Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University Press, 1958), W. Phillips Davison, Interna-

tional Political Communication (New York: Praeger, 1965).

2. On the early history of military psychological operations,

see Alfred H. Paddock, Jr., US Army Special Warfare: Its Origins

(Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press, 1982).

3. See Sig Mickelson, America's Other Voice: The Story of

Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York: Praeger, 1983).4. The originally top secret report of the President's Commit-

tee on International Information Activities, headed by William H.Jackson, is now available in Department of State, Foreign Rela-

tions of the United States, 1952-1954, vol. II, pt. 2 (Washington,

D.C.: USGPO, 1984), pp. 1795-1867.

5. For a recent account see Trevor Barnes, "The Secret Cold

War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe, 1946-56,

Part I," Historical Journal 24 (1981): 399-415, and "The Secret

Cold War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe,

1946-56, Part II," Historical Journal 25 (1982): 649-70.

6. See, for example, Richard Immerman, CIA in Guatemala:

The Foreign Policy of lntervention (New York: Columbia Univer-

sity Press, 1982), Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for

Control ofl ran (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979).

7. According to the Jackson Committee report, "The national

information program has suffered from the lack of effective central

direction. In spite of the establishment of the Psychological

Strategy Board, coordination has been lacking and the various

agencies concerned have largely gone their separate ways. Oppor-tunities have been missed to take the offensive in global propa-

ganda campaigns . . . . The headquarters staffs of all agencies

engaged in information work should concentrate more on the con-

ception, planning and coordination of global campaigns and less




on detailed control and execution of day-to-day operations"

(Fo r e ig n Re la t io n s , p. 1840). For pertinent remarks on the "confu-

sion regarding the mission" of US information agencies, see ibid.,

pp. 1836-38; also of interest is this remark concerning the military

role: "The contribution of the armed forces to political warfare has

been limited by the lack of definition of the military role by higher

authority, and by an inadequate understanding on the part of

military authorities that they and their commands are full par-

ticipants in the political aspects of the present struggle and must

conduct themselves accordingly. Military commanders and plan-

ners tend to regard the allocation of military resources to currentpolitical operations as an unauthorized diversion from tasks for

which the armed forces are explicitly responsible" (ibid., p. 1860).Eisenhower abolished the Psychological Strategy Board on the

Committee's recommendation, apparently on the grounds that

psychological-political warfare was too closely bound up with US

policy or strategy generally for such an arrangement to work effec-

tively.

8. See the testimony collected in Sen. Henry M. Jackson, T h eN a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l : J a c k s o n S u b c o m m i t t e e P a p e r s o n

P o l i c y m a k i n g a t t h e P r e s i d e n ti a l L e v e l (New York: Praeger, 1965);

consider particularly the remarks of Nelson Rockefeller,

pp. 167-90. That the Eisenhower NSC system was substantially

misrepresented by contemporary critics has become clear, however,

on the basis of material that has since come to light. See, for exam-

ple, Phillip G. Henderson, "Advice and Decision: The Eisenhower

National Security Council Reappraised," in R. Gordon Hoxie, ed.,

T h e P r e s i d e n c y a n d N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P o l i c y (New York: Centerfor the Study of the Presidency, 1984), pp. 153-86. For a recent

overview of the history of the NSC system, see the chapters by

Anna Kasten Nelson and I. M. Destler in Hugh Heclo and Lester

M. Salamon, eds., T h e I l l u s i o n o f P r e s i d e n t i a l G o v e r n m e n t

(Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981), pp. 229-85.

9. Consider, for example, John Franklin Campbell, T h e

F o r e i g n A f f a i r s F u d g e F a c t o r y (New York: Basic Books, 1971),

pp. 147-77.10. A thoughtful discussion of the functioning of public

diplomacy under the Reagan administration is provided by Gifford

D. Malone, "Functioning of Diplomatic Organs," in Richard F.

Staar, ed., P u b l i c D i p l o m a c y : U S A v e r su s U S S R (Stanford:



3 4 L O R D

Hoover Institution, 1986), pp. 124-41. See also Carnes Lord, "In

Defense of Public Diplomacy," C o m m e n t a r y , April 1984,

pp. 42-50.11. The argument for a more "political" approach to

multilateral diplomacy is cogently summarized by Richard S.

Williamson, "U.S. Multilateral Diplomacy at the United Nations,"

T h e W a s h i n g t o n Q u a r t e r l y , Summer 1986, pp. 5-18. On the Soviet

approach to political action, see, for example, James Atkinson,

T h e P o li ti c s o f St ru g g le : T h e C o m m u n i s t F r o n t a n d P o li ti c a l W a r -

f a r e (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1966), and Roy Godson, L a b o r in

S o v i e t G l o b a l S t r a t e g y (Washington, D.C.: National Strategy In-formation Center, 1984). On the promotion of democracy as an ob-

jective of US policy, see William A. Douglas, D e v e l o p i n g

D e m o c r a c y (Washington, D.C.: Heldref Publications, 1972).

12. See, for example, James Cable, G u n b o a t D i p l o m a c y :

P o l it ic a l A p p l i c a t i o n s o f L i m i t e d N a v a l F o rc e (New York: Praeger,

1971), and Barry M. Blechman and Stephen S. Kaplan, F o r c e

W i t h o u t W a r : U . S . A r m e d F o r c e s a s a P o l it ic a l I n s t r u m e n t

(Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1978).

13. See Richard H. Shultz and Roy Godson, D e z i n f o r m a t s i a :

A c t i v e M e a s u r e s in S o v i e t S t ra t e g y (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-

Brassey's, 1984). Soviet "active measures" ( a k t i v n y y e m e r o p r i a t i a )

encompass what is here called "political action" as well as "covertpolitical warfare." For a general discussion, see Angelo Codevilla,

"Covert Action and Foreign Policy, II," in Roy Godson, ed., In -

t el li g en c e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e 1 98 0 's : C o v e r t A c t i o n

(Washington, D.C.: National Strategy Information Center, 1981),

pp. 79-104.14. A recent collection of (generally older) materials on this

subject is available in Ron. D. McLaurin, ed., M i l i t a r y P r o p a g a n -

d a : P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e a n d O p e r a t i o n s (New York: Praeger,

1982).

15. A recent discussion of the history of US international

broadcasting is available in James L. Tyson, U. S . In t e rna t iona l

B r o a d c a s t i n g a n d N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y (New York: National Strategy

Information Center, 1983). For an overview of current US ac-

tivities in this area, see United States Advisory Commission on

Public Diplomacy, 1 9 8 6 R e p o r t (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Advisory

Commission on Public Diplomacy, 1986), and Board for Interna-

tional Broadcasting, 1 9 8 6 A n n u a l R e p o r t (Washington, D.C.:

USGPO, 1986). Recent examples of "public diplomacy" materials



NA TI ON AL STRA TEG Y 35

produced by US government agencies are Department of Defense,

Soviet Military Power 1986 (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1986),

and Department of State and Department of Defense, TheChallenge to Democracy in Central America (Washington, D.C.:

USGPO, 1986).

16. The role of "information" as an instrument of national

strategy comparable to the diplomatic, economic, and military in-

struments was emphasized in an address of then National Security

Adviser William P. Clark to the Center for Strategic and Interna-

tional Studies, Georgetown University, May 21, 1982. Administra-

tion studies of international information policy resulted in apresidential directive on this subject (NSDD 130) in March 1983.

See "Tune Up for Term Two," Chronicle of International Com-munication, July-August 1984, p. 1.

17. For the extremely significant developments that have oc-

curred in the last several years in international television broad-

casting, see United States Advisory Commission on Public

Diplomacy, 1986 Report, pp. 18-21. On the radio modernization

program, see Bernard Gwertzman, "Voice of America Reaches Ac-cords with 5 Countries," New York Times, 26 Dec. 1984, p. 1.

18. After several years of of ten acrimonious political debate,

Radio Marti was funded by Congress and eventually went on the

air in May 1985. For an intelligent discussion of the issue, see

Cuban-American National Foundation, U.S. Radio Broadcasting

to Cuba: Policy Implications (Washington, D.C.: The Cuban-

American National Foundation, Inc., N.D. [1983]); for a recent

assessment, Roger Fontaine, "Radio Marti builds audience, wins

over critics in its 1st year ," Washington Times, 20 May 1986, p. 4D.19. The National Endowment for Democrary was incor-

porated in November 1983. See the remarks of Bill Brock, Frank J.

Fahrenkop f , J r . , Charles T. Manatt, Lane Kirkland and Michael

A. Samuels, "The Democracy Program and the National Endow-

ment for Democracy," Commonsense, December 1983, pp. 83-121.

For a recent assessment, see Joshua Muravchik, "Exporting

Democracy: A Progress Report," The American Spectator,

November 1985, pp. 19-21. Related activities have included a con-ference sponsored by the Department of State in October 1982 on

"Democratization in Communist Countries."

20. The Special Planning Group was established by National

Security Decision Directive (NSDD) 77 in January 1983; it super-

vises four subcommittees, dealing with public affairs, international



36 LORD

i n f o r m a t i o n , i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l

b r o a d c a s t i n g . A n u n c l a s s i f ie d te x t o f t h is d i r e c ti v e m a y b e f o u n d i n

S t a a r , Public Diplomacy, p p . 2 9 7 - 9 9 .

2 1. A n O f f i c e o f P u b l ic D i p l o m a c y f o r L a t in A m e r i c a a n d t he

C a r i b b e a n w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t i n J u l y 1 9 8 3 ,

w i th a n i n te r a g e n c y s ta f f h e a d e d b y A m b a s s a d o r O t t o R e i c h .

2 2. F o r s o m e c r i ti c a l r e v ie w s b y r e c e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s , s ee t h e

r e m a r k s o f A l f r e d H . P a d d o c k , J r ., a n d G i f f o r d D . M a l o n e in

S t a a r , Public Diplomacy, p p . 9 2 - 9 3 , 1 3 5 - 3 9 .

2 3 . S u n T z u , The Art of War, t r a n s . S a m u e l B . G r i f f i t h ( O x -

f o r d : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s, 1 97 1 ), p p . 7 7 - 7 8 .2 4 . " P u b l i c o p i n i o n w i n s w a r , " G e n e r a l D w i g h t E i s e n h o w e r

t o l d a m e e t i n g o f A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r e d i t o r s i n 1 94 4: " I h a v e

a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d a s q u a s i - s t a f f o f f i c e r s , c o r r e s p o n d e n t s a c -

c r e d i t e d t o m y h e a d q u a r t e r s . " T h a t r e p o r t e r s a c q u i e s c e d i n s u c h

t r e a t m e n t is s c a n d a l o u s f o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y jo u r n a l i s t ; s e e t h e

d i s c u s s i o n i n P h i l i p K n i g h t l y , The First Casualty ( N e w Y o r k : H a r -

c o u r t B r a c e J o v a n o v i c h , 1 9 75 ), p p . 3 1 5 - 1 7 a n d f f .

2 5 . T h e g r o s s a b u s e s i n v o l v e d in m e d i a c o v e r a g e o f th e V i e t-

n a m W a r h a v e b e e n w e l l d o c u m e n t e d . S e e P e t e r B r a e s t r u p , Big

Story ( N e w H a v e n : Y a l e U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 78 ), R o b e r t E l e g a n t ,

How to Lose a War: The Press and Viet Nam ( W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . :

E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r , 1 98 2; o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d i n En-

counter, A u g u s t 1 9 8 1 ) .

2 6. A n e x c e l l e n t b r i e f a n a l y s is m a y b e f o u n d i n M a r k C r i s p i n

M i l l e r , " H o w T V C o v e r s W a r , " The New Republic, 2 9 N o v e m b e r

1 98 2, p p . 2 6 - 3 3 . A l s o o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t is J o h n W e i s m a n ,

" W h y T V is M i s si ng t h e P i c t u r e i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , " TV Guide, 15S e p t e m b e r 1 9 8 4 , p p . 2 - 1 4 .

2 7 . T h e c o n t r o v e r s y a r i s i n g f r o m t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e p r e s s

f r o m t h e U S a c t i o n a g a i n s t G r e n a d a i n O c t o b e r 1 98 2 le d t h e J o i n t

C h i e f s o f S t a f f to i n i t ia t e a r e v ie w o f p o l i c y r e g a r d i n g m e d i a p a r -

t i c ip a t i o n i n c o n t i n g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s , i n t h e f o r m o f a s pe c ia l c o m -

m i s s io n o f m i l i t a r y a n d m e d i a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s h e a d e d b y G e n .

W i n a n t S i d l e . A l t h o u g h t h i s c o m m i s s i o n r e a c h e d i n f o r m a l a g r e e -

m e n t o n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f p r e s s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a l l m i l i t a r y o p e r a -

t io n s t o t h e m a x i m u m d e g r e e c o n s i s te n t w i th o p e r a t i o n a l s e c u r it y ,

t h e D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t h a s s in c e i n d i c a t e d s o m e r e s e r v a t i o n s o n

t h is s c o r e , a n d t h e r e is l it tl e e v i d e n c e t h a t a n y s i g n i f ic a n t m o v e m e n t

h a s o c c u r r e d o n t h e m e d i a s id e . A s o n e r e t i r e d a d m i r a l i s r e p o r t e d

t o h a v e s a id , " O p e r a t i o n a l s e c u r i ty is n o t t h e p r o b l e m ; t h e p r o b l e m




is that when you write about us, you make us look bad." See Fred

Halloran, "The Pentagon and the Press: The War Goes On," N e w

Y o r k T i m e s , 29 January 1986. Material relating to the Sidle Com-mission is available in William Schneider, et al. , "The Military and

the Media," E s s a y s o n S t ra t e g y a n d D i p l o m a c y 2 (Claremont, CA:

The Keck Center for International Strategic Studies, 1984).

28. Pertinent observations on the role of the State Department

in the current administration's public diplomacy efforts are offered

by Gifford Malone in Staar, P u b l i c D i p l o m a c y , pp. 132-37.

29. Consider the complaints of Fred W. Walker, "Psyop is a

Nasty Term--Too Bad," A i r U n i v e r s i t y R e v i e w 28 (September-October 1977): 71-76, as well as Edward N. Luttwak, "Notes on

Low-Intensity Warfare," in William A. Buckingham, ed., D e f e n s e

P l a n n i n g f o r t h e 1 990 s (Washington, D.C.: National Defense

University Press, 1984), pp. 197-209.

30. See the discussion in Alfred H. Paddock, Jr.,

"Psychological Operations, Special Operations and US Strategy,"

in Frank R. Barnett, B. Hugh Tovar, and Richard H. Shultz, eds.,

S p ec ia l Op er a t io n s in US S t r a teg y (Washington, D.C.: NationalDefense University Press, 1984), pp. 231-51.

31. Of interest in this connection is Robert Jervis, Richard

Ned Lebow, and Janice Gross Stein, P s y c h o l o g y a n d D e t e r r e n c e

(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985).



Comment

PAUL A. SMITH, JR.

LET M E SA Y A T T H E O U TS ET t h a t w e o w e a d e b t o f t h a n k s t o

D r . L o r d f o r h a v i n g c le a r e d s o m e o f t h e p e d a n t i c w e e d s o f

t h e 1 97 0s a n d r i g h t fu l l y f o c u s e d o u r a t t e n t i o n o n p o l i t i c a l

w a r f a r e i n t h e 1 94 0s a n d 1 95 0 s. I t h i n k it w o u l d h a v e b e e n

e v e n b e t t e r if h e h a d f o c u s e d i t o n W o r l d W a r I , a b o u t w h i c hI w i ll s a y s o m e t h i n g i n a m i n u t e . B u t f ir s t le t m e d i s a g r e e o n

s o m e o t h e r p o i n t s .

I d i f f e r w i t h D r . L o r d o n o n e e s s e n ti a l p o i n t , w h i c h i s

w h e t h e r t h e r e is o r is n o t a g o o d t e r m i n E n g l i s h t o d e s i g n a t e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l i t ic a l o p e r a t i o n s i n t h e b r o a d e s t s e n s e .

Political war s e r v e s t h is p u r p o s e w e l l. I t m e a n s , q u i t e s i m p l y ,

t h e u s e o f w o r d s , i m a g e s , a n d i d e as , a n d a s s o c i a t e d f o r m s o f

a c t i o n , t o i m p o s e o n e ' s w il l o n a n o p p o n e n t . T h e t e r m c a n b er e f i n e d a n d q u a l i f i e d , b u t i t w i l l s e r v e f o r g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n

b o t h b y d e c i s i o n m a k e r s a n d b y t h e p ub l ic . L e t us h a v e d o n e

w i t h t h e j a r g o n o f s o c i a l sc i e n c e . P o l i t i c s i s a b o v e a l l t h e a r t

o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t a n d s o r fa ll s

o n t h e u se o f p la i n l a n g u a g e , u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b y a ll .

A s e c o n d p o i n t o f d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t p o l i ti c a l w a r is a

m o r e s h a r p l y t a r g e t e d c o n c e p t t h a n t h at a d v a n c e d b y D r .

L o r d : it s h o u l d n o t a p p l y t o al li es a n d i n o f f e n s i v e a c t o r s o nt h e in t e r n a t i o n a l s ta g e . I f c a n n o n a r e t h e f i na l a r g u m e n t o f

k i n g s , p o l i ti c a l w a r is o n e o f t h e f ir s t a r g u m e n t s . B u t b o t h a r e

a c ts o f w a r , a n d w a r is p o w e r a p p l i e d w i t h h o s t i le i n t e n t .

P o l i ti c a l a d v o c a c y a m o n g a ll ie s is a t r a d i t i o n a m o n g

W e s t e r n n a t i o n s , b u t o f a n o t h e r k i nd . P o l it ic a l a d v o c a c y

a m o n g a l l i e s d o e s n o t s e e k t o c o m p e l c o m p l i a n c e b u t r a t h e r

t o e li ci t i t b y t h e s e a r c h f o r m u t u a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y s o l u t i o n s t o

c o m m o n p r o b l e m s . I t is in t h e t r a d i t io n o f c o m p r o m i s e ,c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d c o m m o n v a l u e s . Public diplo macy - t h a t i s ,

p o l i ti c a l a d v o c a c y t o m a s s a u d i e n c e s in s u p p o r t o f d i p l o m a t i c

n e g o t i a t i o n s - i s a u s e f u l t e r m f o r t h e s e a c t i v i ti e s. P u b l i c

d i p l o m a c y i s n o t p o l i t ic a l w a r , h o w e v e r m u c h it m a y b e u se d

i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h i t . P u b l i c a f f a i r s a c t i v i t i e s , a d d r e s s e d b y

38




a government to home audiences, is not political war, unless

of course there is a civil war underway. Promoting soap and

proselytizing the faithless are not political war, nor is part isan

political struggle within the framework of a constitutional

democracy. Such political disputes are not aimed at the

destruction of the enemy's will and capacity to resist: there is

always the presumption, backed by constitutional rights, that

a losing electoral opponent will retain the ability to continue

the struggle. War, particularly involving those nations that

are the United States' opponents today, offers no such com-forting presumptions.

Let us go back another half-century from the 1940s and

1950s Dr. Lord discusses and look at the war of 1914-18. The

Allied powers, more especially the English and the

Americans, were regarded by their opponents as clearly

su per io r- ind ee d, lethally s o - i n their use of the political

weapon. The English propaganda, as Marshal yon Hinden-

burg noted in retrospect, was a new weapon, or rather onethat had never been employed on such a scale and so ruthless-

ly. There are numerous such acknowledgments from German

leaders both during and after the war. The German High

Command was not ignorant of the uses of propaganda, but

they simply did not consider it worth using until too late. The

conclusions of a German crown council at Spa, after a major

Allied offensive accompanied by intensified English and

American propaganda, were that Germany could no longerhope to break the war will of its enemies by military opera-

tions, and should alter its strategy so as to paralyze its

enemies' will by assuming the strategic defensive.

By late 1918, the British were dropping five million

pamphlets a month over the German forces. Wilson had ar-

ticulated his Fourteen Points. This combined strategic and

tactical political warfare reinforced a message of both

despair and hope: that Anglo-American superiority in both

materiel and manpower made further struggle senseless, and

that, on the other hand, the aspirations of the German pcoplc

as well as the subject nations of Austria-Hungary would

receive due recognition in a postwar world. That activity



40 S~IITH

might have shortened the war by a year and saved close to a

million lives. In early 1918, when Lloyd George restructured

and redirected to serious strategic ends the previously tactical

political warfare capability of Britain, the outcome of the war

was by no means sure. Russia had collapsed; the French

forces were tending toward mutiny; and America was still less

than fully engaged. British and American propaganda may

not have been the all-powerful weapon, as Hindenburg and

some later German leaders thought it to be. But it did con-

tribute significantly toward victory.Finally, let me touch on a dimension that Dr. Lord does

not address directly, though it is there by implication-the

fact that no force structure and no resources can compensate

for poor or confused leadership, political or military. Lloyd

George, in contrast to his predecessor, was a master of the

political art with a profound sense of the spirit of the times

and a sure strategic instinct. His senior associates in the prop-

aganda operation were Britain's two leading press lords,Beaverbrook and Northcliffe, the inventors of the popular

press. They in turn recruited talent like H. G. Wells, who

headed the German unit, and Wickham Steed of the Times,

assisted by the academic Hugh Seton-Watson, who worked

on Central Europe and the Balkans and succeeded in blowing

apart the Aust ro-Hungarian Empire. Faced with the threat o f

disaster af ter Russia collapsed and inspired by strong political

leadership, the Allies struggled through to victory. They lostor cast away the hopes of peace after the war, but that is

another story-which also has much to do with political

warfare.




R I C H A R D G . S T I L W E L L

DR. LORD HAS DEMONSTRATED INSIGHT and thoroughness in

analyzing the complex reasons at the root of the failure of the

United States to exploit the nonintrinsic instruments of na-

tional power (or, worse yet, even to comprehen d the potential

of those instruments for enhancing national security). One

must share his pessimism about the prospects for remedying

these shortcomings. Indeed, in my own estimate the outlook

is even bleaker.To forego the use of certain tools that would facilitate

the pursuit of national objectives is one thing. To fail to

recognize-let alone take measures to counter-psycho-

logical and political warfare waged against our policies with

the intent to undermine them is quite another; here the cost

of inaction is real and heavy. Yet the stark fact is that the

American public, the media, and even the bureaucracy are

generally oblivious to the scope and sophistication of Sovietand Soviet-surrogate campaigns of this genre.

The lamentable situation in South Africa does not today

command center stage in Western consciousness because of

sober calculation or spontaneous concern about the nature ofwhite rule there. Rather, it is the result of a spectacularly suc-

cessful (and still ongoing) psychological warfare campaign,

carefully orchestrated, replete with misinformation, and

aided and abetted by our own gullible media. The Sandinistaregime in Nicaragua has had similar success: thanks almost

exclusively to the eff icacy of its propaganda , there is more ac-

tive support among the Amer ican public for the regime there

than for the freedom fighters our own government backs.

Unless and until we recognize that the integrity of our own

political and decisionmaking base is under threat and under-take systematically to expose and neutralize our adversaries'

efforts, there can be little hope that we will effectively use

psychological and political warfare to further American

foreign policy initiatives.

Although there is no excuse for not doing our best in thisfield, we are very far from that point. How can we begin to

systematically exploit this long-neglected tool of statecraft?



42 STIL WE LL

To begin with, National Security Decision Directive 130

should be dusted off and made required reading throughou t

the executive and legislative branches. This landmark docu-

ment established international information as a major instru-

ment of national security policy, and the responsibility of no

single agency of the government. It also assigned a number of

specific tasks. It is time for a detailed review and accounting

by the relevant agencies of progress in carrying out these

tasks. Such an accounting can be expected to show that im-

plementation to date is far from satisfactory across the

board.

In this context, I should say that I have one basic

disagreement with Dr. Lord's paper. Perhaps because of his

concern for tightly drawn definitions and compartments, he

assigns psychological operations as such to the military. Cer-

tainly, psychological operations are inherent in the conduct

of military activity at all echelons of command and in all en-

vi ro nmen ts - steady state, crisis, and war. But under any cir-cumstances, the military has limited target audiences and

controls only a minute portion of the totality of channels of

communicat ion available to the nation as a whole. Surely the

business of influencing the beliefs, emotions, and behavior of

foreign peoples and governments is a national undertaking,

employing all m ean s-i ncl udi ng those of the mi lit ary -

that can be marshalled and harnessed to the task.

Without question, the principal reason for the problemsin implementing NSDD 130 was a failure to establish as

an integral element of that document an interagency

mechanism to monitor compliance and, more importantly, to

ensure the orchestration and coordination of the totality of

the US government's international communications and in-

formation capabilities. Such a mechanism is needed, and the

logical way to provide it is to restructure and reenergize the

long-defunct interagency machinery created by NSDD 77 tooversee activities pursued under the rubric of public diplo-

macy. This public diplomacy superstructure was faulty in

design from the beginning. It excluded the CIA from member-

ship and made no provision for input from or interface with



NA TIO NA L S TRA TEG Y 43

t h e i n t e ll ig e n c e c o m m u n i t y ; it h a d n o f u l l -t im e s ta f f ; i t a r -

b i tr a r i ly c o n s i g n e d p u b l ic a f f a ir s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n

( r e a l l y U S I A ) , p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n , a n d r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n g t o

d i s c r e t e c o m p a r t m e n t s ; a n d i t e s t a b l i s h e d o n l y a d h o c l i n k s

w i t h t h e r e g i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d b u r e a u s o f t h e k e y a g e n c i es .

T h e f u n c t i o n s o f a n e w , p r o p e r l y c o n f i g u r e d , a n d a d e -

q u a t e ly c h a r t e r e d i n te r a g e n c y m e c h a n i s m u n d e r N S C a eg is

w ill b e e x t r a o r d i n a r i ly i m p o r t a n t . I t m u s t s t i m u l a t e a n d l at er

r e v ie w t h e p l a n n i n g n e c e s s a r y t o c o a l e s c e t h e c a p a b i l it ie s o f a

v a r i e t y o f a g e n c i e s ; e n s u r e t h a t t h o s e c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e a p p l i e di n a r e s p o n s i v e , d i s c i p l i n e d , a n d c o o r d i n a t e d m a n n e r ; a n d

b r i n g a b o u t r e d i r e c t io n o f e f f o r t a s n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e m a x -

i m u m e f f e c t. A d m i t t e d l y , t h a t is t h e h a r d p a r t a n d t h e a re a

w h e r e a l l p r e v i o u s e f f o r t s h a v e f o u n d e r e d . B u t w e m u s t t r y

a g a i n , a n d t h i s t i m e w i th g r e a te r d e t e r m i n a t i o n .

I m a y b e n a i v e , b u t I b e li e ve a m a j o r o b s t a c l e i n t h e p a s t

h a s b e e n o u r f o c u s o n m e a n s r a t h e r t h a n e n d s , i n p u t s r a t h e r

t h a n o u t p u t s , h a r d w a r e r a t h e r t h a n s o f t w a r e . T e r m i n o l o g yh a s a ls o c r ea t e d p r o b l e m s b e c a u s e o f v a g u e n e s s o f c o n n o t a -

t i o n o r o v e r l a p . B u t w h a t i s t h e r e al n e e d to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e -

t w e e n p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l a c t io n s ? T h e m i li ta r y is

w e d d e d t o th e t e r m p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , b u t t h e n o n -

m i l i t a r y a g e n c i e s c a n u s e a n y d e s c r i p t o r s d e e m e d s u i t a b l e .

P u b l i c a ff a ir s c h a n n e l s h a v e i m m e n s e p o t e n t i a l f o r s h a p i n g

t h e v i e w s o f f o r e i g n a u d i e n c e s .

C o n s i d e r th e f o l lo w i n g a p p r o a c h . T h e N S C d e f in e s a no b j e c ti v e o f s u f fi c ie n t m o m e n t to t a k e p r i o ri ty o v e r m a n y o n -

g o i n g p r o j e c t s i n t h e s e v e r a l d e p a r t m e n t s a n d a g e n c i e s , a n d

p r e s c r i b e s t h a t a l l a v a i la b l e c a p a b i l i t ie s b e b r o u g h t t o b e a r t o

t h e f u l l e x t e n t p e r m i t t e d b y l a w . T h e d e s i g n a t e d o b j e c t i v e

c o u l d b e r a i s i n g t h e d o m e s t i c a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o s t t o t h e

S o v i e ts o f t h e ir r u t h l e s s a g g r e s s i o n in A f g h a n i s t a n , o r t h w a r t -

i n g t h e e f f o r t s o f t h e C o m m u n i s t s i n t h e P h i l i p p i n e s t o

m u s t e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t , o r r a l l y i n g r e g i o n a l a n d i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t b e h i n d t h e N i c a r a g u a n f r e e d o m f ig h te r s, o r

n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e S o v i e t a g i t p r o p c a m p a i g n a g a i n s t S D I . T h e

h i g h - l e v e l i n t e r a g e n c y g r o u p t h e n d e v e l o p s s u b - o b j e c t i v e s

a n d o t h e r g u i d a n c e to t r ig g e r p r e p a r a t i o n o f a c t i o n p l a n s ,



44 STIL WEL L

a s s ig n s r e s p o n s i b i l it y to t h e s e v e ra l a g e n c ie s f o r d e t a i l e d p l a n -

n i n g , a n d e n s u r e s t h a t a ll r e l e v a n t i n te l l ig e n c e is c o n t i n u a l l y

a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n n e r s .

N o n e o f t h i s i s n e w . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i s i n t h e f o l l o w -

t h r o u g h b y t h e i n t e r a g e n c y g r o u p , w h i c h s h o u l d r e v i e w ,

r ev is e , a n d c r o s s - c o o r d i n a t e t h e a c t i o n p l a n s w h e n d r a f t e d .

T h e i n t e r a g e n c y g r o u p ' s w o r k e n ta i l s a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r i o r i t y

g i v e n v a r i o u s t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s ; t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s a n d

c r e d i b il i t y o f t h e m e s s a g e t o b e d i r e c t e d a t t h o s e a u d i e n c e s ; t o

t h e a d e q u a c y o f c h a n n e l s o f d is s e m i n a t io n (w h e t h e r w o r d o fm o u t h , a u d i o v i s u a l , o r p u b l i c a t i o n s , t o n a m e a f e w ) ; t o t h e

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r e sp o n s ib i li ty f o r e m p l o y i n g t h es e c h a n n e l s

( a nd f o r c o m p l e m e n t a r y a ct io n s w h e r e n o n a t t r ib u t i o n m i g h t

b e d e si ra b l e) ; a n d t o a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r t h e c o l le c t io n a n d

a n a l y s i s o f f e e d b a c k .

A l l o f t h e a b o v e s til l fa ll s s h o r t o f f u l l i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ; it

is a b e g i n n in g , n o t t h e e n d . T h e p a y o f f c o m e s f r o m t h e h a r d

w o r k o f d e v e lo p in g t he s u b s ta n t i v e o u t p u t , o f p r o g r a m m i n g ,o f a d a p t i n g t o n e w i n te l li g en c e a n d t o a u d i e n c e rc a c t i o n , o f

e m p h a s i z i n g t h e t h e m e s f o u n d s u c c e s s f u l a n d e l i m i n a t i n g

t h o s e f o u n d w a n t i n g . A n d t h e p r o c e s s r e q u i r e s c o n t i n u o u s

m o n i t o r i n g , d e c i s io n s o n r e d i r e c t i o n o f e f f o r t , a n d g e n e r a l

o v e r s i g h t t h a t o n l y a n i n te r a g e n c y g r o u p , p r o p e r l y c h a r t e r e d

a n d e m p o w e r e d , c a n p ro v id e . A c a m p a i g n o f th is m a g n i t u d e

i n v o l v e s a m i x t u r e o f p o l i ti c a l a c t io n , p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e ,

e x e r c i s e o f t h e c h a n n e l s n o r m a l l y a v a i l a b l e t o o u r o f f i c i a lr ep r es e n t at i ve s a b r o a d , c o ve r t a c t i on , a n d - w e h o p e - e x -

p a n s i o n , e l a b o r a t io n , a n d i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f t h e m a t i c o u t p u t

b y t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . T h a t is t h e w a y i t s h o u l d b e i f t h e n a t i o n

is r ea ll y s e ri o u s a b o u t f u ll y e x p l o i t i n g o u r e n o r m o u s i n t e r n a -

t io n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ca p a b il it ie s in f u r t h e r a n c e o f o u r n a -

t i o n ' s s e c u r i t y p o l i c i e s .



M ilitary Psychological Operations

AL FR ED H. PADDOCK, JR.

pp S Y C H O L O G I C A L O P E R A T I O N S ( P S Y O P ) m a y b e

d e f in e d b r o a d l y a s t h e p l a n n e d u se o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s

t o i n f lu e n c e h u m a n a t t i tu d e s a n d b e h a v i o r . I t c o n s i s ts o f

p o l it ic a l , m i l i t a ry , a n d i d e o lo g i c a l a c t i o n s c o n d u c t e d t o

c r e a t e in t a r g e t g r o u p s b e h a v i o r , e m o t i o n s , a n d a t t i t u d e s t h a t

s u p p o r t t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f n a t io n a l o b j e c ti v es . I f u se d p r o p e r -

ly , P S Y O P w il l n o r m a l l y p r e c e d e , a c c o m p a n y , a n d f o ll o w a ll

a p p l i c a t i o n s o f f o r c e . T h i s w i l l b e c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r t h e

b r o a d e r u m b r e l l a o f U S n a t i o n a l p o l i c y , a n d t h e m i l i t a r yc o m p o n e n t o f t h e o v e ra l l p s y c h o lo g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s e f f o r t

s h o u l d b e c o o r d i n a t e d f u ll y a n d c a r e f u l l y w i t h o t h e r a g e n c i e s

o f g o v e r n m e n t .

M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , P S Y O P c a n b e u s e d t o d e m o r a l i z e ,

d i s o r i e n t , a n d c o n f u s e h o s t i l c g r o u p s . W h e n h o s t i l e g r o u p s

a re t a rg e t e d , P S Y O P is e m p l o y e d a s a n o f f e n s iv e w e a p o n

t h a t c a n e n h a n c e t h e o v e r a l e f f e c ti v e n e s s o f m i l i ta r y o p e r a -

t i o n s . I t c a n a l s o b e u s e d t o u n i t e , i n f o r m , a n d b o l s t e r t h em o r a l e o f n o n h o s t i l e g r o u p s . W h e n t a rg e t in g n e u t r a l o r

f r i e n d l y g r o u p s , i t i s u s e d t o s u p p o r t m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s b y

d e v e l o p i n g c o o p e r a t i v e a t t i tu d e s a n d b e h a v i o r i n t h e t a r g e t

g r o u p .

An Overview of Ar my PS YO P

T h e l e ve l o f i n t e r e s t in m i l it a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

d u r i n g t h i s c e n t u r y h a s b e e n e p i s o d i c , r i s i n g a n d f a l l i n g d u r -

i n g a n d a f t e r t h e m a j o r c o n f l i c t s i n w h i c h U S f o r c e s h a v e

b e e n c o m m i t t e d . O v e r t h i s p e r i o d , m o s t o f t h e a c t i v i t y i n

m i l it a ry P S Y O P c e n t e r e d in th e A r m y . T h e f o l l o w i n g b r ie f

45



4 6 P A D D O C K

h i s to r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r e f o r e , w i ll f o c u s o n t h e A r m y ' s a c -

t i v i t i e s a s i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h e f o r t u n e s o f m i l i t a r y P S Y O P .

W h i l e g i v i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e o n l y t o k e n r e c o g n i -

t i o n i n W o r l d W a r I , t h e A r m y e s t a b l i s h e d t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l

W a r f a r e S u b - S e c t io n o f G - 2 in t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t a n d a ls o

t h e P r o p a g a n d a S e c t i on , G - 2 , G e n e r a l H e a d q u a r t e rs ( G H Q ) ,

A m e r i c a n E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e s . M i l i t a r y t a c t i c a l

p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e c e n t e r e d o n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f le a fl et s;

r a d io s d i d n o t e x is t a s a m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d

l o u d s p e a k e r s w e r e p r im i t iv e . M i l it ar y p r o p a g a n d a c o n c e n -t ra t e d o n p r o d u c i n g s u r re n d e r a p p e a l s; b a l lo o n s a n d

a i r p l a n e s w e r e t h e p r i m a r y m e t h o d s f o r d i s s e m i n a t i n g

l ea f l e t s .

F r o m 1918 to 1 9 4 1 n o p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e o f f i c e ex -

is te d at t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t . T h e l e s so n s o f e x p e r ie n c e w e re

l os t, a n d b y 1 9 41 o n l y o n e o f f ic e r o n t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t

s t a f f h a d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e e x p e r ie n c e in t h e p r e v i o u s

w a r .D u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I, m o s t o f t h e A r m y ' s o p e r a t i o n a l

w o r k i n p s y c h o l o g ic a l w a r f a r e t o o k p l a c e at t h e t h e a t e r l ev el ,

w h e r e th e r e s p o n s i b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s n o r m a l l y d e s i g n a t e d a

P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e B r a n c h ( P W B ) . T h e la r ge s t o f t h e se ,

t he P W B a t A l li e d F o rc e s H e a d q u a r t e rs ( P W B / A F H Q ) , w a s

a c t i v a t e d i n N o r t h A f r i c a i n N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 2 a t t h e o r d e r o f

G e n e r a l D w i g h t D . E i s e n h o w e r , a n d t h e n e x p a n d e d i n

F e b r u a r y 1 94 4 t o th e P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e D i v i s io n ,S u p r e m e H e a d q u a r t e r s , A l l i e d E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e

( P W D / S H A E F ) . P W D / S H A E F d e fi n e d p sy c h o l o g i c a l w a r-

f ar e a s " t h e d i ss e m i n a t io n o f p r o p a g a n d a d e s i g n e d t o u n d e r -

m i n e t h e e n e m y ' s w i l l t o r e s i s t , d e m o r a l i z e h i s f o r c e s a n d

s u s t a i n t h e m o r a l e o f o u r s u p p o r t e r s . "

T h e b a s i c A r m y f i e l d o p e r a t i n g u n i t f o r t a c t i c a l

p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e w a s t h e M o b i l e R a d i o B r o a d c a s t i n g

( M R B ) c o m p a n y . T h e e q u i p m e n t f o r t h e s e u n i t s w a s u n l i k e

a n y t h i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l s o ld ie rs h a d s ee n in t h e f i e l d - p u b l i c

a d d r e s s s y s te m s , r a d i o s , m o n i t o r i n g se ts , lo u d s p e a k e r s ,

t y p e w r i t e r s , m o b i l e p r i n t i n g p r e s s e s , a n d l e a f l e t b o m b s .

( R a d i o l a t e r b e c a m e a n e s s e n t i a l l y s t r a t e g i c w e a p o n t h a t h a d



M I L I T A R Y P S Y O P 4 7

n o p l a c e i n a p u r e l y ta c t ic a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l u n i t . ) M R B u n i t s

w e r e u s u a l l y d i v i d e d b y t h e s e p a r a t e A r m y g r o u p s a n d f i e l d

a r m i e s i n t o s m a l l t e a m s , o f t e n t o w o r k i n d i r e c t s u p p o r t o f

f r o n t l in e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o m b a t u n i ts . F iv e s u c h c o m p a n i e s

e v e n tu a l l y s erv e d u n d e r P W D / S H A E F . A l t h o u g h th e se u n it s

w e r e t h e r e s u l t o f i m p r o v i s a t i o n in 19 43 a n d 1 94 4, t h e d o c -

t ri na l a n d o r g a n i z a t io n a l c o n c e p t s th e y e m b o d i e d r e a p p e a r e d

in t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l w a r f a re u n i t s f o r m e d d u r i n g t h e K o r e a n

c o n f l i c t .

D u r i n g 1 9 4 5 -4 6 , A r m y p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e s t a ff s a n du n i t s d i s s i p a t e d w i t h t h e g e n e r a l d e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e

m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t . D e s p i t e t h e e f f o r t s o f a f e w s e n i o r

c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s t o r e t a i n a m i l i t a r y P S Y O P

c a p a b i l it y , w h e n t h e N o r t h K o r e a n s a t t a c k e d S o u t h K o r e a i n

J u n e 1950 , t h e T a c ti ca l I n f o r m a t i o n D e t a c h m e n t - - o r g a n i z e d

a t F o r t R i l e y , K a n s a s , in 1 9 4 7 - - w a s th e o n l y o p e r a t i o n a l

p s y c h o l o g ic a l w a r f a r e t r o o p u n i t in t h e U S A r m y . S e n t t o

K o r e a i n t h e f al l o f 1 95 0, th e d e t a c h m e n t w a s r e o r g a n i z e d a st h e 1 st L o u d s p e a k e r a n d L e a f le t ( L & L ) C o m p a n y a n d s e r ve d

a s t h e 8 th A r m y ' s ta c ti ca l p r o p a g a n d a u n i t t h r o u g h o u t t h e

c o n f li c t . T a c t ic a l p r o p a g a n d a , s o m e t i m e s c a ll ed c o m b a t

p r o p a g a n d a , w a s d i r e c t e d a t a sp e c if ic a u d i e n c e in t h e f o r -

w a r d b a t t le a r e a s a n d u s e d in s u p p o r t o f l o c al iz e d o p e r a t i o n s .

M o b i le l o u d s p e a k e r s m o u n t e d o n v e hi cle s a n d a i rc r a ft

b e c a m e a p r i m a r y m e a n s o f c o n d u c t i n g ta c ti c a l p r o p a g a n d a

o p e r a t i o n s in K o r e a .T o c o n d u c t f u l l - s c a l e s t r a t e g i c o p e r a t i o n s , t h e 1 s t R a d i o

B r o a d c a s t i n g a n d L e a f l e t ( R B & L ) G r o u p w a s o r g a n i z e d a t

F o r t R i le y a n d s h i p p e d t o K o r e a in J u l y 1 95 1. T h e 1 st R B & L

G r o u p w a s s p e c if ic a l l y d e s i g n e d to c o n d u c t s t r at e g ic p r o p -

a g a n d a in d ir e c t s u p p o r t o f m i l i ta r y o p e r a t i o n s . S t r a te g i c

p r o p a g a n d a w a s in t e n d e d t o f u r t h e r l o n g - t e r m st ra te g ic a i m s

a n d w a s d ir e c te d a t e n e m y fo r ce s , p o p u l a t i o n s , a n d e n e m y -

o c c u p i e d a r e as . T o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e t a s k s t h e 1st R B & L

G r o u p h a d t h e e q u i p m e n t a n d c a p a b i l it y t o p r o d u c e

n e w s p a p e r s a n d l e a f l e t s a n d t o a u g m e n t o r r e p l a c e o t h e r

m e a n s o f b ro a d c a s t in g r a d io p r o p a g a n d a . T h e g r o u p s u p e r-

v is e d a r a d i o s t a t io n n e t w o r k k n o w n a s T h e V o i c e o f t h e



4 8 P A D D O C K

U n i te d N a t io n s a n d o f t e n p r o d u c e d m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 m i ll io n

p r o p a g a n d a l ea f le t s a w e e k t o b e d i s s e m i n a t e d b y a i r c ra f t o r

b y s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d a r t i l l e r y s h e l l s . T h e l e a f l e t s e x p r e s s e d

v a r io u s t h e m e s . S o m e , f o r e x a m p l e , o f f e r e d in d u c e m e n t s f o r

e n e m y s o l d i e r s t o s u r r e n d e r ; o t h e r s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b o l s t e r

t h e m o r a l e o f K o r e a n c iv il ia ns b y p r o c la i m i n g U N s u p p o r t .

A l t h o u g h th e R B & L G r o u p w a s a c o n c e p t a c c e le r a te d to

m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e K o r e a n c o n f l i c t , i t p e r f o r m e d

f u n c t io n s s i m i l ar to t h o s e d e e m e d n e c e s s ar y to t h e c o n d u c t o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e i n W o r l d W a r I I. I t s M o b i l e R a d i oB r o a d c a s t i n g (M R B ) C o m p a n y b o r e a d ir ec t a n c es tr a l l i n k ag e

w i t h t h e m o b i l e r a d i o b r o a d c a s t i n g c o m p a n i e s f o r m e d u n d e r

P W D / S H A E F to c o n d u c t p r o p a g a n d a o p e r a t i o n s in N o r t h

A f r i c a a n d t h e E u r o p e a n t h e a t e r d u r i n g 1 9 4 4 - 4 5 . B o t h t h e

s tr at e g ic p r o p a g a n d a c o n c e p t e m b o d i e d in th e R B & L G r o u p

a n d t h e ta c tic a l p r o p a g a n d a i d e a e x p re s s ed b y t h e L & L C o m -

p a n y w e r e t o f i g u r e p r o m i n e n t l y in th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e

c a p a b i l it y s u b s e q u e n t l y f o r m e d a s p a r t o f t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a lW a r f a r e C e n t e r i n 1 9 5 2 .

A s o r i g in a l ly e s t a b l i s h e d a t F o r t B r a g g , N o r t h C a r o l i n a ,

t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e C e n t e r c o n s i s te d o f a P s y c h o -

l og i ca l W a r f a r e S c h o o l , t h e 6 t h R a d i o a n d B r o a d c a s t i n g

G r o u p , a P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e B o a r d , a n d t h e 1 0 th S p e c i al

F o r c es G r o u p . T h e m i ss io n o f th is u n p r e c e d e n t e d c e n te r w a s

to c on du ct ind iv idua l tr a in ing and superv ise un i t t r a in ing inPsycho log ica l War fare and Spec ia l Forces opera t ions ; t o

develop and t es t Psycho log ica l W ar fare and Spec ia l Forces

doct r ine , p rocedures , t ac t i cs , and t echn iques ; t o t es t and

ev a l u a t e eq u i p men t emp l o y ed i n Psy ch o l o g i ca l War f a r e

and Spec ia l Forces Opera t ions .

A f t e r a n i n i t i a l b u r s t o f a c t i v i t y f u e l e d b y t h e K o r e a n

c o n f l ic t a n d f e ar s o v e r a p o s s ib l e o u t b r e a k o f w a r in E u r o p e ,

i n t e r e s t i n t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e C e n t e r b e g a n t o

d i s s ip a t e . I n 19 56 its t it le w a s c h a n g e d t o t h e S p e c i a l W a r f a r e

C e n t e r , a n d b y t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s t h e A r m y ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s c a p a b i l i t y h a d e r o d e d .




I n d e e d , t h e r e w a s a n i n s u f f ic i e n t b a s e o f P S Y O P - t r a i n e d

o f fi c er s t o c al l u p o n w h e n t h e 6 t h P S Y O P B a t t a l io n w a s ac -t i v a te d i n V i e t n a m i n 1 9 65 . B y 19 67 t h e A r m y ' s P S Y O P

f o r c e s i n V i e t n a m h a d b e e n e x p a n d e d t o a g r o u p ( t h e 4 t h )

w i t h f o u r b a t t a l i o n s , o n e i n e a c h o f t h e f o u r C o r p s T a c t i c a l

Z o n e s ( C T Z ) . T h e g r o u p w a s u n d e r th e c o n t ro l o f t h e C o m -

m a n d e r , U S M i l it ar y A s s is ta n c e C o m m a n d , V i e tn a m ( C O M -

U S M A C V ) , w i th th e J -3 ' s P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a t i o n s D i v is io n

e x e rc is in g d i re c t s t a f f su p e r v i s io n . T h e J o i n t U S P u b l i c A f -

f a ir s O f f i ce ( J U S P A O ) p r o v i d e d U S P S Y O P p o l i cy g u i d a n c en o t o n l y t o t h e c i v i l i a n a g e n c i e s b u t a l s o t h r o u g h C O M -

U S M A C V t o a ll m i l i ta ry P S Y O P e le m e n ts .

I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g t a c ti c a l s u p p o r t t o f ie ld f o r c e

c o m m a n d e r s , th e 4 th P S Y O P G r o u p a ss is te d t h e S o u t h V ie t-

n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t in its c o m m u n i c a t i o n e ff o r t d o w n t o t h e

h a m l e t l e v e l . T h e g r o u p h e a d q u a r t e r s o p e r a t e d a 5 0 , 0 0 0 - w a t t

r a d i o s t a t i o n a n d h i g h - s p e e d h e a v y p r i n t i n g p re s se s , p u b -

l is h ed a m a g a z i n e f o r V i e t n a m e s e e m p l o y e e s w o r k i n g f o r U Sg o v e r n m e n t a n d c iv il ia n a g e n c ie s , a n d h a d a c a p a b i li t y f o r

r e se a rc h i n g a n d d e v e l o p i n g p r o p a g a n d a m a t er ia l s .

P S Y O P b a t t a l i o n s h a d l i g h t p r i n t i n g p r e s s e s , a r e s e a r c h

a n d p r o p a g a n d a d e v e l o p m e n t c a p ab i l it y , p e r s o n n e l t o w o r k

w i t h t h e U S A i r F o r c e S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s u n i t s f o r a e r i a l

l e a f l e t a n d l o u d s p e a k e r m i s s i o n s , a n d g r o u n d l o u d s p e a k e r

a n d a u d i o v i s u a l t e a m s . L o u d s p e a k e r a n d a u d i o v i s u a l t e a m s

o p e r a t e d w i t h U S d i v i si o n s a n d b r i g a d e s o r w i t h p r o v i n c e a d -v is o ry t ea m s . T h e 7 th P S Y O P G r o u p in O k i n a w a p r o v i d e d

v a l u a b l e b a c k u p s u p p o r t i n p r i n t i n g a n d h i g h - a l t i t u d e l e a f l e t

d i s s e m i n a t i o n .

D u r i n g t h e h e i g h t o f U S i n v o l v e m e n t in S o u t h e a s t A s ia ,

t h e A r m y s t a t io n e d P S Y O P u n i t s at F o r t B r ag g , N o r t h

C a r o l i n a , a n d in G e r m a n y , P a n a m a , a n d O k i n a w a as w e ll a st h e 4 th P S Y O P G r o u p in th e R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n am . B y t h e

m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , h o w e v e r , a l l t h a t r e m a i n e d i n t h e a c t i v e c o m p o -n e n t w a s a n u n d e r s t r e n g t h g r o u p a t F o r t B r a g g w i th a n t i -

q u a t e d e q u i p m e n t - a c o n d i t i o n t ha t d i d n o t i m p r o v e

s i g n i f i c a n t l y f o r t e n y e a r s .

T h e m i d -1 9 8 0s sa w a n u p t u r n f o r t h e f o r tu n e s o f P S Y O P .

I n r e s p o n s e t o a p r e s i d e n t i a l d i r e c t i v e , t h e s e c r e t a r y o f



50 PADDOCK

d e f e n s e l a u n c h e d a m a j o r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d e p a r t m e n t ' s

c a p a b il it ie s a n d n e e d s i n t h e a r e a o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s .

T h i s e v a l u a t i o n c o n c l u d e d t h a t m i l i ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s c a p a b i l i t i e s h a d b e e n a l l o w e d t o a t r o p h y o v e r t h e p a s t

d e c a d e - a c o n c lu s io n r ea c he d by m a n y in t he P S Y O P c o m -

m u n i t y w ell b e f o r e t h is t i m e , b u t n o t b y s e n i o r p o l i c y m a k e r s .

A c r o s s t h e b o a r d d e f ic i e n ci e s h a d d e v e l o p e d in p o l i c y

g u i d a n c e , r o l e s a n d m i s s i o n s , d o c t r i n e , o r g a n i z a t i o n , f o r c e

s t r u c t u r e , o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s , p l a n n i n g , p r o g r a m m i n g ,

t r a i n i n g , l o g is ti c s, in t e l li g e n c e s u p p o r t , r e a d i n e s s , p e r s o n n e lp r o g ra m s , a n d - m o s t i m p o r t a n t - a t t it ud e , u n d e r s c o ri n g t he

n e e d f o r e d u c a t i o n a n d h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s a t a ll le ve ls o f

m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n .

T h e v e h i c le th a t t h e s e c r e t a r y o f d e f e n s e e l e c te d to u s e a s

a f r a m e w o r k f o r t h e re b u i ld i n g o f m i l it a ry P S Y O P

c a pa b il it ie s w a s d e v e l o p m e n t o f a D O D P S Y O P m a s t e r p la n .

A p p r o v e d b y t h e s e c r e ta r y in m i d -1 9 8 5 , t h e p l a n i s t o s e r v e a s

a c o m p r e h e n s i v e f r a m e w o r k f o r th e p h a se d , f u n d a m e n t a lr e v it a l iz a ti o n a n d i m p r o v e m e n t o f th e d e p a r t m e n t ' s

c a p a b il it ie s t o e m p l o y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s e f fe c ti v e ly ,

w o r l d w i d e , i n s u p p o r t o f n a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s i n p e a c e a n d

c r i s i s a nd a t a l l l e ve l s o f c on f l i c t .

The Essential Themes of Revitalization

A n y p l a n f o r r e v i t a l i z i n g P S Y O P m u s t a d d r e s s t w o

b r o a d r e q u i r e m e n t s : h o w t o d e v e l o p t h e c a p a b il i t y f o r w a r

a n d h o w t o p r e p a r e f o r c o n t in g e n c i e s s h o r t o f w a r . T h e r e-

q u i r e m e n t t o p re p a r e fo r w a r - a n d t h e t ra n s it io n f r o m p e ac e

t o c o n f l i c t - m u s t r e m a i n o u r f i r s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , b u t t h ec h a ll en g e f or t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e t o c o n t r i b u t e t o o u r

n a t i o n ' s p e a c e t i m e " w a r o f i d e a s " w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i s

g r o w i n g i n i m p o r t a n c e . T h e m a s t e r p l a n a d d r e s s e s t h e s e t w o

r e q u i r e m e n t s .

U n d e r n e a t h t h is u m b r e l l a , t h e p l a n s p e ci fi es a n u m b e r o fr em e d ia l a c t i o n s - - o v e r t w o h u n d r e d , in f a c t - t o b e im p l e-

m e n t e d o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s . T h e s e e m b o d y s e v e r a l e s s e n t i a l

t h e m e s .



MI L I T A R Y P SY O P 51

T h e f ir st is t h e n e e d t o d e v e l o p c o m p r e h e n s i v e j o i n t d o c -

t r i n e f o r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n , d i r e c t i o n , c o o r d i n a t i o n , a n d c o n -d u c t o f P S Y O P i n p e a c e , c r is is , a n d w a r . I n e f f e c t , t h i s

s h o u l d p r o v i d e t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r t h e re v i ta l iz a t io n e f f o r t .

A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e d o c t r in e s h o u l d e n u n c i a t e th e f u n c -

t i o n o f P S Y O P a s a f o r c e m u l t i p l i e r i n a ll t y p e s o f m i l it a r y ac -

t i v i t y , e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k f o r p l a n n i n g a n d

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , a n d d e l i n e a t e r o l e s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f

t h e s e v er al c o m p o n e n t s . T h e j o i n t s t a f f a n d t h e s e rv ic es a r e

c u r r e n tl y h a m m e r i n g o u t a d r a f t o f th is m u c h - n e e d e d a n dl o n g - o v e r d u e d o c t r in e .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d o c t r i n e m u s t b e p ar a ll e le d b y m a -

j o r i m p r o v e m e n t s in P S Y O P p l a n n i n g - a n o t h e r e ss en ti a l

t h e m e . T h e r e is i n s u f f ic i e n t h u m a n t a l e n t d e v o t e d t o f ul l -

t im e , m e a n i n g f u l , s u s t a i n e d P S Y O P p l a n n i n g at a p p r o p r i a t e

s t a f f le v el s, a l t h o u g h w e ' v e s e en s o m e e v i d e n c e o f p r o g r e s s o n

t h is m a j o r d e f i c i en c y . C r e a t i o n o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

d i r e c t o r a t e , t h e f i r s t s u c h o f f i c e t o e x i s t i n t h e O f f i c e o f t h eS e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e ( O S D ) i n o v e r t w e n t y y e a r s , is a n i n d i c a -

t i o n o f t h e s e r io u s n e s s w i th w h i c h t h e s e c r e ta r y is u n d e r t a k i n g

t h is r e v it a li z a ti o n e f f o r t . T h e P S Y O P s t a f f e l e m e n t in t h e O f -

f ic e o f t h e J o i n t C h i e fs o f S t a f f ( O J C S ) h a s b e en u p g r a d e d

f r o m a b r a n c h t o a d iv i s io n a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d w i t h t w o a d d i -

t i o n a l s t a f f o f f i ce r s l o t s - n o s m a l l f e at in th e c u r r e n t e n v i r o n -

m e n t . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y s t a f f h a s c re a te d a pr o v i-

s i o n a l P S Y O P d i v i s i o n , w h e r e b e f o r e o n l y o n e o f f i c e r w a sd e v o t e d f u l l- t i m e t o t h i s a ct iv i ty . A m o n g t h e u n i f ie d c o m -

m a n d s , U S S O U T H C O M h a s c re a t ed a 2 7 -m a n P S Y O P

d e t a c h m e n t t o a u g m e n t i t s s t a f f c a p a b i l i t y .

M u c h m o r e r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e in th is a re a , h o w e v e r .

P e r h a p s t h e k e y r e q u i r e m e n t i s t h a t s t a f f o f f i c e r s b e t r a i n e d

f o r m a l l y i n t h i s s p e c i a l i z e d a r e a , a n d t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s b e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c o u r s e o f a c -

t io n in a n y p l a n . A f ew i n n o v a t i v e a n d r e s o u r c e f u l s t a f f o f -

f i c e r s c a n m a k e a v a s t d i f f e r e n c e , i f p o s i t i o n e d s o a s t o h a v e

a c c e s s t o a c o m m a n d ' s m a j o r p l a n n i n g a c t i v i t i e s . T h e n e w

J o i n t P S Y O P S t a f f P l a n n i n g C o u r s e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d b y t h e

A r m y s h o u l d g o a l o n g w a y t o w a r d h e l p in g t o p r o v i d e th e

t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l r e q u i r e d i n a l l s e r v i c e s .



52 PADDOCK

D e v e l o p m e n t o f a d e q u a t e n u m b e r s o f P S Y O P p l an n e rs

is a n a r e a w h e r e t h e A i r F o r c e , N a v y , a n d M a r i n e C o r p s c a nm a k e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s e c re ta r y o f d e fe n s e ' s

r e v i t a li z a ti o n e f f o r t . T h e c o n d u c t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

is n o t t h e e x c lu s iv e d o m a i n o f s p e c i a li z ed u n i t s s u c h a s t h o s e

i n th e A r m y . O v e r t h e n e a r t e r m , i t is n o t l ik e ly t h a t t h e o t h e r

s e r v i c e s w i l l o p t t o f i e l d n e w P S Y O P u n i t s . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , t h e r e is e v e r y r e a s o n t o e x p e c t t h o s e s e r v ic e s t o d e v e l o p

f u ll y q u a l if e d P S Y O P p l a n n e rs t o m e e t t h ei r o w n n e e d s a n d

t o p r o v i d e t h ei r p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a re o f p l a n n e r s o n j o i n ts t a f f s .

A m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d P S Y O P p l a n n i n g c ap a b il it y w o u l d

a l lo w t h e s e rv i ce s t o m o r e e f f e c ti v e ly u ti li ze " p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a c t i o n s , " t h o s e a c t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e i r

p s y ch o lo g ic a l e f f e c t - s o m e t i m e s c al le d " p r o p a g a n d a o f t h e

d e e d . " T h e s e a ct iv i t ie s d o n o t n o r m a l l y i n v o l v e t h e u s e o f

p r i n t e d o r a u d i o v is u a l m e d i a t o d i s s e m i n a te t h e p r o p a g a n d a

m e s s a g e , b u t a r e a c t i o n s p l a n n e d t o h a v e a p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m -p a c t . E x p l o i t a t i o n o f m i l i ta r y ex e rc is es , d e p l o y m e n t o f

m i l i t a r y f o r c e s , c o n t a c t w i t h f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s t h r o u g h p o r t

v i si ts a n d c iv ic a c t io n , a n d s p e c if ic t y p e s o f c o m b a t o p e r a -

t i o n s a r e e x a m p l e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a c t i o n s t h a t a r e p o s s ib l e

w i t h p r o p e r l y t r a i n e d P S Y O P p l a n n e r s t o a d v i s e m i l i t a r y

c o m m a n d e r s .

C l o s e l y r e l a t e d i s t h e n e e d t o e d u c a t e o u r o f f i c e r c o r p s

o n p s y c h o lo g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s - a t h ir d th e m e . A s in d i c a t e de a rl ie r, t h e r o o t c a u s e o f t h e a t r o p h y o f o u r m i l i ta r y P S Y O P

c a p a b il it ie s h a s b e e n l ac k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s , t h e i r v a l u e , a n d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n . W e h a v e s e e n

s o m e i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h is c ri ti c al a re a a s a r e s u lt o f f r e q u e n t

b r ie f in g s o f s e n io r c o m m a n d e r s a n d s t a f f o f fi ce r s b y P S Y O P

p e r s o n n e l , t h e p r o f e s s io n a l i s m o f P S Y O P u n i t s in c o n t in g e n -

c y p l a n n i n g a n d s u p p o r t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r c e s o n j o i n t

t r a i n i n g e x e rc is e s, a n d t h e s t e a d y i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e q u a l i t yo f P S Y O P s tu d i es a n d a s s e s sm e n t s in s u p p o r t o f t h e u n i f i e d

c o m m a n d s a n d n a t i o n a l - l e v e l a g e n c i e s ( t h e l a s t a i d e d c o n -

s i d e r a b l y b y t h e i n c r e a s e d h i r i n g o f h i g h - q u a l i t y c i v i l i a n i n -

t e l l i g e n c e a n a l y s t s ) .




Certainly, the PSYOP courses currently being presented

or developed by both the Air Force and the Army will helpaddress the deficiences in this area o f PSYOP awareness and

understanding. The Air Force's new Joint Senior Psycho-

logical Operations Course, conducted four times a year by

their Special Operations School at Hurlburt Field, Florida,

provides selected senior officers and civilians with an

awareness of how psychological operations can support US

national objectives throughout the spectrum o f conflict. This

short course, in particular, shows considerable promise as aneducational tool.

But as was the case before the Vietnam conflict, PSYOP

instruction in our mainstream service school system--where

our future commanders and staff officers are trained-is

limited or nonexistent. Its absence not only makes the

PSYOP community's job more difficult in educating sup-

ported units on the capabilities and limitations of this unique

weapons system but also quite naturally has a negative effectwhen priorities concerning force modern ization are being set.

To address this loss of PSYOP institutional memory, the

under secretary of defense for policy sent letters to comma n-

dants of the senior service and command and staff colleges,

emphasizing the secretary of defense's intention to revitalize

our military PSYOP capabilities and offering a presentation

by OSD during the 1986-87 school year. The presentation

provided an overview of national policy and organization forinternational information and psychological operations, cur-

rent PSYOP capabilities, and the secretary's plan for

revitalizing these capabilities. The intent was to stimulate in-

terest in more extensive treatment o f PSYOP in service school

curricula. To accomplish this, the Army is developing a cur-

riculum package that can be offered to the services. This is

just a st ar t- bu t an important one none the les s-i f under-

standing of PSYOP is to be institutionalized for the longhaul.

The next broad theme encompasses the need to modern-

ize our PSYOP force structure, in terms of both personnel

and equipment. Not surprisingly, a considerable shortfall in



54 P A D D O C K

P S Y O P f o r c e s e x i s t s . T h e N a v y h a s a r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n

p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y in i ts r es e r ve s t h a t is v e r y g o o d , p l u s a

1 0 K W m o b i l e r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r a s s i g n e d t o i t s T a c t i c a l

D e c e p t i o n G r o u p ( A t l a n t i c ) , w h i c h c a n b e u s e d t o s u p p o r t

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a c t iv i ti es . T h e A i r F o r c e h a s a N a -

t i o n a l G u a r d s q u a d r o n o f s p ec ia l l y f i t te d C - 1 3 0 a i rc r a ft f o r

s u p p o r t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a s w ell a s o t h e r d u t i e s ; i t

a ls o h a s a h a n d f u l o f o f f ic e r s w i t h P S Y O P e x p e rt is e se r v in g

i n k e y p o s i t i o n s i n t h e P e n t a g o n , a m o n g t h e u n i f i e d c o m -

m a n d s , a n d a t th e i r S p e c ia l O p e r a t i o n s S c h o o l a t H u r l b u r tF i e ld , F l o r i d a . T h e M a r i n e C o r p s h a s t w o c iv il a f f a ir s g r o u p s

i n it s r e se r v es w i t h P S Y O P a s a s e c o n d a r y m i s s i o n . O n l y th e

A r m y , h o w e v e r , h a s a c t iv e d u t y f o r ce s d e d i c a t e d s o le ly to

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s .

T h e 4 t h P s y c h o l o g i ca l O p e r a t i o n s G r o u p a t F o r t B r a g g,

N o r t h C a r o l in a , is w h a t r e m a i n s o f th e A r m y ' s ac ti ve P S Y O P

c a p a b i li ty f o l l o w i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' w i t h d r a w a l f r o m V i et -

n a m . T o d a y i t s m i s s i o n s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e m a n y a n dw o r l d w i d e in n a t u r e . T h e g r o u p p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t t o a ll le ve ls

o f t he D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f en s e, f r o m t h e u n i fi ed c o m m a n d

t h r o u g h t h e d iv i s io n , a n d t o b o t h c o n v e n t i o n a l fo r c es a n d

s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s f o r c e s . I n a d d i t i o n i t i s o f t e n c a l l e d u p o n

t o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t d i r e c tl y t o n a t i o n a l - le v e l a g e n ci e s a n d

o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I f a n y o n e m i l it a r y u n i t c a n b e a d j u d g e d a " n a -

t io n a l a s s e t ," s u r e ly th e 4 t h P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a t i o n s G r o u p

f i t s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t .

A c t i v i t ie s a n d W e a k n e s s e s

E s s e n t i a ll y , a m i l i t a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s u n i t e n -

g a g e s in t w o b r o a d c a t e g o r ie s o f a c t iv i ty : r e s e a r c h a n d

a n a l y si s , a n d o p e r a t i o n s . T h e f ir s t a c t iv i ty co n s i s t s o f c o n -

t i n u o u s m o n i t o r i n g a n d a s se s si ng o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e n -v i r o n m e n t in s p e ci fi c f o re i g n n a t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e ir

e n v i r o n m e n t a ff ec ts t h e f o r m u l a t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n o f U S

p o l i c i e s a n d a c t i o n s . T h i s r e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s i n t h e

p u b l i c a t i o n o f u n i q u e s t u d i es a n d a s s e ss m e n t s . T h e s e s t u d i e s



MIL ITA R Y PSYO P 55

a n d a s s e s s m e n t s p r o v i d e t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o b j e c ti v e s t o s u p p o r t U S g o a l s a s t h e y r e l a t e t of o r e i g n n a t i o n s o r g r o u p s . R e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y s i s i s t h e r e f o r e

e s se n ti a l t o th e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f th e s e c o n d b r o a d c a t e g o r y

o f a c t i v i t y , n a m e l y , t h e p l a n n i n g a n d e x e c u t i n g o f s p e c i f i c

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s c a m p a i g n s , w h i c h e m p l o y c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n s m e d i a a n d o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s t o c a u s e s e l e c t e d

f o r e ig n g r o u p s a n d i n d i v id u a l s t o b e h a v e i n w a y s t h a t s u p p o r t

U S n a t i o n a l a n d m i li ta r y o b j e c ti v e s .

T h u s a m i l i ta r y P S Y O P u n i t in p e a c e t im e c o n d u c t sr e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y s i s o f s p e c i f i c g e o g r a p h i c r e g i o n s a n d

t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s , d e v e l o p s P S Y O P p l a n s t o s u p p o r t c o n v e n -

t i o n a l a n d s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s u n i t s , a n d p a r t i c i p a t e s i n f i e l d

e x e r c i s e s t h a t e m p l o y t h e s e p l a n s . B e c a u s e o f t h e p a u c i t y o f

P S Y O P e x p e r t i s e a t u n i f i e d c o m m a n d s , t h e 4 t h G r o u p a l s o

p r o v i d e s s t a f f a s s i s t a n c e a n d a d v i c e t o t h o s e h e a d q u a r t e r s

a n d t o o t h e r m a j o r c o m m a n d s .

I t s h o u l d b e e m i n e n t l y c l ea r f r o m t h e f o r e g o i n g t h a t o n ea c t i v e d u t y P S Y O P o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f a g r o u p h e a d -

q u a r t e r s , f o u r re g i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d b a t t a l i o n s , a n d a s tr a t e g ic

d i s s e m i n a t i o n c o m p a n y w i t h p r i n t i n g , r a d i o , a n d t e l e v i s i o n

p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a l l u n i f i e dc o m m a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s i n m i d - o r h i g h - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t .

T h e r es er ve s ar e t h e r ef o r e a v ita l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e " P S Y O P

c o m m u n i t y " : f u l l y 8 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e A r m y ' s P S Y O P

m o b i l i z a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y l i e s i n i t s r e s e r v e c o m p o n e n t ( R C )u n its . S e r vi ng a s t h e A r m y ' s F o r c e s C o m m a n d ( F O R S C O M )

p l an n i n g ag e n t u n d e r th e C A P S T O N E p r o g r a m ( w h ic h l in k s

R C u n i ts w i th t h e u n i ts th e y w o u l d s u p p o r t u p o n m o b i l iz a -

t io n ) , t h e 4 t h G r o u p c o o r d i n a t e s w i th w a r t i m e p l a n n i n g e f -

f o r t s o f R C u n i t s a n d p r o v i d e s t r a i n i n g a s s i s t a n c e .

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e n , t h e a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t 4 t h

P S Y O P G r o u p a c t s a s a " s t r a t e g i c n u c l e u s " f o r t h e P S Y O P

c o m m u n i t y ; i t p r o v i d e s t h e b u l k o f p e a c e t i m e r e s e a r c h a n da n a ly s is s u p p o r t , r e s p o n d s t o p e a c e t i m e a n d l o w - i n t e n s it y

c o n f l i c t r e q u i r e m e n t s , p r o v i d e s d i r e c t io n a n d g u i d a n c e to t h e

P S Y O P c o m m u n i t y fo r w a r t i m e p l a n n in g a n d p a r ti c i p at io n

i n p e a c e t i m e e x e r c i s e s , a n d p r o v i d e s t h e a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t



56 PADDOCK

c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l n u c l e u s fo r g e n er a l o r p a r t i a l m o b i l iz a -

t i o n o f r e s e r v e c o m p o n e n t f o r c e s . T h e r e s e r v e c o m p o n e n t

p e r f o r m s i t s p l a n n i n g a n d t r a i n i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s u n d e r t h e

C A P S T O N E p r o g r a m a n d p r e pa r es f or g e n er a l o r p ar ti a l

m o b i l iz a t io n in s u p p o r t o f t h e u n i f ie d c o m m a n d s .

P a r ad o x ic a ll y , t h e su c ce ss fu l C A P S T O N E p r o g r a m

u n d e rs c o re s o n e o f t h e P S Y O P c o m m u n i t y ' s m o s t g l a ri ng

w e a k n e s s e s: i ts l im i te d c a p a b il i ty t o r e s p o n d t o p e a c e t i m e a n d

l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t r e q u i r e m e n t s . A s h a s b e e n s t a t e d , f o r

m i d - o r h i g h - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t r e q u i r e m e n t s , e i t h e r p a r t i a l o rg e n e r a l m o b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v e c o m p o n e n t i s r e q u i r e d .

C o n v e r s e l y , t h e a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t m u s t b e r e l i e d u p o n f o r

a l m o s t a ll p e a c e t i m e a n d l o w - i n te n s i ty c o n f li c t r e q u i r e m e n t s .

T h e s e a r e i n c r e a si n g in s c o p e , a n d m a n y o b s e r v e rs s e e t h e m

a s t h e m o r e l ik e ly t h r e a t s t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a b i li ty d u r i n g t h e

1 98 0s. T h e m o s t p r o b a b l e d e m a n d s o n P S Y O P r e so u r ce s in

t hi s e n v i r o n m e n t w il l b e f o r s u p p o r t o f th e D e p a r t m e n t o f

D e f e n s e (D O D ) a n d n o n - D O D a g e n ci e s, s t a f f a s s is t an c e t ou n i f i e d c o m m a n d s , u n s c h e d u l e d s tu d ie s a n d a s s es s m e n ts c o n -

c e r n i n g c r i s i s a r e a s , a n d a d v i s o r y M o b i l e T r a i n i n g T e a m s

( M T T s ) f o r t h e m i l i ta r y f o r ce s o f f r i e n d l y T h i r d W o r l d n a -

t io n s . T h e s e d e m a n d s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e v it al t a s k o f c o n t i n u -

i n g to p l a n a n d t ra i n f o r m i d - a n d h i g h - i n t e n s i ty c o n t i n g e n -

c ie s, w i ll s t ra i n t o t h e u t m o s t t h e a c t iv e c o m p o n e n t 4 t h

P S Y O P G r o u p .

T h e A r m y is m a k i n g p r o g r e ss in b r in g i n g th e 4 t h P S Y O PG r o u p u p t o its a u t h o r i z e d s t r e n g t h , a f te r m a n y y e a rs o f

n e g l e c t i n t h i s a r e a . E v e n a t f u l l s t r e n g t h , h o w e v e r , t h i s i s a n

i n a d e q u a t e a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t f o r c e p o s t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

v i e w o f i n c r e a s i n g p e a c e t i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s b e i n g p l a c e d o n

t h e 4 th b y th e u n i f ie d c o m m a n d s a n d in s u p p o r t o f vi ta l

n a t i o n a l - l e v e l t a s k i n g s .

R e a l is t ic a ll y , t h e r e s e rv e c o m p o n e n t w il l c o n t i n u e t o p r o -

v i d e t h e b u l k o f o u r P S Y O P c a p a b i l i ty f o r m i d - o r h ig h -i n t en s i t y c o n f l ic t r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n r e s p o n s e t o a P S Y O P

m a s t e r p l a n t a s k i n g , t h e A r m y c o n d u c t e d a m a j o r s t u d y t o

d e t e r m i n e th e n u m b e r o f a d d i t io n a l r es er ve c o m p o n e n t u n i ts

n e e d e d t o m c c t th c s e c o n t i n g e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t s . A p p r o v e d b y



MILI TAR Y PSYOP 57

t h e c h i e f o f s t a f f i n O c t o b e r 1 98 6, t h e a c t i o n w i l l a d d o v e r

2 , 7 0 0 s p a c e s t o o u r R C m o b i l i z a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y i n t h e 1 9 9 0 s .

I n te r m s o f t h e q u a li ty o f P S Y O P p e r s o n n e l, t h e A r m y ' s

r e ce n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f a P S Y O P m i l it ar y o c c u p a t i o n a l

s p e c ia l ty ( M O S ) f o r e n l i st e d p e r s o n n e l is a w e l c o m e d e v e l o p -

m e n t . I n i t i a l r e p o r t s o f t h e h i g h q u a l i t y o f p e r s o n n e l b e i n g

t r a i n e d u n d e r t h i s n e w s p e c i a l t y a r e e n c o u r a g i n g .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e A r m y ' s d e c is io n to r e o r g a n i z e its

o f f i c e r P S Y O P M O S f r o m t h e f o r e i g n a r e a o f f i c e r ( F A O )

s p e c i a l t y t o t h e s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s f u n c t i o n a l a r e a i s v e r yd i s t u r b i n g . I f t h is d e c i s i o n s ti c k s, A r m y P S Y O P o f f i c e r s w i ll

r e c e i ve a s pe c ia l sk i ll i de n t i f i e r i n s pe c i a l op e ra t i on s , l um pi n g

t h e m w i t h s p e c i a l f o r c e s a n d c i v i l a f f a i r s . T h e s e t h r e e s k i l l s

l a c k a n y s i g n i f i c a n t c o m m o n a l i t y a n d a r e n o t i n t e r c h a n g e -

a b le ; t h e t ra i n i n g , e d u c a t i o n , a n d e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e

t h r e e a r e d i f f e r e n t f r o m e a c h o t h e r .

T h i s c h a n g e is p o t e n t i a l l y d i s a s t r o u s b e c a u s e it s e p a r a te s

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s f r o m t h e f o r e i g n a r e a o f f i c e rs p e c i a l t y t h a t p r o v i d e s i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e b l o o d . T h e c o r e o f

t h e a r e a e x p e r ti se , k n o w l e d g e o f f o r e i g n c u l t u r e s, a n d

a n a l y ti c c a p a b i li ty o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s is in t h e F A O

s p e c i al ty . L i k e i n t e ll ig e n c e , t h e s t r e n g t h o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

ope ra t i ons i s i n i t s pe op l e . Re pe a l o f t h i s de c i s i on i s e s s e n t i a l

i f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e t o b e r e v i t a l i z e d .

W i t h r e s p e c t t o m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f P S Y O P - i m p r o v e d

e q u i p m e n t , t h e re a r e m a n y e n c o u r a g i n g i ni ti at iv e s u n d e r w a y

in t h e A r m y . T h e 4 th P S Y O P G r o u p ' s n e w m e d i a p r o d u c t i o n

c e n t e r r e p r e s e n t s a q u a n t u m l e a p i n m i l i t a r y P S Y O P c a p a -

b il i ty to o p e r a t e i n a m o d e r n a u d i o v i su a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e n -

v i r o n m e n t . A n u m b e r o f o t h e r p r o m i s in g p r o je c t s t o u p g r a d e

a c t iv e a n d r e s e rv e c o m p o n e n t p r i n t , r a d i o , l o u d s p e a k e r , a n d

a u d i o v i s u a l c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e i n v a r i o u s s t a g e s o f p r o g r e s s a n d

m u s t b e f o l lo w e d u p v i g o r o u s l y . S i m i la r ly , t h e A i r F o r c e h a sa l l o c a te d f u n d s t o m o d e r n i z e its N a t i o n a l G u a r d a i r c ra f t

d e d i c at e d t o s u p p o r t o f P S Y O P .

A l l o f t h e s e r v i c e s , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o e s t a b l i s h a f u n d e d

p r o g r a m f o r P S Y O P - r e la t e d r e se a rc h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e



58 PADDOCK

A i r F o r c e , f o r e x a m p l e , n e e d s a d e v i c e t h a t c a n r a p i d l y

r e l e a s e l e a f l e t s i n h i g h - a l t i t u d e o p e r a t i o n s . A v i g o r o u s i n -

t er s er v ic e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a c q u i s it io n p r o g r a m a i m e d a t th e

l ik e ly e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e 1 9 90 s a n d t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f th e

r e a d y a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t e q u i p m e n t i n t h e c o m -

m e r c i a l m a r k e t w o u l d b e a s t e p i n t h e r i g h t d i r e c t i o n .

PSYOP and Special Operations

O n e o f t h e m o r e c o n t ro v e r s ia l t h e m e s o f th e m a s t e r p la n

i s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

f r o m s p e c ia l o p e r a t i o n s . I n g e n e r a l , th e c u r r e n t s u b o r d i n a -

t io n o f P S Y O P e l e m e n t s t o s pe c ia l o p e r a t i o n s d e t r a c ts f r o m

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s i n t i m e s o f p e a c e , c r i s i s , a n d w a r . T h e m a s t e r

p l a n , t h e r e f o r e , c a l l s f o r t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s f r o m s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e D e f e n s e

D e p a r t m e n t , i n c l u d i n g at d e p a r t m e n t a l le v el a n d a ll h e a d -

q u a r t e r s a n d s t a f f s o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f , t h e s e r v i c e s ,

t h e u n i f i e d a n d s p e c i f i e d c o m m a n d s , a n d c o m p o n e n t a n d

s u b o r d i n a t e c o m m a n d s . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f a v o r i n g

s e p a r a t i o n .

P l a n n i n g , p a r t i c u la r l y in t h e u n i f i e d a n d s p e c if ie d c o m -

m a n d s , h a s s u f f e r e d b e c a u s e t h e s i n g l e P S Y O P s t a f f p l a n n e r

is u s u a l l y l o c a t e d i n t h e s p e c ia l o p e r a t i o n s s t a f f e l e m e n t a n d is

o n l y e m p l o y e d p a r t - t im e i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s

s u b o r d i n a t i o n d e t r a c t s f r o m t h e b r o a d e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f

p l a n n i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s s u p p o r t f o r t h e th e a t e r 's

t o t a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e m i s s i o n s t h a t l i n k

m i l i t a r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d n a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s ,

p o l i c y , a n d s t r a t e g y a n d r e q u i r e i n - t h e a t e r i n t e r a g e n c y

c o o p e r a t i o n .

F u r t h e r , t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n su n i t s t o t h e s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s f i e l d , i n c l u d i n g i t s c o m m a n d

a n d s t a f f s t r u c t u r e , h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o m i l it a r y o f f i c e r s ' a n d

s e n i o r c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s ' l a c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d i t s u s e s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s . T h i s



MIL IT A R Y PS YOP 59

a s s o ci a ti o n a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n c a u se s m a n y t o c o n c l u d e th a t

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e f o c u s e d p r i m a r i l y in s u p p o r t o f

s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s m i s s i o n s .

I n d e e d , P S Y O P d o e s h av e a m i s s io n i n s u p p o r t o f

s p ec ia l o p e r a t i o n s , b o t h in th e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r f a r e e n -

v i r o n m e n t o f h i g h - i n te n s i ty c o n f li c t a n d a l s o in l o w - in t e n s it y

o p e r a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a ls o h a v e a

m u c h b r o a d e r a p p l i c a t i o n in p e a c e t i m e a n d c ris is , w i th o r

w i t h o u t a c c o m p a n y i n g m i l i ta r y o p e r a t i o n s , a n d a c ro s s t h e

e n t ir e s p e c t r u m o f c o n f l ic t . O n l y 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e A r m y ' s

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s f o r c e , a c t iv e a n d r e s e rv e , is

d e s i g n a t e d b y c u r r e n t c o n t i n g e n c y p l a n s to s u p p o r t s p e c ia l

o p e r a t i o n s f o r c e s i n w a r t i m e .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , t h e a r g u m e n t f o r s e p a r a t i o n o f

P S Y O P f r o m s p ec ia l o p e r a t i o n s is i m p l ic i t in t h e A r m y ' s a n d

J o i n t C h i e f s ' a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r w a r t i m e c o m m a n d a n d c o n -

t ro l o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . M o s t o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s f o rc e s in w a r t i m e a re a l ig n e d w i th a c h a i n o f c o m -

m a n d in t h e u n i f i e d c o m m a n d s t h a t is t o ta l ly s e p a r a te f r o m

s p e ci al o p e r a t i o n s f o rc e s . P S Y O P u n i ts a r e c o m b a t s u p p o r t

f o r c e s a n d a r e e m p l o y e d a t b o t h s t ra t e g ic a n d t a c t i c a l l ev e ls

f r o m t h e t h e a t e r t o t h e d i v i s io n as a m a t t e r o f r o u t i n e ; s p e c i a l

o p e r a t i o n s f o r c e s ar e e m p l o y e d p r i m a r i l y a s s t ra t e g ic a s s et s,

o n a n e x c e p t i o n a l b a s i s .

C o n t i n u e d s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s t o

s p e ci al o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d c a u s e m i li ta r y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s f o r c e s t o f o c u s t h e i r v e ry li m i t e d r e s o u r c e s in s u p p o r t o f

s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s t o t h e d e t r i m e n t , i n p a r t i c u l a r , o f t h e

r a p i d ly i n c re a s in g p e a c e t i m e ro l e o f m i li ta r y P S Y O P . F o r a ll

o f t h es e r e a so n s , i n cr e as e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d e m p l o y m e n t o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s lie s w i t h m i s s io n s o t h e r t h a n s p e c ia l

o p e r a t i o n s .

T h e r e i s a c e r t a i n i r o n y t o t h i s i s s u e o f P S Y O P a s s o c i a -

t io n w i t h s p e ci al o p e r a t i o n s w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s th e o r i g i n s o f

t h e A r m y ' s s p e c i a l f o r c e s . W i t h t h e i m p e t u s o f t h e K o r e a n

W a r , t h e h e i g h t e n i n g C o l d W a r t e n s i o n s , a n d t h e p e r si s te n t

p r e ss u re s o f S e c re ta ry o f t h e A r m y F r a n k P a c e , t h e A r m y

m o v e d i n la te 1 95 0 t o c r e a te a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d s t a f f o r g a n i z a -



60 PADDOCK

t io n in t h e P e n t a g o n - t h e O f f i c e o f t h e C h i e f o f P sy c h o -

l o gi ca l W a r f a r e ( O C P W ) . T h e f ir st h e a d o f th i s o r g a n i z a t i o n

w a s B r ig a d i er G e n e r a l R o b e r t A . M c C l u r e , w h o w a s G e n e r a l

E i s e n h o w e r 's c h i e f o f t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e D i v i s io n ,

S u p r e m e H e a d q u a r t e r s , A l l i ed E x p e d i t i o n a r y F o r c e

( P W D / S H A E F ) , a n d th u s e m e r g e d f r o m W o r l d W a r I I a s t h e

A r m y ' s f o r e m o s t e x p e r t i n t h i s n e w f i e l d .

W i t h P a c e 's s u p p o r t , B r i g a d ie r G e n e r a l M c C l u r e c r e a t e d

a s t a f f w i t h r e s p o n s i b i li t i e s f o r b o t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d u n -

c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r f a r e . I t w a s l a r g e ly a s a r e s u lt o f M c C l u r e ' s

s t a tu s a n d f o r e s ig h t t h a t t h e A r m y d e v e l o p e d its f ir st

c a p a b il it y to c o n d u c t u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r fa r e . T h e i n c lu s i o n

o f a S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s D i v i s i o n i n O C P W a n d M c C l u r e ' s

s e l e c ti o n o f t h e k e y p e r s o n n e l f o r t h a t o f f i c e g a v e o f f i c e r s l ik e

C o l o n e l R us se ll V o l c k m a n n a n d C o l o n e l A a r o n B a n k t h e o p -

p o r t u n i t y t o f o r m p l a n s fo r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r f a r e a n d f o r

c r e a t i o n o f s p e c i a l f o r c e s .

T o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a ry t r a in i n g , m a t e ri a l , a n d d o c -

t r i n a l s u p p o r t f o r b o t h s p e ci al f o rc e s a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r -

f a r e u n i ts , M c C l u r e w a s a b l e t o se ll t h e A r m y o n a s e p a r a t e

c e n te r a t w h i c h t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e " w h o l e f ie ld o f O C P W "

w o u l d b e l o c a t e d . T h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e C e n t e r , c re a t e d

in 19 52 a t F o r t B r a g g , w a s t h a t c e n t e r - - a n d it w a s t h e r e i n t h e

s a m e y e a r t h a t t h e A r m y c r e a t e d i t s f i r s t f o r m a l u n c o n v e n -

t i o n a l w a r f a r e ( U W ) u n i t , t h e 1 0 t h S p e c i a l F o r c e s G r o u p .

T h i s m a r r ia g e b e t w e e n p s y c h o l o g ic a l a n d u n c o n v e n -

t io n a l w a r f a r e h a d its d e t ra c t o r s , t o b e su r e. M a n y o f t h e U W

a d v o c a t e s w a n t e d a s e p a r a t e e x i s te n c e f o r s p e c i a l f o r c e s .

S o m e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e o f f i c e rs , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

b e l i ev e d t h a t th e b a c k g r o u n d , e d u c a t i o n , tr a i n in g , a n d

e x p e r i e n c e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r f i e l d w e r e i n h e r e n t l y d i f f e r e n t

f r o m t h o s e n e c e s s ar y f o r t h e h a n d l i n g o f s p e ci al o p e r a t i o n s .

C o l o n e l D o n a l d P . H a l l , w i th p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e ex -

p e r i e n c e in b o t h W o r l d W a r I I a n d K o r e a , e x p r e s s e d t h e v ie w

t h a t f e w in d i v i d u a l s w o u l d h a v e h a d w i d e e x p e r i e n c e in b o t h

p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d u n c o n v e n t i o n a l w a r f a r e . H e f e a r e d th a t i f

t h e t w o f ie ld s w e r e c o m b i n e d u n d e r o n e h a n d , o n e o f t h e m

" m a y s u f f e r a s a r e su l t o f p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s g i v e n t o t h e



M I L I T A R Y P S Y O P 61

f u n c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e c o n t r o l l i n g p e r s o n n e l a r e e s p e c i a l l y i n -

t e r es t e d a n d e x p e r i e n c e d . " T h i s, o f c o u r s e , w a s p a r t o f t h ea n x i e t y s u f f e r e d b y s p e c i a l f o r c e s a d h e r e n t s i n 1 9 5 2 ; a t t h a t

t im e t h e "c o n t r o l l in g p e r s o n n e l ," b o t h a t O C P W a n d a t t h e

P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e C e n t e r , w e r e t h o s e w i t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l

w a r f a r e b a c k g r o u n d s .

C o l o n e l H a l l 's f e a r s w e r e p r o p h e t i c , b u t t h e r o l es h a v e

b e e n r e v e r s e d s in c e 1 9 52 . T h e t e n d e n c y i n d e e d h a s b e e n t o

c o m b i n e t h e s e f u n c t i o n s i n a s i n g l e s t a f f e l e m e n t a t e v e r y

h e a d q u a r t e r s l ev el, i n c lu d i n g t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A r m y , J o i n t

C h i e f s o f S t a f f , a n d t h e u n i f i e d c o m m a n d s . O v e r t h e y e a r s ,

t h e s e s t a f f e l e m e n t s h a v e u s u a l l y b e e n h e a d e d b y s p e c i a l

f o r c e s o f f i c e r s s t r o n g l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h e i r f i e l d o f e x p e r -

t i s e . I n s u c h a n o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , e v e n t h e m o s t

c o n s c i e n t i o u s P S Y O P s t a f f o ff ic e r h a s h a d d i f f i c u l t y g i v in g

h i s f u l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b r o a d e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n t h o s e o r i e n t e d t o w a r d

s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s .

A t F o r t B r a g g , t h e t r e n d h a s b c e n t h e s a m e . T h e

P s y c h o l o g i c a l W a r f a r e C e n t e r e v o l v e d i n t o t h e S p e c ia l W a r -

f a re C e n t e r i n 1 9 56 , t h e n t h e J o h n F . K e n n e d y C e n t e r f o r

M i l it a r y A s s i s t a n c e in 1 9 69 , a n d m o s t r e c e n t l y t h e 1 st S p e c i a l

O p e r a t io n s C o m m a n d . T h r o u g h th e y ea rs , k e y s t a f f e l em e n t s

a t t h e c e n t e r a n d 1 s t S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s C o m m a n d h a v e i n -

v a r i a b l y b e e n h e a d e d b y o f f i c e r s w i t h s p e c i a l f o r c e s

b a c k g r o u n d s .

A l l o f th i s a r g u e s f o r a f o r m a l s e p a r a t i o n o f P S Y O P a n d

s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s . A s a p r o m i n e n t r e t i r e d A r m y l i e u t e n a n t

g e n e r a l , S a m W i l s o n , n o t e d a t t h e S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s C o n -

f e r e n c e h e l d a t t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y i n M a r c h

1 98 3, p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s i s a p h e n o m e n o n i n it se lf ; it is

s o a l l - p e r v a s i v e t h a t m a r r i a g e w i t h s p e c i a l f o r c e s r e s u l t s i n a

c a se o f m i s t a k e n i d e n t i ty , w h i c h m a k e s it d i f f i c u l t fo r

P S Y O P u n i ts to c a r r y o u t t h e i r d o c t r i n e a n d s u p p o r t o t h e r

f o r c e s .

B e c a u s e o f i t s c o n t r o v e r s i a l n a t u r e , t h e s e p a r a t i o n

d i r e c te d b y th e m a s t e r p l a n h a s b e e n s l ow in i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .

T o b e s u re , s o m e i m p o r t a n t i n it ia l s te p s h a v e b e e n t a k e n . T h e

n e w P S Y O P d i r e c t o r a te in O S D is s e p a r a t e d f r o m s p ec ia l



62 PADDOCK

o p e r a t i o n s in t e r m s o f p o l ic y re s p o n si b il it ie s . P S Y O P h a s

b e e n r e m o v e d f r o m t h e J o i n t S p e ci al O p e r a t i o n s A g e n c y a n d

is n o w u n d e r t h e J - 3 o n t h e J o i n t S t a ff . A n i m p o r t a n t p r e ce -

d e n t h a s b e e n e s ta b l is h e d o n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e A r m y

s t a f f by t h e c r e a t io n o f a P S Y O P d i v is io n s e p a r a t e f r o m

s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s . A n d t w o u n i f i e d c o m m a n d s -

U S S O U T H C O M a n d U S C E N T C O M - h a v e m a d e t h e

s e p a r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r s t a f f s .

B u t f o r t h e l a r g e r p a r t , s e p a r a t i o n h a s n o t y e t t a k e n

p la ce o u t s i de th e P e n t a g o n - a m o n g t h e u ni fi e d c o m m a n d s ,

s u b o r d i n a t e s e r v ic e h e a d q u a r t e r s , o r a t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l l ev el .

T h i s m u s t o c c u r i f t h e m a s t e r p l a n ' s i n t e n t i s t o b e f u l l y a c -

c o m p l i s h e d .

T h e s e p a r a t i o n i s s u e is c l o s e ly r e l a t e d t o t h e f i n a l m a j o r

t h e m e o f t h e m a s t e r p l a n - c r e a t i o n o f a J o i n t P s y ch o lo g ic a l

O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r . P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e s u f f ic i e n tl y

i m p o r t a n t t o w a r r a n t t h e c r e a ti o n o f a s e p a r at e c e n te r

d e d i c a t e d to t h e l o n g - t e r m d e v e l o p m e n t a n d n u r t u r i n g o f t his

u n i q u e c a p a b i l i t y . T h e n e w c e n t e r s h o u l d b e c o m e t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d i n t e ll e c tu a l f o n t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s w i t h i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e .

T h e c e n t e r s h o u l d h a v e a m o n g i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s l o n g -

r a n g e , s t r a te g i c p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s p l a n s ; d o c t r i n e a n d

o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s ; c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a in i n g o f

p e r s o n n e l ; r e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y t i c a l s t u d i e s ; a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

o f e q u i p m e n t . I t s h o u l d as sis t t h e O J C S a n d O S D t o d e v e l o p ,p l a n , a n d c o o r d i n a t e t h e D e f e n s e p o r t i o n o f n a t i o n a l

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a c t i v it ie s ; a n d it s h o u l d a s s is t t h e

u n i f i e d a n d s p e c i f i e d c o m m a n d s i n t h e i r p l a n n i n g o f

p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s

T h e J o i n t P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r s h o u l d c o n -

s i s t o f t w o s e p a r a t e b u t m u t u a l l y s u p p o r t i n g e l e m e n t s , o n e

o p e r a t i o n a l a n d t h e o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t a l , e a c h i n d i s p e n s a b l e

t o t h e o t h e r . T h i s c o n c e p t t h e r e f o r e r e l i e s o n e x i s t i n gp s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s u n i t s a n d p e r s o n n e l s p a ce s t o p r o -

v i de t h e n u c l e u s o f i n it ia l m a n p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n i m p o r -

t a n t a n d r e al is ti c f a c t o r i n t h e p r e s e n t r e s o u r c e - c o n s t r a i n e d

e n v i r o n m e n t .



,rvlILITAR Y PS YOP 63

A t i t s i n c e p t i o n , t h e c e n t e r p r o b a b l y w o u l d h a v e t o b e

u n d e r A r m y m a n a g e m e n t b e c a u s e t h e o t h e r s e r v i c e s w o u l dh a v e li tt le t o c o n t r i b u t e i n m a n p o w e r . H o w e v e r , a s r e p r e s e n -

t a t i o n f r o m t h e o t h e r s e r v i c e s i n c r e a s e s t o m o r e t h a n t o k e n

l e v e l , t h e j o i n t c h a r a c t e r o f t h e c e n t e r s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d

b y m a k i n g i t s c o m m a n d r o t a t i o n a l a m o n g t h e s e r v i c e s .

R e p r e s e n t a t i o n f r o m t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t , C I A , U S I n f o r -

m a t i o n A g e n c y , V o i c e o f A m e r i c a , a n d t h e B o a r d f o r In t er -

n a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g s h o u l d a l s o b e s o u g h t .

T h e J o i n t P S Y O P C e n t e r w ill e n a b le th e D e p a r t m e n t o fD e f e n s e t o d e v e l o p m o r e e f f ec t iv e l y i ts c a p a b i l it y f o r w a r

a n d , a t th e s a m e t im e , t o i m p r o v e its c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o i n-

t e r a g e n c y p e a c e t i m e a c t i v i t i e s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c e n t e r

s h o u l d b e c o m e t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r r e v i t a l i z a t i o n a n d i n s t i t u -

t io n a l i z at io n o f P S Y O P w i t h i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e

a n d a ls o th e b r i d g e f o r in t e g r a t i o n o f o u r m i l i ta r y P S Y O P

r e s o u r c e s w i t h t h o s e o f o t h e r a g e n c i e s .

A Recent Complication

T h e s e , t h e n , a r e th e m a j o r t h e m e s o f t h e s e c re t ar y o f

d e f e n s e ' s m a s t e r p l a n f o r t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f m i l i t a r y

p s y c h o lo g i ca l o p e r a t i o n s : f o r m u l a t i o n o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e

j o i n t d o c t r i n e , i n d o c t r i n a t i o n o f t h e o f f ic e r c o rp s , i m p r o v e -

m e n t o f s t a f f p l a n n i n g , m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f t h e f o r c e , s ep a r a -t io n o f P S Y O P f r o m s pe c ia l o p e r a t io n s , a n d c r e a t io n o f a

J o i n t P S Y O P C e n t e r .

A v e ry r e ce n t d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t c o u l d c o m p l i c a t e i m -

p l e m e n t a t i o n o f th e P S Y O P m a s t e r p la n , h o w e v e r , is t h e

c o n g r e s s i o n a l l y m a n d a t e d r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p e c i a l o p e r a -

t io n s f o rc es . T a c k e d o n as a n a m e n d m e n t to t h e G o l d w a t e r -

N i c h o l s D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e R e o r g a n i z a t i o n A c t o f 1 9 8 6

( P u b l i c L a w 9 9 - 4 3 3 ) i n t h e c l o s i n g h o u r s o f t h e l e g i s l a t i v e

s e s si o n in m i d - O c t o b e r , a n d p a s s e d w i t h t h e A c t , w a s as p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s f o r c e s ( S O F ) r e f o r m p a c k a g e s p o n s o r e d

b y S e n a t o r s W i l l i a m C o h e n ( R - M a i n e ) a n d S a m N u n n

( D - G e o r g ia ) . T h e l aw c re a te s a u n i f i e d S O F c o m m a n d u n d e r

a f o u r - s t a r g e n e r a l o r f l a g o f f i c e r , a n a s s i s t a n t s e c r e t a r y o f



6 4 P A D D O C K

d e f e n s e f o r s p e ci a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t , a

b o a r d f o r l o w - i n t e n s i ty c o n f l i c t w i t h i n t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t yC o u n c i l , a n d a d e p u t y a s s is t a n t to t h e p r e s i d e n t f o r n a t i o n a l

s e c u r i ty a f fa i r s f o r l o w - i n t e n s i ty c o n f l i c t. P a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r -

t a n t , it d i r ec t s th e s e c r e t a ry o f d e f e n s e t o c r e a t e f o r S O F a

m a j o r f o r c e p r o g r a m c a t e g o r y fo r t h e F i v e- Y e a r D e f e n s e

P l a n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e fe n s e.

T h e n e w l e g is l a ti o n i n d i c a te s t h a t t h e a c ti v it ie s e m b r a c e d

b y t h e t e r m sp e c i a l o p e ra t i o n s i n c l u d e p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s , " i n s o f a r a s it re l at e s to s p e c ia l o p e r a t i o n s . " T h e r e is n oq u e s t i o n t h a t p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s s h o u l d a n d w ill h a v e

a n i m p o r t a n t r o le to p l a y in s u p p o r t o f sp e c ia l o p e r a t i o n s a n d

l o w - i n te n s i ty c o n f l ic t . B u t , as t h e D O D P S Y O P m a s t e r p l a n

p o i n t s o u t , p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e s ig n i f i c an t ly b r o a d e r

t h a n s p ec ia l o p e r a t i o n s , a n d , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , l o w - i n t e n s it y

c o n f l i c t ( L I C ) . I n l i g h t o f t h i s , t h e k e y i s s u e t o b e f a c e d i s

w h e t h e r t h e D O D P S Y O P c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d b e i nc o r-

p o r a t e d w i t h i n t h e n e w S O F - L I C o r g a n i z a t i o n o r w h e t h e r i ts h o u l d e s t a b l is h a n i d e n t i t y s e p a r a t e f r o m s p e ci a l o p e r a -

t i o n s - a s d i r e c te d b y t h e s e cr e ta r y o f d e f en s e 's m a s t e r p la n

f o r P S Y O P .

W i t h i n t h e O f f i c e o f th e S e c r e t ar y o f D e f e n s e , t h e

P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a t i o n s D i r e c t o r a t e c re a t e d in J a n u a r y

1 9 8 6 r e p o r t s t o t h e u n d e r s e c r e t a r y o f d e f e n s e f o r p o l i c y

t h r o u g h t h e d e p u t y u n d e r s e c r e t a r y , t h e l a t t e r a n a s s i s t a n t -

s e c r e t a r y - l e v e l o f f i c i a l . I t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t p l a c i n g t h i s o f f i c eu n d e r t h e n e w a s s i s t a n t s e c r e t a r y f o r s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d

l o w - i n te n s i ty c o n f l i c t w o u l d g i v e P S Y O P p o l ic y m o r e

" v i si b il it y " a n d " a c c e s s" t h a n t h e p r e s e n t a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e

h i s to r ic a l r e co r d w o u l d s e e m t o i n d i ca t e o t h e r w i s e . A n d t h e

e x t e n s i v e s c o p e o f t h e d e p u t y u n d e r s e c r e t a r y f o r p o l i c y ' s

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w o u l d a r g u e f o r l e a v i n g t h e p o l i c y r e s p o n -

s i b i l i t y f o r P S Y O P w h e r e i t c a n b e m o r e b r o a d l y a p p l i e d

a c ro s s t h e co n f li c t s p e c t r u m - a s in t e n d e d b y t h e m a s t e r p l an .I n c lu s i on o f t h e P S Y O P c o m m u n i t y in t h e S pe c ia l

O p e r a t i o n s C o m m a n d c o u l d al so j e o p a r d i zc e s t a b li s h m e n t o f

a s e p a ra t e J o in t P s y c h o l o g ic a l O p e r a t i o n s C e n t e r - t h e

c c n te r p ic c e o f t h e D O D P S Y O P m a s t e r p la n . T h i s a n d t h e



MI LI TA R Y PS YOP 65

s e p a r a t i o n i s su e a r e m o r e t h a n s i m p l y m a t t e r s o f " tu r f " : w h a t

m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d u l t i m a t e l y i s w h e t h e r t h e i n c l u s i o n o fP S Y O P i n t h e n e w s p ec ia l o p e r a t i o n s a n d l o w - i n t e n s i ty c o n -

f li ct o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k s er ve s t h e l o n g - t e r m i n te r e st s

o f t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t an d t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n se in th e

c u r r e n t e f f o r t t o r e vi ta l i ze a p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s

c a p a b i l it y t h a t c a n b e e m p l o y e d e ff e c ti v e ly " in s u p p o r t o f n a -

t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s i n p e a c e a n d c r i s i s a n d a t a l l l e v e l s o f c o n -

f li ct " (a s s t a te d i n t h e D O D P S Y O P m a s t e r p la n ) .

C e r t a in l y , P S Y O P s h o u l d b e ab le to p r o v i d e s u p p o r t tos p e c ia l o p e r a t i o n s a n d l o w - i n t e n s it y c o n f l i c t t h r o u g h a J o i n t

P S Y O P C e n t e r , j u s t a s i t w o u l d p r o v i d e s u p p o r t t o th e o t h e r

u n i f i e d c o m m a n d s . B u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , a s e p a r a t e e x is te n ce

w o u l d n o t d e t r ac t f r o m r e c o g n i t io n o f th e b r o a d e r a p -

p l i ca b il it y o f P S Y O P - a l ik e ly e v e n t u a li ty w i t h c o n t i n u e d

s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f p s y c h o lo g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t o t h e s pe cia l

o p e r a t io n s c h ai n o f c o m m a n d .

A p p r o p r i a t e l y , t h e n e w la w g iv e s t h e s e c r e ta r y o f d e f e n s es u f f i c i e n t l a t i t u d e t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h f o r c e s s h o u l d b e i n -

c l u d e d i n t h e r e o r g a n i z e d s p ec ia l o p e r a t i o n s s t r u c t u r e . Q u i t e

a f e w i s s u e s w i l l n e e d t o b e r e s o l v e d i n t h e m o n t h s a h e a d a s

t h e d e ta il s o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a re d e c i d e d , a m o n g t h e m t h e

q u e s t i o n o f t h e p l a c e m e n t o f P S Y O P . U n t i l g u i d a n c e t o

t h e c o n t r a r y i s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e s e c r e t a r y , t h e m a s t e r p l a n

r e m a i n s t h e e s s e n t i a l d i r e c t i v e f o r t h e D O D P S Y O P

c o m m u n i t y .M y r e m a r k s h a v e b e e n f o c u s e d o n t h e D O D P S Y O P

m a s t e r p l a n b e c a u s e i t r e p r e s e n t s , a f t e r m a n y y e a r s o f

n e g l e c t , t o p - d o w n c o m m a n d e m p h a s i s o n a d d r e s s i n g l o n g -

r e c o g n i z e d d e f i c i e n c i e s . I t r e s p o n d s t o a p r e s i d e n t i a l d i r e c -

t iv e . I t p r o v i d e s a v i s i o n , a b l u e p r i n t , t o e n h a n c e o u r m i l i ta r y

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s c a p a b i l i ti e s . B u t v i si o n s a n d

b l u e p r i n t s h a v e t o b e b r o u g h t t o f r u i t i o n b y h a r d w o r k ,

c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d a w a r e n e ss o n t h e p a r t o f s en i o r p e r s o n n e la m o n g a ll s e r v i c e s - a n d b y u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d s u p p o r t f r o m

o t h e r g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s , C o n g r e s s , a n d t h e p u b l i c .



Comment

R I C H A R D B R A U ER

AS SOMEONE WHO HAS BEEN INVOLVED in virtually every

aspect of Air Force and joint special operations for the past

ten years, I share with Colonel Paddock the belief that the

PSYOP master plan is correct on the key issue of requiring

the eventual separation of PSYOP from special operations.I'll come back to this later.

As a special operator, I'm a firm believer in capturing

lessons learned from the past and applying them judiciously

to ensure future mission success. Because Colonel Paddock

has dealt in detail with the fascinating (if often frustrating)

cycles of PSYOP history, I will refer to the lessons of the past

only infrequently, and concentrate on the road map to the

future provided by the master plan and our progress alongthat path (or lack thereof) to date.

One central theme and basic premise of my remarks is

that the field of psychological operations should not be the

sole purview of the US Army or any other service (or even the

Department of Defense as a whole). PSYOP in support of

our national objectives must be conducted on an interagency

basis using every available means, including military PSYOP

resources. Moreover, a significant shift is required from thecommon concept of PSYOP as limited to leaflets and

loudspeakers, toward a broader view of the need for sus-

tained, offensive strategic psychological operations that will

respond to the Soviet threat.Now, let me briefly address my comments to the six ma-

jor themes within the master plan that Colonel Paddock has

discussed.

Without question, there is a fundamental need for jointmilitary PSYOP doctrine that will provide the essentialunderpinning for all future PSYOP revitalization and, more

importantly, furnish the individual services further guidance

on which to base their own PSYOP doctrine. Although now

nearly a year behind schedule, there has been definite pro-

66



MILI TAR Y PSY OP 67

gress toward this goal. I would agree that the publication of

joint PSYOP doctrine is the quintessential requirement forfurther PSYOP revitalization within the Department of

Defense. Yet my practical side warns me that documents such

as these are rarely read and more rarely adhered to.

Something more tangible is required to ensure maximum

realization of the potential of PSYOP. For this reason, I

would assign first priority to the establishment of the Joint

PSYOP Center, to which I will return in a moment.

Colonel Paddock rightly identifies a lack of planning ex-pertise in PSYOP throughout major military staffs. At the

OSD, JCS, and service staff levels, fully half of the two

dozen total personnel assigned PSYOP responsibilities func-

tion on a part- time basis, often with collateral duties in a wide

variety of other areas. On the staffs of the nine unified and

specified commands, SHAPE, COMCENTAG, and the

Combined Forces Command in Korea, there are now a total

of fifteen officers with PSYOP responsibilities, of whichthree are considered part-time. Some progress in realigning

PSYOP personnel with the broader functional areas outside

of special operations has occurred, and the new OSD PSYOP

directorate is a long-awaited and significant step on the

PSYOP revitalization agenda.

The proposed two-week Joint PSYOP Staff Planning

Course for mid-level officers and senior NCOs, currently

under development by the Army, has also been behind

schedule. This course is essential if we are to meet the in-

creased PSYOP staff planner requirements of the master

plan.

I wholeheartedly concur with Colonel Paddock' s view

that PSYOP should not remain the exclusive domain of

specialized units such as those in the Army. For too long,

because of the traditional perception that PSYOP consists

solely of battlefield leaflet and loudspeaker activities, the

Army has been asked to bear the burden of both tactical and

strategic PSYOP for all the services. As a result, the "not-

invented-here" syndrome exists at all staff levels throughout

the sister services. Not that it is necessarily desirable for the



BRAUER

o t h e r s er vic es t o f ie ld n e w P S Y O P u n i t s - t h e p o i n t is t h a t ,

g i v e n t h e c r e a ti v i ty o f w e l l - tr a i n e d a n d t a l e n t e d s t a f f p l a n n e r sf r o m a l l t h e s e r v i c e s , n o n - P S Y O P r e s o u r c e s c a n o f t e n h e

u s e d i n a m a n n e r d e s i g n e d t o a c h i e v e a s p ec if ic p s y c h o l o g i c a l

e f f e c t .

W i t h in t h e d i sc ip l i n e o f P S Y O P , t h e r e a re m a n y t a l e n t e d

a n d c r e a t i v e s t a f f o f f i c e r s . B u t t h e y c a n o n l y b e e f f e c t i v e i f

t h e y re c e iv e t h e r e q u is i t e m o r a l a n d m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t f r o m

s e n io r s t af f le ve ls . A l l t o o o f t e n , s o u n d P S Y O P p r o p o s a l s b y

o u r y o u n g o f f i c e r s f a l l o n d e a f e a r s .T h i s b r in g s u s t o t h e t h i r d m a j o r t a s k o f t h e m a s t e r

p l a n - e d u c a t i o n . I n g e n e ra l, a s C o l o n e l P a d d o c k n o t e d , t h e

n e w s i s g o o d i n t h i s a r e a , w i t h p r o g r e s s s t a r t i n g a t t h e t r o o p

l e v e l , a s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e A r m y ' s S o v i e t P s y c h o l o g i c a l

A w a r e n e s s P r o g r a m ( S P A P ) , w h i c h is d e s i g n e d t o a ss is t o u r

s o l d i er s i n i d e n t i f y i n g a n d n e u t r a l i z i n g S o v i e t a n d S o v i e t -

s u r r o g a t e P S Y O P a c t i o n s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e m . I c a n o n l y

r e c o m m e n d t h a t t h e o t h e r s er vic es c o n s id e r a d o p t i n g s im i l arp r o g r a m s t a il o re d t o th e ir n e ed s . F o r t h e N C O a n d m i d - g r a d e

o f f i c e r l e v e l s , t h e P S Y O P c o u r s e s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e A r m y ' s

J o h n F . K e n n e d y S pe c ia l W a r f a r e C e n t e r a n d S c h o o l , a n d a t

t h e A i r F o r c e S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s S c h o o l , a re c o n t i n u i n g t o

m e e t t h e in c r ea s in g d e m a n d f o r P S Y O P t r a in i n g in th e j o i n t

c o m m u n i t y .

O f p a r t i c u l a r n o t e i s t h e n e w J o i n t S e n i o r P S Y O P

C o u r s e c o n d u c t e d a t t h e A i r F o r c e S pe c ia l O p e r a t i o n s S c h o o lf o r s e n i o r o f f ic e r s in t h e g r a d e o f c o l o n e l o r a b o v e a n d t h e i r

c iv i li an e q u i v a l e n t s . T h e c o u r s e w a s e s t a b li s h e d i n a c c o r d a n c e

w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d s c h e d u l e o f t h e m a s t e r p l a n , a n d is

a s i g n i f i c a n t f i r s t s t e p i n e d u c a t i n g o u r s e n i o r l e a d e r s .

H o w e v e r , c o n c u r r e n t P S Y O P e d u c a t io n a l e f fo r t s m u s t b e

p u r s u e d a t o u r i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d s e n i o r s er v ic e s c h o o l s . C o l -

o n e l P a d d o c k a n d h is O S D d i r e c t o ra t e ar e m a k i n g s i g n if ic a n t

s tr id e s in e n c o u r a g i n g t h is le ve l o f P S Y O P e d u c a t i o n , d e s p i t e

t h e r e l u c t a n c e o n t h e p a r t o f s o m e s e n i o r s e r v i c e s c h o o l s t o

e x p a n d t h e i r c u r r i c u l a .

W i t h r e g a r d t o m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f f o r c e s t r u c t u r e a n d

e q u i p m e n t , t h e A r m y h a s o n c e a g a i n t a k e n t h e l e a d a m o n g



MILI TARY PSYOP 69

t h e s erv ic es . T h e a c ti ve d u t y 4 th P S Y O P G r o u p a n d s e le c te d

A r m y R e s er ve c o m p o n e n t s a re i n t h e p r oc e ss o f a n u n -

p r e c e d e n t e d e q u i p m e n t u p g r a d e t h a t i n c l u d e s a c q u i s i t i o n o f

m o d e r n h e a v y p re s se s c a p a b l e o f h i g h - s p e e d c o l o r p r in t in g ,

p r o g r a m m a b l e c u t t e r s t o s u p p o r t t h e p r e s s e s , c o m p u t e r i z e d

p h o t o - t y p e s e t te r s , a n d a c o m p l e t e u p g r a d e o f l ig h t a n d

m e d i u m m o b i l e p r in t in g p l a n ts f o r s u p p o r t o f t ac t i ca l o p e r a -

t i o n s . A c q u i s i t i o n o f s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t r a d i o , t e l e v i s io n , a n d

t ac t ic a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e q u i p m e n t f o r d i re c t s u p p o r t o f

P S Y O P a c t i v i t i e s i s c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y , a s a r e o t h e r e q u i p -m e n t e n h a n c e m e n t s .

C o l o n e l P a d d o c k h a s r e f e r r e d t o t h e 4 t h P S Y O P

G r o u p ' s n e w M e d i a P r o d u c t i o n C e n t e r , w h i c h h as r e c en t l y

b e e n c o m p l e t e d a t a c o s t o f s l i g ht ly o v e r t w o m i l l io n d o l la r s .

T h i s c e n t e r c o n s i s ts o f a f u l l y - e q u i p p e d a u d i o v i s u a l s t u d i o

c a p a b l e o f f i x e d a n d m o b i l e r e c o r d i n g , w i t h v i d e o e f f e c t s

g e n e r a t i o n , a n e d i t i n g a n d d u p l i c a t i n g f a ci li ty , a n d a

p h o t o l a b . A s a l s o m e n t i o n e d , t h e A i r F o r c e h a s a l l o c a t e df u n d s f o r u p g r a d i n g th e V o l a n t S o l o E C - 1 3 0 E a i r b o r n e

b r o a d c a s t p l a t f o r m s . H o w e v e r , i m p r o v e m e n t s p l a n n e d f o r

t h e i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e f a l l u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l c a t e g o r y o f a i r -

f ra m e a n d p o w e r p la n t m o d i f i c a t io n s ; m a n y o f th e P S Y O P

b r o a d c a s t e q u i p m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s d e s ig n e d t o a d d r e ss c u r-

r e n t d e f ic i e n c ie s a r e p r o g r a m m e d f o r th e o u t - y e a r s a t e x-

t re m e l y lo w p r io r i t y , o r w o r s e y e t, u n f u n d e d . T h o u g h

P S Y O P is n o t a h i g h - c o s t , e q u i p m e n t - i n t e n s i v e d i sc i p li n e , w e

m u s t r e c o g n iz e t h e im p o r t a n c e o f a c q u i r in g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g

s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t e q u i p m e n t ( m o s t o f w h i c h i s c o m m e r c i a l l y

a v a il ab le ) in s u p p o r t o f th e P S Y O P m i s si o n .

O n t h e p e r s o n n e l s i d e , a s C o l o n e l P a d d o c k h a s a p t l y

p o i n t e d o u t , t h e 4 th P S Y O P G r o u p , e v e n w h e n fu lly m a n n e d ,

w o u l d b e u n d e r s t a f f e d a n d s o r e l y s t r a i n e d t o m e e t t h e c o m -

p e t in g P S Y O P n e e d s o f t h e C I N C s , J C S , a n d O S D . T h i s is

p a r t i c u la r l y tr u e f o r t h e r e s e a r c h a n d a n a l ys is m i s s i o n . T h e 4 t h

G r o u p i s c u r r e n t l y a u t h o r i z e d 3 8 c i v i l i a n a n a l y s t s i n i t s

S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s D i v i s i o n - - o n l y 3 0 a r e a s s i g n e d - - w h i l e 8 4 i s

t h e n u m b e r t h a t h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s n e c e s s a r y t o m e e t t h e

C I N C s ' a n n u a l s t u d y r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e



B R A U E R

P S Y O P A u t o m a t e d D a t a S y s te m ( P O A D S ) w i ll e v e n tu a l l y

r e d u c e s t u d y p r o d u c t i o n t im e , b u t c a n n o t h o p e t o s o lv e t h ep r o b l e m .

L e t m e m o v e o n t o t h e f o u r t h a n d m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l

t h e m e , t h e o r g a n i z a t io n a l s e p a r a t io n o f P S Y O P a n d s p e cia l

o p e r a t i o n s . I t w a s h o p e d t h a t th e in i t ia l m o v e m e n t o f P S Y O P

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f r o m t h e J o i n t S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s A g e n c y

( J S O A ) t o t h e J C S p r o p e r w o u l d s e n d a sig n al t o t h e C I N C s

t h a t t h e J C S a re f i r m l y b e h i n d t h e in t e n t o f t h e P S Y O P

m a s t e r p l a n t o e f f e c t t h is s e p a r a t i o n . T h e s i g n a l m u s t h a v eb e e n w e a k , h o w e v e r , f o r o n ly tw o o f th e C I N C s h a v e s o fa r

r e s p o n d e d a c c o r d i n g l y . I b e l i e v e s e p a r a t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l a t

e v e r y m a j o r s t a f f o r g a n i z a t i o n i n o r d e r f o r t h e P S Y O P

r e v i ta l iz a t io n p r o c e s s t o c o n t i n u e . A s o m e w h a t m o r e d i f f ic u l t

i ss u e, p a r t i c u l a r ly f o r t h e A r m y , is t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t o

s e p a r a t e P S Y O P f o r c e s f r o m s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s c o m m a n d

a u t h o r i t y . T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t s e p a r a t i o n s h o u l d a n d m u s t

o c c u r , y e t P S Y O P m u s t h a v e a p l a c e t o g o o n c e i t s e p a r a t e s .T h i s b r i n g s m e t o t h e f i n a l t h e m e , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

t h e J o i n t P S Y O P C e n t e r . F o r r e a s o n s o f v is ib il it y a n d p r a c -

t ic a b i li ty , a n d g i v e n t h e l o n g l e a d t i m e s r e q u i r e d t o e s t a b l i s h ,

m a n , a n d e q u i p s u c h a n o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e J o i n t S t a f f m u s t , a s

I a r g u e d e a r l ie r , g i v e t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y to e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

t h e c e n t e r . I f i rm l y b e l ie v e t h a t t h i s c e n t e r w i ll b e t h e s e e d c o r n

f r o m w h i c h a n e n h a n c e d n a t io n a l P S Y O P c a p a b i li ty w il l

g r o w . I t is h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h a t I b e g i n to t a k e i s s ue w i th

s ev e ra l o f C o l o n e l P a d d o c k ' s s t a te m e n t s .

I t o t a l l y a g r e e t h a t t h e c e n t e r s h o u l d e v e n t u a l l y h a v e

u n d e r i t s m a n t l e l o n g - r a n g e s t r a t e g i c p l a n n i n g , d o c t r i n e a n d

o p e r a t i o n a l c o n c e p t s , P S Y O P e d u c a t i o n a n d t r a i n i n g , r e -

s e a r c h a n d a n a l y t i c a l s t u d ie s , a n d e v e n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a c -

q u i s i t i o n o f P S Y O P e q u i p m e n t . H o w e v e r , a s w i th t h e s ep a r a-

t i o n i s s u e , t i m i n g c o n c e r n i n g a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e s e t a s k s i s

c r i t i c a l, a n d t o a t t e m p t t o a c c o m p l i sh to o m u c h t o o s o o n

w i t h s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s w o u l d b e t o p u t t h e e n t i r e c o n c e p t a t

s i g n if ic a n t r is k . I a m o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t o b u r d e n t h e c e n t e r

i ni ti a ll y w i t h b o t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d o p e r a t i o n a l t as k s w i ll

r e s u l t i n a f a l s e s t a r t , o r w o r s e y e t , a f a i l u r e .




I b e l ie v e t h e c e n t e r s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e i n i ti a ll y o n a d -

d r e s s i n g P S Y O P s t r a t e g i c p l a n n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e 3 8

c i v i l i a n a n a l y s t s i n t h e S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s D i v i s i o n o f t h e 4 t h

P S Y O P G r o u p w o u l d p r o v i d e a n e x c e l le n t in i t ia l s o u r c e o f

m a n p o w e r w e l l e q u i p p e d f o r t h e t a sk s a t h a n d . T o s eiz e o n

t h e m e a g e r m a n p o w e r s p a c e s c u r r e n t l y a s s i g n e d t o P S Y O P

e d u c a t i o n a n d t ra in i n g in t h e A r m y a n d A i r F o rc e w o u l d

d e t r im e n t a l ly a f f e c t th e P S Y O P e d u c a t i o n a l b as e . S i m i l ar ly ,

i m m e d i a t e a s s u m p t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l r es e ar ch a n d d e v e lo p -

m e n t a n d ( es pe cia lly ) a c q u i s it io n f u n c t i o n s w o u l d b o g d o w nt h e c e n t e r i n a m o r a s s o f c o m p l e x p r o c e d u r e s t h a t c o u l d s t u n t

i ts n a t u r a l g r o w t h . O n c e f i rm l y e s t a b l i s h e d , I a g re e t h a t t h e

c e n t e r s h o u l d a s s u m e a ll t h e f u n c t i o n s C o l o n e l P a d d o c k h a s

e n u m e r a t e d . B u t I fe el s t r o n g l y t h a t a n e v o l u t i o n a r y a p -

p r o a c h i s f a r b e t t e r t h a n a r e v o l u t i o n a r y o n e .

I a l so a g r e e t h a t i n t e r a g e n c y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e c e n t e r

i s e s s e n t i a l , a n d I w o u l d a d d b o t h t h e D e f e n s e I n t e l l i g e n c e

A g e n c y a n d t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i ty A g e n c y to C o l o n e l P a d -d o c k ' s r e c o m m e n d e d lis t. O f e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e is t h e n e e d t o

i n t e g r a t e i n t o th e o r g a n i z a t i o n , a t t h e o u t s e t , p e r s o n n e l f r o m

t h e c l in ic a l a n d b e h a v i o r a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l fi el ds . T h e A i r

F o r c e B i o m e d i c a l S c i e n c e C o r p s m a y b e a l i m i t e d s o u r c e o f

s u c h e x p e r t i s e .

A s t o t h e i n i t i a l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c e n t e r , i t m i g h t p r o v e

w i se r o v e r t h e l o n g t e r m t o p l a c e i t i ni ti a ll y u n d e r o t h e r t h a n

A r m y m a n a g e m e n t . E x p e r i e nc e h as s h o w n th a t , g i ve n t h e

c h a n c e , t h e o t h e r s e rv ic e s w i ll o p t o u t o f t h e i r P S Y O P t a s k s.

P l a c i n g t h e c e n t e r u n d e r A i r F o r c e o r N a v y m a n a g e m e n t

w o u l d g u a r d a g a in s t t h e p e r c e p t io n th a t P S Y O P r e m a i n s a

s o l e o r p r i m a r y A r m y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

I t is e s s e n ti a l t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e f o c u s o f P S Y O P h a s

c h a n g e d f r o m s u p p o r t i n g , o n t h e o n e h a n d , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l

w a r f a r e f o r c e s a t t h e l o w - i n t e n s i t y e n d o f t h e c o n f l i c t s p e c -

t r u m , a n d o n t h e o th e r , th e N A T O c o n v e n t i o n a l b a t t le f ie l d .

N a t i o n a l - l e v e l p o l i c y g u i d a n c e a n d d i re c t i v e s m a n d a t e t h e u s e

o f P S Y O P t h r o u g h o u t t h e f u ll s p e c t r u m o f c o n fl ic t in a n e r a

o f w h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d " v i o l e n t p e a c e . " W h e t h e r w e

r e c o g n iz e a n d a p p r o v e i t o r n o t , t h e f ie ld o f P S Y O P h a s



72 ZORTHIAN

s l o w l y b u t i n e x o r a b l y m a t u r e d s i n c e e a r l i e r t i m e s i n t o a

d i sc i pl in e t h a t is b e c o m i n g m o r e j o i n t a n d e v e n i n te r a g e n c y in

e x e c u t i o n , g l o b a l i n s c o p e , a n d s t r a t e g i c i n c h a r a c t e r . W e

s h o u l d e n c o u r a g e a n d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e ra p i d ly g r o w i n g

i n t e r e s t i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n o f U S n a t i o n a l

s t r a t e g y .

BARR Y Z ORT HI AN

I W O U L D L I K E T O M A K E v a r i o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t a r e i n-

t e n d e d t o l o o k i n t o th e f u t u r e b a s e d o n t h e p a s t. I f t h e se c o m -

m e n t s s e e m t o r e fl e c t o n l y m y e x p e r i e n c e i n V i e t n a m , p l e a s e

b e a r w i th m e . V i e t n a m w a s o u r l as t m a j o r e f f o r t o f p s y c h o -

l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s u n d e r c o m b a t c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h e r e m a y

b e s o m e b e n e f i t i n r e fe r r in g b a c k t o i t .I f in d m y s e l f i n g e n e ra l a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e t h r u s t o f C o l -

o n e l P a d d o c k ' s p a p e r . I ce r ta in l y e n d o r s e th e p o s i t i o n th a t

p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s d e s er v e m o r e a t t e n t io n a n d d e s e rv e

a n i n d e p e n d e n t a n d m o r e p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e

m i l i t a r y .

L e t m e e m p h a s i z e t w o p o i n t s t h a t I t h i n k a r e e s s e n t i a l .

I ' d s u m t h e m u p i n t w o w o r d s : i n t e g r a t i o n a n d i n -

t e g r i t y - i n t e g r a t i o n o f e f fo r t , in t e g r a t io n o f p e r s o n n e l , ce r-

t a in l y i n t e g r a t i o n o f b a s ic c o n c e p t ; i n t e g ri ty o f m e s s a g e , c o n -

s is te n c y o f t h a t m e s s a g e , r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e m e s s a g e m u s t

b e b a s e d o n r e a li ty . T h e s e t w o p r i n c i p l e s , I t h i n k , a r e b a s ic t o

a n y s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t i n t h e f ie ld o f P S Y O P .




W e o b v i o u s l y h a v e a s e m a n t ic p r o b l e m t h a t 's n e v e r b e e n

s o l v e d . W e ' r e n o t a l w a y s i n a g r e e m e n t o n t h e m e a n i n g o ft e r m s s u c h a s p s y w a r , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t ions , m ed ia re la t ions , po l i t i ca l opera t ions . T h e y c o v e r a v a st

a m o u n t o f g r o u n d . I f w e p u t a sid e c o m b a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l

o p e r a t i o n s a n d l o o k a t t h e r e s t o f i t a s t h e p o l i t i c a l d i m e n -

s i o n - t he c o m m u n i c a t io n s d i m e n s i o n - o f a n a t i o n a l e f f o r t ,

w h e t h e r i n a c o n t e x t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l o r l o w - in t e n si ty c o m b a t

o r e v e n in " v i o l e n t p e a c e t i m e , " th e n p e r h a p s w e c a n a ll g e t

t o g e t h e r a n d b e t a l k i n g a b o u t t h e s a m e t h i n g .I w e l c o m e t h e D O D P S Y O P m a s t e r p la n , b u t I d o h a v e

s o m e t r o u b l e w i t h i t . I d o n o t a r g u e w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n i t i s

t a k i n g , b u t w o n d e r w h e t h e r i t g o e s f a r e n o u g h . O n e a r e a

w h e r e t h e d o c u m e n t a n d t h e c o n c e p t b e h i n d i t n e e d

s t r e n g t h e n i n g is in th e i r a t t e n t i o n t o i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e

m i l i t a ry a n d c iv il ia n c o m p o n e n t s o f a n a t i o n a l e f f o r t . T h e

m i l i t a ry d o e s n e e d t o l o o k a t th e m o s t l ik e ly f o r m o f c o m b a t

it is g o i n g t o f a c e. C o n v e n t i o n a l c o m b a t , in th e f o r m o f c a m -p a i g n s w h o s e p r i m a r y g o a l i s t e r r i t o r y , i s p o s s i b l e , b u t I

w o u l d t h i n k l e s s l i k e l y i n t h e w o r l d o f t o d a y t h a n l o w -

i n te n si t y c o m b a t - p o l i t i c a l c o m b a t . A n d in t h a t f r a m e w o r k ,

c iv i l ia n in v o l v e m e n t in t h e c o n d u c t o f m i l i ta r y o p e r a t i o n s a n d

i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m i l i ta r y a c t io n s is a l ik e l i h o o d . I n

V i e t n a m , t h e J o i n t U S P u b l i c A f f a ir s O f f i ce ( J U S P A O ) w a s

a n i n t e g r a t e d c i v i l ia n - m i li ta r y e f f o r t . Y o u c a n c r it ic i z e t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r i n a d e q u a c i e s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s ; b u t t h e i n-

t e g r a t i o n o f p e r s o n n e l w a s r e al , w i t h l a y e ri n g o f m i l i t a ry a n d

c iv i l ia n s , e a c h w r it in g p e r f o r m a n c e r a t in g s o n t h e o t h e r , a n d

t h e p r o d u c t a v e ry c o m b i n e d e f f o r t .

T h e f ac t is t h a t w h e n w e a p p r o a c h e d V i e t n a m , n o a r m o f

t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t w a s p re p a r e d f o r a n y t h in g th a t y o u c o u l d

p o s s i b ly d e s c r ib e a s p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e . T h e m i l i ta r y w a s

n o t p r e p a r e d f o r i t ; i t h a d p a i d s o m e a t t e n t i o n t o h a r d w a r e

a n d e q u i p m e n t , b u t c e r ta i n ly n o t t o su b s t a n c e . U S I A w a s n o t

p r e p a r e d f o r it . T h e S t a te D e p a r t m e n t c e r t a i n ly w a s n o t

p r e p a r e d f o r i t . W e h a d t o s t a r t f r o m s c r a t c h o n t h e s u b -

s t a n ti v e a sp e c t s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . T h i s s o r t o f

i n a d e q u a c y s h o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e a v o i d e d i n t h e f u t u r e b y



74 ZORTHIAN

anticipating and preparing and training for such contingen-

cies, whether nationally or within a DOD center.

Secondly, the master plan seems to give inadequate at-

tention to the training and preparation of military personnel,

not to speak of civilians. PSYOP, I would argue, is as in-

tegral to line command as any other element of the military's

responsibilities. Time must be devoted in mainstream military

training and in the training of other government personnel to

this dimension of conflict. Psychological operations cannot

be compartmentalized and then simply drawn on as aresource. They must be integral to military activity. If I read

our history, particularly our Civil War history, correctly, the

military was very po l it ic al -n ot in a partisan sense, but in the

sense of interaction with civilians and in the sense of a con-

cern with the effect of military actions on civilians from a

political point of view.

Colonel Paddock does not, I think, devote enough atten-

tion to psychological operations as a staff role. If I had tochoose between the implementation of the mission--the run-

ning of loudspeakers and transmission of leaflets and so

o n - a n d the role psychological operators should play in staff

terms, in participating in military decisions, I would take thelatter. The important input of psychological operations per-

sonnel is in the determina tion of military action rathe r than in

the implementation of their own program. The latter is cer-

tainly important, but the former is critical.The world has changed considerably since Vietnam, but

Vietnam taught us one thing: we live in an age of communica-

tions. The isolation of the battlefield no longer exists; com-

munication reaches to the battlefield in all sorts of forms.

There has been considerable criticism of our having the same

person fill the role of press spokesman and director ofpsychological operations. But I think this arrangement

reflects an important principle that has to be recognized inthe future-and that is that you cannot compartmentalize

communication. Communication with the media has to be

consistent with communicat ion to the enemy, to third parties,

to the rest of the world. PSYOP and communicat ion with the

media are part of the same whole.



MILI TAR Y PSY OP 75

M y f i n a l p o i n t is p r o b a b l y a n o b v i o u s o n e , b u t I 'l l m a k e

i t n e v e rt h e le s s . A l l t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s i n th e w o r l d

a r e n o t g o i n g t o c h a n g e t h e f ac ts , t h e r e a li ty o f o u r a c t i o n s .

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h in g in th is a re a o f P S Y O P is t o e n s u r e

t h a t o u r a c t i o n s , e i t h e r i n m i l i t a r y o r i n n a t i o n a l t e r m s , a r e

p o s i ti v e . P S Y O P s t a n d i n g b y i ts e lf w i t h o u t a b a s is o f

p o s i t iv e , e f f e c t iv e , a n d s k i ll f u ll y d e v i s e d a n d e x e c u t e d p o l i c y

a n d a c t i o n s s i m p l y w i ll n o t h a v e a n y r e s u lt s . I n t h e p a s t , t o o

o f t e n P S Y O P w a s b l a m e d a n d r e g a r d e d a s i n a d e q u a t e b e -

c a u s e t h e p o l i c y a n d a c t i o n s o n w h i c h i t b a s e d i t s m e s s a g e

w e r e n o t t h e p r o p e r o n e s .



Political Warfare

ANG EL O M. CODEVILLA

pO L I T I C A L W A R F A R E IS t h e f o r c e fu l p o li t i c a l e x pr es -

s io n o f p o l ic y . W e m u s t a l w a y s d i s t i n g u i s h p o l i c y f r o m

t h e t o o l s b y w h i c h i t i s e x p r e s s e d . T h e f o r c e f u l p o l i t i c a l e x -

p r e s s i o n o f p o l i c y m a k e s s e n s e o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e

p o l i c y it se l f m a k e s s e n s e . I b e l ie v e t h a t n o A m e r i c a n is n o w in

a p o s i t i o n t o d e s c r i b e h o w t o u s e t h e tools o f p o li t i c a l w a r f a r e

t o e x p r e s s a n d t o f u r t h e r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' p o l it ic a l d e s ig n s i n

t h e w o r l d b e c a u s e f o r m a n y y e a r s o u r p o l i c y m a k e r s h a v e n o t

b e e n c o m p e t e n t a t m a k i n g f o r e ig n p o l i c y a n d m i l i ta r ys t r a t e g y .

P o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e is n o t t h e s u m o f a s e t o f t o o l s

e m p l o y e d w i th a c e r ta i n in t e n si ty . H o u r s o f b r o a d c a s t i n g t o

f o r e i g n a u d i e n c e s , d o l la r s sp e n t to s u p p o r t g r o u p s a b r o a d ,

f o r e ig n c o n t a c t s h i g h ly e n o u g h p l a c e d t o m e r i t t h e l a be l

" a g e n t s o f i n f lu e n c e " a r e n o t f u n g i b l e q u a n ti t i e s ; n o r d o

n u m b e r s i n d i c a t i n g th a t w e d o a l o t , o r o n l y a li tt le , in th e s e

f i e l d s i n d i c a t e t h a t m o r e o r l e s s p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e i s g o i n g o n .P o l it ic s is t h e m a r s h a l i n g o f h u m a n b e in g s t o s u p p o r t o r o p -

p o s e c a u s e s . Political warfare is the marshaling of human

support, or opposition, in order to achieve victory in war or

in unbloody conflicts as serious as war.

W e c a n o p e r a t e ra d i o s , d i s p e n s e m o n e y , a n d p u l l s tr in g s .

B u t u n le s s w e d o s o in a m a n n e r r e a s o n a b l y c a l c u l a te d t o

s i g n i f i c a n t ly a f f e c t t h e o u t c o m e o f a w a r o r s im i l a r c o n f l i c t

t h a t w e a r e r e a s o n a b l y t r y i n g t o w i n , w e a r e n o t e n g a g i n g inp o li t i c a l w a r f a r e a n y m o r e t h a n s o m e o n e e n g a ge s in m a s o n r y

w h o b u i ld s u n c o n n e c t e d p ile s o f b r ic k s a n d m o r t a r . W i t h o u t

p o l i cy , th e t o o ls o f p o l i c y - b u t e sp e c i al ly s ec re t t o o l s - a r e

w o r s e t h a n u se le ss . T h a t i s b e c a u s e i n c o m p e t e n t p o l i c y m a k e r s

c a n u s e t h e m a s su b s t i t u t e s f o r p o l i c y , a s e v i d e n c e t o t h e m -

77



78 CODEVILLA

s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s t h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g s o m e t h i n g , a n d t h u s a s

r e a s o n s to f o r es ta l l c o n f r o n t i n g h a r d c h o i ce s . W o r s t o f al l ,

t h e t o o ls o f p o li ti c al w a r f a re c a n n u r t u r e t h e t e m p t a t i o n t h a t

is p e r h a p s m o s t c o m m o n a m o n g i n c o m p e t e n t o f fi ci a l s: to t ry

t o h a v e o n e ' s c a k e w h i le e a t i n g it t o o b y r u n n i n g a " t w o - t r a c k

p o l i c y " - o n e t ra c k p u b l i c , o n e s ec re t.

I n 1 98 1, P r o f e s s o r A d d a B o z e m a n s u g g e s t e d i n a w i d e l y

r e a d p a p e r t h a t s i n ce t h e U n i t e d S ta te s w a s u n m i s t a k a b l y

d e c l i n i n g i n re l a ti v e m i l i t a r y p o w e r , i t h a d b e t t e r p a y a t t e n -

t i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l a r t s b y w h i c h m i l i t a r i l y w e a kp o w e r s - m e d i e v a l V e n ic e is t he b es t e x a m p l e - c a n k e ep

s t r o n g e r e n e m i e s d i v i d e d , p e r p l e x e d , a n d a t b a y . t S o m e o f -

f ic ia ls in t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a v e m i s t a k e n t h a t w i se c o u n s e l

a s i n d i ca t in g th a t v a r i o u s k i n d s o f p r o p a g a n d a , f u n d i n g o f

f o r e i g n g r o u p s , a n d t h e b l a c k a r t s o f a g e n t s o f i n f l u e n c e c a n

m a k e u p f o r m i l i ta r y i n s u f f i c ie n c y a n d i r r e s o l u t io n a t th e t o p .

N o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e m i s le a d i n g t h a n a b e l ie f t h a t p o l i t ic a l

w a r f a r e i s a c h e a p f i x f o r s u c h f u n d a m e n t a l d e f i c i e n c i e s . A tb e s t, t h e t o o l s o f p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e c a n r e f le c t a n d m a g n i f y t h e

e f fe c t o f o t h e r w i s e c o m p e t e n t p o li c y. B u t w h e n t h e t o o l s o f

p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e a r e u s e d b y t h e i n c o m p e t e n t , t h e y c a u s e

f r ie n d s to b l e e d a n d e n e m i e s t o l a u g h .

Defining Political Warfare

H o w , t h e n , d o e s o n e g o a b o u t m a r s h a l i n g p o l it ic a l s u p -

p o r t a m o n g f o r e i g n er s ? A b o v e a ll, w e m u s t r e m e m b e r th a t

s u c h m a r s h a l i n g m u s t b e t h e o b j e c t i v e o f a ll i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c-

t io n , f r o m t h e d e li ve r y o f p u b l ic s p e e ch e s t o t h e d r o p p i n g o f

b o m b s . N o t h i n g is m o r e m i s le a d i n g t h a n t h e n o t i o n t h a t

p o l i ti cs is o n e a s p e c t o f co n f li c t a m o n g o t h e r s - m i l i t a r y ,

e c o n o m i c , e tc . I n f a c t , p o l i ti c s is n o t o n e part o f c o n f l ic t b u t

t h e o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e o f t h e whole, t h a t w h i c h m a k e s s e ns eo f a ll o n e d o e s i n a f i g h t , i f i n d e e d t h e r e is a n y s e n s e. S o , t o

b e g i n w i t h , w e c a n n o t c o n f i n e p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e t o t h e t o o l s

w e a s so c i a te w i t h p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e . A n y g o v e r n m e n t th a t

m a r s h a l s h u m a n e n er g ie s t h r o u g h t h e t o o ls o f p o l it ic a l w a r -



POLITICAL WARFARE 79

f a re m u s t a l s o m a k e s u r e t h a t i ts m i l i ta r y a n d e c o n o m i c ac -

t i v i t i e s a r e r e a s o n a b l y c a l c u l a t e d t o a c h i e v e t h e s a m e e n d s i ts e ek s t h r o u g h o b v i o u s l y p o li ti c al t o o l s .

T h e s u p r e m e d e c i s io n in w a r f a r e i s t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f a n

o b j e c t i v e a s i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h t o k i ll a n d d i e f o r . T h a t a c t is a

q u i n t e s s e n ti a l l y p o l it ic a l o n e . A n y m i l i t a ry o r e c o n o m i c

m e a s u r e s t a k e n p u r s u a n t t o t h a t d e c is io n t h a t a r e n o t

r e a s o n a b l y c a l c u l a t e d t o b r i n g a b o u t v i c t o r y a r e s ig n s e i t h e r

o f p o l it ic a l i n c o m p e t e n c e o r o f a d e a t h w i s h . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,

t h e t o o ls o f p o li ti c al w a r f a r e a r e o n l y p a r ts o f w h a t m u s t b ea n e s s e n t i a l l y p o l i t i c a l , s u c c e s s - o r i e n t e d p l a n t h a t a l s o i n -

v o l v es e v e r y t h i n g e ls e t h e g o v e r n m e n t is d o i n g .

P o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e , t h e n , is t h e f o r c e f u l p o l i t ic a l e x p r e s -

s i o n o f w h a t a n a t i o n i s a b o u t i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o n f l i c t . S u c c e s s

in p o li ti c al w a r f a r e m e a n s t h a t f o r e ig n e r s c o m e t o u n d e r s t a n d

w h a t a p r o t a g o n i s t i s a b o u t i n w a y s t h a t l e a d t h e m t o

a s s o c ia t e th e i r o w n l iv es , f o r t u n e s , a n d h o n o r w i th it . H e n c e ,

t h o u g h p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e m a y m a k e u s e o f d e c e p t i o n f r o mt i m e t o t i m e , i t s t h r u s t m u s t b e t h e v e r y o p p o s i t e o f d e c e p -

t i o n . W h e t h e r i t d o e s s o o v e r t l y o r c o v e r t l y , p o l i ti c a l w a r f a r e

m u s t p r o v i d e t o f o r e i g n e r s t r u e , c o n c r e t e r e a s o n s w h y t h e y

o u g h t t o c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s o n " o u r s i d e ," a n d c o n c r e t e in -

d u c e m e n t s f o r t h e m t o s i g n i f i c a n tl y e n h a n c e o u r s i d e's

c h a n c e s .

P o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e , t h e n , is a b r o a d c o n c e p t in v o l v i n g a c t s

b o t h o v e r a n d c o v e r t . L e t u s c o n s i d e r i n t u r n g r a y a n d b l a c kp r o p a g a n d a , s u p p o r t f o r f o r e ig n g r o u p s , a n d a g e n ts o f in -

f l u e n c e .

Gray Propaganda

T h e U n i t e d S t a te s h a s r i g h tl y c h o s e n t o s p e a k t o t h e

w o r l d n o t j u s t t h r o u g h o f fi c i a l re p r es e n ta t i v e s. T h r o u g h o u tt h e w o r l d , t h e U S I n f o r m a t i o n A g e n c y p r o v i d e s s p e ak e r s a n d

p r o g r a m s t h a t d o n o t n e c es s ar il y r e fl ec t t h e v ie w s o f th e U S

g o v e r n m e n t , s o t h a t f o re ig n e r s w il l u n d e r s t a n d b o t h t h e

b r e a d t h o f r e s p o n s i b l e o p i n i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t s



8 0 C O D E I ' l L L A

u n i t y o n e s se n ti a l m a t t e r s . S i m i la r ly , t h e V o i c e o f A m e r i c a

a n d R a d i o F r e e E u r o p e / R a d i o L i b e rt y s p e a k , o b v io u s ly ,

t h a n k s t o U S g o v e r n m e n t f un d s , b u t o n b e h a l f o f s o m e t h i n g

b i g g e r t h a n t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t . T h i s s em i o f fi c ia l a m p l if i c a -

t i o n o f t h e v o i c e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a b r o a d i s c a l l e d g r a y

p r o p a g a n d a .

B u t i n a d d i t i o n t o a m p l i f i c a t i o n , g r a y p r o p a g a n d a h a s

o f f e r e d U S o f f i c i a l s t h e p l e a s u r e s o f i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . T h e

c l a s s i c c a s e i s t h e s t i r r i n g b r o a d c a s t s t h a t i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s

g a v e E a s t E u r o p e a n s h o p e t h a t i f t h e y r e v ol te d , th e U S w o u l dc o m e t o th e i r a id . T h e U S g o v e r n m e n t n e v er f o r m a l ly c o n -

s id e re d w h e t h e r o r n o t t o c o m m u n i c a t e o ff ic ia l l y t o a n y o n e i n

P o l a n d , H u n g a r y , o r E a s t G e r m a n y t h e m e s sa g e , T h e U n i te d

S t a t e s b e l ie v e s it is i n o u r m u t u a l i n t e r e s t i f y o u r p e o p l e r e v o l t

a g a i n s t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ; o n c e y o u d o , w e w i l l k e e p t h e

S o v i et s f r o m c r u s h i n g y o u e i th e r b y t h r e a t e n i n g w a r o r b y a c-

t u a l l y s e n d i n g o u r o w n t r o o p s t o i n t e r p o s e t h e m s e l v e s b e -

t w e e n t h e S o v i e t s a n d y o u . H a d t h i s q u e s t i o n b e e n r a i s e d , ar e sp o n s ib l e g o v e r n m e n t e i th e r w o u l d h a v e a p p r o v e d s e n d in g

t h e m e s s a g e a n d t h e n m a d e t h e n e c e s s a ry p l a n s f o r in t e r v e n -

t i o n , o r i t w o u l d n o t h a v e s e n t t h e m e s s a g e . I n m a k i n g i t s

d e c is io n , i t w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y h a v e c o m p a r e d t h e c o st o f i n-

t e rv e n i n g w i th t h e c o st s o f p e r m a n e n t l y c o n c e d i n g E a s t e r n

E u r o p e t o t h e S o v ie t U n i o n , a n d w o u l d h a v e p r e p a r e d i ts e l f

t o m a k e t h e b e s t o f w h a t e v e r a l te r n a t iv e i t c h o s e . B u t t h e U S

g o v e r n m e n t a v o id e d th a t d e m a n d i n g c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i thr e a l i t y a s l o n g a s i t c o u l d . W h e n t h e E a s t G e r m a n , P o l i s h ,

a n d H u n g a r i a n r ev o lt s f o r c e d th e U S g o v e r n m e n t t o c h o o s e ,

t h e o p t i o n o f i n t e r v e n t i o n h a d n o t b e e n s t u d ie d o r p r e p a r e d .

I n o th e r w o r d s , w h e n t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t c o m m u n i c a t e d

t h r o u g h g r ay p r o p a g a n d a - t h a t is , o u ts id e o f a r e s p on s ib le

p o l ic y p r o c e s s - i t d i d n o t ta k e i ts o w n u t t e r a n c e s s e r io u s l y

e n o u g h t o p r e p a r e f o r t h e i r l o g i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .

N o w a d a y s t h e r a d i o s d o n o t t el l t h e c o u n t r i e s o f t h eS o v i e t E m p i r e t o r e v o l t . H o w e v e r , t h e y s t i l l d r a w t r u t h f u l

c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n h o w b a d l i f e i s o v e r t h e r e a n d h o w

g o o d i t i s h e r e . B u t i t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t

u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t i t i s d o i n g a n y b e t t e r t h a n i t d i d 3 0 y e a r s



POLITICAL WAR FAR E 81

a g o . T h e W e s t e r n r a d i o s ' l is te n e rs k n o w e v e n b e t t e r t h a n d o e s

t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h o w m i se r a b le lif e is u n d e r C o m m u n i s m ,

a n d t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n a b o u t l i f e i n t h e W e s t i s p r o b a b l y t o o

g e n e r o u s . I t i s n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a s a s k e d

i ts e lf w h a t r u b b i n g i n t h is c o m p a r i s o n c a n e n g e n d e r . R e v o l t ?

R e s e n t m e n t o f t h e W e s t f o r g l o a ti n g ? S u r e ly it e n g e n d e r s

s o m e r e s e n t m e n t a g a i n s t b o t h C o m m u n i s t l e a d e r s f o r t h e i rt y r a n n y a n d a g a i n s t t h e W e s t f o r t a l k i n g b u t d o i n g n o t h i n g

a b o u t i t .

N o n e o f th i s is t o a r g u e a g a i n st t h e r e a s o n a b l e p r e s u m p -t i o n t h a t , a l l o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , i t i s b e t t e r f o r p e o p l e

i n s i d e t h e S o v i e t E m p i r e t o k n o w t h e t r u t h t h a t t h e i r C o m -

m u n i s t r e g i m e s t r y t o h i d e . I n f a c t , c i t i z e n s o f C o m m u n i s t

c o u n t r i e s o f t e n k n o w l ess a b o u t w h a t h a p p e n s i n t h e i r o w n

c o u n t r i e s t h a n d o f o r e i g n e rs . I t is c l e a r ly i n t h e p e r m a n e n t i n -

t e r e st o f t h e U n i t e d S t a te s t h a t s u c h c i t iz e n s b e a s f u l ly i n -

f o r m e d a s p o s s ib l e a b o u t t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s . B u t m e r e f a c ts

a r e n o t p o l i ti c a ll y s i gn i fi c a n t. M u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o t h ea u d i e n c e i s , l i t e r a l l y , w h o i s i n a p o s i t i o n t o d o w h a t , t o

w h o m , f o r w h o m , a n d a g a i n s t w h o m ? T h e S o v i e t E m p i r e ' s

s u b j e c t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n h o w t h e W e s t f e e l s a b o u t t h e m , i n

w h a t w e a r e a b l e a n d w i ll in g t o d o t h a t w i l l a f f e c t t h e i r l i ve s ,

i n h o w w e s t a n d i n t h e d a i l y st ru g g le s b e t w e e n t h e m s e l v e s a n d

t h e ir m a s t e r s. A b o v e a ll , t h e y w a n t t o k n o w w h a t r o l e , g i v en

o u r m e a n s , w e a r e w i l li n g t o p l a y i n t h a t s tr u g g le .

S i n c e t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a s n o t e v e n t ri e d t o r e so l v et h e s e f u n d a m e n t a l p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s w i t h i n i t s e l f , w e c a n

h a r d l y s p e a k t o t h e c a p t i v e p o l i t i e s o f t h e S o v i e t E m p i r e

w i t h o u t d o i n g o u r s e l v e s h a r m . F o r e x a m p l e , o u r g r a y p r o p -

a g a n d a g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t w e c o n s i d e r t h e p e o p l e s o f

E a s t e r n E u r o p e , c e r t a i n l y , a n d t h o s e o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,

p r o b a b l y , a s o u r f r i e n d s , a n d t h a t w e c o n s i d e r t h e i r g o v e r n -

m e n t s t o b e b o t h i ll e g it im a t e r u le r s a n d e n e m i e s c a u s in g u s t o

s p e n d b i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s o n a r m a m e n t s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,t h e V o i ce o f A m e r i c a n o l ess t h a n t h e C o m m u n i s t m e d i a

f a i th f u l l y , a n d e v e n e a g e rl y , re p o r t s t h e c o r d i a l i t y o f

m e e t i n g s b e t w e e n o f f ic i a l r e p r e s e n t a ti v e s o f W e s t e r n g o v e r n -

m e n t s a n d C o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t s . A n d b o t h h a v e f a i t h -



82 C O D E V I L L A

fully reported the Helsinki Final Act of 1975 (which is not a

trea ty submitted to the US Senate) in which the United States

agreed that the Soviet Union's domination of Eastern

Europe, and all Communist regimes therein, is legitimate.

Also, both the radios and the Communist media have

discussed NATO's approac h to any eventual war on the cen-

tral front, which is to try to hold the line at the inter-German

border while wreaking destruction on the Warsaw Pact's sup-

plies and reinforcements in Eastern Europe. This message

may indeed reassure the Soviet leaders that the West does notintend ever, even under the provocation of war, to threaten

Communist rule anywhere. But the targets of our gray prop-

aganda, our friends about whose freedom we sometimes

speak but who are to be the targets o f our bombs and whose

freedom we would not seek in war any more than we do in

peace, can be forgiven for being a bit cynical. In other words,

our gray propaganda toward the Soviet Empire can hardly be

counted as political warfare because there seems to be nopoint to it. This is not a problem created by, or fixable by, the

radios. The problem lies in the political confusion at the heart

of US policy.

There is no problem, however, with Radio Free Europe's

principal activities. These are relaying back into the Soviet

Empire messages from dissidents abroad, reading S a m i z d a t

literature, and broadcasting religious services. These ac-

tivities, however, also should not be thought of as prop-aganda of any kind. Rather, they are attempts, however fee-

ble, to sustain within the Soviet Empire cultural identities and

political groups that the Communist regimes seek to stamp

out.

B l a c k P r o p a g a n d a

In the mid-1970s, the Church and Pike Committees

revealed several instances of American black propaganda.

One of the blacker was clandestinely gathering info rmat ion

about the copious sexual misdeeds of Indonesia's leftist




d i c ta t o r , S u k a r n o , a n d t h e n s p r e a d i n g t h e m a b o u t t h e w o r l d

t h r o u g h c h a n n e l s n o t a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h eo p e r a t i o n w a s t e ch n i ca l ly c o m p e t e n t . B u t i t c o u l d n o t

p o s s i b l y b e t e r m e d p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e b e c a u s e , e v e n a s t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s w a s c o n d u c t i n g t h is " b l a c k " a s s a u l t o n S u k a r -

n o , i t w a s d e n y i n g to i ts N A T O a lly , H o l l a n d , t h e r ig h t to

r e f u e l o n A m e r i c a n s o i l a i r c r a f t t h a t m i g h t b e s e n t t o b l o c k

S u k a r n o ' s c o n q u e s t o f D u t c h W e s t B o r n e o . A n a ct o f b la c k

p r o p a g a n d a d o e s n o t m a k e a w a r . A n d i f t h e re is n o w a r , i n -

d e e d , i f w e a r e p u b l ic l y s u p p o r t i n g a f o r e i g n r e g im e ag a i n s tm a j o r c h a l l e n g e s , w h y s h o u l d w e c r e a t e s m a l l c h a l l e n g e s

c l a n d e s t i n e l y ? H e n c e , o u r f i r st l e s s o n is t h a t , t o b e m e a n -

i ng fu l , b la c k p r o p a g a n d a m u s t s u p p o r t , a n d b e s u p p o r t e d b y ,

d e e d s .

I n th e m i d -1 9 8 0 s, s o m e A m e r i c a n s h a v e b e e n d i s m a y e d

a t t h e s u c ce s s o f D r . Y . P . V e l i k h o v , a m e m b e r o f th e S o v i e t

A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s, in p a s s i n g h i m s e l f o f f t o t h e w o r l d 's

p r e s s a s a n o b j e c t i v e s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v e r , w h o j u d g e s t h a td e f e n s e a g a i n s t b a l l i s t i c m i s s i l e s i s i m p o s s i b l e , a n d w h o

c o u n s e l s t h e W e s t t o p u t i ts t r u s t in a r m s c o n t r o l r a t h e r t h a n

i n d e f e n s e s . V e l i k h o v , y o u s ee , is o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g l ig h t s i n

t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n t i m i s si le d e v ic e s. S o m e

A m e r i c a n s f e ar th a t a m e r e o v e r t c a m p a i g n b y th e U S g o v e r n -

m e n t to i d e n t i fy V e l i k h o v f o r w h a t h e i s - a n a g e n t o f d is in -

f o r m a t i o n - w o u l d f o u n d e r o n th e s h o al s o f t he m e d ia 's

d i s t r u s t o f w h a t , a f t e r a ll , w o u l d b e a n o b v i o u s l y s e lf - se r v in gl in e o f a r g u m e n t f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t es . H e n c e , s o m e

r e a s o n e d , i t w o u l d b e a g o o d i d e a t o h a v e t h e t r u t h a b o u t

V e l i k h o v s p r e a d b y s o u r c e s th a t w o u l d n o t b e d is b e l i e v e d

b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a s so c i a ti o n w i th t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t .

N o w , t h e r e is n o t h i n g i n h e r e n t ly w r o n g w i th s p r e a d i n g

t h e t r u t h b y b l a c k p r o p a g a n d a , a n d , s o l o n g a s t h is is a i m e d

a t f o r e i g n a u d i e n c e s , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g il le g a l a b o u t i t. I n d e e d ,

t h e u n m a s k i n g o f a d i s i n f o r m a t i o n a g en t w o u l d s ee m to b et h e v e ry d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e d e f en s iv e u se o f b l a ck p r o p a g a n d a .

B u t c a l l i n g V e l i k h o v n a m e s , w h e t h e r t o h is f a c e o r b e h i n d h i s

b a c k , i s l i t e r a l l y s e n s e l e s s s o l o n g a s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d o e s

n o t i m p e a c h t h e s u b s t a n c e o f h i s m e s s a g e . Y e t t h e U n i t e d



84 CODE VILLA

States cannot impeach the substance of Velikhov's message

without at the same time impeaching its own record on armscontrol . The United States has told the world that it thinks an

arms control agreement with the Soviet Union is both

desirable and possible and the Soviet leaders are negotiating

in good faith for the same objectives as the Americans. If the

United States were now to say publicly that the Soviet Union

is sending us a master of di sinformation to deceive us into an

arms control agreement that would make it easier for the

Soviets to th reaten war or successfully make war on theUnited States, the nation would have to explain why it has

gone so many miles in this direction before finding out it was

the wrong one.

In other words, to gainsay the Soviet Union's intentions

with regard to arms control is to gainsay the very basis of US

policy. After all, if the Soviet Union's intentions are so bad,

what could negotiations possibly accomplish? All of this is to

say that Dr. Velikhov's gray propaganda works because it isconsonant with Soviet policy, while an American propaganda

effort to jinx Velikhov, whethe r "black" or "white," would be

doomed to failure because it would be dissonant with the rest

of what the United States says and does. Of course, if the

United States were to change its policy toward arms control,

jinxing Velikhov would be easy. But on the other hand, if the

United States were to change its policy toward arms control,

Velikhov would be irrelevant. This is our second lesson.Our third lesson is that black propaganda, like other

measures of political warfare , must actually have a chance of

affecting the outcome of the struggle. In the late 1940s, the

United States made a major commitment to fighting Com-

munism in Western Europe. In addition to the billions of

dollars of Marshall Plan aid and to the hundreds of

thousands of American troops in Europe, there was prop-

aganda-white, gray, and black. It is impossible to tellwhether the black side played a significant role. But it is dif-

ficult to imagine that the Central Intelligence Agency could

possibly have generated enough speeches and articles to even

be noticeable in the flood that arose spontaneously through-



P O L I T I C A L W A R F A R E 85

out the free, pluralistic societies of Europe in response to an

obvious challenge.Similarly, it is not clear how much black propaganda has

aided the Soviet Union's massive campaigns to stop the

West's neutron bomb, keep Pershing Ils out of Germany,

and keep the West from building an antimissile defense.

Because the Soviet Union's white and gray propaganda have

been enormous, it is enough for us to note that however

many articles have been written or placed directly by Soviet

agents, the Soviet arms control campaigns could not possiblyhave been mounted on the basis of them alone.

Where the sources of influence on public opinion and on

decisionmaking are more restricted, black propaga nda stands

a better chance of being significant. In the Third World, an

article planted in a newspaper or a story simply spread by

word of mouth can cause or calm riots. Thus, Soviet agents

needed to inject only a little incitement into Islamabad in

November 1979, in the form of reports o f America n murdersof Muslims, to cause a mob to burn the US Embassy to the

ground.

However, the channels for black propaganda are impor-

tant not just for what they can contribute to any given cam-

paign, but primarily because each one that is established is

another bunker, another trench taken in enemy territory.

Some of these trenches can be of enormous value.

A g e n t s o f I n fl u en c e

Agents o f influence are allies in the councils of a foreign

power. It is misleading to th ink o f agents of influence as mere

creatures of a foreign power, mercenaries, or robots carryingout orders. Because such people exercise influence-indeed

this is why they are cultivated-their sympathies cannot be

wholly secret. (But the degree to which they coordinate theiractivities with a foreign power is likely to be secret.) So for a

government to maintain or increase the influence of its agents

abroad, it must provide them the "cover" that only a certain

ambiguous kind of success can bring.



86 CODE VILLA

T h i s i s a s u b t l e b u s i n e s s . E x c e s s i v e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a n

a g e n t o f in f l u e n c e r is k s id e n t i f y i n g h i m a s a t r a i t o r a n dd e s t r o y i n g e v e r y t h i n g t h a t t h e a g e n t h a s a c c o m p l i s h e d . O n e

o f t h e b e t te r e x a m p l e s is t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ' s " b l o w i n g " o f i ts

N o r w e g i a n a g e n t , A r n e T r e h o l t , b y u s i n g h im t o a c h ie v e a n

o b v i o u s l y o n e - s id e d a g r e e m e n t a b o u t i ts b o r d e r w i th n o r t h -

e rn N o r w a y .

S t i l l , S o v i e t a g e n t s a b r o a d h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f b e i n g

o n t h e s i d e o f a c o u n t r y k n o w n f o r r e w a r d i n g i ts f ri e n d s a n d ,

a b o v e a ll , f o r k i ll in g i ts e n e m i e s . In L e b a n o n , f o r e x a m p l e ,a n y o n e s u s p e c t e d o f A m e r i c a n s y m p a t h i e s c a n b e k i l l e d o r

" d i s a p p e a r e d " l i t e r a l l y w i t h i m p u n i t y , w h i l e t h e f e w k i l l i n g s

o f S o v i e t s y m p a t h i z e r s a re c o p i o u s l y a v e n g e d a n d S o v i e t

h o s t a g e s a r e q u i c k l y r e t u r n e d . S i n c e a g e n t s o f i n f lu e n c e a r e

a l w a y s p o l i t i c a l h o s t a g e s , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t o r e m e m b e r w h a t

C a e s a r s a i d i n h is h is t o r y o f G a u l r e g a r d i n g h o s t a g e s : R o m e

takes h o s t a g e s , b u t d o e s n o t give t h e m . A g o v e r n m e n t p r o -

t e c t s i t s a c t i v e s y m p a t h i z e r s a b r o a d ( i n d e e d , i t a t t r a c t s s u c hs y m p a t h i z e r s ) b y i t s r e p u t a t i o n f o r s u c c e s s a n d t h r o u g h t h e

a w e a n d r e s p e c t i t i n s p i r e s i n p o t e n t i a l o p p o n e n t s .

O u r s e c o n d l e ss o n w i th r e g a r d t o a g e n t s o f i n f l u e n c e is

r e l a te d t o t h e f ir st . A n a g e n t is w o r t h t h e t r o u b l e o f h a v i n g ,

p r o t e c t in g , a n d a d v a n c i n g o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t o n e h a s

r e a s o n a b l e p l a n s f o r u s i n g h i m t o a c h i e v e s o m e s u c c e s s . F o r

e x a m p l e , i n V i e t n a m i n 1 9 6 3 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f a c i l i t a t e d a

s u c ce s sf u l c o u p t o r e m o v e th e D i e m f a m i ly f r o m p o w e r ino r d e r t o p l a c e in p o w e r s o m e g e n e ra l s o v e r w h i c h it h a d m o r e

i n f lu e n c e . T h e U n i t e d S t a te s r e a s o n e d t h a t t h e s e g e n e r a ls

w o u l d b e m o r e a t tr a c ti v e t o t h e V i e tn a m e s e p e o p l e t h a n D i e m

a n d t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n c e w o u l d t h e r e f o r e h e l p w i n th e w a r . B u t

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d n o p l a n s f o r u s i n g t h e s e a g e n t s t o a c -

t u a l ly a c h i e v e v i c to r y . B y t h e l a te 1 96 0s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d

la rg e ly r e m a d e t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f S o u t h V i e tn a m in its o w n

i m a g e . B u t s i n c e t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f i n f lu e n c e w a s n o t i n-t e n d e d a s p a r t o f a r e a s o n a b l e p l a n , t h e f u l f i l lm e n t o f w h i c h

w o u l d l e a d t o v i c to r y , i t i n f a ct h e l p e d p a v e t h e w a y to d e f e a t .

A t h i r d l e s s o n h as t o d o w i t h t h e s o u n d n e s s o f t h e p l a n

a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h th e a g e n t c a n c a r ry it o u t . A r o u n d t h e




w o r l d , A m e r i c a n s r e g u l a r l y c o m e i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h p e r s o n s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h o s t i l e r e g i m e s o r p a r t i e s w h o l e a d t h e m t ob e li ev e t h a t t h e y c a n i n cr e as e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e " m o d e r a t e

f a c t i o n " w i t h in t h e ir r e g i m e o r p a r t y . T h e " a g e n t o f i n f lu e n c e

o p e r a t i o n s " t h a t f o l l o w s u c h c o n t a c t s u s u a l l y l a c k

s e r i o u s n e s s . T h e f i r s t m i s s i n g e l e m e n t i s u s u a l l y i n t e l l i g e n c e

a b o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e a n d t h e m a l l e a b i l i t y o f t h e s u p p o s e d

m o d e r a t e f a c t i o n . T h e s e c o n d m i s s i n g e l e m e n t is

c o u n t e r i n t el l ig e n c e v e t t i n g o f th e s u p p o s e d a g e n t , a n d a n y

k n o w l e d g e w h a t s o e v e r a b o u t w h o i n th e h o s t i l e r e g i m e o rp a r t y k n o w s a b o u t t h e o p e r a t i o n . F i n a ll y , t h e " p l a n " u s u a ll y

c o n s is t s o f A m e r i c a n s g i v in g s o m e t h i n g t a n g ib l e i n r e t u r n f o r

t h e m o d e r a t e f a c t i o n ' s g o o d w i l l . T h i s s o r t o f t h i n g is t e r ri b l y

c o m m o n in th e U n i t e d S t a te s , b u t i t s h o u l d n o t b e m i s t a k e n

f o r p o l i c y .

Support of Foreign Groups

W h a t p r o p a g a n d a a n d a g e nt s o f i n f l u e n ce d o i n d i re c tl y ,

i n te r m s o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g o r w e a k e n i n g p a r t i c u la r f a c t i o n s o r

g r o u p s , m a y a l s o b e a t t e m p t e d d i r e c t l y . W e r e a d a b o u t t h i s

a p p r o a c h , a m o n g t h e m o s t a n c i e n t o f a rt s , i n v i r t u a ll y e v e ry

a c c o u n t o f c o n f l ic t s in c e T h u c y d i d e s . T h e l i t e ra t u r e m a k e s it

c l e a r , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e sine qua non f o r c a u s i n g l a t e n t

f r i e n d s h i p o r o p p o s i t i o n a b r o a d t o m a n i f e s t i ts e lf i n e i th e r

p o l i t ic a l o r p a r a m i l i ta r y a c ti v it y is t h e p r o m i s e o f s u p p o r t a n d

p r o t e c t i o n . A l li es in u n f r i e n d l y o r n e u t r a l t e r r it o r y c a n n o t b e

b o u g h t ( o r i f t h e y a re b o u g h t , t h e y c a n n o t b e m a d e t o s ta y

t h a t w a y ). A n d s e l d o m h as t h e m e r e su p p l y o f a r m s o r

t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e l e d p e o p l e t o e n g a g e i n h o p e l e s s s t r u g -

g l e s. I n a n u t sh e l l , r e c r u i t i n g a l li e s t o sh a r e i n v i c t o r i e s is e a sy ;

r e c r u i t i n g a lli es t o h e l p b e a r t h e b u r d e n o f d e f e a t o r t o s t a v e i t

o f f f o r a w h i l e is w e l l- n i g h i m p o s s i b l e . T h e k e y is t o c o n v i n c e

t h e t a r g e t g r o u p t h a t t h e y a re j o i n i n g t h e w i n n i n g s i de , a n dt h a t b y d o i n g s o t h e y a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s w i l l b e b e t t e r o f f .

T h e s e t w o e l em e n t s m u s t b e j o i n e d - - o th e r w i se th e g r o u p s s eet h e ir c o o p e r a t i o n a s m e r e l y a p r ic e to b e p a i d f o r a s e c u re

r e t i r e m e n t i n e x i l e .



88 CODE VILLA

H e n c e , o u r f ir st l e ss o n m u s t b e t h a t a s o n e c o n s i d e r s ap -

p r o a c h i n g p o t e n t i a l f o r e i g n a l l i e s , o n e s h o u l d r e e x a m i n eo n e ' s o w n p l a n s . I s t h e e n t e r p r i s e f o r w h i c h t h e y a r e b e i n g

r e c r u i t e d r e a s o n a b l y p l a n n e d t o l e a d t o v i c t o r y ? O f t e n ,

h o w e v e r , t h e q u e s t i o n i n g is o b v i a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t f o r e ig n

g r o u p s m a k e t h e in i t ia l a p p r o a c h in t h e h o p e o f b r in g i n g a

p o w e r f u l p a t r o n t o b e a r a g a i n s t t h e i r d o m e s t i c e n e m i e s . S u c h

g r o u p s h a v e u s u a l ly a l re a d y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e y h a v e n o

c h a n c e o f w i n n i n g w i t h o u t o u t s i d e s u p p o r t , t h u s t h e y h a v e

n o t h i n g t o lo s e b y s e e k in g it . I f th e y g e t w h o l e h e a r t e d s u p -p o r t , t h e y a re b a c k i n t h e g a m e . S o m e m a y b e sa t i sf ie d t h a t i f

t h e y f a i l t o g a i n s u c h s u p p o r t , a t l e a s t t h e y w i l l g a i n f o r

t h e m s e l v e s a c o m f o r t a b l e e x ile . O t h e r s m a y s i m p l y w a n t t o

b o l s t e r t h e i r o w n b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e i r d o m e s t i c

e n e m i e s , w h i le sti l l o t h e r s m a y b e in l e a g u e w i t h t h o s e w h o m

t h e y d e s c ri b e as t h e ir d o m e s t i c e n e m i e s a n d m a y b e p u l l in g a

" s t i n g " o p e r a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e f o r e i g n " h e l p e r " t h e y s o l i c i t .

T h i s le a d s u s to o u r s e c o n d l e ss o n . C o n d u c t i n g p o l i ti c a l

w a r f a r e b y t r y i n g t o b u i l d u p f o r e i g n g r o u p s r e q u i r e s r e l i a b l e

i n te l li g e n ce a b o u t t h o s e g r o u p s ' m o t i v a t i o n s as w e ll a s a b o u t

t h e i r c a p a c i ti e s . W i t h o u t s u c h in t e ll ig e n c e , s u p p o r t o f f o r e i g n

g r o u p s i s a l e a p in t h e d a r k . W h e n t o t h is e x t er n a l d a r k n e s s

o n e a d d s t h e f a il u re t o a s k i l l u m i n a t i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t

w h e r e t h i s s u p p o r t s h o u l d l e a d , h o w o n e s h o u l d k n o w

w h e t h e r t h e o p e r a t i o n is a c tu a l ly g e t ti n g th e r e , a n d h o w t o f ix

i t i f i t s e e m s t o b e g o i n g w r o n g , t h e n o n e i s e n g a g i n g i n

s o m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n r e sp o n s ib l e p o l i c y m a k i n g .

I n o r d e r t o h a v e p r o p e r i n te l l ig e n c e o n a f o r e i g n g r o u p ' s

p o l it ic a l p e r s o n a l it y , o n e n e e d s n o t o n l y a g e n t s w h o a r e i n

c o n t a c t w i t h t h e g r o u p b u t a l s o t h e k i n d o f k n o w l e d g e

a v a i la b l e o n l y t h r o u g h i n te l l ig e n c e c o l le c t o rs w h o g e t t o k n o w

m e m b e r s o f t h e t a rg e t g r o u p a n d t h ei r c u l t u re w e ll e n o u g h t o

p u t t h e m s e l v e s in th e i r s h o e s . O v e r w h e l m i n g l y b o u n d b y t h en a r r o w c u l t u r e o f U S u p p e r m i d d l e - cl a ss civ il s e r v a n ts , a g e n t s

w ill b e a b le t o u n d e r s t a n d a d e q u a t e l y o n l y g r o u p s w h o s e

m e n t a l i t y is c o m p r e h e n s i b l e in t e r m s o f t h i s v e ry , v e r y n a r -

r o w p e r s p e c ti v e . I n t e ll ig e n c e a b o u t p e o p l e s d r iv e n b y g o d s ,




l ov e s , h a t e s , a n d n e e d s th a t a r e in c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o s e c u la r ,

s u b u r b a n A m e r i c a n s w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e l u d e us .

W h e n t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a s h a d r eq u is it e k n o w l e d g e

a n d h a s r e m e m b e r e d c o m m o n - s e n s e p r e c e p ts , i t h a s b e e n a b le

t o u s e f o r e i g n g r o u p s t o i ts a d v a n t a g e . W h e n i t h a s h a d i n a d e -

q u a t e k n o w l e d g e a n d h a s n o t f o l l o w e d c o m m o n s e n se , i t h a s

p r e p a r e d d i s a s t er s . I n E u r o p e i n t h e l at e 1 9 4 0s , t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t l a b o r u n i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t r a n s p o r t a -

t io n w o u l d h a ve m u c h t o s a y a b o u t w h e t h e r U S e c o n o m i c

a n d m i l i t a r y a i d w o u l d a c t u a l l y r e v i t a l i z e W e s t e r n E u r o p e

a n d h e l p t o f r u s t ra t e t h e S o v i et U n i o n ' s a t t e m p t t o k e e p th e

W e s t er n A l l i a nc e f r o m f o r m i n g . T h e U n i t e d S t a te s h a d g o o d

i n te l l ig e n c e a b o u t w h o w a s w h o i n t h e s e u n i o n s b e c a u s e i t h a d

i n t e l l i g e n c e c o l l e c t o r s w h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s a l l o w e d t h e m t o

i d e n t i fy w i t h w o r k e r s a n d t h e i r c o n c r e t e c o n c e r n s . P o s s e s s e d

o f g o o d i n t e l l i g e n c e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e n c o u r a g e d a n t i c o m -

m u n i s t u n i o n i s t s t o f ig h t t o w i n c o n t r o l o f d o c k s a n d r a i l r o a d

y a r ds . B o t h t h e f o r e i g n C o m m u n i s t s a n d t h e A m e r i c a n s in -v o l v ed k n e w w h a t it w o u l d t a k e t o w i n a n d f u l ly c o m m i t t e d

t h em s e l v es t o d o i n g w h a t w a s n ec e ss ar y . T h e a m o u n t o f

m o n e y t h a t c h a n g e d h a n d s w a s m i n i sc u le . T h e k e y w a s t h e

a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h r o u g h d i p l o m a t i c m e a n s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

w o u l d p r o t e c t t h e s e u n i o n i s t s a g a i n s t e l e m e n t s i n t h e i r o w n

g o v e r n m e n t s w h o w o u l d b r a n d t h e ir a c ti vi ti es as c ri m i n a l . I t

w a s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a te s ' p o w e r t o c a r r y o u t t h is p r o m i s e , a n d

i t d i d .A s a r e su l t o f th i s in i ti a t iv e , C o m m u n i s t u n i o n i s t s w e r e

c o n f i n e d t o t h e ir o w n u n i o n s , w h i l e t h e r i gh ts o f n o n c o m -

m u n i s t l a b o r w e re p r o t e c te d b o t h b y w o r k e r s t h e m s e lv e s a n d

b y t h e p o l ic e , b o t h t o s o m e e x t e n t e n e r g iz e d b y t h e U n i t e d

S t a te s . S i m i la r ly , t h e c o u p t h a t r e a f f i r m e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

t h e S h a h o f I r a n a g a i n s t P r i m e M i n i s t e r M o s s a d e g h i n 1 9 5 3

c o u l d o c c u r o n l y b e c a u s e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s w i l l i n g a n d

a b le t o r e s p o n s ib l y p r o m i s e in s t a n t d i p l o m a t i c r e c o g n i t i o n inc as e o f s uc ce ss , a l o n g w i th h e l p - s u c h a s G r e e ce a n d T u r k e y

h a d r e c e i v e d - i n p u t t in g d o w n a n y r e m a i n i n g re s i st an c e . T h e

c o u p ' s o p p o n e n t s , i n c l u d in g t h e S o v ie t U n i o n , s a w n o p o i n t

i n c h a l l e n g i n g t h i s r e s o l v e .



90 CODEVILLA

T h e t r o u b l e w i t h U S s u p p o r t o f f o r e ig n g r o u p s s i n ce t h e

1 96 0s , h o w e v e r , h a s n o t b e e n a n i n a b i l it y t o f u n n e l m o n e ya n d a r m s . I n S o u t h e a s t A s i a , t h e a r m i n g o f th e H ' m o n g t ri b e

a g a i n s t N o r t h V i e t n a m w a s a m a s t e r p i e c e o f l o g i s t i c s a n d

o r g a n iz a t i o n . T h e H ' m o n g f o u g h t v a l ia n t l y a n d h e ld th e

n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r o f I n d o c h i n a f o r a lm o s t a d e c a d e . B u t t o -

d a y , t h e f e w s u r v i v o r s l iv e i n t h e s t a t e o f M o n t a n a o r i n

w r e t c h e d r e f u g e e c a m p s i n T h a i l a n d b e c a u s e t h e U S g o v e r n -

m e n t d i d n o t t a k e i t s e lf s e r io u s l y i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a .

T h e U S g o v e r n m e n t a ls o p u r s u e d w h a t it t h o u g h t w a sp o l i ti c a l w a r f a r e i n I r a n t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 96 0s a n d 1 97 0s . T h e

U S g o v e r n m e n t ' s o b j e c t iv e w a s t o m a k e s u r e t h a t t h e S h a h ' s

p r o - W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t r e m a i n e d i n o f f ic e . T o t h is e n d , t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s s t r o n g l y e n c o u r a g e d s e c u l ar is t s in t h e S h a h ' s

g o v e r n m e n t to s e c u la ri ze th e c o u n t r y . H o w e v e r , b e c a u s e th e

A m e r i c a n s i nv o l v ed t h o r o u g h l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e s i t u a t io n ,

t h e y e f f e c ti v e ly w a g e d p o l i t ic a l w a r n o t o n b e h a l f o f t h e

S h a h , b u t a g a i n s t h i m . T h e U S f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d i n t el li g e n c ec la s s , b e i n g r e l i g i o u s l y i ll i te r a t e, d i d n o t r e a li z e t h a t b y m a k -

i n g t h e S h a h a s y m b o l o f s e c u l a r i z a t io n t h e y w e r e h e l p i n g t o

m a k e h i m a f o r e ig n e r i n h is o w n l a n d .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t f i g u r e d c o r r e c t l y t h a t

t h e S h a h ' s o w n p a r t i s a n s i n t h e I r a n i a n A r m y w e r e s o c o h e -

s i v e a n d w e l l a r m e d t h a t t h e y h a d t h e a b i l i t y t o p h y s i c a l l y

d e s t r o y a n y c h al le n g e rs t o t h e S h a h . B u t t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t

d i d n o t t a k e i n to a c c o u n t its o w n r o l e - d i s p a tc h i n g t h e d e p u -ty c o m m a n d e r o f N A T O , G e n e ra l R o b e r t H u y s e r , t o c on -

v i nc e t h e S h a h ' s p a r ti s a n s n o t t o s h o o t , b u t i n s t e a d to b e c o m e

a m o d e r a t i n g f o r c e i n t h e n e w r e v o l u t i o n a r y I s l am i c r e g im e ,

w h i c h p r o m p t l y e xe c u te d m o s t o f t h e m .

A l l o f t h is is t o s a y t h a t t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t , w h i l e a b l e t o

e x e r c is e i n f l u e n c e o n f o r e i g n g r o u p s o n t h e r e ta i l l ev e l, h a s

e x h i b i t e d w h o l e s a le i n c o m p e t e n c e , t h u s t h a t U S p o l i t ic a l w a r -

f a re h as d o n e m o r e h a r m t h a n g o o d .T o d a y ' s d e b a t e in W a s h i n g t o n a b o u t w h a t o u g h t o r

o u g h t n o t t o b e p a i d t o i n fl u e n c e I r a n i a n " m o d e r a t e s " h a s a ll

t h e r e a li s m o f a K a f k a d i a l o g u e . E v e n i f t h e h e a r s a y a b o u t

w h o i s a n d i s n o t a m o d e r a t e w e r e r e l i a b l e , t h e r e i s n o




i n t e l l i g e n c e a b o u t w h o , p r e c i s e l y , i s a l l i e d w i t h w h o m a n d

a b o u t w h o is w i l l in g t o d o w h a t to w h o m w i th w h o m . M o s t

i m p o r t a n t , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s is in n o p o s i t i o n t o g i v e a n y c o n -

t e n d e r s f o r p o w e r in I r a n w h a t t h e y n e e d m o s t : s u p p o r t

a g a i n s t th e i r e n e m i e s . O n e c a n i m a g i n e t h a t i f a f e w o f t h o s e

I r a n i a n o f f i c e r s w h o t o o k t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' a d v i c e i n 1 9 7 8

a r e sti l l a liv e a n d , s o m e h o w , h a v e n o t d e v e l o p e d h a t r e d f o r

A m e r i c a , t h e ir p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r d e a l in g w i th t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s a g a i n w o u l d b e i r o n c l a d a s s u r a n c e s t h a t t h e U S

g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d n o t le t t h e m s u f fe r t h e f a te o f t h ei r e x-

e c u t e d f r i e n d s. N o r e a s o n a b l e p e r s o n c o u l d b e li ev e t h a t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s is i n a p o s i t i o n t o g i ve su c h a s s u r a n c e s i n I r a n

t o d a y .

T h e s e a r c h f o r t h e e v e r -e lu s iv e " m o d e r a t e f a c t i o n " s e e m s

t o h a v e b e c o m e a s u b s t i tu t e f o r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t , a n d

l e v e r a g e o v e r , f o r e i g n s i t u a t i o n s . I n i t s a c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g

S o u t h A f r ic a in 1985 a n d 1 98 6, C o n g r e s s h a s a p p r o p r i a t e d

t a x p a y e r f u n d s f o r v a r i o u s " a n t i a p a r t h e i d " g r o u p s ; m e a n -

w h ile , p r o p o n e n t s o f th o s e a p p r o p r i a t i o n s , a l o n g w i th m u c h

o f t h e e x ec u tiv e b ra n c h , h a v e ta l k e d m u c h o f m a k i n g c o n t a c t

w i th m o d e r a t e f a c ti o n s o f th e A f r i c a n N a t io n a l C o n g r e s s

( A N C ) , w h i c h is v i rt u a ll y a b r a n c h o f t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n

C o m m u n i s t P a r t y . O f c o u r s e , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s is t h e ta r g e t

o f m u c h " i n fo r m a t i o n " f r o m m e m b e r s o f th e A N C t h a t

p a i n ts t h e m a s m o d e r a t e s , f o r th e s a k e o f w h o s e a d v a n c e m e n t

a n d f r ie n d s h i p A m e r i c a o u g h t to d o a ll s o rt s o f th i n g s . B u t

t h e U n i te d S t a te s h a s n o p r i v at e , c o n f i r m e d k n o w l e d g e a b o u tt h e A N C ' s i n t e r n a l d i s p u t e s , m u c h le ss k n o w l e d g e t h a t s o m e

f a c t i o n s w o u l d p r e f e r w o r k i n g w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o

w o r k i n g w i t h o t h e r f a c t i o n s .

A s f o r l ev e ra g e o n b e h a l f o f t h e m o d e r a t e f a c t i o n in

S o u t h A f r ic a , o r a n y w h e r e els e, n o t h i n g s h o w s th e e m p t i n e s so f U S p o l i c i e s i n t e n d e d t o i n s t a l l m o d e r a t e s b e t t e r t h a n t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s ' to t a l u n w i ll i n g n e s s t o e v e n c o n s i d e r h e l p i n g t h e

m o d e r a t e s t o d o t h e o n e i m m o d e r a t e t h i n g t h a t w o u l d a l lo wt h e m t o p r e v a i l o v e r r a d i c a ls w h o t h r e a t e n t h e i r liv e s: t h a t i s,

t o k i l l t h e r a d i c a l s .

S o , in o r d e r t o p r o m o t e m o d e r a t e s i t d o e s n o t k n o w a n d

c a n n o t h e l p i n th e c r u n c h , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is h e l p i n g t o



92 CODEVILLA

s t re n g t h e n th e A N C a s a w h o l e. T h e U S g o v e r n m e n t d oe s th is

k n o w i n g f u l l w e l l t h a t t h e A N C i s n o t s y n o n y m o u s w i t h

S o u t h A f r i c a ' s b l a c k p o p u l a t i o n . I n d e e d , t h a t p o p u l a t i o n i s

d e e p l y d i v i d e d in t o t r ib e s , a n d t h e l a rg e s t o f t h e s e, t h e Z u l u ,

a r e e n e m i e s o f t h e A N C f o r tr ib a l a s w e ll a s fo r o t h e r r e a s o n s .

W h y n o t , t h e n , s u p p o r t t h e Z u l u s - - e s p e c ia l ly g i v e n t h e o b -

v i o u s m o d e r a t i o n o f t h e ir p o l it ic s ? T h e a n s w e r s e em s to b e

t h a t t h e Z u l u s a r e t o o m o d e r a t e . T h e y h a v e n o k i n s h i p w it h

t h o s e f a s c i n a ti n g f o l k w h o b u r n t h e ir e n e m i e s ' h e a d s w i th

g a s o l i n e - s o a k e d t ir es . T h e s e a re t h e v e r y p e o p l e w i th w h o m

t h e d o m i n a n t c u l tu r e in t h e U S f o r e ig n p o l ic y e s t a b l is h m e n t

w i s h e s t o d e a l . H e n c e t h e e a g e r n e s s o f s o m a n y i n t h e U S

g o v e r n m e n t t o c o n f e r t h e l a be l o f m o d e r a t i o n o n h e a d -

b u r n e r s .

B y s i m i la r l y c o g e n t r e a s o n i n g , t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t s e n t

U S M a r i n e s t o B e i r u t i n 1 98 2 t o s a ve t h e P L O f r o m t h e

d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t I s r a e l a n d P i e r r e G e m a y e l w e r e a b o u t t o

w r e a k o n i t. D e s p i te th e P L O ' s p r a c t ic e o f b o m b i n g s c h o o ls ,

b u s e s , a n d m a r k e t p l a c e s , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s s o u g h t t o s a v e th e

e n t ir e P L O in o r d e r t o e n h a n c e th e i n f lu e n c e o f its m o d e r a t e

f a c t i o n , i n t h e h o p e t h a t i t w o u l d b e a n i n t e r l o c u t o r i n t h e

" M i d - E a s t P e a c e P r o c e s s ." N o t e t h a t b o t h t h e m o d e r a t i o n o f

a n y p a r t ly o f th e P L O a n d t h e M i d - E a s t P e a c e P r o c e s s i ts e lf

a r e p u r e ly c r e at u re s o f th e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t h e U S f o r e ig n

p o l i c y e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o r e a l i t y .

N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e a c t i o n s t a k e n p u r s u a n t t o s u c h

n o n s e n s e p r o v e d d i s a st ro u s . U S M a r in e s w e r e s en t i n t o ap l a c e w h e r e S y r ia a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r e n e m i e s o f t h e U n i t e d

S t at es c o u l d a n d d i d k il l t h e m , w h i le t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t w a s

n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h S y r ia to a c h i e v e w h a t it t h o u g h t w o u l d b e

t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e p e a c e p r o c e s s - - I s r a e l ' s w i t h d r a w a l f r o m

L e b a n o n . O f c o u r s e , I s ra e l 's w i t h d r a w a l le d o n l y t o t h e ex -

p a n s i o n o f S y r i a n p r e s e n c e a n d t o a n e v e n m o r e b a se le s s

s e a r c h f o r m o d e r a t e f a c t i o n s i n S y r i a a n d I r a n . T h e e f f e c t o f

i n c o m p e t e n t s h o l d i n g p o w e r is s o m e w h a t l ik e th a t o f c h i ld r e n

g e t t in g th e i r h a n d s o n p o w e r t o o ls .

A l l o f th i s h a s a w e l l - k n o w n a n t e c e d e n t , w h i c h is t h e

s e a r c h f o r t h e m o d e r a t e f a c t i o n i n t h e K r e m l i n . T h e U S



POLITICAL WARF ARE 93

f o r e i g n p o l ic y e st a b l is h m e n t h a s m a n a g e d t o c o n v i n c e i ts e lf

t h a t e v e r y S o v i e t d i c t a t o r s i n c e 1 9 1 7 h a s b e e n a m o d e r a t e i nc o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h o s e w a i t i n g i n t h e w i n g s , a n d t h a t t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s s h o u l d m a k e c o n c e s s io n s t o h i m i n o r d e r to

s t r e n g t h e n h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o m o v e a l o n g t h e r e f o r m i s t

p a t h s h e r e a l l y p r e f e r s . T h u s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d i t s a l l i e s

p o u r e d b i l l io n s o f d o l l a r s a n d e n t i re i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s i n t o t h eS o v i e t U n i o n . T h e W e s t h a s a l so a c t e d t o r a i s e t h e p r e s ti g e o f

S o v i e t l e a d e r s b y t r e a t i n g t h e m a n d t h e i r p r o p o s a l s d e f e r e n -

t i a l l y a n d b y n o t o p p o s i n g S o v i e t e x p a n s i o n . I n t h e a b s e n c e

o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t S o v i e t fa c t i o n s , a s w e ll a s i n t h e a b s e n c e

o f t h e m e a n s a n d o f t h e w i ll t o p r o t e c t o n e S o v ie t f a c ti o n

a g a in s t a n o t h e r , t his b l in d , i m p o t e n t w o o i n g o f " m o d e r a t e s "

i n th e K r e m l i n h a s j u s t if i e d g i v i n g t o a ll f a c t io n s i n th e S o v i e t

U n i o n t h e p l e a s a n t t a s k o f p a r c e l i n g o u t c r e d i t f o r v i c to r ie s .

I w i ll o n l y t o u c h h e r e o n m y a r g u m e n t p u b l i s h e d

e l s e w h e r ez c o n c e r n i n g U S s u p p o r t o f p e r h a p s t h e m o s t v i si bl e

f a c t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d t o d a y , t h e a n t i c o m m u n i s t l i b e r a t i o n

m o v e m e n t s o f A f g h a n i s t a n , A n g o l a , a n d N i c a r ag u a . I n t h es e

c a s e s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t es is n o t p l a g u e d b y l a c k o f i n t e l li g e n c e .

I t k n o w s ju s t a b o u t a ll t h e r e is t o k n o w a b o u t t h e N i c a r a g u a n

a n d A n g o l a n r e s i s t a n c e s , a n d e n o u g h a b o u t t h e o n e i n

A f g h a n i s t a n . A b o v e a l l , t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a s r e p e a t e d l y

s t a te d t h e g e o p o l i t ic a l a n d m o r a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e c au s e s.

Y e t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s s u p p o r t s t h e se m o v e m e n t s t h e w a y a

r o p e s u p p o r t s a h a n g e d m a n .

N o o n e i n t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t s u g g e s t s t h a t c o n c r e t e

p l a n s e x is t f o r d e l i v e r in g s u f f i c i e n t a i d t o t h e s e m o v e m e n t s o r

f o r d o i n g t h e o t h e r t h i n g s ( s u c h a s n a v a l - a ir b l o c k a d e s ) t h a t

w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e v i c t o r y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , v i r-

t u a l l y a l l " r e s p o n s i b l e " o f f i ci a ls t a c i tl y a c c e p t t h a t w h i l e p r e -

s e n t p o l i c i e s m a y d e l a y a n d c o m p l i c a t e S o v i e t v i c t o r i e s , t h e y

c a n n o t p r e v e n t t h e m . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t n o o n e i n t h e

R e a g a n a d m i n i s tr a t io n h a s e ve n p r o p o s e d a n y p l a n f o r b r in g -

i ng v i c to r y t o t h e s e a n t i c o m m u n i s t m o v e m e n t s .

F i n a l ly , n o o n e i n a p o s i t io n o f a u t h o r i t y d e n i e s t h a t

w h e n t h e S o v ie ts f in a ll y f u ll y c o n q u e r A f g h a n i s t a n , A n g o l a ,

a n d N i c a r a g u a b y d e f e a t i n g f o r c e s m o b i l i z e d b y t h e h o p e o f



94 CODEVILLA

American support, they will have achieved far more than if

they had simply beaten unorganized resistance forces. The

Soviets will end up holding these countries far more firmly

than would have been the case without US intervention and,

of course, will have taught the world a lesson that, from their

standpoint, will be far more valuable than if they had beaten

unarmed locals alone rather than the United States as well.

Thus, by supporting anticommunist resistance movements

half-heartedly, the United States may indeed be waging

political warfare-but on whose behalf?

Commitment and Competence

The tools of political warfare fell into disrepute in the

United States during the 1960s and 1970s because the US

government used them without answering for itself, and for

the American people, basic questions about what it was do-

ing. Indeed, it used these tools not only just to achieve ends

abroad but also to forestall pressure for resolving internal

American disputes. These tools also fell into disrepute

because of the sheer incompetence of those who handledthem.

The war in Vietnam is the most undeniable instance.

While committing over two million men and perhaps a hun-

dred billion dollars to Vietnam over a decade, the dominant

faction of the US foreign policy class never dared to call it awar. After all, calling it so while many of its members and

their children were openly giving "aid and comfort to the

enemy" would have unequivocally branded many of its own

as traitors. But the opposing factions within the US govern-

ment did not behave with equal restraint. Curiously, the fac-tion that believed this country was on the wrong side of the

Vietnam War and who worked for the victory of the Com-

munist side did call the war by its name. This faction also didnot hesitate to call other Americans the moral equivalents of

Nazis. Yet, out o f solidarity with this very faction, the faction

that thought the United States was on the right side resisted

making the political commitment to victory and did not call




the war by its name. It continued to describe its domestic op-

ponents as honorable men.Thus, those Americans who ran the US involvement in

Vietnam committed their fellow citizens' lives and treasure to

the war while remaining agnostic enough about the ends for

which the war was being fought to remain on goods terms

with their opponents. No manual of politics or administra-

tion o f which I am aware advises commitmen t to using means

while one remains agnostic about the ends.

The tools o f political warfare employed in Vietnam were

used, for the most part, in ways that should have brought

credit upon those who used them. Let us look at how two of

these efforts were vitiated by the intellectual and moral

weaknesses at the top of the US government. The war in Laos

by the H'mong was for an indisputably just cause, was waged

competently, and had solid effect. In short, it was something

to be proud of, something that a US government committed

to victory should have been trumpeting to the Western world.

(After all, the North Vietnamese and the Soviets were pain-

fully aware of it.) But it was kept a secret from the American

people and from much of the US government because the

highest authorities had not mustered the moral self-

conf idence to argue that the Communis t side and all who

stood with it deserved to be defeated. They tried to pretend

that there really was not a war, or only a little one, and that

Laos and Cambodia were not involved.

Thus the pro-war faction of the US government was un-

willing to use the war in Laos as a badge of honor, because

doing so required arguing in ways that it did not understand

or because it wished to avoid a direct confrontation with the

pro-Communist faction in the US establishment. Thus, the

latter faction was able to argue, effectively and correctly, that

the US government had done wrong by waging a "secret war"

in Laos. The argument over the war in Laos was confined to

its secrecy. Alas, the American people were deprived of the

benefit of the full argument.

The Phoenix program involved finding and killing

members of North Vietnam's clandestine leadership in the



96 CODE VILLA

South. Killing enemy leaders is the ultimate measure of war.

The pro-Communist faction in the United States made thisprogram public, and argued that it was murder and that the

US government had hidden it from the beginning because it

had a bad conscience about it. The second part of the charge

was true, of course, but the first was not. If it is just to pursue

an objective seriously enough to kill for it, the key ques-

tion-both from the standpoint of ethics and of military

operations-is whom to kill? There is no ethical or opera-

tional argument at all to be made for the proposit ion tha t it isbetter to kill enemy soldiers walking along a country road

than to kill enemy leaders in their beds. Afte r all, the leaders,

not the soldiers, are presumably the principal carriers of the

purpose that one aims to defeat by war, and the deaths of a

few leaders will end a war sooner than the deaths of many

soldiers.

It is significant that no senior official of the United

States had the intellectual and moral wherewithal to poundthis thought home on television. Of course, to have done so

would have engendered the question, Why not, then, try to

end the war by really going after the leadership of Nor th Viet-

nam? But the pro-US faction in the US government had con-

vinced itself that it wanted to avoid doing this, or even

discussing it, at all costs. One of the lesser costs was the

discrediting-by-default of perhaps the most efficacious and

morally justifiable tool of political warfare.We have an echo of this nonsense in the protests o f some

at reports that the Afgha n Mujahedeen are using US-supplied

weapons and information to assassinate high Soviet officials

in Afghanistan. One might ask whom else the Mujahedeen

should be killing.

The most important example of the US government's

debilitating failure to confront difficult issues concerns the

Soviet Union. The US government's explanation for thevariety of actions it has taken with regard to the Soviet Union

over the years amounts to "a judicious combination of

cooperation and competition." However, one might say the

same with regard to US actions toward Japan. But the United



POLITICAL WARF ARE 97

S t a t e s is n o t s p e n d i n g b i ll io n s to c o u n t e r J a p a n ' s m i l i ta r y

m i g h t ; a n d J a p a n is n o t s p o n s o r i n g te r r o r i s m , o r tr y i n g t ot a k e o v e r t h e M i d d l e E a s t , o r a r m i n g e x p a n s i o n i s t c l i e n t -

s t a t e s i n o u r h e m i s p h e r e . I n f a c t , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h

n o n d e s c r i p t i v e t e r m s t o t h e S o v i e t U n i o n c o v e r s a n i n d e f e n s i-

b l e a t t e m p t t o t r e a t i t b o t h a s w h a t i t is a n d a s w h a t w e w o u l d

w i s h i t t o b e .

T h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h as n e v e r o f fi c i a l ly c o n f r o n t e d t h e

q u e s t io n s , D o w e w a n t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n r ic h e r or p o o r e r ? D o

w e w a n t i t s r e g i m e e s t e e m e d o r d e s p i s e d b y t h e p e o p l e i tr u l e s? D o w e w a n t t o s e e t h e r e g i m e at p e a c e w i t h i t s el f o r

r i v e n b y b l o o d y i n t e r n e c i n e c o n f l i c t ? D o w e w a n t i t t o h a v e

r e la t io n s w i th t h e r e st o f t h e w o r l d t h a t a r e p le n t i f u l a n d g o o d

o r f e w a n d b a d ? N o t h a v i n g c o n f r o n t e d th o s e q u e s t io n s

d i re c t l y , th e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a s c a l c u la t e d n e i th e r th e c o s t

a n d b e n e f i t s o n e i t h e r s i d e n o r t h e s t a n d a r d s b y w h i c h t o

j u d g e w h e t h e r e it h er o f t h e a p p r o a c h e s , o n c e c h o s e n , s h o u l d

b e j u d g e d a s f a il in g o r s u c c e e d in g . N o t h a v i n g t h o u g h tt h r o u g h t h e s e ve ra l c h o i ce s a n d t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s , t h e U n i t e d

S t a te s h a s p r o c e e d e d m i n d le s s ly .

T h e p o l i c y o f " c o n t a i n m e n t , " f i rs t c o n c e i v e d i n 1 9 47 as a

b a t t l e p l a n i n p o l it i ca l w a r , is a c t u a ll y t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e x a m -

p l e o f m i n d l e s s n e s s . T h e p o l i c y s e e m e d to c a ll f o r t r e a t i n g t h e

S o v i e t U n i o n a n d i ts sa te ll it es as p a r i a h s a m o n g t h e n a t i o n s ,

e n f o r c i n g s o m e t h i n g li ke a t r a d e b o y c o t t , a n d c o n v e y i n g t o

t h e p e o p le s o f th e S o v ie t E m p i r e t h e m e s s ag e t h a t C o m m u n i s tg o v e r n m e n t s a r e n o t l e g i t i m a t e . U n t i l 1 95 6 t h i s p o l i c y w a sl a r g e l y f o l l o w e d , a n d i t d i d h e l p t o k e e p t h e S o v i e t U n i o n

p o o r , b a c k w a r d , a n d o u t o f t h e m a i n s t r e a m o f i n te r n a t io n a l

l if e. B u t s i n ce t h e n , a n d e s p e c ia l ly s in c e t h e S o v i e t U n i o n

b u i l t i n t e r c o n t i n e n t a l m i s si le s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s h e l p e d t o

f e e d , f i n a n c e , l e g i ti m i z e , i n d u s t r ia l i z e , a n d t e c h n o l o g i z e t h eS o v i e t U n i o n . A l l t h e w h i l e , t h o u g h , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s

c o n t i n u e d t o w h i s t le in t h e d a r k t h a t i t w o u l d r e si st th e e x p a n -

s i on o f S o v i et in f l u en c e a n d t h a t t h i s " c o n t a i n m e n t " w o u l d

u l t im a t e l y d o o m C o m m u n i s m .

Q u i t e i ro n i ca l ly , t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t h a s e x p l a i n e d t h e

t r a n s f e r o f W e s t e r n r e s o u r ce s a n d t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n , a s w e ll a s t h e v a r io u s o n g o i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s o n a r m s



98 CODEVILLA

c o n t r o l a n d h u m a n r ig h ts , as p a r t a n d p a rc e l o f c o n t a i n m e n t .

E n r i c h i n g t h e S o v i e t E m p i r e , y o u s ee , w o u l d d e s ta b i li ze i t b ye n m e s h i n g S o v i et o ff ic ia l s in a n e t w o r k o f m u t u a l l y a d v a n -

t a g e o u s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e W e s t t h a t t h e y w o u l d v a l u e s o

m u c h t h a t . . . h e r e , a l a s , t h i s t r a i n o f i ll o g ic s t o p s . I n t h e

c o n t e x t o f th i s d o u b l e - t h i n k , in w h i ch th e A r m a n d H a m m e r s

o f t h is w o r l d a r e f r e q u e n t g u e s ts at th e W h i t e H o u s e , t h e li tt le

o p e r a t i o n s t h a t t h e C I A p u l i s h e r e a n d t h e r e t o e m b a r r a s s t h e

S o v i e t U n i o n a r e b e s t u n d e r s t o o d a s p o i n tl e ss , e v e n c h il d is h

" d i r t y t r i c k s . "I n t h e r e a l m o f p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e , i t is d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h e

a p p l ic a b i li ty o f t h e m a x i m t h a t a n y t h i n g r e al ly w o r t h d o i n g is

w o r t h d o i n g b a d l y . A b o v e a l l, p o l i t i c a l w a r , l ik e m i l it a r y c o n -

f l i c t i t s e l f , c o m m i t s t h e l i v e s a n d h o n o r o f r e a l l i v e h u m a n

b e i n g s . I t is s im p l y u n j u s t t o r is k s u c h t h i n g s e x c e p t in t h e

c o n t e x t o f r e a s o n a b l e p l a n s f o r s u cc e ss . M o r e o v e r , g i v e n t h e

p o w e r o f re p u t a t io n i n h u m a n a f fa i r s , t o l e n g th e n a re c o r d o f

h a l f - h e a r t e d f a i l u r e s i s t o b u i l d a n e v e r - h i g h e r b a r r i e r t o t h e

s u c c e s s o f f u t u r e p o l i t i c a l o r m i l i t a r y v e n t u r e s .

The Future of Poh'tical Warfare

I f t h e U n i t e d S t a te s w e r e to c h o o s e a serious c o u r s e o f

a c t io n w i t h re g a r d t o t h e S o v i et U n i o n , i t c o u l d b e g i n t o p l a n

t o u s e t h e t o o l s o f p o l i ti c a l w a r f a r e t o p u r s u e i t . B u t u n t i l t h i s

h a p p e n s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i l l n o t e v e n b e a b l e t o c o n f r o n t

t h e p r o c e d u r a l i s s u e s t h a t s t a n d i n t h e w a y o f e f f e c t i v e

p o l i ti c a l w a r f a r e . A f t e r a ll , p r o c e d u r a l d if f ic u l t ie s a re r o o t e d

in s u b s t a n t i v e d i sa g r e e m e n t s . E v e n s u p p o s i n g th a t a p r e s i d e n t

d e c i d e d t o f ill h is N S C s t a f f w i t h n o n b u r e a u c r a t s a n d t o f u l ly

e m p o w e r t h e m t o c o m m a n d t h e S ta te D e p a r t m e n t , t h e P e n -

t a g o n , t h e C I A , C o m m e r c e , et c ., in h is n a m e , t h a t s t a f f c o u l d

n o t r e so l v e t h e U S g o v e r n m e n t ' s c e n tr i fu g a l f o r c e s w i t h o u t au n i f y i n g p r i n c i p le t h a t t h e y f u ll y u n d e r s t a n d a n d t h a t is i n te r -

n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t .

M e r e p r e s i d e n t ia l a u t h o r i t y w i ll n o t d o , b e c a u s e a s

e v e r y o n e k n o w s , b u r e a u c r a c i e s v e r y s e l d o m s a y " N o " t o




presidential directives; they say "Yes," and then interpret

them in their own way. If the president's directives are theleast bit ambiguous, the bureaucracy will expand these am-

biguous spaces into fortified castles. A president, and his

staff, would actually have to know what they want to do well

enough to see through bureaucratic reformulations of direc-

tives. There is simply no substitute for a president demanding

from himself and his subordinates clarity with regard to ob-

jectives and with regard to the concatenation of ends and

means: Will this actually lead to that?The potential usefulness of the tools o f political warfare

is great, and increasing. Although mode rn technology allows

totalitarians to hide better and better more and more o f their

military assets and plans, mod ern technology does allow any

advanced country to listen in on public discourse in any other

country. Hence , some of the most politically importan t infor-

mation is now readily available. Soon it will be possible to

beam, not broadcast, radio and television signals anywhere inthe world. In other words, it will be possible for one people to

take part in another's domestic political discussion. But what

messages do we wish to send? And to what end?

One consequence of the Soviet Empire's much greater in-

volvement in the world is that its representatives are now to

be found everywhere, almost as widespread as Americans.

Like Americans, they can be compromised and embarrassed;

or, if some of them wanted help against their domestic com-

petitors, one might consider working with them. But there is

no reason to hold one's breath. The world is full of political

ferment. There is never a shortage of Iranians, or East Euro-

peans, or Cubans, or Africans, or Asians, or Mexicans who

are looking for help from abroad to improve their lot at

home. But do we want enough to achieve something in their

countries to involve ourselves with them and to make sure

that we prevail?

No doubt, a number of countries important to the

United States-Mexico and Iran are but two examples-are

on the brink of importan t changes. We can be certain that the

Soviet Union's gray and black propaganda, agents of in-



100 CODEVILLA

fluence, and support for factions will play a role in these

countries' political evolution. There is no reason why theUnited States ought not to use these very same tools in these

countries. But it is almost certain that at and near the top of

the US government there is not sufficient competence to

gather the right intelligence, to make the basic policy choices,

and to employ the necessary resources so that our threats will

not be contemptible, our promises not hollow, our friends

not dead, and our enemies not eating our cake.




Notes

1. A d d a B . B o z e m a n , " C o v e r t A c t i o n a n d F o r e i g n P o l i c y , " i n

R o y G o d s o n , e d ., Intelligence Requirements for the 1980"s: Covert

Action ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : N a t i o n a l S t r a te g y I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r ,1981), pp. 15-78.

2 . A n g e l o C o d e v i l l a , " T h e R e a g a n D o c t r i n e - - ( A s Y e t ) A

D e c l a r a t o r y P o l i c y , " Strategic Review 14, no . 3 (Summer 1986) ,pp. 17-26.



Comment

DONALD F. B. JAMESON

DR. CODE VIL L A'S P APE R SHOWS , I t h in k , i n t e l l e c tu a l r i g o r

a n d c l a ri ty , a n d I h o p e w h a t h e h a s t o s a y w i ll b e g i v e n t h e

s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n i t d e s e r v e s . I w o u l d a g r e e t h a t w e

d e s p e r a t e l y n e e d e f fe c t iv e p o li c y . I d o t h i n k , t h o u g h , t h a t i n

l o o k i n g a t w h a t c a n b e u s e f u l l y d o n e i n p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e w eshould b e a r i n m i n d t h e r e v e rs e o f t h e f a m i l ia r a d a g e : w h a t ' s

w o r t h d o i n g is w o r t h d o i n g b a d ly . S o m e t i m e s , w h e n y o u

d o n ' t h a v e a re al p o l ic y , if y o u m u d d l e t h r o u g h , y o u e n d u p

a h e a d o f t h e g a m e d e s p it e t h e f r u s tr a t io n s a n d b u r e a u c r a t ic

r is ks y o u g o t h r o u g h .

D r . C o d e v i l l a r e fe r s , f o r e x a m p l e , t o th e g l o r i o u s a n d

t ra g ic e p i s o d e o f t h e L a o t i a n t r i b e s m e n . C e r ta i n ly , n o b o d y

m o r e t h a n t h e p e o p l e w h o w e r e d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e m

u n d e r s t a n d s t h e t e rr ib l e t r a g e d y o f o u r t u r n i n g o u r b a c k s o n

t h e m . B u t it m u s t b e p a r t o f th e r e c o r d t h a t w h a t t h e y d i d w a s

r a t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l in b r in g i n g a b o u t t h e k i n d o f S o u t h e a s t

A s i a t h a t e x i s t s t o d a y , w h i c h i s b a s i c a l l y a v i g o r o u s a n d f r e e

c o m m u n i t y , in w h i c h t h e p e o p l e w i th t h e m o s t s e ri o us p r o b -

l em s , t h e p e o p l e b e c o m i n g m o r e i n w a r d - l o o k i n g a n d less a b le

t o i n f l u e n c e o t h e r s , a r e th e c o n q u e r i n g V i e t n a m e s e .I 'd a l so l ik e t o m e n t i o n t h a t b a c k i n t h e 1 96 0s, w h e n o u r

p o l ic y to w a r d t h e S o v i et U n i o n w a s c e rt a in l y as a m b i g u o u s asit h as e v e r b e e n , s o m e p o l i t ic a l w a r f a r e e n d e a v o r s o f t h e U S

g o v e r n m e n t , p a r t ic u l a r l y its s p o n s o r s h i p o f a l ar g e c o ll e c t io n

o f o r g a n i z at io n s , m o s t ly i n E u r o p e b u t r a n g i n g a r o u n d t h e

w o r l d , r e a l l y d i d t a k e c e n t e r s t a g e a w a y f r o m t h e

C o m m u n i s t - i n f l u e n c e d in t el li g en ts ia . T h e s e o r g a n i z a t io n s

h a d a lo t o f m o n e y t o s p e n d . B a s ic a l ly , th e w o r d m a k e r s a n d

s p e a k e r s o f t h e w o r l d a r e i n t e re s t e d in b e i n g a b l e to p u b l i s h ,

b e i n g a b le t o g o t o c o n f e r e n c e s , a n d b e i n g a b le t o t a lk . T h a tm o n e y w a s m a d e a v a il ab le t o t h e m s o th a t t h e y d i d n ' t h a v e to

r el y o n t h e W o r l d P e a c e C o u n c i l a n d a ll t h e o t h e r C o m m u n i s t

f r o n t s t o t ra v e l a r o u n d a n d w r i te . T h e y h a d e x c e l le n t

m a g a z i n e s i n a l l t h e m a j o r E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . A n d I t h i n k

a l l t h i s m a d e a m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e .

102



POLITICAL WA RF AR E 103

I'm not sure anybody in the government ever sat down

and figured out how that program fitted into a larger and

grander policy other than that, simply, it was a good thing to

do. At times, when you can't figure out what it is the top peo-

ple want to do or whether policies are consistent, if you can

figure out something that looks pretty good, and you can get

away with it, my feeling is, go ahead and do it. You need to

bear in mind that there are ways in which you can survive in

ambiguity. I must say, however, that great frustration is in

store for anybody who has had the experience of goingaround Washington trying for one reason or another to ex-

plain what is happening in the politics of anothe r count ry that

is crucial to the United States.

When I think of our historical origins, I am reminded of

Clemenceau at Versailles saying to Woodrow Wilson, when

Wilson seemed to be utterly deaf to the problems of French

security in the future, "Mr. Wilson, you come from a count ry

in which on the north you have a forest, on the south youhave a desert, on the east fish, and on the west fish. This is

not the position of France in Europe ." Unfortuna tely, we are

still unable to take seriously our foreign affairs. When you

look at the political appointments in key positions that any

administration you can think of has made, when you look at

the real considerations that go into the passage of foreign

policy legislation or its implementation in the executive

branch, you can easily come to the conclusion that we stillbelieve there is nothing but fish, forests, and desert out there.

We appear to believe that foreign policy problems can be

resolved by handl ing our domestic politics a little better while

we pretend that we know what we're doing abroad.

In this connection, I am reminded of one of the most

perceptive and intelligent defectors from the Soviet Union,

Alexander Kaznacheyev, a Soviet diplomat-cum-KGB-

cooptee, who defected in 1959. I knew him well. When he

worked with me in the early sixties, Kaznacheyev kept asking,

"You know, where in the United States government is it all

put together, where they coordinate diplomacy, the military,

the trade policies, the propaganda?" And I kept saying,



104 JAMESON

" A l e x , t h e r e is n o s u c h p l a c e . " A n d h e s a id , "Ah h a , I u n d e r -

s t a n d , i t 's so s e n s it iv e y o u c a n ' t ta l k a b o u t i t . " H e a s k e d m e

t h a t q u e s t i o n f o r t h r e e y e a r s a n d I k e p t a n s w e r i n g t h e s a m e

w a y . F i n a l ly , I p e r s u a d e d h i m t h a t m y a n s w e r w a s t r u e . T h e

n e x t d a y h e w e n t o f f t o s t u d y e c o n o m i c s , a n d n o w h e ' s a

s e n i o r ex e c u ti v e i n a b ig c o m p a n y . T a l k t o h i m a b o u t p o l it ic s !

I t h i n k I w o u l d l i k e t o e n d m y o b s e r v a t i o n s b y p o i n t i n g

o u t t h a t , q u i t e b y c o n t r a s t w i th t h e A m e r i c a n e x p e r ie n c e , t h e

S o v i e t U n i o n h a s s u r v i v e d f r o m i t s i n c e p t i o n o n i t s a b i l i t y t o

m a n i p u l a t e t h e p o l i c i e s o f i t s e n e m i e s . I t s e e m s t o m e w h e nw e l o o k a t t h e S o v i e t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h o s e

t h in g s t h a t ar e u n i q u e ly S o v i e t - n o t R u s s ia n , n o t f r o m s o m e

o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t y , b u t t h i n g s t h a t t h e S o v i e t s r e al ly e v o l v e d to

t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e y ca n e x p o r t t h e m t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s a n d

o t h e r c u l t u re s c a n a d o p t t h e m - a r e t he se t w o t h i ng s : t h e

a b il it y t o m a n i p u l a t e t h e p o l i c ie s o f t h e i r e n e m i e s , a n d t e c h -

n i q u e s f o r m a i n t a i n i n g o r d e r a n d l a b o r d i s c i p l i n e i n c i r -

c u m s t a n c e s o f c o l l a p s i n g li vi ng s ta n d a r d s . T h e s e th i n g s , t h e yd o w e ll . T h e s e c o n d p r in c i p l e , m a i n t a i n i n g o r d e r in p o v e r t y ,

is t h e o n e t h e y h a v e t a u g h t s o w e l l i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d . T h a t ' s

w h a t m a k e s t h e i r s y s t e m s o a t t r a c t i v e t o p e o p l e l i k e t h e

le a de rs o f M o z a m b i q u e , t h e A n g o l a n s , t h e C u b a n s , a n d s o

f o r t h .

I n c o n t r a s t t o a s o u n d , i n t e r n a l l y f o c u s e d c o u n t r y t h a t

w o r k s f a i rl y w e ll n o m a t t e r h o w s t u p i d l y i t c o n d u c t s i ts

f o r e i g n a f f a ir s ( w h i c h is b a s i c a ll y t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e U n i t e dS t at e s) , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , h a s s u r -

v iv e d b y m e a n s o f f o r e ig n p o l ic y m a n i p u l a t i o n . F o r e i g n

p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e i r e n e m i e s w e r e t h e

o n e t h i n g t h a t k e p t a c r u d e l y m a n a g e d i n te r n a l s i tu a t i o n f r o m

c o l l a p s i n g . T h e i r w h o l e e x p e r i e n c e i n l i f e i s , i n f a c t , t h e

r e v e r s e o f o u r s . O f c o u r s e , i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s a l s o i n f l u e n c e st h ei r v ie w o f t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e y s o m e t i m e s g e t t h in g s w r o n g

b e c a u s e t h e y t o o a r e i n s u l a r i n t h e i r o w n w a y . T h e i r o w nf i l t e r s o f i n f o r m a t i o n k e e p t h e l e a d e r s h i p m i s i n f o r m e d ;

n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y k n o w t h a t t h e g a m e i s d e a d l y s e r i o u s

b e c a u s e o n l y b y p l a y i n g i t w el l h a v e t h e y s u r v iv e d .

I d o t h i n k t h a t w h e n m e n t i o n i n g t h e S o v ie ts , h o w e v e r , i t

is i m p o r t a n t t o b e a r i n m i n d t h a t t h e r e a r e l i m i t a t io n s to w h a t




t h e y c a n d o . D r . C o d e v i l la s ai d t h a t i f w e t u r n t o p e o p l e i n a

c o u n t r y a n d t r y to c u l t i v a te t h e m a s m o d e r a t e s , i t is q u e s -

t i o n a b l e w h a t w e c a n d o f o r th e m . I t h i n k i t is i m p o r t a n t t o

n o t e t h a t t o d a y a r o u n d t h e w o r l d t h e S o v ie t U n i o n a p p e a r s t o

b e r e c o g n i z i n g th e l im i t s o f w h a t i t c a n d o f o r o t h e r p e o p l e . I t

b e h o o v e s u s to w a t c h v e r y c a r e f u l ly w h a t h a p p e n s in M o z a m -

b i q u e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . S o f a r a s I c a n s e e , t h e S o v i et s h a v e

n o t d o n e a n y t h i n g t o t r y t o m a i n t a i n t h e F r e l im o r e g im e . I n

s p it e o f o u r o w n e f f o r t s to t r y to m a i n t a i n i t , I t h i n k i t p r o b -

a b l y w i ll c o l la p s e u n l e ss i t c a n g e t a C u b a n m i l i ta r y f o r c e o rits e q u i v a l e n t t o f i g h t t h e i n s u r g e n t s , w h i c h d o e s n ' t s e e m t o b e

h a p p e n i n g . I t h i n k t h e S o v i et s f a c e t h e s a m e d i l e m m a , u p t o a

p o i n t , i n r e g a r d t o N i c a r a g u a a n d p e r h a p s o t h e r p la c es as

w e ll . T h e s e s i t u a t i o n s w i ll c e r t a i n l y o f f e r u s s o m e o p p o r -

t u n it ie s . W h e t h e r , in f a c t , w e ta k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e m is , o f

c o u r s e , a n o t h e r m a t t e r .

A B R A M N. SHUL S KY

D R . C OD EV IL LA 'S P A P ER R E M I N D S M E o f s o m e t h i n g t h a t

S e n a t o r G o l d w a t e r d i d n ' t a c t u a l l y s a y , b u t m i g h t h a v e s a i d ,

w h i c h is t h a t e x t r e m i s m in th e p u r s u i t o f t h e o r e t i c a l t r u t h is

n o v i c e . I m e a n t h a t a s a c o m p l i m e n t , b e c a u s e i n t h et h e o r e t i c a l s e n s e t h e p a p e r is v e r y u s e f u l a n d g o o d p r e c i se l y

b e c a u s e i t is so e m p h a t i c i n t r y i n g to g e t t o s o m e f u n d a m e n t a l

p o i n ts t h a t a r e o f t e n o v e r l o o k e d . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l p o in t , o f

c o u r s e , i s t h a t a ll t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e

h a v e t o f it i n t o a s t r a t e g y f o r c o n d u c t i n g t h e o v e r a l l s t ru g g l e ,



10 6 S H U L S K Y

a n d t h a t s t r a t e g y i t s e lf h a s to b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a t t a i n i n g

s o m e d e s i r e d o u t c o m e .

C l e a r l y , o n e n e e d s a p o l i c y ; o n e c a n ' t u s e t h e s e k i n d s o f

t e c h n i q u e s a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r p o l i c y , a s a w a y o f lo o k i n g a s i f

o n e is d o i n g s o m e t h i n g w h e n o n e d o e s n ' t r e a ll y h a v e a c l e ar

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d g r a sp o f t h e g o a l o n e is t r y in g t o a c h i ev e .

B u t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t 's p o l it ic a l ly u n a c c e p t a b l e t o b e s e e n

a s d o i n g n o t h i n g . S o th a t is a v e r y b ig d a n g e r , a n d o n e t h a t is

p e r h a p s e v e n m a g n i f i e d b y t h e f a c t th a t m a n y o f th e s e te c h n i-

q u e s h a v e t o b e s o m e w h a t s e c r e t , s o t h a t t h e p r o b l e m s t h a ta r i s e a r e n ' t a l w a y s l o o k e d a t c a r e f u l l y .

O n e c a n a l s o c o n c l u d e th a t t h e r e h a s t o b e b as ic p o l i c y

c o n s i s t e n c y . O n e c a n ' t h a v e , a s D r . C o d e v i l l a s a y s , a t w o -

t r a c k p o l ic y , o n e t r a c k s e c r e t a n d o n e p u b l ic , w i t h o u t th e r e

b e i n g a re a l s t r a te g y s o m e w h e r e in t h e b a c k g r o u n d r e la t in g

t h e tw o . A n d t h e g o a l h a s to b e s o m e k i n d o f v i c t o ry ,

s o m e t h i n g u n d e r s t o o d a s i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h , u l t i m a t e l y , t o

k i l l f o r , o r t o d i e f o r .T h i s o b s c r v a t i o n a ls o u n d e r l in e s t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e

c o n t e x t i n w h i c h th e s e v a r i o u s o p e r a t i o n s o c c u r . F o r i n -

s t a n c e , t h e P S Y O P s u c c es s s t o ri e s o f t h e 1 95 0s, a g a i n s t

M o s s a d e g h i n I r a n a n d A r b e n z i n G u a t e m a l a a n d s o f o r t h ,

a r e s o m e t i m e s p r e s e n t e d a s if t h e s e w e r e t h e a c m e o f t h e

t r a d e c r a f t o f t h e o p e r a t o r s o n t h e g r o u n d . I n o th e r w o r d s ,

t h o se w h o d i d th e b r o a d c a s t i n g i n G u a t e m a l a d i d s u c h a g o o d

j o b t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t fe ll . I t h i n k w h a t D r . C o d e v i l l a sa y sis i m p o r t a n t in r e m i n d i n g u s th a t i t m a d e a v e r y b ig d i f f e r e n c e

t h a t t h i s w a s C e n t r a l A m e r i c a in t h e 1 95 0s, a t im e w h e n t h e

m e m o r y o f p r e v i o u s U S i n t e r v e n t i o n s in t h e a r e a w a s s ti l l

r e l a ti v e l y f r e s h , a t im e w h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a te s w a s v e r y

o u t g o i n g i n its a t t e n t i o n t o w o r l d a f f a i r s a n d w i ll in g to u s e

f o r c e in p a r ts o f th e w o r ld m u c h f u r t h e r a w a y t h a n

G u a t e m a l a . I t's n o t s i m p l y a q u e s t io n o f t h e t e c h n i q u e o f a

f e w r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s .

A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t p o i n t i s t h a t t h e d e c e p t i v e s id e o f t h e

P S Y O P b u s in e s s is r e a l ly in a w a y v e r y s u b o r d i n a t e . P e r h a p s

b e c a u s e i t's f u n a n d i n t e re s t in g a n d s o o n , w e te n d t o th i n k o f

t h e d e c e p t i o n o r d e v i o u s n e s s a s b c in g t h e k e y . I t is h e l p f u l to




be reminded that deception is really quite subordinate con-

ceptually to the basic lines of the policy, which can't be that

devious and clever.

By making these very necessary points, then, Dr.

Codevilla provides a good foundation for looking at these

matters. But I think he perhaps ignores some of the messy

realities that have to be dealt with and can perhaps be dealt

with by these kinds of means.

The real nub of the problem is the basic issue of what our

policy toward the Soviet Union is. Any sort of policy of con-tainment-a policy that says we want to prevent the Soviets

from making gains, but don't really have a strategy and a

clear intent to win the struggle in a decisive fashion, either

because we don't think it's possible, or it's too dangerous, or

for whatever r e a s o n - a n y such policy is simply not going to

provide the clarity of purpose necessary to support the kind

of political-psychological warfare that Dr. Codevilla thinks

we should under take. In other words, if we are going to be us-ing these techniques at all, we're already in quite a bind,

precisely because our basic policy toward the Soviet Union is

not that clear.

But suppose one were to look another way at the struggle

between the United States and the Soviet Union. For exam-

pie, take the way suggested in the recent posture s tatement of

the secretary of defense, which talks about competitive

strategies and the problem of seeing the relationship as along-term competition in which one has to be able to compete

as effectively as possible, though there may be no final

resolution of the conflict. Now that doesn't mean there can't

be an answer or can't be a resolution. No regime lasts forever,

simply because of its internal situation; and one can always

expect or hope that there will be changes that will allow for

some resolution of the problem. In fact, the containment

policy itself in its classic formulation, you will remember,

held out precisely such a hope-we contain the Soviets until

the internal pressures bring the moderates to power (though

that was a particularly naive way of looking at it). Even a

system like the Soviet Union that has developed the art of in-



108 SHULSKY

t e r n a l c o n t r o l t o a h i g h p i t c h is , n e v e r t h e le s s , n o t i m m o r t a l .

S o a t s o m e p o i n t s o m e c h a n g e c o u l d o c c u r t h a t m i g h t b e

u s e f u l. B u t w e h a v e t o s ta y a li ve i n t h e m e a n t i m e , a n d w e

h a v e t o b e a b l e t o d o t h i s in a r e l a ti v e ly e f f e c t iv e m a n n e r .

S o I t h i n k , f r o m t h a t p o i n t o f v ie w , v a r io u s t h in g s t h a t

f r o m D r . C o d e v i l l a 's p e r sp e c t i v e l o o k e i th e r w r o n g o r s il ly

t a k e o n a g r ea te r i m p o r t a n c e - f o r i n st an c e , t h e u n r e s t o r

d i s t r u s t w i t h i n t h e S o v i e t b l o c t h a t H e n r y R o w e n d i s c u s s e s

( se e p . 1 69 ). D i s t ru s t b y t h e S o v i e ts o f t h e i r E a s t E u r o p e a n

a l l i e s , w h i c h c o u l d b e n u r t u r e d b y v a r i o u s m e a n s , i s n ' t ar e s o l u t i o n o f th e p r o b l e m , b u t i t m i g h t a c t a s a fa ir ly s u b s t a n -

t i a l d e t e r r e n t t o t h e S o v i e t s a n d h e n c e m i g h t b e v e r y u s e f u l

w h e n o n e l o o k s a t t h e c o m p e t i t i o n o v e r t h e l o n g r u n . O n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , i t c e r t a i n l y i s n 't t h e w a y t o v i c t o r y . S i m i l a rl y , a n -

t i c o m m u n i s t i n s u r g e n c i e s o f t h e s o r t t h a t h a v e b e e n t a l k e d

a b o u t d o n ' t h u r t e i t h e r .

N o w , t h e r e i s a s e r io u s i ss u e t h a t D r . C o d e v i l l a r a is e s,

a n d it is r e a ll y a m o r a l i ss u e . H e a r g u e s t h a t i t 's n o t o n l y n o tg o o d s t r a te g y b u t a ls o s i m p l y w r o n g t o e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e t o

f ig h t a g a i n s t o v e r w h e l m i n g o d d s w h e n w e o u rs e lv e s ar e n o t

r e a ll y w i ll in g t o b a c k t h e m t o t h e h i l t. I t h i n k t h a t ' s t h e

s e r i o u s i s s u e . I n t h e c a s e o f H u n g a r y , t h a t i s a n i m p o r t a n t

q u e s t i o n , a l t h o u g h I s u s p e c t w h a t t h e g r a y p r o p a g a n d a o f

R a d i o F re e E u r o p e m i g h t o r m i g h t n o t h a ve s a i d - w h i c h is

c o n t r o v e r s i a l - w a s r e a l l y m u c h l e s s i m p o r t a n t f o r u s t h a n

s im p l y t h e g e n e r al s t a t e m e n t o f t h e E i s e n h o w e r a d m i n i s t ra -t i o n a b o u t r o l lb a c k . T h a t s t a t e m e n t c e r t a in l y m u s t h a v e h a d a

b i g g e r i n f l u e n c e i n t h e l o n g r u n .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f y o u l o o k a t p la c es li ke A f g h a n i s t a n

a n d A n g o l a , I d o n ' t t h i n k i t 's a c c u r a te t o p o r t r a y t h e s e c a se s

s i m p l y a s o u r e g g i n g p e o p l e o n t o f ig h t b at t l e s a n d t h e n n o t

s u p p o r t i n g t h e m in a w a y t h a t t h e y c a n r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t. I n

b o t h o f t h e se c as es , t h e a n t i c o m m u n i s t i n s u rg e n t s w e re

f i g h t in g t h e ir o w n b a t tl e s b e f o r e o u r i n v o l v e m e n t . A n g o l a i si n a s e n se t h e c l e a r e st c a s e , b e c a u s e f o r t e n y e a r s w e h a d o n

t h e b o o k s a l a w t h a t s a id t h a t o f a ll t h e p e o p l e i n t h e w o r l d ,

y o u , M r . S a v i m b i , ar e t h e o n e p e r s o n w e c a n n o t h e l p t o f i g h t

c o m m u n i s m . T h a t w a s o u r l a w , a n d n e v e rt h el es s h e k e p t g o -



P O L I T I C A L W A R F A R E 109

i n g, a n d f a ir l y s u c c e s s f u ll y f o r a ll t h a t t i m e . S o a n y t h i n g w e

g i ve h i m , w h i l e i t m a y e n c o u r a g e h i m i n o n e s e n s e t o f i g h tl o n g e r t h a n h e m i g h t o t h e r w i s e h a v e , c a n h a r d l y m a k e u s

m o r a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h a t s t ru g g l e . I t 's h is d e c is i o n , a n d w e

a r e n o t t h e o n l y m o r a l a c t o r o n t h e s c e n e .

S o w h i le t h e m o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n is i m p o r t a n t a n d

n e c e s s a r y , p a r t o f p o l i ti c s is s i m p l y t h e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t

p e o p l e d o c o m e t o g e t h e r to p u r s u e t h e i r o w n i n t e re s ts , w h i c h

a r e n o t n e c e ss a r il y t h e s a m e b u t a r e s u f f i c i e n t ly c o n g r u e n t

t h a t t h e y c a n c o o p e r a t e f o r a t i m e . I f o u r i n t e r es t s as w e s eet h e m a n d t h e A f g h a n f r e e d o m f ig h t e rs ' i n te r es ts a s t h e y s ee

t h e m a r e c o n g r u e n t f o r n o w , i t m a k e s s e n se f o r us t o s u p p o r t

t h e m , e v e n t h o u g h w e m a y n o t b e w il l in g t o d o e v e r y t h i n g

t h a t t h e y w o u l d l ik e u s to . I n o t f ie r w o r d s , t h e y a r e g o i n g i n t o

i t w i t h t h e i r e y e s o p e n .

T h i s s a m e s o r t o f t h i n g a p p l ie s , I t h i n k , t o t h e d e c e p t i o n

q u e s t i o n . I t ' s v e r y d i f f i c u l t , a s w e ' v e c e r t a i n l y s e e n o n c e

a g a i n , f o r th is c o u n t r y t o t r y to b a s e v e r y m u c h o n d e c e p t i o no r o n d o i n g t h i n g s c o v e r t l y t h a t w e ' r e d e n y i n g o v e r t l y ; a n d i t 's

c e r t a i n l y t r u e , a s D r . C o d e v i l l a s a id , t h a t y o u c a n ' t h a v e t w o

p o l ic ie s . Y o u ' v e g o t t o h a v e o n e p o l i c y , a n d y o u ' v e g o t t o b e

c l e a r w h a t t h a t p o l i c y i s. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n p r i n c i p l e a t le a s t ,

c e r t a i n l y v a r i o u s k i n d s o f d e c e p t i o n o r s e c r e c y c a n n o t b e

r u l e d o u t .

I c a n ' t r es is t o n e l a st c o m m e n t o n t h e " m o d e r a t e s . " I t is

d i f f i c u l t t o e s c a p e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t w e f o o l e d o u r s e l v e s

a b o u t t h e a va i la b i l i t y o f m o d e r a t e s in I r a n . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , I t h i n k i t is t r u e t h a t t h e r e c a n b e c a s es in w h i c h

t h o r o u g h l y e x t r e m e a n d d i s r e p u t a b le p a r t s o f a s o c i e t y c a n b e

a t e a c h o t h e r ' s t h r o a t s . A n d i f t h a t ' s t r u e , i t m a y b e p o s s ib l e

f o r u s t o h e l p o n e o r t h e o t h e r i n w a y s t h a t w il l a l so b e u s e f u l

t o o u r i n t er e s ts . T h e m i s t a k e c o m e s b e c a u s e o f a s o r t o f

m o r a l i s m o f o u r s o c ie t y t h a t l ea d s u s to b e l ie v e t h a t t h e g r o u p

w e d e c i d e t o h e l p f o r w h a t e v e r R e a l p o l i t i k r e a s o n s h a s s u d -

d e n l y b e c o m e m o d e r a t e . I f w e c o n v i n c e o u r se l v es o f t h a t ,

w e ' r e i n b i g t r o u b l e .



Political Strategies

F or Revolutionary War

RI CH AR D H. SHUL TZ, JR.

T H E P U R P O S E O F T H I S P A P E R is t o a d dr es s t h e q ue s-

t i o n o f w h a t p o l i t ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s m i g h t p u r s u e a s p a r t o f a p o l i c y t h a t s e ek s t o

e i t he r c o u n t e r o r s u p p o r t m o v e m e n t s e m p l o y i n g re v o lu -

t i o n a r y w a r f a r e s tr a te g ie s . O n e o f th e U n i t e d S t a te s ' f o r e m o s t

s p ec ia li st s a n d f o r m e r p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d

p a r a m i l i ta r y o p e r a t i o n s o b s e r v e d a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f t h isd e c a d e t h a t i n t h e 1 98 0s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s l ik e l y t o r e a c t

t o r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e c h a l l e n g e s " m u c h l i k e a c o u n t e r -

p u n c h i n g b o x e r , " f o c u s in g o n " c o m b a t t i n g a r m e d c l a n d e s ti n e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s w h o s e p r i m a r y g o a l is t o i m p o s e t h e ir w i ll i n th e

c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e y a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o s ei ze p o w e r . ''~ T h i s

o b s e r v a t i o n w a s m a d e i n 1 9 8 1 , a s t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

e n t e r e d o f f i ce . S i n c e t h a t t i m e , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s

b r o a d e n e d t h e U S r o l e in r e v o l u t io n a r y w a r f a r e a n d l ow -i n t e n s it y c o n f l ic t . A m e r i c a n p o l i c y i n N i c a r a g u a a n d E1

S a l v a d o r i m p l i e s t h a t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n v i e w s r e v o l u t i o n a r y

w a r f a r e b o t h a s a t h r e a t a n d a s a n o p p o r t u n i t y . I n o t h e r

w o r d s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n f l ic t , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s m a y p u r -

s u e a p o l ic y o f s u p p o r t i n g o r c o u n t e r i n g a n i n s u r g e n c y . 2

T h i s p a p e r a d d r e s se s b o t h o f t h e s e p o l i c y i ss u es a n d

i d e n t if ie s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i t ic a l a c t i o n

h a s t o m a k e t o e a c h . H o w e v e r , i t is f ir s t n e c e s s a r y t o d e s c r i b e

r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e s t r a t eg y a s it h a s e v o l v e d a n d t o e x -

a m i n e h o w t h o s e p ar ti es a n d m o v e m e n t s w h i c h h a v e fo l l o w e d

t h is c o u r s e o f a c t i o n i n t e g r a t e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i ti c a l

w a r f a r e m e a s u r e s i n t h e i r o v e r a l l a p p r o a c h .

111



112 S H U L T Z

W i t h t h a t c o m p l e t e d , t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p a p e r a d -

d r e ss e s t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : O n e , h o w h a s S o v i e t s t r a t e g yd e v e l o p e d o v e r t h e l a s t t w o d e c a d e s b o t h i n p r o m o t i n g i n -

s u r g e n c y a n d i n a ss is ti n g n e w l y e s t a b l i sh e d M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t

r e g i m e s t o c o n s o l i d a t e p o w e r a n d d e f e a t i n s u r g e n t t h r e a t s ?

A n d h o w m u c h i m p o r t a n c e d o t h e S o v ie ts p la c e o n p o li ti ca l

a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s a s p a r t o f t hi s st ra t e g y ? T w o ,

w h a t h a s t h e U S e x p e r i e n c e b e e n i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e ?

A n d w h a t l es so n s h a s t h e U n i t e d S ta te s l e a r n e d f r o m p r i o r i n -

v o l v e m e n t , a n d a r e t h e s e r e f l e c t e d i n c u r r e n t p o l i c y a n ds tr a te g y ? T h r e e , w h a t k i n d o f p o l ic y a n d s t ra t e g y m i g h t th e

U n i t e d S ta te s d e v e l o p to r e s p o n d t o r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e

c h a l le n g e s ? A n d h o w d o p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e

m e a s u r e s f i t i n t o t h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ?

R e v o l u t i o n a r y W a r f a r e :

The P o s t - W o r l d W a r H E x pe r ie n ce

T h e A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l s e c u ri ty c o m m u n i t y h a s f re -

q u e n t l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e c o n c e p t o f r e v o l u t io n a r y w a r f a r e ,

o f t e n e q u a t i n g i t w i t h i r r e g u l a r m i l it a r y t a ct ic s , w h i c h m a y b e

p a r t o f r e v o l u ti o n a r y w a r f a r e b u t a r e n o t s y n o n y m o u s w i th

i t . C o n s e q u e n t l y , g u e r r i l l a w a r f a r e a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r -

f a re , i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y , a r e u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y in t h e le x i c o n

o f A m e r i c a n n a t i o n a l s e c u ri ty . T h i s u s a g e r e v ea ls t h e d e g r e eo f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

G u e r r i l l a t a c t i c s h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d t h r o u g h o u t

h i s t o r y ; t h e i r r o o t s l ie i n a n c i e n t t im e s . R o b e r t A s p r e y ' s t w o -

v o l u m e s t u d y o f W a r i n t h e S h a d o w s : T h e G u e r r i l l a i n

H i s t o r y d e s c r ib e s t h i s i n g r e a t d e t a i l . 3 F o r e x a m p l e , g u e r r i l la s

h i n d e r e d A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t i n h i s t w o - y e a r c a m p a i g n i n

P e r s i a . S i m i l a rl y , g u e r r il la s p l a g u e d b o t h H a n n i b a l d u r i n g h i s

e p ic m a r c h f r o m S p a i n t o N o r t h e r n I ta ly a n d t h c R o m a n a r -m y i n its p a c i f i c a t i o n o f S p a i n . I n e a c h o f t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , i r-

r e g u l a r a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n d i g e n o u s f o r c e s c a r r i e d o u t

p a r a m i l it a r y o p e r a t i o n s i n e n e m y - h e l d o r h o s t i le te r r i to r y .

T h e s e w e r e n o t a m i r r o r i m a g e o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e .



REVOLUTIONARY WAR 113

The military history of the United States is dotted with

involvement in guerrilla conflicts. American soldiers executedguerrilla actions during the War of Independence as well as

the Civil War. Throughout most of the nineteenth century,

the US Army conducted counterguerrilla actions against

various Indian tribes. At the turn of the century, it faced

guerrilla challenges in the Philippines and in Mexico. In theSecond World War, guerrilla forces organized in the Philip-

pines provided MacArthur with invaluable assistance in his

retaking of the islands. Similarly, during 1943 the OSStrained and organized the Kachins of northern Burma into

guerrilla units, and American officers led them in operationsagainst the Japanese. After the war, American advisers

assisted the Greek army in defeating a Communist guerrilla

movement. Finally, during the Korean War, special opera-

tions forces were employed and gained a permanent status

within the American military. None of these experiences was

synonymous with revolutionary warfare.Why is guerrilla warfare, or the related concepts of

jungle, irregular, partisan, and unconventional warfare, not

the equivalent of revolutionary warfare? The answer lies out-

side of the military tactics employed.

The Parameters of Revolutionary Warfare Revolu-tionary warfare employs ancient military tactics in conjunc-

tion with political and psychological techniques in order toacquire political power as a prelude to transforming the socialstructure. The objective is to impose a new regime on thesociety through a strategy of protracted conflict. Herein liesthe difference between revolutionary warfare and otherforms of irregular or guerrilla combat. Revolutionary war-fare strategists combine unconventional military tactics withpolitical and psychological operations in order to establish a

competing political and ideological structure. This form ofprotracted conflict is principally a post-World War II

phenomenon, the roots of which can be traced to the strategydeveloped by the Chinese Communists during the 1930s.

The French were among the first in the West to grasp themeaning of revolutionary warfare and to articulate a counter-



114 SHUL TZ

s tr a te g y . M a n y o f t h e F r e n c h o r ig i n a to r s o f t h e c o n c e p t

s e r v e d i n I n d o c h i n a , w h e r e , B e r n a r d F a l l n o t e s , " t h e y l e a rn e dt h e ir M a o T s e - t u n g t h e h a r d w a y . ''4 F r e n c h m i l i t a ry a n a l y s t

C o l o n e l G e o r g es B o n n e t a d v a n c e d t h e f o l lo w i n g e q u a t i o n t o

e x p l a in r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e :

R W = G + Pwhere R W stands for revolutionary war,

G stands for guerrilla tactics, andP stan ds for political and psychologicalactivities

B o n n e t a n d o t h e r F r e n c h o f f ic e rs c o n c l u d e d t h a t i n

r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e t h e m i l i t a r y t a c t i c s o f t h e g u e r r i l l a a r e

s e c o n d a r y t o t h e c e n t r a l s t ra t e g ic o b j e c t i v e s t h a t a r e to b e

a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h p o l i ti c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n s . T h e

p r i n c i p a l g o a l is to d e s t r o y t h e l e g i t im a c y o f t h e t a r g e t

g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h t h e e s ta b l is h m e n t o f a c o u n t e r - id e o l o g y

a n d c o u n t e r - i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h u s , f o r t h e s e F r e n c h o f f i c er s , it

w a s t h e o b j ec t iv e s s o u g h t , a n d t h e c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e p la c e do n p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s in a c h i ev -

i n g t h e m , t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e f r o m

o t h e r f o r m s o f i rr e g u la r c o m b a t . 5 T h i s c o n c e p t w a s f i rs t

s y s t em a t i c a ll y e s p o u s e d b y M a o T s e - t u n g . H i s t h e o r e t ic a l

f r a m e w o r k , i n t u r n , h a s b e e n a d o p t e d b y m a n y o t h e r s .

A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n ce s a m o n g t h e se p r ac t i -

t io n e r s , t h e b r o a d a s s u m p t i o n s o f th e C h i n e s e a p p r o a c h h a v e

b e en a d o p t e d b y p a r t ie s a n d m o v e m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t t h eT h i r d W o r l d .

The Principles of Revolutionary Warfare D r a w i n g o n

b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s a n d p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , o n e

c a n i d e n t i f y f i v e b a s i c t e n e t s t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e s t r a t e g y o f

r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e . A l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t a m o n g

t h e o r i s t s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s , t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s d e s c r i b e d

b e l o w d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p o l i t ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s

lie a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e s t r at e g y .

T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s i s t h e primacy of propa-ganda and pofitical action. U n l i k e c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n f l i c t ,

r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e d o e s n o t f o c u s u n t i l i t s f i n a l s t a g e s o n



REVO LUTIO NARY WAR 115

c l i m a c t i c m i l it a r y e n g a g e m e n t s . I ts p r i m a r y t a r g e t s l ie w i t h i n

t h e f a b r i c o f s o c i e t y . B e c a u s e o f th e i ni ti al s h a r p i m b a l a n c e i nt h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f f o r c e s , t h i s p o l i t i c a l f o c u s i s e s s e n t i a l i f t h e

i n s u r g e n ts a re t o a d v a n c e t o a p o i n t w h e r e t h e y m a y s e r io u s ly

c h a l l e n g e st a te p o w e r . I n l ig h t o f t h is r e q u i r e m e n t , t h e p a r t y

c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e f o r m a t i o n a n d p r o p a g a t i o n o f a c o m -

p e t i n g o r c o u n t e r i d e o l o g y , n o t s e e k i n g t o r e d re s s p a r t i c u l a r

p r o b l e m s , b u t i n s t e a d c h a l l e n g i n g t h e r e g i m e ' s b a s i c

l e g i ti m a c y a n d r i g h t to g o v e r n . T h e o b j e c t i v e is t o p o l i ti c iz e

t h e c o n f l i c t a n d e s ta b l is h a c o m p e t i n g v al u e s t r u c tu r e .I d e o l o g y c o n t a i n s g u i d a n c e a n d j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r r e v o l u -

t i o n a r y w a r . I t is a v e h i c le u s e d t o b u i l d s u p p o r t a n d m o b i l i z e

e l em e n t s o f th e p o p u l a t i o n . I d e o l o g y m u s t p r o m o t e a c a u se

t h a t is p l a u s i b l e , c o m p e l l i n g , a n d a p p e a r s t o b e f u l fi ll a b le .

A l t h o u g h t h e l ea d e rs h ip o f m o v e m e n t s e m p l o y i n g t h i s

s t r a t e g y h a v e o n t h e w h o l e b e e n b a s e d o n a v a r i a t i o n o f

M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m , t h e i d eo l o g y t h e y h a v e f o r m u l a t e d h a s

b l e n d e d t h e " i de a l is ti c" e l e m e n ts o f C o m m u n i s m w i th a t t en -t i o n t o t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s e c o n o m i c , s o ci al , a n d

p o l i t i c a l i n e q u a l i t i e s . I t w i l l e m p h a s i z e n a t i o n a l i s m , d e p l o r e

e x i st in g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d h o l d u p a l o ca l ly a tt r a c t iv e a l te r -

n a t iv e . I n c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h is i d e o lo g y , t h e i n s u r g e n ts a n d

t h o s e w h o s u p p o r t t h e m w i l l f o c u s t h e i r p r o p a g a n d a a n d

p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n t a c t i c s o n t a r g e t s a t h o m e a s w e l l a s t h o s e i n

t h e r e g i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a s .

A n e x a m i n a t i o n o f s u cc e ss fu l i n s u rg e n t m o v e m e n t s w il ld e m o n s t r a t e t h a t m a n y o f t h e r e f o rm s a r t ic u l a t e d i n th e

m o v e m e n t s ' i d e o lo g y a re n o t i m p l e m e n t e d a ft e r p o w e r is

a c h i e v e d . T h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n i n N i c a r a g u a is o n l y th e m o s t

r e c e n t e x a m p l e o f t h is p a t t e r n . P r o p e r l y a r t i c u l a t e d , t h e

f a i l u r e o f , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e C u b a n a n d N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u -

t i o n s t o c a r r y o u t t h e s e c h a n g e s c o u l d s e r v e a s a p o w e r f u l

p o l i t i c a l m e s s a g e i n o t h e r L a t i n A m e r i c a n s o c i e t i e s f a c i n g

r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e . O f c o u r s e , p o i n t i n g o u t p r o m i s e s n o tf u lf i l le d c a n n o t s t a n d a l o n e . I t m u s t b e p a r t o f a c o m p r e h e n -

s iv e a n d i n t e g r a t e d p o l i t ic a l - m i l i ta r y s t r a t e g y .

A s e c o n d g e n e r a l e l e m e n t o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e

s t r a t e g y i s mass mobilization. T h r o u g h t h i s m e a s u r e , i n -



116 SHUL TZ

su r g en t s a t t e m p t t o a l t e r t h e p o l i t ica l a s we l l a s m i l i t a r y

b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s . I n l i g h t o f i t s i m p o r t a n c e , s u c c e s s f u lr e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t s h a v e e m p l o y e d a h o st o f p r o g r a m s

a n d t e c h n i q u e s to a c c o m p l i s h t hi s. F o r e x a m p l e , w i t h in th e

p a r t y s t r u c t u r e ( f r o m t h e t o p t o t h e l o c a l l ev e l) , o n e o f i ts m a -

j o r c o m m i t t e e s h a s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r m o b i l i z a t i o n . I t i s

s t a f f e d b y c a d r e s k i ll e d i n tw o a c t iv i ti e s: th e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n o f

p a r t y p e r s o n n e l , a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t ri b u t io n o f p r o -

p a g a n d a m a t e r i a l s a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f o t h e r p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n

p r o g r a m s . C a d r e in c l u d e c o r r e s p o n d e n t s , t r a n s l a to r s ,w r i t e r s , p a i n t e r s , p r i n t e r s , a c t o r s , d r a m a t i s t s , m u s i c i a n s , a n d

b r o a d c a s t e r s . P r o p a g a n d a is c o n v e y e d t h r o u g h a v a r i e ty o f

t e c h ni q u e s, m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y f a c e -t o -f a c e o r w o r d - o f - m o u t h

c o n t a c t , T h e o b j e c t i v e s a r e t h r e e f o l d : t o a t t r a c t e l e m e n t s o f

t h e p o p u l a c e , t o a t t a c k t h e e n e m y t h r o u g h p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r -

f a r e , a n d t o u t i l i z e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n m e a s u r e s t o m a i n t a i n

a l l e g i a n c e . T h i s p r o c e s s i s a n o n g o i n g o n e .

A r e l a t e d a s p e c t o f t h i s p r o c e s s i s m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n a lw o r k . P r o f e s s i o n a l c a d r e a t a l l g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d s o c i e t a l

l ev e l s a r e r e sp o n s i b l e f o r p r o se l y t i z i n g , r ec r u i t i n g , an d

m o b i l i z i n g t a r g e t a u d i e n c e s th a t i n c l u d e y o u t h s , s t u d e n t s , i n -

t e l l e c t u a l s , p e a s a n t s , w o r k e r s , w o m e n , a n d s o o n . T h ee s t a b l i s h m e n t o f m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s a l l o w s t h e i n s u r g e n t

l e a d e r s h i p t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e s u p p o r t g a i n e d t h r o u g h p r o p -

a g a n d a , e x p a n d t h e s o u r c e o f p o l i t i c a l c a d r e a n d g u e r r i l l a s ,

a n d n e u tr a li ze s u p p o r t f o r g o v e r n m e n t p r o g ra m s .W h i l e r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e t h e o r i s t s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r ss t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f w h a t m i g h t b e t e r m e d p o s i t i v e

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , t h e y a l s o e m p l o y n e g a t i v e i n c e n -

t iv e s . F o r e x a m p l e , i f a s i g n if i c a n t p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a tm a y b e i n c li n e d t o b a c k t h e g o v e r n m e n t c a n b e k e p t n e u t r a l ,

t h i s i s a v i c t o r y f o r t h e i n s u r g e n c y . T o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s ,v a r i o u s n e g a t i v e i n c e n t i v e s m a y b e e m p l o y e d . T h e s e r a n g e

f r o m t h r e a t s a n d i n t i m i d a t i o n t o t h e u s e o f t e r r o r i s m . I s t h i s

p a r t o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w e a p o n r y e m p l o y e d b y i n s u r g e n t s

i n a p r o t r a c t e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r ? T h e a n s w e r is a n u n e -

q u i v o c a l y e s .I n m a n y w a y s , t h e f ir st t w o e l e m e n t s d is c u s se d a b o v e a r e

a s p e c t s o f t h e t h i r d element--the establishment of the



R E V O L U T I O N A R Y W A R 117

p o l i t i c a l - m i l i t a r y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h e c l as si c s t a t e m e n t o n t h i s

c a n b e f o u n d i n L e n in ' s 1 90 2 p a m p h l e t , W h a t Is t o B e D o n e ?T h e a d a p t a t i o n o f L e n i n to t h e s t ra t eg y o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r -

f a r e r e s u l t e d i n a n e x p a n s i o n i n t h e s i ze o f t h e o v e r a l l r e v o l u -

t i o n a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n o r p o l i t ic a l - m i l i ta r y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . T h i s

is e s p e c ia l ly t r u e o f t h e h i e r a r c h y o f m a s s o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o n -

t r o ll e d b y th e v a n g u a r d p a r t y . T h e s e i n c l u d e p o p u l a r a s so c ia -

t io n s ( l a b o r, w o m e n , f a r m e r s , y o u t h ) , s p e c ia l i n te r e st g r o u p s

( j o u r n a l i s t s , m i n o r i t i e s , t e a c h e r s , v e t e r a n s , a r t i s t s ) , a n d

p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s . T h e y b e c o m e p a r t o f a p o l i t i c a l i n f r a s t r u c -t u r e o r p a r a l l e l h i e r a r c h y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e v a n g u a r d p a r t y

t h a t s er ve s a s a s h a d o w g o v e r n m e n t . I n t h e r e g io n a l a n d in -

t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a s, t h is s h a d o w g o v e r n m e n t s ee k s t o b e c o m e

a r e c o g n i z e d a n d l e g i t im a t e a lt e r n a t iv e t o t h e e x i st in g r e g im e .

I n m a n y w a y s , t h i s a c t i v i t y a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l i s a m i r -

r o r i m a g e o f t h e p o l i ti c a l- p s y c h o l o g ic a l w a r f a r e c a m p a i g n

c a r r i e d o u t i n t e r n a l l y .

T h e f i n al t w o e l e m e n t s o r g e n e r a l t e n e t s o f th i s p r o -t r a c t e d s t r a t e g y i n c l u d e m i l i ta r y a n d p a r a m i l i ta r y t a ct ic s a n d

a c q u i s i t i o n o f o u t s i d e a s s i st a n ce . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e la t t er

is o f t e n d o w n p l a y e d b y b o t h t h e o r e t i c ia n s a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s.

I n r e al it y , th e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r f o r e ig n s u p p o r t c o n s t i t u t es

a d e c is iv e f a c t o r h a s b e e n a m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l i ss u e . T h o s e

w h o h a v e u s e d t h is s t ra t e g y r e je c t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r ,

a r e v i ew o f t h e la s t t w e n t y y e a r s s u g g e s ts t h e o p p o s i t e . W h i l e

i n d i g e n o u s f a c to r s r e m a i n i m p o r t a n t c a u se s o f i n t e rn a l w a r ,i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s i t s g r o w t h a n d e x a c e r b a t i o n s t e m d i r e c t l y

f r o m t h e a c t iv e i n v o l v e m e n t o f e x te r n a l p o w e r s . C e r t a in l y ,

t h e S a n d i n is t a v ic to r y ow e s m u c h t o C u b a n a n d S o v ie t

p o l i ti c a l a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y a s s is t a n ce . T h e s a m e w a s t r u e f o r

t h e M P L A i n A n g o l a d u r i n g t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s . T h e g r o w t h o f

o t h e r i n s u rg e n t m o v e m e n t s in C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , S o u t h e r n

A f r i c a , a n d t h e M i d d l e E a s t c a n a l s o b e a t t r i b u t e d i n s i g n i f i -

c a n t p a r t t o e x t e r n a l a i d . 6A s s i s t a n c e c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s .

P r o p a g a n d a o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d p o l i ti c al w a r f a r e

c a m p a i g n s b y o u t s id e p o w e r s c an a n d o f t e n d o p l a y a n i m p o r -

t a n t r o le i n b o t h l eg i ti m i zi n g t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n c y



118 SHULTZ

i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a a n d d i s c r e d i t i n g a n d i s o l a t i n g t h e

g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r a t ta c k . P a r a m i l i ta r y a id , o n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e e f f ec t iv e n e ss o f th e i n s u rg e n t s " o n

t h e g r o u n d . " I n th e W e s t , i n s u f fi c ie n t a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n p a i d

t o t h e f o r m e r . T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d i t s

a lli es a n d s u r r o g a t e s e m p l o y p o l i ti c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l

m e a s u r e s to p r o m o t e t h e c a u se o f i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s i n th e

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a h a s g e n e r a ll y b e e n o v e r l o o k e d ; t h e f o c u s

h a s b e e n , r a t h e r , o n a r m s t r a n s f e r s a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f

l o g i s t i c a l s u p p o r t . T h i s i s s u r p r i s i n g i n l i g h t o f t h e S o v i e t s '

i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t a s w e l l a s t h e e x t e n s i v e o r g a n i z a -

t i o n a l a n d f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s t h e y d e v o t e t o t h e u s e o f

p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a s i n s t ru m e n t s f o r

p o l i c y . 7 I t is t o t h e s e i s s u e s t h a t w e n o w t u r n .

The Soviet Bloc and Revolutionary Warfare

S u p p o r t f o r n a t i o n a l li b er a ti o n m o v e m e n t s o r r ev o lu -

t i o n a r y w a r f a r e h a s b e e n a b a s i c e l e m e n t o f S o v i e t f o r e i g n

p o l i c y s i n c e t h e v e r y e a r l y d a y s o f C P S U r u l e , a l t h o u g h

t h e o r e t i c a l p r e c e p t s a n d t h e p r i o r i ti e s o f p o l i c y h a v e n o t

a l w a y s b e e n i n h a r m o n y . B e g i n n i n g i n t h e e a rl y 1 9 7 0s ,

h o w e v e r , S o v i e t p o l ic y s h if t e d , a n d b y th e e n d o f t h e d e c a d e

M o s c o w w a s in t h e m i d s t o f a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n v o l v e m e n t in

T h i r d W o r l d c o n fl ic ts . T h i s i n v o lv e m e n t in c l u d e d th e p r o m o -

t i o n o f i n s u r g e n c i e s a n d t e r r o r i s t v i o l en c e . W h i l e it is u n c l e a r

p r ec is e ly w h e n t h e U S S R d e c i d e d to u n d e r t a k e t h is c h a n g e i np o l i c y , i t w a s s e t f o r t h o f f i c i a l l y i n B r e z h n e v ' s r e p o r t t o t h e

2 4 t h C o n g r e s s o f t h e C P S U i n 1 9 71 . H i s p l e d g e to " g i v e

u n d e v i a t i n g s u p p o r t t o t h e p e o p l e ' s s t r u g g l e f o r d e m o c r a c y ,

n a t i o n a l l ib e r a t i o n a n d s o c ia l is m " g a v e a u t h o r i t a t i v e e n d o r s e -

m e n t t o a p o l i c y a l r e a d y b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d in t h e f ie ld , s T h i s

w a s r e a f f i rm e d b y B r e z h n e v a t t h e 2 5 th a n d 2 6 t h C o n g r e s s es .

H o w e v e r , a t t h e 2 6 t h C o n g r e s s , h e l d i n F e b r u a r y 1 9 8 1 , w h i l em a i n t a in i n g t h e S o v ie t c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r-

f a r e p r o c e s s , B r e z h n e v w a s m o r e c a u t i o u s i n h i s a d d r e ss . 9

W h a t w a s t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s s h i f t? I n p a r t , i t m a y b e ex -

p l a in e d b y w h a t w e m i g h t te r m t h e " b u r d e n o f e m p i r e ." D u r -



REVO LUT IONA RY WAR 119

i n g th e 1 970 s, t h e U S S R a n d its su r r o g a t e s w e r e e m p l o y i n g

p o l i t i c a l a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y m e a n s t o a s s i s t i n s u r g e n tm o v e m e n t s a n d r a d i ca l f ac t io n s . B y th e e n d o f t h e d e c a d e

e i g h t o f t h e s e h a d s u c c e ss f u ll y s e iz e d p o w e r . S u c c e ss m a y b e

a t t r i b u t e d t o m a n y f a c t o r s, b u t S o v i e t a s s is t an c e c e r ta i n l y

p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t r o le . H o w e v e r , a b y - p r o d u c t o f t h e se

d e v e l o p m e n t s w a s a n e w r e q u i r e m e n t f o r S o v i e t b l o c a i d , i n -

v o l v i n g s e cu r i ty a s si st a n c e a n d a d v i s o r y s u p p o r t t o h e l p n e w -

ly e s t ab l i sh e d M a r x i s t -L e n i n i s t r e g i m e s c o n s o l i d a t e p o w e r . A

n u m b e r o f t h e se r e g im e s h a v e p r o v e n t o b e v u l n e r a b l e to i n -d i g e n o u s i n s u r g e n t t h r e a t s . B y t h e e a r l y 1 9 80 s, a t le a s t f o u r

m a j o r g u e r ri ll a m o v e m e n t s o p p o s e d t o t o ta l i ta r i a n r u le

e m e r g e d , c h a l l e n g i n g t h e s e S o v i e t - b a c k e d s t a te s .

R e c o g n i z i n g t h e s e v u ln e r a b i li ti e s , t h e U S S R h a s p r o v i d -

e d v a r i o u s m e a n s t o s u s t ai n i ts a ll ie s i n p o w e r . O n e o f t h e s e

m e a n s i s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y i n f r a s t r u c -

t u r e t h a t c a n q u e l l i n d i g e n o u s o p p o s i t i o n , m o b i l i z e t h e

p o p u l a t i o n , a n d i n su l a te t h e o p p o s i t io n l e ad e r s h ip c a d r e . A d -d i t i o n a l l y , t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t r e s i s t a n c e m o v e m e n t s e m p l o y -

i n g i n s u r g e n t s t r a t e g i e s , t h e S o v i e t b l o c p r o v i d e s c o u n t e r i n -

s u r g e n c y m i li ta r y a n d p a r a m i l it a r y a d v i c e a n d s u p p o r t .

I n e f f e c t , b y t h e 1 98 0s, S o v i e t p o l i c y t o w a r d T h i r d

W o r l d c o n f l i c t h a d a c q u i r e d a d o u b l e f o c u s . O n t h e o n e

h a n d , i t s e e k s t o a s s i s t c e r t a i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n t f a c -

t io n s to g a i n p o w e r t h r o u g h p r o t r a c t e d w a r . O n t h e o t h e r

h a n d , M o s c o w p r o v i d e s m i li ta r y a n d s e c u ri ty s u p p o r t t o e n -

s u r e t h a t t h o s e w h o s u c c e s s f u l l y s e i z e p o w e r m a i n t a i n c o n -

t ro l . I n p u r su i t o f t h e f o r m e r , t h e K r e m l i n e m p l o y s a c o m p l e x

a n d i n t e g r a t e d p o l i t i ca l - m i l it a r y s t ra t e g y , e n c o m p a s s i n g b o t h

p o l i t i c a l m e a s u r e s ( f o r e i g n p r o p a g a n d a , i n t e r n a t i o n a l f r o n t

o r g a n i z a t i o n s , p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d

r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s ( a r m s a n d

l o g i st ic a l s u p p o r t , p o l i t i c a l - m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g , a d v i s o r ya s s is t an c e , d e p l o y m e n t o f f o r c e s ). I n t e r m s o f s u p p o r t f o r in -

s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s , b o t h e l e m e n t s o f S o v i e t s t r a t e g y a r e i m -

p o r t a n t . H o w e v e r , f o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s w e w i ll f o c u s o n t h e

p o l i t i c a l m e a s u r e s .



120 SHUL TZ

A m a j o r e l e m e n t o f S o v ie t s u p p o r t f o r m o v e m e n t s

f o l lo w i n g a s t r a t e g y o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e is to u s e

p o l i ti ca l a n d p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s ( P S Y O P ) t o c h a m p i o n

t h e c a u s e a n d o b j e c ti v e s o f t h e i n s u r g e n t s i n th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l

a r e n a . A b r i ef c o m m e n t o n t h es e m e a s u r e s a n d t h e e x t en t t o

w h i c h th e y a r e e m p l o y e d b y t h e U S S R a n d i ts s u rr o g a t e s w i ll

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e im p o r t a n c e o f P S Y O P w i th in M o s c o w ' s

o v e r a l l s t r a t e g y f o r a s s i s t i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s . 1o

T h e p o l i t ic a l c o m p o n e n t o f S o v i e t s tr a te g y c o n s t i t u te s a n

a r r a y o f o v e r t a n d c o v e r t t e c h n i q u e s . H e r e , w e a r e c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e f o r m e r ( r e a l i z i n g t h e y a r e s u p p o r t e d b y c o v e r t

t e ch n i q u es ) . F o r e ig n p r o p a g a n d a is a m a j o r t o o l e m p l o y e d b y

M o s c o w t o p r o m o t e i n s u rg e n t m o v e m e n t s i n t h e in t e r na -

t io n a l a r e n a . E s c a l a t i o n i n p r o p a g a n d a c o v e r a g e o f a n in -

s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t o f t e n i n d ic a te s it h a s b e c o m e a m o r e c o n -

s e q u e n t i a l p o l i c y is s u e f o r M o s c o w . I t a ls o t r ig g e r s t h e i n i ti a -

t io n o f a b r o a d e r p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e c a m p a i g n in w h i c h o t h e r

i n s t ru m e n t s a re b r o u g h t i n t o p l a y .

A s e c o n d m a j o r t e c h n i q u e f o r p r o m o t i n g t h e c au s e o f in -

s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s i s u s e o f S o v i e t - d i r e c t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l

f r o n t o r g a n i z a ti o n s . T h e i r te c h n i q u e s in c l u d e p r o p a g a n d a

a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e d i p l o m a c y . T h e l a t te r is t h e

m o r e p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n - o r i e n t e d o f t h e t w o a n d c a n t a k e a

n u m b e r o f f o r m s . F o r e x a m p l e , it is n o t u n u s u a l to f i n d a n i n -

t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f e r e n c e , i n v o l v i n g t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s o r ar e la t e d r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h o n e o f th e S o v i e t f ro n t s

e i th e r p a r t ic i p a t e s in o r c o s p o n s o r s . T h e p u r p o s e o f th i s a n d

r e la t e d t e c h n i q u e s is t o r e a c h a m u c h l ar g e r a u d i e n c e t h a n t h e

S o v i e ts c o u l d h o p e t o i n f l u e n c e o n t h e i r o w n .

F i n a l ly , s i n c e t h e e a r ly 1 9 70 s, M o s c o w h a s c a r r i e d o u t

p o l it ic a l a c t i o n c a m p a i g n s i n t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s a n d o t h e r

r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o n b e h a l f o f c e r ta i n i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s ( e .g ., P L O , S W A P O , M P L A , A N C ) . W i th t h ee n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d d i re c t in v o l v e m e n t o f t h e U S S R a n d its

s u r r o g a t e s , t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y m i l i t a n t A f r o - A s i a n b l o c h a s

t a k e n t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n t h e U N t o s u p p o r t a n d a s s i s t s u c h

m o v e m e n t s . O n e i m p o r t a n t re su l t , a m o n g m a n y , h a s b e e n th e



REV OLU TIO NAR Y WAR 121

g r a n ti n g o f p e r m a n e n t o b s e r ve r s ta tu s i n t h e U N t o S W A P O

( t h e S o u t h - W e s t A f r i c a n P e o p l e ' s O r g a n i z a t i o n ) a n d t h e

P L O . I n s u m , t h e S o v ie ts a p p r o a c h t h e U N a n d o t h e r in t er -n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s a r e n a s f o r c o n d u c t i n g

p s y c h o l o g ic a l a n d p o l it ic a l w a r f a re . B e t w e e n t h e U S S R a n d

i ts s u r ro g a t e s , M o s c o w m a i n t a i n s a l a r g e p r e s e n c e i n t h e U N

to h e lp ca r ry o u t t h ese ac t i v i t i e s .

T h e W e s t h a s la r g el y i g n o r e d th e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t t h eS o v i e t s p l a c e o n t h e u s e o f m u l t i p l e p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e

m e a s u r e s to p r o m o t e t h e l e g it im a c y o f i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s

i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . T h i s is s u r p ri s in g g i v e n t h e f a c t t h a t f e w i n -s u r ge n c ie s h a v e b e e n u n a f f e c t e d b y t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n -

m e n t . S i n c e t h e y a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s w e a k e r t h a n t h e i n -c u m b e n t s , o n e w a y t o o f f s e t t h is d i s a d v a n t a g e a n d a l lo w t h e

i n s u r g e n c y t o e x p a n d i s b y a c q u i r in g v a r io u s f o r m s o f i n te r -

n a t i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e . T h i s a s s i s t a n c e i s i m p o r t a n t d u r i n g e a c h

s t a g e o f i n s u r g e n t d e v e l o p m e n t . D u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d ,

w h e n r e c r u i t m e n t a n d c a d r e c e l l e x p a n s i o n l a y s t h e f o u n d a -

t i o n f o r t h e p o l it i c a l -m i l it a r y i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , i n t e r n a t i o n a lp o l i t ic a l s u p p o r t c a n b e r e p l a y e d i n t e r n a l l y t o a d v e r t i s e a n d

p o p u l a r iz e t h e m o v e m e n t . T h is s u p p o r t m a y a l so e n c o u r a g eu n c o m m i t t e d n a t i o n s t o b a c k t h e in s u r g e n c y . S u c h a ss is ta n c e

a ls o m a y b e d i r e c t e d a t i s o la t in g th e i n c u m b e n t r e g im e . F i n a l -l y , p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t m a y l e a d t o o t h e r f o r m s o f m i l i t a r y

a s s is ta n c e f r o m o u t s i d e p o w e r s . T h i s m i l it a r y a i d w i l l b e o f

p a r t ic u l a r i m p o r t a n c e o n c e t h e i n s u r g e n t s i n cr e a s e th e s ca le

a n d i n t e n s i t y o f t h e i r a c t i v it ie s .S o v i e t s u p p o r t a l s o t a k e s t h e f o r m o f p o l i t i c a l a n dm i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g o f i n s u r g e n t c a d r e . W h i l e s i g n i f i c a n t a t t e n -

t i o n h a s b e e n p a i d t o t h e m i l it a r y t r a i n i n g , i t is a ls o i m p o r t a n t

t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e S o v i e t b l o c p r o v i d e s p o l i ti c a l t r a i n i n g .F o r e x a m p l e , a n i n te r v i e w w i t h a f o r m e r S o v i e t o f f ic i a l w h o

w a s o n t h e f a cu l ty o f P a t ri c e L u m u m b a U n i v e rs it y a n d , m o r ei m p o r t a n t l y , t h e C P S U h i g h e r p a r t y s c h o o l p r o v i d e d a d e -

t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e k i n d o f t r a i n i n g s e n i o r p a r t y c a d r e

f r o m r e v o l u t i o n a r y in s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s r e c e iv e d . T h i s

t r a i n i n g t o o k p l a c e p r i n c i p a l l y a t t h e h i g h e r p a r t y s c h o o l ,

w h e r e a n e n t i r e c o u r s e o f s t u d y i s p r o v i d e d o n h o w t o p l a nf o r a n d s e iz e p o w e r t h r o u g h i ll e g al m e a n s . P o l i t i c a l a n dp s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e t r a i n i n g is p a r t o f t h a t p r o c e s s , t i



122 SHUL TZ

The US Experience In Revolutionary Warfare

T h e A m e r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e w i t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e h a s

n o t b e e n a v e r y s u c c e s s f u l o n e . F r o m 19 61 t o 1 97 2, th e U n i t e d

S t a te s w a s i n v o l v e d in a p r o t r a c t e d i n s u r g e n t c o n f l ic t t h a t

e v o l v e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n t o t h e a d v a n c e d s t a g e s o f t h i s

f o r m o f w a r fa r e . A n u m b e r o f b o o k s h a v e b e e n w r i t te n o n

t h e V i e t n a m W a r a s it r e la te s t o t h e U S a t t e m p t t o d e v e l o p a n

e f f e c ti v e c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y st ra te g y .1 2 M o s t o f t h e s e s t u d i e s

c o n c l u d e th a t , f o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s , th e U n i t e d S t a te s w a s

u n a b l e t o i m p l e m e n t th i s p o li cy . T h i s w a s t r u e w h e n t h e w a r

w a s p r o t r a c t e d a n d l o w l e v e l a s w e l l a s w h e n i t e s c a l a t e d .

D u r i n g t h e i n it ia l y e ar s, d i f f e r e n t c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y p l a n s

w e r e c o n t e m p l a t e d . H o w e v e r , t h e y w e re n o t e a si ly a d o p t e d

b y th e U S m i l i ta r y e s t a b l is h m e n t , w h i c h a p p r o a c h e d t h e c o n -

f li ct i n a f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t w a y .

A s t h e w a r i n t e n s i f i e d d u r i n g 1 96 4 a n d 1 96 5 a n d t h e

e n e m y e m p l o y e d b o t h r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a re a n d c o n v e n -

t i o n a l t a c t i c s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a d o p t e d f o r i t s o w n f o r c e s a

c o n v e n t i o n a l " a t t r i t io n " s tr a te g y ; c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y a n d

p a c i f i c a t i o n b e c a m e t h e p r i m a r y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e S o u t h

V i e t n a m e s e . T h e r e i s n o q u e s t i o n t h a t a s t h e e n e m y in c r ea s -

i n g ly e m p l o y e d c o n v e n t i o n a l t ac ti cs , t h e U n i t e d S t at es a n d its

S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e a lly r e q u i r e d m o r e a n d d i v e rs if ie d m i l it a ry

c a p a b i li ti e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th i s d i d n o t n e g a t e t h e n e e d f o r t h e

p o l it ic a l , s o c ia l, e c o n o m i c , d e v e l o p m e n t a l , a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a s p ec ts o f c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y .

A l m o s t w i t h o u t e x c e p t io n , t h e l i te r a tu r e a n d m a n u a l s o n

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y st ra t e g y s tr es s t h e i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n

o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . O n e r e c e n t a s se s s m e n t , f o r

e x a m p l e , a s s er ts , " p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a re a b s o l u t e l y

e s se n ti al i n i n s u r g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y w h e r e s u c ce ss

d e p e n d s o n t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . . , to d e fe a t t h e

i n s u r g e n t , th e g o v e r n m e n t m u s t r e t a in , g a i n o r w i n b a c k t h e

s u p p o r t o f its p e o p l e . " T h e s t u d y g o e s o n t o n o t e , " t h is u s u a l-

l y i n c l u d e s p r o t e c t i n g t h e p e o p l e f r o m t h e i n s u r g e n t s ,

p r o v i d i n g e s s e n ti al g o v e r n m e n t s er vic e s, i m p l e m e n t i n g re -

q u i r e d g o v e r n m e n t r e f o r m s , a n d n e u t r a li z in g th e in s u r g e n c y .




P S Y O P is r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h o f t h e s e f u n c t i o n s b e c a u s e th e

g o v e r n m e n t m u s t c o n v i n c e t h e c it iz e n s t h a t i t c a n p r o v i d e am o r e d e s i r a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e . " 1 3

P S Y O P a n d U S P o l i cy in V ie tn a m H o w e f fe c t i v e ly d i d

t h e U n i t e d S t a te s e m p l o y p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s i n V i e t-

n a m ? I t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t i ts r e c o r d p a r a ll el s th e e x p e r i e n c ew i t h c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y . A n u m b e r o f f a c t o r s u n d e r c u t t h e

U S e f f o r t . F i rs t o f a ll , th e p e r s o n n e l a ss i g n e d a n d t h e a m o u n t

o f f u n d s a p p r o p r ia t e d f o r P S Y O P , w h e n c o m p a r e d to th e

o v e r a l l w a r e f f o r t , w e r e n o t v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l . T h e J o i n t U S

P u b l ic A f f a ir s O f f i ce ( J U S P A O ) e m p l o y e d 2 50 A m e r i c a n s

a n d 6 0 0 V i e t n a m e s e in its v a r i o u s d i v i s io n s . A t i ts p e a k , t h e

t o ta l U S p e r s o n n e l c o m m i t m e n t t o P S Y O P in V i e tn a m w a s

1 ,2 00 A m e r i c a n s a n d 7 50 V i e tn a m e s e . T h e a n n u a l b u d g e t o f

J U S P A O w a s $ 12 m i l li o n . 14 W h e n c o n t r a s t e d w i t h t h e

d e p l o y m e n t o f o v e r h a l f a m i l l i o n A m e r i c a n s a n d a n a n n u a l

b u d g e t in t h e b i l li o n s, th e a s se ts d e v o t e d t o P S Y O P c a n o n l y

b e s e e n a s e x c e p t i o n a l l y m o d e s t .

B e y o n d p e r s o n n e l a n d b u d g e t a r y i ss ue s, a n u m b e r o f

o t h e r f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e U S i n a b i l i t y t o e m p l o y

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a s e f f e c ti v e l y a s i t m i g h t h a v e i nV i e t n a m . T o b e g i n w i t h , t h e A m e r i c a n r e s p o n s e t o r e v o l u -

t i o n a r y w a r f a r e t o o k p l a c e w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f o u r t r a d i -

t io n a l o r c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o w a r . T h e e m p h a s i s w a s

n o t p l a c e d o n t h e p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s o f

t h is f o r m o f c o n f l ic t , b u t o n f i re p o w e r a n d t e c h n o l o g y . I f t h e

s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e a r e d e -

e m p h a s i z e d , t h e n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f P S Y O P is l ik e w is e

d o w n g r a d e d .

P S Y O P in V i e tn a m w a s a n a n c i ll ar y e le m e n t o f p o l i c y

a n d s t r a te g y , a n d a s t h e U S m i li ta r y e f f o r t g re w ,

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s b e c a m e e v e n l e s s a t t r a c t i v e t o

m i l i ta r y p e r s o n n e l . L i k e s p e ci al w a r f a r e , P S Y O P w a s n o t

c a r e e r - e n h a n c i n g a n d t h e r e w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t e m p h a s i s p l a c e d

o n it i n th e A r m y s c h o o l s . O n e s t u d y s u m s u p t h is a t t i t u d e i n

t h e f o l l o w i n g w a y : " P s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s w a s n o t a r o u t e

t o p r o m o t i o n i n t h e m i l i t a ry . . . . B e c a u se in f a n t r y a n d



124 SHUL TZ

a r ti ll er y c o m b a t r e q u i r e m e n t s in V i e t n a m w e r e s o h e a v y , o f -

r ic er s f r o m o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f t h e A r m y w e r e p u t in

J U S P A O - a r m o r , c h e m i ca l , a n d t h e l ik e. I n ex p l i ca b ly , t h e

N a v y p r o v i d e d a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e p e r c e n ta g e o f s u b m a r i n e

o f f i c er s , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f t e m p o r a r y o v e r a g e s in t h is

c a t e g o r y w i t h i n t h e N a v y . " 1 5

A s e c o n d f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o o u r l ess t h a n s a t i s f a c t o r y

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s e f f o r t i n V i e t n a m w a s t h e g o v e r n -

m e n t o f V i e t n a m ( G V N ) . G u n t h e r L e w y n o te s t h a t its p e r-

f o r m a n c e " r e m a i n e d t h e a c hi l l es h e el o f t h e a ll i ed e f f o r t . . .

p r o g r e s s i n b u i l d i n g a v i a b l e p o l i ti c a l c o m m u n i t y w a s p a i n f u l -

ly s lo w , a n d i t w a s n o t f a r r e a c h i n g e n o u g h to c r e a t e t h e s e n s e

o f p u r p o s e n e c e s sa r y f o r s u c c e ss f ul d e f e n se a g a i n st t h e c o m -

m u n i s t e n e m y . '16 T h i s p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e h a d a d e b i l i ta t in g

e f fe c t o n t h e o v e ra l l P S Y O P e f fo r t . P r o p a g a n d a a n d p o l i t ic a l

a c t io n s u p p o r t s a n d p r o m o t e s a n i n d i g e n o u s g o v e r n m e n t ' s

r e f o r m a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ef f o rt s ; it c a n n o t s e rv e a s a

s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e s e e f f o r t s . N e i t h e r c a n i t m a k e a b a d p o l i c y

a c c e p t a b l e .

A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s o u g h t to s u b s t i tu t e i ts

o w n p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s p r o g r a m f o r t h a t o f i t s V i et -

n a m e s e a l l y . H a r r y L a t i m e r n o t e s t h a t a s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

l o st p a t ie n c e w i t h th e V i e tn a m e s e , it "b e g a n t o c o m m u n i c a t e

w i th t h e V i e t n a m e s e p e o p l e in t h e n a m e o f t h e V i e t n am e s e

g o v e r n m e n t . " I n e f f ec t , th e U n i t e d S t a t es " t r i ed t o d o t h e j o b

f o r t h e m . " z 7 C a n e f fe c t i v e p o l it ic a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s b e c o n -

d u c t e d b y a t h i r d p a r t y o n b e h a l f o f t h e h o s t g o v e r n m e n t ?

T h e A m e r i c a n s b e l i ev e d i t c o u l d . H o w e v e r , t h is m e a n t

s u b s t i tu t i n g o t h e r c h a n n e l s f o r t h e f a c e -t o -f a c e a p p r o a c h t h e

e n e m y re lie d o n . W e d e p e n d e d o n l ea fl et s a n d v a r i o u s o t h e r

p u b l i c a t i o n s a s w e l l a s r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t s . T h e

o u t p u t w a s i m p r e s s iv e , b u t i ts e ff e c t iv e n e s s u n c e r t a i n .

F o r e x a m p l e , i n 1 9 6 7 t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d r o p p e d f i v e

b i l l i o n l e a f l e t s i n V i e t n a m . I n 1 9 6 9 t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

m a g a z i n e s , n e w s p a p e r s , p o s te r s , a n d p a m p h l e t s t o ta l e d 24

m i l l io n c o pi es . A f o u r - s t a t io n r a d i o n e t w o r k w a s c r e a te d w i th

c o v e r a g e o f 9 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r o u n d t h e c l o c k .

L i k e w i s e , a f o u r - t r a n s m i t t e r te l e v is i o n n e t w o r k w a s e s ta b -




l i sh e d , w i t h s ix h o u r s o f d a i l y p r o g r a m m i n g a t i ts p e a k . ~8

W h i le th e se m e d i a e ff o rt s c a n c o m p l e m e n t o ra l c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n s b y t h e h o s t g o v e r n m e n t w i t h i t p o p u l a c e , t h e y c a n n o t

s u b s t i t u t e f o r i t .

F i n a l l y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s l a c k e d a n a t i o n a l - l e v e l

o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r P S Y O P , a n d i t s e f f o r t i n - c o u n t r y w a s

f ra g m e n t e d .~ 9 T h e f o r m e r p a r t i c u l a r ly h u r t o u r e f f o r ts i n a na r e n a w h e r e w e c o u ld h a v e p la y e d a m a j o r r o l e - a d d r e s s i n g

t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y o n i ss ue s r e l a te d t o t h e V i e t n a m

W a r . C o n t r a s t t h i s t o t h e S o v i e t e f f o r t t o p r o m o t e i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l l y t h e c a u s e a n d l e g i t i m a c y o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s . 2° In - c o u n t r y f r a g m e n t a t i o n o n l y d e e p e n e d t h ep r o b l e m s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l a c k o f e m p h a s i s o n P S Y O P

w i t h i n o v e r a l l U S s t r a t e g y .

F o l l o w i n g th e U S w i t h d r a w a l f r o m V i e t n a m i n 1 973, t h e

w i l l a n d c o m m i t m e n t , h e n c e p o l i c y , s t r a t e g y , o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

a n d c a p a b i l it i e s, f o r r e s p o n d i n g t o p e r c e i v e d l o w - i n t e n s i t y

t h r e a t s w e r e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d i n A m e r i c a n p o l i c y . S u c c e s s i v e

a d m i n i s t ra t io n s i n th e p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e 1 9 7 3 A m e r i c a n

w i t h d r a w a l f r o m V i e t n a m a n d t h e 1 9 8 1 i n a u g u r a t i o n o f

P r e s i d e n t R e a g a n p a i d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n -

s u r g e n c y a n d h o w i t m i g h t a f f e c t U S i n t e r e s t s i n t h e T h i r dW o r l d . T h i s n e g l e c t r e s u l t e d i n d r a s t i c c u t s i n s p e c i a l o p e r a -

t i o n s a n d l o w - i n t e n s i t y c o n f l i c t c a p a b i l i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g

P S Y O P . B y 1 9 7 5 o v e r a ll s p e n d i n g h a d d e c l i n e d t o a p p r o x -

i m a t e l y $ 1 0 0 m i l l i o n . T h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n h e r i t i n g

t h e s e r e d u c e d c a p a b i l i t i e s , s o u g h t t o r e v i t a l i z e t h e m .H o w e v e r , c r i t i c i s m e x i s t s o v e r h o w m u c h o f t h e S p e c i a l

O p e r a t i o n s F o r c e s ( S O F ) r e v i t a l i z a t i o n i s d e v o t e d t o l o w -

i n te n s i ty c o n f l ic t a n d r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e c h a l le n g e s . C o n -

g r e s s h a s b een q u i t e c r i t i c a l an d in 1 9 8 6 to o k l eg i s l a t i v e s t ep s

t o r e m e d y t h e s i t u a t i o n . 2~

I n s p it e o f w h a t s o m e b e li e v e t o b e c o n t i n u i n g s h o r t f a l ls

i n d o c t r i n e a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s r e c e n t l y

b e c o m e e n g a g e d i n se v e ra l r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r s , s o m e t i m e s a s

a s u p p o r t e r o f i n s u r g e n t s a n d o t h e r t i m e s s e e k i n g t o a s si st

f r ie n d l y g o v e r n m e n t s u n d e r s i eg e . H a v e w e l e a rn e d f r o m

V i e t n a m , a n d d o c u r r e n t e f f o r t s r e f l e c t a b e t t e r u n d e r -



126 SHUL TZ

standing of the unconventional environment? A brief com-

ment on US policy in El Salvador and Nicaragua suggest that

we have not learned as much as we might have.

El Salvador Since the defeat of the "final offensive"

(modelled on the strategy that brought the Sandinistas to

power) of the Salvadoran guerrillas in 1981, the insurgents

have reverted to protracted revolutionary warfare. This

allows the FMLN to avoid large-scale losses of men and

equipment and, in those areas where the government

presence is limited or nonexistent, to deepen its roots th rough

psychological operations and political mobilization. Since

1981, the Salvadoran military has undergone a marked

transformation from an institution that was racked by dis-

unity and lack of professionalism to one that is now capable

of providing a defensive shield to permit the government to

carry out reform in parts of El Salvador. Among the impor-

tant changes were the following: reorientation from a defen-

sive to a more offensive perspective, emphasis on small units

and longer operations, improvements in military education to

enhance professionalism and eliminate many of the abuses o f

the past, and integration of the military into the national

reconstruction plan.

It has been argued that US support of this effor t avoided

the Vietnam pitfall of Americanizing the armed forces of the

host country. However, there also is evidence that US securi-

ty assistance has tended to conventionalize the Salvadoran

military. In many ways this repeats the security assistance

pattern we have established in many parts of the Third

World. If a country is facing conventional security problems,

this approach is appropriate. However, revolut ionary in-

surgency results in a number o f unconventional problems for

a host country.

In El Salvador, the Salvadoran army holds the urban

areas, lines of communications, and parts of the countryside,

while some six to seven thousand guerrillas control more

remote rural areas. The insurgents' return to protracted war

and small unit actions makes it difficult to conduct sustained




m i l i ta r y o p e r a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e m . W h i l e a s s a u l t s o n g u e r r i l l a

a r e as h a v e o c c u r r e d , e m p h a s i s o n l a rg e r a ir m o b i l e e f f o r t s

h a v e o f t e n t e l e g r a p h e d t h e o p e r a t i o n s . W h a t t h i s s u g g e st s is

t h a t o u r s e c u r it y a s s is t an c e is o v e r e m p h a s i z i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l

c a p a b il it ie s t h a t a r e in a p p r o p r i a t e f o r c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y , a n d

t h a t w e m a y b e r e t u r n in g t o t h e f i re p o w e r t e c h n o l o g y em -

p h a s i s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e i n t h e V i e t n a m c o n t e x t .

H a v e o t h e r a s p e c ts o f a c o u n t e r in s u r g e n c y - f o c u s e d

s e c u r i t y a s s i s t a n c e p r o g r a m b e e n r e f l e c t e d i n t h e r e o r i e n t e d

S a l v a d o r a n a r m y ? P r e l i m i n a r y e v i d e n c e s u g g e s ts t h a t c i vic

a c t i o n , r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i n te l li g e n c e, p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t io n s , a n d r e l a te d f a c t o r s r e q u i r e m o r e a t t e n t i o n . T h e

S a l v a d o r a n a r m y h a s r ec e iv e d P S Y O P e d u c a t i o n , a n d i n c er -

t a i n a r e a s i t is b e i n g e m p l o y e d s u c c e s s f u l ly i n a P S Y O P r o l e .

H o w e v e r , P S Y O P w i ll o n l y b e s u c c e ss f u l i n a la r g e r se n s e i f

u n d e r t a k e n b y a n i n t e g r a t e d c i v i l i a n - m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n

t h a t s u p p o r t s a n d p r o m o t e s a n a t io n a l - le v e l c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n -

c y p l a n .

N i c a r a g u a W h i l e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s m a d e p r o g r e s s

in a ss is ti ng a r e f o r m - m i n d e d S a l v a d o r a n g o v e r n m e n t to b e g i n

t o c o u n t e r e f fe c t iv e l y t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n c y it f a c es ,

t h e s i t u a t io n i n N i c a r a g u a h a s n o t a d v a n c e d n e a r ly s o fa r .

T h i s r e si st a n c e o r i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t is o n e o f a t le a st f o u r

s u c h m o v e m e n t s t h a t h a v e e m e r g e d o v e r t h e l as t d e c a d e t o

o p p o s e t h e r ul e o f S o v i e t -b a c k e d C o m m u n i s t re g im e s . U n d e rt h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t ra t i o n , s u p p o r t f o r a n t i c o m m u n i s t in -

s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s c h a ll e n g in g th e s e re g im e s h a s b e c o m e a n

e s t a b li s h e d p a r t o f U S f o r e i g n p o li c y . H o w e v e r , w h i le t h e a d -

m i n i s t r a t io n h a s a g e n e r a l p o l ic y , m a n y h a v e a s k e d w h e t h e r it

a ls o h a s a u n i f i e d s t r a te g y t o a ss is t t h e s e m o v e m e n t s in

d e v e l o p i n g p o l i t ic a l a n d m i l i ta r y s t r u c t u r e s t o a c h ie v e

l eg i ti m a c y a n d m o b i l iz e s u p p o r t a m o n g e l e m e n t s o f t h e

p o p u l a t i o n .C u r r e n t l y , t h e U n i t e d S ta te s d o e s n o t p o s se s s t h e m e a n s

w i t h w h i c h t o d e v e l o p s u c h a s t r at e g y . T h e r e is n o c o r e o f e x -

p e r ts w h o c o u l d d e v e l o p a n i n t e g r a te d d o c t r in e a n d s t r a te g y

a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g a s s i s ta n c e p r o g r a m s t h a t w o u l d p r o v i d e



128 SHULTZ

t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p o l it ic a l a n d m i l i ta r y t r a in i n g a n d a d v i ce . A s

m a t t e r s s t a n d , t h e re s i st a n c e i n N i c a r a g u a h a s y e t t o d e v e l o p

a s tr a t e g y a n d e s t a b li s h th e p o l i t ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l m e a n s

t o m o b i l iz e t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o s u p p o r t it o n a la r g e r sc ale . A d -

d i t i o n a l l y , i n t h e r e g i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a s i t c o n -

t i n u e s t o l a c k l e g i ti m a c y a n d c r e d i b il it y .

Psychological Operations and Revolutionary

Warfare: Redefining US Policy and Strategy

I t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n c o n -

j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e l e g i s l a t i v e b r a n c h , h a s e s t a b l i s h e d a p o l i c y

t h a t e x p a n d s t h e U S r o l e i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e i n t h e

T h i r d W o r l d . A l t h o u g h t h e r e ar e b o t h c o n g r e s s i o n a l a n d ex -

e c u t i v e li m i ts o n t h i s p o l i c y , it n e v e r t h e l e s s m a r k s a d e p a r t u r e

f r o m t h e 1 97 0s . I t is n o t d i f f i c u l t t o o u t l i n e t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f

t h is n e w c o u r se ; h o w e v e r , i ts i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d t h ed e v e l o p m e n t o f a p p r o p r i a t e d o c t r i n e , s t r a t eg y , a n d

c a p a b i l i t i e s h a s , a s n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , b e e n q u i t e d i f f i c u l t .

T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e w i t h r e s p e c t t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e .

W h a t i s t h e n e w U S p o l i c y ? O n a s e l e c t i v e b a s i s , t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s is c u r r e n t l y a s si st in g f r ie n d l y g o v e r n m e n t s

t h r e a t e n e d b y r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n su r g e n t m o v e m e n t s a s w e ll as

s u p p o r t in g r e v o l u t i o n a r y in s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s th a t a r ec h a l l e n g i n g e it h e r p r o - S o v i e t M a r x i s t- L e n i n i s t r e g i m e s o r

S o v i e t o r S o v i e t s u r r o g a t e o c c u p a t i o n . E l S a l v a d o r i s a n e x -

a m p l e o f t h e f o r m e r ; a n d i n P e r u , G u a t e m a l a , a n d e l s ew h e r e

in L a t i n A m e r i c a , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s l i k ew i se s e e ks t o p r o v i d e

s e c u r i t y as s is ta n c e t o g o v e r n m e n t s th r e a t e n e d b y s i m i la r g u e r-

r il la i n s u r g e n c i e s . I n t h e y e a r s a h e a d , t h e s a m e is l ik e ly to b e

t h e c a s e in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . O v e r t h e l a st f e w y e a r s , e x e c u t iv e

a n d l e g is l a ti v e i n i ti a t iv e s h a v e a l s o r e s u l t e d i n U S a s s i s t a n c et o in s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s in N i c a ra g u a , A n g o l a , A f g h a n i s t a n ,

a n d C a m b o d i a .

W h a t f o l l o w s is a p r o p o s e d f r a m e w o r k t h a t o u t li n e s

p o l i c y o p t i o n s f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a te s w i t h r es p e c t to r e v o l u -




t i o n a r y w a r f a r e in th e T h i r d W o r l d . P a r t ic u l a r a t t e n t io n g o es

t o t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , b u t w i t h int h e c o n t e x t o f b r o a d e r p o l i c y o p t i o n s . T h r e e s p e c i f i c

s c e n a r i o s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d :

1. U S a s si st a n ce a n d a d v i s o r y s u p p o r t to h o s t g o v e r n -

m e n t s t h r e a t e d b y r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s .

2 . D i r e c t U S a c t i o n a g a i n s t r a d i c a l o r i n s u r g e n t f a c -

t i o n s i n w h i c h s u p p o r t t o a h o s t g o v e r n m e n t i s n o t

i n v o l v e d .3 . U S s u p p o r t f o r n o n c o m m u n i s t i ns u rg e n t m o v e m e n t s

c h a l l e n g i n g M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t r e g i m e s i n t h e T h i r d

W o r l d t h a t a r e s u p p o r t e d b y th e S o v ie t b l oc .

I f p o li ti c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t

r o l e i n r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n c y , t h e s a m e c a n b e s a i d f o r

c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y s tr a te g y . T h e o b j e c ti v e s o f s u c h a s t r a te g y

i n c l u d e d e n y i n g t h e i n s u r g e n t s a c c e s s t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,

e s t a b li s h in g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g g o v e r n m e n t l e g it im a c y , m o b i l iz -i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d d e l e g it im i z in g t h e i n s u r g e n t s a n d

t h o se g o v e r n m e n t s th a t s u p p o r t t h e m . T o a c h ie v e t h es e go a ls ,

a n u m b e r o f i n t e r r e l a t e d m e a s u r e s c a n b e u n d e r t a k e n . O n e

r e c e n t s t u d y s u g g e s t s t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s o f m e a s u r e s : a

n a t io n a l -l e v e l r e f o r m p r o g r a m , d e f e n s e a n d i n s u la t io n o f t h e

p o p u l a t io n , p r o f e s s io n a l iz a t io n o f t h e a r m e d f o rc e s , a n d

c o u n t e r g u e r r i l l a m i l it a r y o p e r a t i o n s . 22 I n t e g r a t e d i n t o a

n a t i o n a l - l e v e l p r o g r a m , e a c h o f t h e s e n o n m i l i t a r y a n dm i l i ta r y m e a s u r e s is e ss e n t ia l in a c o n f l i c t o r w a r d e f i n e d a s a

" b a t t l e f o r m i n d s . "

P s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l it ic a l a c t i o n s a r e u s e d t o p r o m o t e t h is

n a t i o n a l - l e v e l p l a n i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a a s w e l l a s t o

m o b i l iz e s u p p o r t f o r it f r o m a m o n g e l e m e n t s o f t h e in -

d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t io n . T h e U n i t e d S ta te s a n d t h e h o s t c o u n t r y

n e e d t o d e v e l o p i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l - l e v e l p s y c h o -

l o g ic a l a n d p o l it ic a l p r o g r a m s t h a t a r e u n d e r s t o o d a s i n te g r a le l e m e n t s o f th e o v e r a l l c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y p l a n . T h e o v e r a l l

o b j e c t i v e i s t o b u i l d n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r

t h e p r o g r a m s a n d a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r a t t a c k



130 SHUL TZ

a n d t o d i s c re d i t t h e i n s u r g e n t s a n d t h e i r st a te p a t r o n s . I n c o n -

j u n c t i o n w i th t h e h o s t c o u n t r y , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s c a n d e v e l o pa c o u n t e r in s u r g e n c y p l an t h a t r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n d i g e n o u s en -

v i r o n m e n t a n d a ls o p r o v i d e s g u i d a n c e f o r a i m i n g c o u n t e r i n -

s u r g e n c y P S Y O P a t t h e f o l lo w i n g t a rg e t a u d i e n c e s :

1. S t at e s a n d g r o u p s in t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l

a r e n a s .

2 . S t a te s a n d g r o u p s e i th e r d i re c t ly o r i n d i r e c tl y

a s s i s t i n g t h e i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t .

3 . T h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n .4 . I n s u r g e n t c a d r e a n d s u p p o r t s t ru c t u r e .

H o w c a n t h e U n i t e d S ta te s a n d t h e h o s t g o v e r n m e n t

c o o r d i n a t e t h e i r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d n a t io n a l - le v e l c o m m u n i c a -

t io n s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n a c ti v it i es to a d d r e s s e a c h o f t h e s e au -

d i e n c e s ? I t w a s n o t e d a b o v e t h a t w h e n t h e S o v i e t b l o c e x -

p a n d s i ts a s s is t a n c e t o a r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n c y , a n a r r a y o f

p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s a r e u s e d to p r o m o t e

t h e c au s e a n d l e g it im a c y o f th a t m o v e m e n t i n t h e in t e r n a -t i o n a l a r e n a . S i m i l a r l y , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e h o s t

g o v e r n m e n t sh o u l d e m p l o y c o m m u n i c a t io n s , d ip l o m a c y , a n d

p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n o n a b i l a t e r a l a n d m u l t i l a t e r a l b a s i s b o t h t o

g a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s u p p o r t a n d t o i s o l a t e t h e i n s u r g e n t s a n d

t h ei r p a t r o n s . T h e S t a te D e p a r t m e n t a n d U S I n f o r m a t i o n

A g e n c y h a v e a m a j o r r o l e t o p l a y i n t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s .

R e v o l u t io n a r y i n s u rg e n t m o v e m e n t s a lm o s t a lw a y s

a s s er t t h a t t h e i r su c c e ss is t h e r e s u l t o f i n d i g e n o u s p r o b l e m sa n d i n e q u al it ie s c a u s e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h e y se e k to

r e p la c e . W h i le t h is a p p r o a c h o b v i o u s l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e

e m e r g e n c e o f in t e r n a l d i s c o n t e n t , w h i c h i n s u r g e n t c a d r e o f t e n

t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f , o v e r t h e l as t 1 5 y e a r s e x t e r n a l a s s is t a n c e

h a s b e e n c r uc ia l t o t h e e x p a n s io n a n d g r o w t h o f a n u m b e r o f

r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t s in th e T h i r d W o r l d . T h i s d e v e lo p -

m e n t c a n b e e m p l o y e d b o t h n a t io n a l ly a n d i n te r n a t io n a l l y t o

d e m o n s t r a t e t h e d e p e n d e n c y o f i n s u rg e n t s o n e x te r n alp a t r o n s a s w e l l a s t o p o i n t o u t t h e c o s t o f t h i s r e l i a n c e o n c e

t h e y s e iz e p o w e r .

E a r l ie r , I a l l u d e d t o t h e f a i l u r e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e m a n y

c o n t e m p o r a r y p o s t r e v o l u t io n a r y g o v e r n m e n t s , l ik e t h a t i n



REV OLUT ION ARY WAR 131

N i c a r a g u a , t o i m p l e m e n t t h e p ro m i s e s o f t h e r e v o l u ti o n . F r e -

q u e n t l y , th e s e n e w r e g i m e s b e c o m e s u r r o g a t e s f o r t h e i rp r e r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a t r o n s a n d e s t a b l i s h t o t a l i t a r i a n f o r m s o f

g o v e r n m e n t . T h e y a l so m a y b e c o m e a b a se f r o m w h i c h t h e

S o v i e t b l o c p r o m o t e s i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e r e g i o n i n w h i c h t h e

n e w r e g i m e i s l o c a t e d . T h e s e r e a l i t i e s c a n b e a m p l i f i e d i n t e r -

n a t i o n a l l y t o i s o l a t e t h o s e p o w e r s s u p p o r t i n g r e v o l u t i o n a r y

i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s a n d t o p o r t r a y t h e e n d r e s u l t o f t h e i r

a s s i s t a n c e . T h e s a m e t h e m e s h o u l d b e p r o p a g a t e d r e g i o n a l l y

a n d t o t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n b y i t s g o v e r n m e n t .A p r i m e o b j e c ti v e o f h o s t c o u n t r y p s y c h o l o g i c al a n d

p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n i s t o g a i n , p r e s e r v e , a n d s t r e n g t h e n c i v i l i a n

s u p p o r t f o r i t s p r o g r a m s . T h i s i s n o t a f u n c t i o n t h a t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s c a n p e r f o r m f o r t h e h o s t g o v e r n m e n t . E v e n i f

w e b e c o m e d i re c t ly i n v o l v e d i n - c o u n t r y , t h is f u n c t i o n c a n n o t

b e c o m e o u r r e s p o n s ib i li ty . T h e U n i t e d S t a te s c a n p r o v i d e a d -

v i c e , t r a i n i n g , a n d t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t . B u t i t i s t h e i n d i g e n o u s

g o v e r n m e n t ' s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o c a r r y o u t f a c e - t o - f a c e m o b i l i -z a t io n a n d r e c r u i t m e n t . M u c h c a n b e le a r n e d f r o m i n su r g e n ts

a b o u t t h e s e a c ti v it ie s , a t l e a st w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s i ti v e p r o -

g r a m s t h e y e m p l o y .

F i n a l l y , t h e i n s u r g e n t c a d r e a n d s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e a r e

t a rg e t s f o r p o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . T h e

f o l l o w i n g a r e a s a r e e s p e c i a l l y r i p e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n : t h e

i d e o l o g ic a l a n d p o l i ti c a l s y st e m o f t h e i n s u r g e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

t h e c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , a n d t h e s u p p o r ta p p a r a t u s . B a s e d o n u p - t o - d a t e i n t e ll ig e n c e , a v a r i e t y o f

o p e r a t i o n s c o u l d b e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t e a c h o f t h e s e t a r g e t s .

T h e s e i n c l u d e d e c e p t i o n , p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e , a n d p o l i ti c a l

i n f l u e n c e a c t io n s . I n e a c h o f th e s e a c t iv i ti e s , it is i m p o r t a n t t o

a d h e r e t o t h e m o s t b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f s t r a t e g y , t h e i d e n t i f i c a -

t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s . A m o n g t h e m o r e

a p p a r e n t o f t h e s e a r e th e i d e o l o g i c a l b a s e ( d iv i si o n s a n d c o m -

p e t i t i o n a m o n g l e a d e r s ) , p e r s o n n e l a n d l o g i s t i c a l s o f t s p o t s( d e p e n d e n c e o n a s m a l l g r o u p o f le a d e r s , p e r s o n a l c o r -

r u p t i o n , w e a k s u p p o r t i v e s er v ic e s) , re l ia n c e o n c l a n d e s t i n e

a c t iv i ty th a t i m p o s e s s e r io u s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s , a n d

p r o b l e m s o f i n f r a s t r u c t u r e d e f e n s e a n d i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y .



132 SHUL TZ

E a c h o f t h e a u d i e n c e s j u s t d i sc u s se d s h o u l d n o t b e a p -

p r o a c h e d s e p a r a t e l y b u t i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n dn a t i o n a l- l ev e l p o li ti c al a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o g r a m . T h i s p r o -

g r a m s h o u l d c o m b i n e o b j e c t i v e s , p l a n s , g u i d a n c e , r e -

q u i r e m e n t s , a n d a p p r o a c h e s . A u n i f i e d e f f o r t r e q u ir e s a

u n i f i e d o r g a n i z a t i o n . A v o i d i n g t h e p i t f a l l s o f V i e t n a m , a

s i n g l e a g e n c y a t t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l s h o u l d h a v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t yf o r c o o r d i n a t i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i n g a l l c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y

P S Y O P . L i k e w i s e , t h e U S e f f o r t i n s u p p o r t o f t h e h o s t

g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d b e u n i f i e d .T h u s f a r , I ' v e e x a m i n e d t h e r o l e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d

p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a n i n t e g r a t e d

U S - h o s t c o u n t r y c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y s tr a te g y . H o w e v e r , it

m a y n o t a l w a y s b e t h e c a se t h a t U S i n te r e st s a r e th r e a t e n e d b y

r a d i c a l f a c t i o n s e m p l o y i n g a v a r i a t i o n o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r -

f a r e in w h i c h a T h i r d W o r l d a ll y is d i re c t ly c h a l le n g e d . P L O

a n d S h i ' i t e g r o u p s o p e r a t i n g i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t a r e c a s e s i n

p o i n t . I n m a n y r e sp e c ts , t h e y a r e t h e p r a c t it i o n e r s o f a f o r mo f r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e . O n e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h i s

s t r a t e g y - t e r r o r i s m - i s f re q u e n t l y d i re c te d a g ain s t t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s .

A r e t h e s e g r o u p s p o t e n t i a l t a r g e t s f o r U S p s y c h o l o g i c a l

a n d p o l i ti c a l o p e r a t i o n s ? S i m i l a r t o a n y r a d i c a l f a c t i o n , t h e s e

g r o u p s h a v e w e a k n e s s e s t h a t c a n b e t a r g e t e d b o t h

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y a n d o t h e r w i s e . T h i s is c e r t a i n l y t r u e o f

e l e m e n t s o f th e P L O . T h e i r w e a k n e s s e s i n c l u d e n o v is ib ler e c o r d o f m a j o r s u c c e s s e s , d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h e i r e x t r e m i s m

o u t s i d e t h e M i d d l e E a s t , l a t e n t o p p o s i t io n w i t h i n p a r ts o f t h e

A r a b w o r l d , d e a d l y f a c t i o n a l i n f ig h t i n g , e m e r g i n g y o u n g e r

l e a d e r s w h o m a y b e m o r e v i o l e n t a n d l e s s c o n t r o l l a b l e b y

c u r r e n t P L O l e a d e r s , r e l ia n c e o n i n c r e a s i n g l y c r u e l t a c ti c s

d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t i n n o c e n t t a r g e ts , l e a d e r s w h o o f t e n l iv e e x -

t r a v a g a n t l y , c a d r e t h a t f a c e e i t h e r d e a t h o r i m p r i s o n m e n t

w h e n t h e y c o n d u c t a c t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e M i d d l e E a s t , a n d as e l f - d e l u d i n g t e n d e n c y t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d

t o s e e i n n o c e n t t a r g e t s a s s o l d i e r s .

W h i l e t h e s e r a d i c a l f a c t i o n s a l s o h a v e s t r e n g t h s , t h e i r

w e a k n e s s e s c o u l d b e t a r g e t s f o r p o l i t i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l




o p e r a t i o n s . T h e i r v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e s

d i s c u s se d a b o v e . T h e y i n c l u d e t h e r a d i c a l o r i n s u r g e n to r g a n i z a t i o n i ts e lf ( le a d e rs a n d f o l lo w e r s a s w e ll a s s u p p o r t

g r o u p s a n d s t at e p a t r o n s ) , t e n s i o n s a n d c o n f l ic t s w i t h i n t h e s e

f a c ti o n s , d i s i l l u s io n m e n t a m o n g s u p p o r t e l e m e n t s , a n d i n te r -

n a t i o n a l c o n c e r n o v e r g r o w i n g s t a t e - s p o n s o r e d t e r r o r i s m .

P r e v i o u s l y , I n o t e d t h a t i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s a n d 1 9 8 0 s n e w l y

e s t a b l i s h e d p r o - S o v i e t C o m m u n i s t r e g i m e s i n t h e T h i r d

W o r l d h a v e p r o v e d t o b e v u ln e r a b l e t o i n d i g e n o u s i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s t h a t o p p o s e t h e i r f o r m o f ru l e. I n m a n y r es p e ct s ,a s a r e su l t o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e se o p p o s i t i o n e l e m e n t s ,

c o n f l i c t in t h e T h i r d W o r l d h a s t a k e n a n e w tu r n . W h e r e a s i n

t h e 1 96 0s a n d 1 97 0s i n s u r g e n t w a r f a r e w a s d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t

c o lo n i a l p o w e r s a n d p r o - W e s t e rn o r n o n c o m m u n i s t g o v e r n -

m e n t s , b y t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s a t l e a s t f o u r m a j o r i n s u r g e n t

m o v e m e n t s c h a l l en g e d S o v i e t- b a ck e d C o m m u n i s t r e g im e s in

d i f f e r e n t re g i o n s o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d .

R e c o g n i z i n g t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t i e s o f t h e s e r e g i m e s , t h eS o v ie t U n i o n h a s p r o v i d e d v a r i o u s m e a n s t o s u s ta i n t h e m i n

p o w e r a g a i n s t a r m e d i n t e r n a l t h r e a t s . T h e g o a l is t o e n s u r e

t h a t r e g i m e s t h a t c o m e to p o w e r t h r o u g h L e n i n i s t m e a n s re -

m a i n i n p o w e r . T h i s m a i n t e n a n c e is a c h i ev e d t h r o u g h t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f a n i n te r n a l s e c u ri ty in f r a s t r u c t u r e t h a t c a n

q u e l l in t e r n a l o p p o s i t i o n , m o b i l i z e t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d in -

s u l a te t h e l e a d e r s h i p c a d r e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , in o r d e r t o c o u n t e r

t hi s n e w f o r m o f i n te r n a l th r e a t , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n p r o v i d e sm i l i ta r y a n d p a r a m i l i t a r y a d v ic e a n d s u p p o r t .

U n d e r t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , s u p p o r t f o r a n t i -

c o m m u n i s t in s u rg e n t m o v e m e n t s ha s b e c o m e a n e s ta b l i sh e d

p a r t o f U S f o r e ig n p o l ic y . B u t w h i le t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s a

g e n e r a l p o l i cy , m a n y h a v e a s k e d w h e t h e r it a ls o h a s a u n i f i e d

s t r at e g y t o a s s is t th e s e m o v e m e n t s t o d e v e l o p p o l i ti c a l a n dm i l i t a ry s t r u c tu r e s th a t w il l a f f o r d t h e m t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

a c h ie v e l e g it im a c y a n d m o b i l i ze s u p p o r t , b o t h a m o n ge l e m e n t s o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n a n d in t h e r e g io n a l a n d

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a s . I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s c u r-

r e n t l y d o e s n o t p o s s e s s t h e s e m e a n s .

W h a t r o l e s h o u l d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a v e i n t h e s e c o n -

f l i c t s ? P o l i c y m a k e r s n e e d t o d e v e l o p r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r a s -



134 SHUL TZ

s is ti n g d e m o c r a t i c a l ly i n c li n e d i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t s in a

m o r e s o p h i s t ic a t ed , c o m p r e h e n s i v e , a n d e f f ec t i v e m a n n e r .P s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e i n t e g r a l e l e m e n t s

o f s u c h a p o l i c y . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c o u l d

e m p l o y th e s e m e a s u r e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , r e g i o n a ll y , a n d a t t h e

s ta t e le ve l t o c o n v e y i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :

H o w h a v e th e p o li ci es a n d p r o g r a m s o f t h e p o s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y

l e a d e r s h ip i n s p i r e d p o l i t ic a l u n r e s t a n d o p p o s i t i o n ? A r e t h e s e

t r e n d s i n c re a s in g o r d e c r e a s i n g ? H o w h a s S o v i e t b l o c i n t e rn a l

s e c u ri ty , m i li ta r y , a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f a ss is ta n c e c o n t r i b u t e dt o t h e p o s t r e v o l u t i o n a r y le a d e rs h ip ' s c o n s o l i d a t io n o f p o w e r

a n d e s t a b li s h m e n t o f t o t a li ta r ia n f o r m s o f g o v e r n m e n t ?

U S p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a c -

t iv i ti e s c o u l d a l s o b e u s e d to p r e s e n t a b a l a n c e d a s s e s s m e n t o f

t h e g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e r e s i st an c e o r i n s u rg e n t

m o v e m e n t c h a l l e n g in g t h e M a r x is t - L e n in i s t g o v e r n m e n t .

O t h e r a s p e c t s o f U S a s s i s t a n c e s h o u l d b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d

a id i n g th e i n s u r g e n t m o v e m e n t in m a k i n g t h e t r a n s it io n t o al e g it im a t e p o li ti ca l m o v e m e n t c a p a b le o f m o b i l i z in g s u p p o r t

a m o n g e le m e n ts o f th e p o p u l a t i o n . A s w i th g o v e r n m e n t s

f a c e d w i t h i n s u r g e n t c h a l l e n g e s , r e v o l u t i o n a r y o r r e s i s t a n c e

m o v e m e n t s l i k ew i s e r e q u i re a n i n t e g r a t e d p o l i t ic a l -m i l i ta r y

s tr a te g y . T h e U n i t e d S t a te s c a n p r o v i d e a s si s ta n c e a n d a d v i c e

i n th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s u c h a p l a n . T h i s i n c l u d e s a d v ic e c o n -

c e r n i n g t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l it ic a l ac -

t i o n s i n s u p p o r t o f a p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t s e e k s t ob e c o m e a v i a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e e x i s t i n g r e g i m e .

I f t h is o c c u r s , t h e n p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i t ic a l o p e r a -

t i o n s c a n b e t a r g e t e d a g a i n s t m a n y o f t h e s a m e a u d i e n c e s

d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s . U S a d v i c e , s u p p o r t , a n d

a s si st an c e c o u l d c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i m -

p l e m e n t a t i o n o f th e s tr at eg i c P S Y O P p l a n th a t s u p p o r t s a ni n t e g r a t e d p o l i t i c a l -m i l it a r y s tr a t e g y .

US versus USSR Effectiveness

I n t h e p o s t - W o r l d W a r I I p e r io d , i n su r g e n t m o v e m e n t s

e m p l o y i n g re v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e s tr at e g ie s h a v e p l a y e d a n



REVO LUTI ONAR Y WAR 135

i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e p o li ti c s o f t h e T h i r d W o r l d . A c e n t r a l

e l e m e n t in t h e s u c ce ss o f t h es e m o v e m e n t s h a s b e e n t h e u s e o fp o l it ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e b o t h d o m e s t i c a l ly a n d in

t h e in t e r n a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l a r e n a s . T h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,

r e c o g n i z i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r g e o s t r a t e g i c g a i n s i f t h e s e

r e v o l u t i o n a r y i n s u r g e n c i e s c o m e t o p o w e r , h a s a l i g n e d i t s e l f

w i th a n u m b e r o f su c h m o v e m e n t s . T o t h is e n d , i t h a s

d e v e l o p e d a n i n t e g r a t e d p o l i c y t o h e l p i n s u r g e n c i e s c o m e

a b o u t a n d s u c c e e d . A k e y a s p e c t o f t h is p o l ic y h as b e e n t h e

u s e o f p r o p a g a n d a , p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s , a n d p o l i ti ca lw a r f a r e t o p r o m o t e t h e c a u s e a n d l e g i ti m a c y o f w h a t t h e

U S S R t e r m s n a t io n a l l ib e r at io n m o v e m e n t s .

T h e U S e x p e r ie n c e w i t h re v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a re , o n t h e

o t h e r h a n d , h a s n o t b e e n a h a p p y o n e . T h e U n i t e d S t a te s h a s

n o t a lw a y s u n d e r s t o o d i n su r g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r in s u r g e n c y a n d

t h e p l ac e o f p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s w i t h in t h e s e f o r m s o f

c o n f l ic t a n d w a r . V i e t n a m is t h e c la s sic e x a m p l e , b u t b y n o

m e a n s t h e o n l y o n e . C a n U S p o l i c y r e s p o n d m o r e e f fe c ti ve lyt o th e s e t h r e a ts a n d o p p o r t u n i t ie s ? T h e R e a g a n a d m i n is t ra -

t i o n h a s p r o d u c e d a d v a n c e s in s o m e a r e a s. B u t a g r e a t d e a l

r e m a i n s t o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d i f t h e U n i te d S t at es i s t o r e s p o n d

e f f ec t iv e l y t o r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r f a r e t h r e a t s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s

i n t h e y e a r s a h e a d .



136 SHUL TZ

Notes

1. T h e o d o r e S h a c k l e y , The Third Option ( N e w Y o r k :

M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k C o . , 1 9 8 1 ), p . 7 .

2 . R i c h a r d S h u l tz , " C o u n t e r i n g T h i r d W o r l d M a r x i st - L e n i n is tR e g i m e s: P o l i c y O p t io n s f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a te s , " in U r i R a ' a n a n e t

a l . , eds . , Third World Marxist-Leninist Regimes: Strengths,

Vulnerabilities, and U.S. Policy ( N e w Y o r k : P e r g a m o n - B r a s s e y ' s ,1 98 5); S t e p h e n R o s e n f e ld , " T h e G u n s o f J u l y , " Foreign Affairs 64,

n o . 4 ( S p ri n g 1 9 8 6 ), p p . 6 9 8 -7 1 4 ; C h a r l es K r a u t h a m m e r , " M o r a l i t ya n d t h e R e a g a n D o c t r i n e , " The New Republic 19 5, no . 10 (8

Sep t em ber 1986) , pp . 17-25 .

3 . R o b e r t A s p r e y , War in the Shadows: The Guerrilla in

History, 2 vo l s . (New York : Doub leday , 1975) .

4 . S t a te d b y B e r n a r d F a l l in t h e P r e f a c e to R o g e r t T r i n q u i e r ,

Modern Warfare ( N e w Y o r k : D o u b l e d a y , 1 97 5).

5 . C i t ed i n Pe t e r Pa re t , French Revolutionary Warfare from

Indochina to Algeria (New Y ork : P raeg e r , 1964) , p . 16-17 .

6 . S t e p h e n H o s m e r a n d T h o m a s W o l f e , Soviet Policy and

Practice Toward Third World Conflict ( L e x i n g t o n , M A : L e x i n g t o n

B o o k s , 1 9 8 3 ); B r u c e P o r t e r , The USSR in Third World Conflict

( L o n d o n : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s it y P r e s s, 1 9 8 5 ); D a n i e l P a p p , Soviet

Perceptions of the Developing World in the 1980s ( L e x i n g t o n , M A :

Le x ing to n Bo oks , 1985).

7 . S e e R i c h a r d S h u lt z a n d R o y G o d s o n , Dezinformatsia: Ac-tive Measures in Soviet Strategy ( N e w Y o r k : P e r g a m o n - B r a s s e y ' s ,

1984).

8 . L eon id Brezhn ev , Report of the CPSU Central Committee

to the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

(Moscow: Novos t i P re s s Agency , 1971) .

9 . L e o n i d B r ez h n e v , " R e p o r t o f th e C P S U C e n t r a l C o m m i t -

tee ," in H31S/Daily Report-Soviet Union, S u p p l e m e n t 1 (2 4

Februa ry 1981) .10. For a m ore ex t ens ive d i scuss ion o f t h is s ee Rich a rd S hu l t z ,

" P o l i t i c a l O r c h e s t r a t i o n : R e c e n t R e g i o n a l P a t t e r n s , " i n U r i

R a ' a n a n , R o b e r t P f a l t z g r a f f , R i c h a r d S h u l t z , E r n s t H a l p e r i n , a n d

Igor Lukes , eds . , Hydra of Carnage ( L e x i n g t o n , M A : L e x i n g t o n

Bo oks , 1985) , chap . 6 .




1 1 . O r a l H i s t o r y I n t e r v i e w s w i t h M i c h a e l V o s l e n s k y . T h i s i s

p a r t o f th e O r a l H i s t o r y P r o j e c t o f th e I n t e rn a t io n a l S e c u r it y

S t u d ie s P r o g r a m , F l e tc h e r S c h o o l o f L a w a n d D i p l o m a c y . T h e s u b -j e c t i n v e s t i g a t e d c o n c e r n s s p e c i f i c a l l y S o v i e t d e c i s i o n m a k i n g a s i t

r e l a t e s t o t h e p a n o p l y o f p r o t r a c t e d a n d l o w - i n t e n s i t y o p e r a t i o n s ,

i n c lu d i n g a r m s t r a n s f e r s , t r a in i n g a n d a d v i s o r y s u p p o r t , i n -

t e l l i g e n c e , p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e , d i s i n f o r m a t i o n a n d a c t i v e

m e a s u r e s , a n d t h e us e o f s u r r o g a t e f o r c e s . T h e p r i m a r y o b j e c t i v e is

t o d e t e r m i n e , t h r o u g h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d i n s i g h t s p r o v i d e d b y

t h o s e w h o w e r e e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e d , h o w t h e

S o v i e t U n i o n ' s d e c i s io n m a k i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n a l a p p a r a t u s p l an st h e s e a c ti v it ie s , i n te g r a t e s E a s t E u r o p e a n b l o c a n d o t h e r s u r r o g a t e

( C u b a n , N i c a r a g u a n , e t c . ) c a p a b i l i t i e s , a n d i m p l e m e n t s t h e m " i n

t h e f i e l d . " T h e g o a l is t o a s c e r t a i n h o w p o l i c y a n d p r o c e s s p r o c e e d

f r o m t h e " c e n t e r " i n M o s c o w , t h r o u g h t h e E a s t E u r o p e a n b l o c ,

t h r o u g h t h e o t h e r s u r r o g a t e s , a n d a r e i m p l e m e n t e d " o n t h e

g r o u n d . " C l e a r l y , h o w e v e r , t h i s s h a r p l y d e f i n e d t a r g e t c a n n o t b e

a t t a i n e d w i t h o u t a s i m u l t a n e o u s e f f o r t t o s h e d l i g h t u p o n t h e

b r o a d e r p a r a m e t e r s o f p o l i t ic o - m i l it a r y d o c t r i n e a n d s t r a t e g y

w i t h i n w h i c h s p e c i f i c S o v i e t a n d s u r r o g a t e o p e r a t i o n s p l a y t h e i r

r esp ec t iv e ro les .

T o a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e r a t h e r a m b i t i o u s o b j e c t i v e s , t h e I S S P

f a c u l t y d e v e l o p e d a r e se a r c h d e s i g n b a s e d o n r e a s o n a b l y s t r u c t u r e d

in te rv iews w i th in d iv id u a l s p o ssess in g d i rec t o r in d i rec t k n o wled g e

o f d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e U S S R ' s d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s a n d

o p e r a t i o n a l a p p a r a t u s . T h e i n t e r v i e w e e s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t h e

fo l lo win g two ca teg o r i es : (1 ) fo rmer in t e l l ig en ce , fo re ig n min i s t ry ,

a n d m i l i t a r y o f f i c i a l s , a s w e l l a s m e m b e r s o f t h e i n s t i t u t e s c o n -c e r n e d w i t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l a f f a i r s , f r o m t h e U S S R , E a s t E u r o p e a n

b l o c , N i c a ra g u a , C u b a , a n d A f g h a n i s t a n , w h o h a v e " c o m e i n f r o m

t h e c o l d " ; a n d (2 ) e m i g r e s f r o m t h e U S S R w h o w e r e e n g a g e d i n se n -

s i t iv e wo rk p e r t a in in g to sc i en ce an d t ech n o lo g y , e sp ec ia l ly as i t

r e l a t es to d e fen se ap p l i ca t io n s .

1 2. D o u g l a s B l a u f a r b , The Counterinsurgency Era ( N e w

Yo rk : F ree P ress , 1 9 7 7 ) ; An d rew Krep in ev ich , Th eA rmy and Viet-

nam ( B a l t i m o r e , M D : J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 98 6);R i c h a r d H u n t a n d R i c h a r d S h u l t z , Lesson From An Unconven-

tional War ( N e w Y o r k : P e r g a m o n - B r a s s e y ' s , 1 98 2); G u e n t e r L e w y ,

America in Vietnam ( N e w Y o r k : O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 8 ) ;

R o b e r t K o m e r Bureaucracy at War." Performance in the Vietnam

Conflict ( B o u l d e r , C O : W e s t v i e w P r e s s , 1 98 6).



138 S H U L T Z

1 3. J o i n t L o w - I n t e n s i t y C o n f l i c t P r o j e c t , V o l u m e 1 -

A n a l y t ic a l R e v i e w o L o w I n te n s it y C o n f l i c t ( F o r t M o n r o e , V a : U S

A r m y T ra i n in g a n d D o c t r i n e C o m m a n d , 1 A u g u s t 1 9 86 ),p p . 1 4 / 2 - 3 .

14. H ar ry D . La t im er , U. S . Pyscho log ica l Op era t ions in V ie t-

n a m ( P r o v i d e n c e , R I : B r o w n U n i v e r s i t y M o n o g r a p h o n N a t i o n a l

Sec ur i ty A ffa i r s , 1973), p . 11 .

15. Ibid. , p . 29.

16 . Lewy, A m e r i c a i n V i e t n a m , p. 93.

17 . La t imer , U. S . Psycho log ica l Opera t ions in V ie tnam, p . 6 .

18. Ib id . , pp . 23-24 .1 9. A l f r e d P a d d o c k , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a t io n s : W h a t D i d

W e L e a r n F r o m V i e t n a m , " ( U n p u b l i s h e d M a n u s c r i p t , 1 98 2).

20 . R icha rd Shu l t z , "Po l i t i ca l O rches t r a t i on : Rece n t Reg iona l

P a t t e r n s , " H y d r a o f C a r n a g e , chap . 6 .

21 . Th i s l eg i s l a t i on dea l s w i th US Spec i a l Ope ra t ions Forces ;

t he b i l l t ha t pas sed was a compromise ve r s ion o f Sena t e B i l l 1224

and House B i l l 1011 . The l eg i s l a t i on e s t ab l i shes a Un i f i ed Com-

m a n d , A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e f o r S p e c i a l O p e r a t i o n s a n d

L o w I n t e n s it y C o n f l i c t, a D e p u t y A s s i st a n t t o th e P r e s i d e n t f o r N a -

t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A f f a i r s f o r L o w I n t e n s i t y C o n f l i c t , a n d a L o w I n -

t e n s i t y C o n f l i c t B o a r d a t t h e N S C .

22. W i l liam Olsen , L o w I n t e n s i t y C o n f l i c t a n d t h e P r i n c i p l e s

a n d S t ra t e gi e s o f W a r (Car l i s le Bar racks , PA: S t ra teg ic S tudies In-

s t i t u t e , Army War Co l l ege , 1986) , pp . 49 -80 .



Comment

JOS EPH D. DOUGLASS, JR.

THERE ARE REALLY THREE TOPICS that Dr. Shultz focuses

on: What is revolut ionary warfare? How are we doing at it?

What is wrong? This goes right to the heart o f the matter . His

definition of revolutionary war, which includes the combineduse of military, political, and psychological techniques to

change the social struc ture, I like very much. There is one ad-

dition I would make, and that is to underscore that this is a

long-term proposition. Too often when a situation like thisarises, we think of it as a recent phenomenon, ignoring the

fact that there may be twenty, thirty, or forty years of effort

by the Soviets in establishing the base underlying the revolu-

tionary warfare that is going on today.The five principles of revolutionary warfare Dr. Shultz

spells out are a good encapsulation of what is contained in

any fundamental text of Marxism-Leninism. He also

recognizes the recent change that has come about in the use

of insurgencies and terrorism to force revolution. Because

revolutions have not been as spontaneous as they would haveliked, the Soviets have been led to adopt more forceful

measures to speed on the historical process. In looking atthese changes, Dr. Shultz says that they arc unmistakable

beginning in the 1970s, and then raises the question of when

they originally occurred. I would say that one has to go back

to the period immediately following Stalin's death, when

there was a recognition of the need to modernize the tactics

and strategy of the Communis t movement with respect to the

Third World. The specific use of terrorism in this regard is

present certainly by 1955, and I think you could probably tieit down to the July 1955 meeting of the Central Commit tee of

the CPSU.

The use of insurgencies and terrorism grew under

Khrushchev and was recognized in this country, at least by

the White House, by 1961, when the Kennedy adminis tration

139



1 4 0 D O U G L A S S

b e g a n a c ti v el y t o a d d r e s s h o w t o m e e t th e s e c h a ll e n g e s. I n-

d e e d , t h i s w a s o n e o f t h e t o p i c s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e K e n n e d y -

K h r u s h c h e v m e e t i n g , w i t h K e n n e d y c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t

S o v i e t a c ti v it ie s a n d K h r u s h c h e v r e s p o n d i n g t h a t t h is w a s a

f u n c t i o n o f c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d , t h a t t h e S o v ie t

U n i o n w a s n o t i n s ti g a t in g u p r i s i n g s . A n d o f c o u r s e t h a t 's t h e

g e n e r a l l i ne th a t h a s c o m e f r o m t h e S o v i et s e v e r s in c e .

H a s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s l e a r n e d m u c h ? I n l o o k i n g a t o u r

e x p e r i e n c e n o t o n l y in V i e t n a m b u t a ls o i n N i c a r a g u a a n d E1

S a l v a d o r , D r . S h u l t z c o n c l u d e s t h a t w e h a v e n o t l e a r n e d asm u c h a s w e m i g h t h a v e , w h i c h is , I w o u l d s ay , t h e u n d e r s t a t e -

m e n t o f t h e y e ar . T h i s b e l ie f c a m e h o m e t o m e v e r y c le a rl y i n

a j o i n t S t a t e -D e f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t r e p o r t o f 1 98 4 o n t h e p r o b -

l em s in C e n t r a l A m e r i c a . R e a d i n g t h r o u g h t h a t r e p o r t , o n e

g o t t h e i m p r e s s i o n th a t t h e w h o l e p r o b l e m w a s F id e l C a s t r o .

T h e S o v ie t U n i o n w a s m e n t i o n e d o n l y a fe w t im e s , a n d t h e n

in c o n n e c t i o n w i th p r o p a g a n d a s u p p o r t . A n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e

w a s m e n t i o n e d o n l y a s a n a d j e c t i v e r e f e r r i n g t o t h e t y p e so f e q u i p m e n t t h a t w e r e b e in g s h i p p e d in t o C e n t r a l A m e r i c a .

I t s tr u c k m e th a t t h a t h a s b e e n o n e o f th e m a i n p r o b l e m s i n

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s e f f o r t s t o o b t a i n s u p p o r t f o r a i d t o t h e

C o n t r a s .

I n a d d r e s s in g t h e q u e s t i o n o f a i d t o a n t i c o m m u n i s t in -

s u r g e n c i e s i n g e n e r a l , D r . S h u l t z h i t s t h e n a i l o n t h e h e a d

w h e n h e s ay s t h a t s u p p o r t f o r t h e se in s u rg e n c ie s m a y b e o u r

p o l i cy , b u t t h a t t h e r e i s n o r ea l s t r a te g y f o r a d m i n i s t e r i n g th a ts u p p o r t a n d n o m e a n s t o d e v e l o p o n e . W e a re e n g a g e d i n a

w a r , b u t s o m e h o w w e c a n ' t a d m i t t h a t t o o u r s e l v es . T h is g o e s

t o t h e h e a r t o f s o m e o f th e p r o b l e m s r ai se d b y J e a n - F r a n c o i s

R e v e l i n h i s p r o v o c a t i v e b o o k , W h y D e m o c r a c ie s P e r is h .

W h e n y o u l o o k a t i t, t h e r e is v e r y li tt le p e r c e p t i o n o f o r

a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r S o v i e t s t ra t eg y in W a s h i n g t o n , n o t t o s p e a k

o f t h e r es t o f th e c o u n t r y . T h e g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h s e em s t o b e

t o v i e w t h e S o v i e ts as o p p o r t u n i s t s r a t h e r t h a n s tr a te g i st s a n dp l a n n e r s , a n d t o d i s r e g a r d th e r o l e o f id e o l o g y . A c a se in

p o i n t i s t h e j o i n t C I A - F B I r e p o r t p r e p a r e d f o r C o n g r e s s in

t h e m i d - 1 9 8 0 s o n S o v i e t " a c t i v e m e a s u r e s . " T h e r e p o r t

d e b u n k e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e e n o r m o u s S o v i e t p r o p a g a n d a




e f f o r t h a s a n y e f f e c t , o r t h a t t h e r e i s a n y v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o

S o v ie t d i s i n f o r m a t i o n a n d d e c e p t i o n o n t h e p a rt o f t h eA m e r i c a n m e d i a . M o r e o v e r , in s p it e o f C l a ir e S t e rl in g 's e x -

c e l l e n t w o r k i n t h i s a r e a , t h e r e i s s t i l l a w i d e s p r e a d l a c k o f

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e S o v i e t ro l e in i n t e rn a -

t i o n a l t e r r o r i s m .

C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e h a s b e e n a lo t o f t a l k a b o u t a c t iv e

m e a s u r e s , p r o p a g a n d a , p o l it ic a l w a r f a r e , a n d t h e lik e . B u t I

o f t e n w o n d e r h o w m u c h o f i t r e f le c ts g e n u i n e a p p r e c i a t io n o f

t h e r e a li ti e s a n d h o w m u c h i s j u s t l ip s e rv i ce . F r o m w h a t w e

c a n o b s e r v e , th e r e a r e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b l e m s o f e s ta b l is h i n g

s t r a te g y a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n i n t h e s e m a t t e r s w i t h i n t h e U S

g o v e r n m e n t ; n o o n e i s r e a ll y i n c h a r g e o r w a n t s t o b e in

c h a r g e . I f t h e r e is a n y p o i n t w h e r e I w o u l d t a k e i ss u e w i t h D r .

S h u l t z , i t is h is c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w e n e e d t o r e d e f i n e U S p o l i c y

a n d s t r a te g y . R a t h e r t h e n r e d e f i n in g , w h a t w e n e e d to b e

t h i n k in g a b o u t is s o m e t h i n g m o r e i n t h e n a t u r e o f r a d ic a ls u r g e r y . B a s ic i n s t i tu t i o n a l c h a n g e s s e e m t o b e n e e d e d i f w e

a r e t o g a i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h is t h r e a t a n d d e v e l o p t h e m e a n s

t o c o p e w i t h i t e f f e c t i v e l y .

R O B E R T C. K I N G S T O N

I W I S H T O S TA T E F R O M T H E OU T SE T t h a t I t h i n k D r . S h u l t z

h a s p r o v i d e d a n o u t s t a n d i n g p a p e r . I a g r e e w i t h m o s t o f w h a t

h e s a y s, a n d i n s t e a d o f o v e r a n a l y z i n g it , I w o u l d i n s t e a d l ik e



142 KINGSTON

t o p r e s e n t s o m e o f m y t h o u g h t s o n U S p s y c h o l o g i c al o p e r a -

t i o n s , o u r c u r r e n t c a p a b i li ti e s , a n d w h a t I c o n s i d e r t o b e s o m e

o f t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s i n o u r c a p a b i l i t i e s .

O n e o f D r . S h u l t z ' s m o r e i m p o r t a n t p o i n t s i s t h a t

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a r e a b s o l u t e l y e s s e n ti a l i n t h e c o n -

d u c t o f i n s u r g e n c y a n d c o u n t e r i n s u r g e n c y o p e r a t io n s . I 'd l ik e

t o e m p h a s i z e a n d r e i n f o r c e t h a t b y s t a ti n g t h a t I b e li ev e

P S Y O P c o u l d b e t h e e ss e nc e a n d t h e c o re o f i n s u rg e n c y a n d

c o u n t e r in s u r g e n c y o p e r a t i o n s . P S Y O P p l a n n i n g a n d o p e ra -

t i o n s s h o u l d b l a n k e t a l l p h a s e s o f p o l i t i c a l - m i l i t a r y o p e r a -t io n s , s ta r ti n g w i t h i n t e r n a t io n a l t e n s i o n a n d g o i n g t h r o u g h

a ll p r e - c o n f l i c t , c o n f l i c t , a n d p o s t - c o n f l i c t p h a s e s . W e ' v e

l e a rn e d t h a t t h e S o v i e ts , th e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e , a n d o t h e r

C o m m u n i s t a dv e rs a ri es c o m p l e t e ly u n d e r s t a n d a n d a re v e r y

g o o d a t p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n s . T h e y h a v e u s e d t h e m e f fe c -

t i ve ly a g ai n st u s m a n y t im e s b o t h i n p e a c e a n d w a r d u r i n g m y

y e a r s i n t h e m i l i t a r y .

O f c o u r s e , o n e o f t h e e x a m p l e s t h a t c o m e s t o m i n d i m -m e d i a t e l y is t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e T e t o f f e n s i v e o f 1 96 8, in

w h i c h t h e y t u r n e d a r e s o u n d i n g m i l i ta r y d e f e a t in t o a p o l i t ic a l

v i c t o r y b y t h e a s t u t e u s e o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e . N o r d o

o u r o p p o n e n t s h e s it a te t o u s e P S Y O P in p e a c e t im e . I w o u l d

r e f e r t o t h e S o v i e t s ' s u c c e s s f u l c a m p a i g n c o n c e r n i n g t h e

d e p l o y m e n t o f e n h a n c e d r a d i a t io n w e a p o n s i n E u r o p e , a n d

m o r e r e c en t ly , th e G r e e n h a m C o m m o n p r o t es t o rs a g a i n st

n u c l e a r w e a p o n s i n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . I d o n ' t b e l i e v e w ef u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p e a c e t i m e o v e r t

p s y c h o l o g i ca l o p e r a t i o n s .

M a n y p e o p l e in th is c o u n t r y th i n k t h a t P S Y O P e q u a te s

t o t h e " B i g L i e , " s u g g e st iv e o f G o e b b e l s a n d H i t l er , a n d t h a t

w e s h o u l d n o t u s e i t . U S p e a c e t i m e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o g r a m s

c a n n o t b e a n d a r e n o t b a s e d o n h a l f - t r u t h s o r lie s. N o r s h o u l d

t h e y b e i f w e w i s h t o r e t a i n o u r c r e d i b i l i t y w i t h t h o s e w e a r e

t r y i n g t o i n f l u e n c e . B u t t h a t s till l e av e s c o n s i d e r a b l e s c o p e f o rp e a c e t im e p s y c h o lo g i ca l o p e r a t i o n s . T h e c o n d u c t o f P S Y O P

i n p e a c e t i m e i s w h e r e o u r p r a c t i t i o n e r s s h o u l d b e g e t t i n g

t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n so th a t w e c an c o n d u c t P S Y O P e ff ec -

t i v e l y i n w a r t i m e .



REV OLUT ION ARY WAR 143

T o d a y , w e in t h e m i li ta r y h a v e a n i n s u f f i c i e n t b a s e o f

t r a in e d p e r s o n n e l to d r a w u p o n i f w e ar e t o e x p a n d o u rp s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e c a p a b i li ty . A l l t h e s e rv ic e s o t h e r t h a n

t h e A r m y h a v e a la c k o f k n o w l e d g e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n t o c o n -

d u c t p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a d e q u a t e ly . E v e n t h e A r m y

l a c k s s u f f i c i e n t l i n g u i s t s a n d c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t o

s a t i s f y c u r r e n t t a s k i n g s . T h e r e i s a r e l u c t a n c e w i t h i n - a n d

o u t s i d e - t h e m i l i ta r y t o b e i n v ol v ed in th e c o n d u c t o f

p e a c e t i m e p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . C u r r e n t l y , t h e r e i s n o

p l a c e w i t h i n t h e m i l i t a r y s t r u c t u r e f r o m w h i c h c e n t r a lg u i d a n c e o r t a s k i n g m a y e m a n a t e . W e l a c k j o i n t

p s y c h o l o g ic a l w a r f a r e d o c t r i n e . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n s e

h a s r e c e n t ly t a k e n s te p s t o r e c ti fy s o m e o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s ,

b u t m u c h r e m a i n s to b e a c c o m p l i sh e d . T h e r e a r e d e f ic ie n c ie s

i n P S Y O P d o c t r i n e , o r g a n i z a t i o n , t r a i n i n g , p e r s o n n e l

p o lic ie s , a n d , m o s t im p o r t a n t ly , in a t t i t u d e - w h i c h m e a n s w e

h a v e t o s t a r t a n e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m .

G e n e r a l D i c k S ti l w el l, w h e n h e w a s d e p u t y u n d e rs e c r e t a r y o f d e f e n s e f o r p o l i c y , i n i t i a t e d t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n e f -

f o r ts i n D e f e n s e . H e e s t a b li s h e d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r c r e a ti n g

a s t r u c t u r e f o r p o l ic y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c iv il ia n o v e r s ig h t a t

b o t h t h e D O D a n d N S C l e v e l s . T h e J C S h a s e s t a b l i s h e d a

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s d i v i s i o n , a n d t h e A r m y h a s t a k e n

s t e p s t o d o s o a s w e l l . T h u s f a r , t h e A r m y h a s s h o u l d e r e d

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r m o s t o p e r a t i o n a l P S Y O P a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n

D O D . I b e li ev e i t is i n c u m b e n t u p o n t h e o t h e r s e rv ic e s t oe s t a b l i s h a m o d e s t c a p a b i l i t y i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h e i r o w n

o p e r a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d t o t r a i n t h e i r p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t o r s a n d p l a n n e r s to p r o v i d e th e i r s h a re o f f u ll y

q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l t o t h e J o i n t S t a f f . M o r e o v e r , i f w e a re

r e al ly s er i o u s a b o u t r e b u i l d i n g o u r P S Y O P c a p a b il it ie s , I

t h i n k t h e r e is a n e e d f o r a c e n t r a l j o i n t a g e n c y , s o m e t h i n g

m o r e t h a n e x is ts t o d a y , t o a s si st th e J C S i n re f i n i n g j o i n t d o c -

t r i n e , r e e d u c a t i n g t h e o f f i c e r c o r p s i n t h e v a l u e o f P S Y O P ,i n t eg r a t in g w i t h o t h e r a g en c ie s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d a

m y r i a d o f o t h e r t a s k s . W e m u s t g e t o n w i t h o u r a t t e m p t t o

r e v i t a l i z e P S Y O P , a n d t h e e m p h a s i s , a s a l w a y s , m u s t c o m e

f r o m t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l s .



Political Strategies in Coercive

Diplomacy and L imited War

A L V I N H . B E R N S T E I N

L E T U S B E G I N B Y A C K N O W L E D G I N G t h e b r e a d t h

o f t h is s u b j e c t a n d n o t i n g t h a t t h e p h r a s e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s a n d p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e d e s c ri b e o p e r a t i o n s , w h e t h e r

t a c t i c a l o r s t r a t e g i c , o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d o r i n t h e t h e a t e r , i n

p e a c e t i m e o r i n w a r , d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y a t o u r a d v e r s a r y ' s

m i n d r a t h e r t h a n h is b o d y ~ - t h o u g h o f c o u rs e th e t w o a re

n o t m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . T h i s p a p e r e x a m i n e s p s y c h o l o g i c a l

w a r f a r e a s re l a te d o n l y t o c o e r c iv e d i p l o m a c y a n d l i m i t e d

( b u t n o t r e v o l u t i o n a r y ) w a r . C o e r c i v e d i p l o m a c y u se s t h e

t h r e a t o f f o r c e to i n f l u e n c e t h e t h i n k i n g a n d b e h a v i o r o f a n

a d v e r s a r y . I t is t h e r e f o r e i n it s e lf a f o r m , p e r h a p s t h e m o s t ef -

f e ct iv e f o r m , o f p o l i t ic a l - p s y c h o lo g i c a l w a r f a r e . L i m i t e d w a r

u s e s f o r c e f o r e s s e n t i a l l y s i m i l a r p u r p o s e s a n d s h o u l d a l s o b e

s e e n as a p r e e m i n e n t l y p o l i t ic a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l in s t r u -

m e n t . C l a u s e w i t z sp e c if ic a ll y d i s t i n g u i s h e d l i m i t e d w a r f r o m

j u s t p l a i n w a r b y o b s e r v i n g th a t t h e f o r m e r is w a g e d n o t i n

o r d e r t o d i s a r m a n e n e m y o r o c c u p y his c o u n t r y b u t " i n o r d e r

t o m a k e t h e e n e m y i n s e c u r e , t o i m p r e s s o u r g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h

u p o n h i m , a n d t o g iv e h i m d o u b t s a b o u t h is f u t u r e . ''2

I n h is b o o k o n t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , 3 E d w a r d L u t t w a k

a n a l y z e s a l i m i t e d m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n f o r i ts l ik e l y

p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f fe c t . H e l o o k s a t t h e s ie ge o f M a s a d a i n

7 0 -7 3 A . D . f r o m t h e R o m a n v i ew p o i n t . L u t t w a k s h o w s h o w

t h e R o m a n s , w h e n f a c e d w i th th e r e si st an c e o f a f ew h u n d r e d

J e w s o n a m o u n t a i n i n t h e J u d a e a n d e s er t, e s c h e w e d t h e i r

t w o m o s t o b v i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e y d i d n o t b l o c k a d e t h e

r eb e ls b y p o s t i n g a p r o p o r t i o n a t e n u m b e r o f l e g i o n n a ir e s t o

w a i t u n ti l t h e J e w s r a n o u t o f s u p p l ie s , n o r d i d t h e y s t o r m t h e

~" 145



146 BERNSTEIN

m o u n t a i n f o r tr e s s, a s th e y m i g h t h a v e d o n e i f t h e y w e r e

p r e p a r e d t o t a k e s o m e c as u a lt ie s . I n s t e a d , a t a t im e w h e n

t h e ir a r m y h a d a t o t a l o f o n l y t w e n t y - n i n e le g i on s to g a r r i s o n

t h e i r e n o r m o u s e m p i r e , t h e R o m a n s s en t an e n t i re le g i o n t o

b e si eg e M a s a d a . G r a d u a l l y , t h e t r o o p s r e d u c e d t h e f o r tr e s s

b y a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y e n g i n e e r i n g f e a t th a t i n c l u d e d th e c o n -

s t r u c t i o n o f a m a s s i v e r a m p r e a c h i n g t h e f u l l h e i g h t o f t h e

m o u n t a i n . T h a t o p e r a t i o n t i e d u p t h e l e g i o n n a i r e s f o r t h r e e

y e a r s .

A n i n e f f i c ie n t u s e o f m a n p o w e r a n d r e s o u rc e s ? N o , s ay s

L u t t w a k , b e c a u s e o f th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l i m p a c t t h a t t h e a c t io n

m u s t h a v e h a d o n t h e o t h e r E a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s . I t w o u l d p r o v e

c o s t - e f f e c ti v e i n t h e l o n g r u n . H e r e , a s i n m a n y s u c c e s s fu l

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , i t m a y b e i m p o s s i b le t o p r o v e t h e

n e g a ti v e , b u t c o m m o n s e n s e i n d i c at e s t h e d e t e r r e n t e f f e c t

t h a t M a s a d a m u s t h a v e h a d o n t h o s e b y s ta n d e r s w h o m i g h t

o t h e rw i s e h a v e b e e n te m p t e d t o r e v ol t. T h e R o m a n s h a d

d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d p u r s u e r e b e l l i o n a n y w h e r e ,e v e n t o m o u n t a i n t o p s i n r e m o t e d e s e r t s , t o d e s t r o y i t s l a s t

v e s t i g e s . T o e n s u r e t h a t t h e l e s s o n w a s w e l l p u b l i c i z e d a n d

r e m e m b e r e d , t h e R o m a n s i ns ta ll ed J o s e p h u s in R o m e (a s

t h e y h a d t h e G r e e k a u t h o r P o l y b i u s a l m o s t t h r e e c e n t u r i e s

e a r l i e r f o r a s i m i l a r p u r p o s e ) . J o s e p h u s w r o t e a d e t a i l e d a c -

c o u n t o f th e s ie g e, w h i c h w a s t h e n p u b l i s h e d in G r e e k , t h e

l a n g u a g e o f th e R o m a n E a s t : a n i ce b i t o f f ir st c e n t u r y m e d i a

m a n i p u l a t i o n .W h e n w e e x a m i n e c o er c iv e d i p l o m a c y a n d l im i t e d

m i li t a ry a c t io n s a s f o r m s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e , w e s h o u l d

b e a r i n m i n d w h a t t h e R o m a n s i n st in c ti v el y u n d e r s t o o d : t h e

e f fe c ti v en e s s o f a n y p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n d e p e n d s o n o u r

e n e m y ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f w h a t w i l l h a p p e n t o h i m i f h e f a i l s t o

d o a s w e w i s h . T h i s p e r c e p t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d a t l ea s t i n p a r tb y h o w w e h a v e a l r e a d y b e h a v e d i n s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s .

E s t i m a t i n g a c c u r a t e l y t h e l i k e ly p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s o f a n y

o f o u r f u t u r e d e p l o y m e n t s o r l im i t e d o p e r a t i o n s r e q u ir e s

r e l e a r n i n g w h a t V i e t n a m a n d B e i r u t h a v e d r i v e n u s t o t r y t o

f o r g e t . D i p l o m a c y c o e rc e s a n d l i m i t ed m i l it a r y o p e r a t i o n s

s u c c e e d l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o u r e a r l i e r a c t i o n s h a v e e a r n e d u s a

r e p u t a t i o n f o r f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h a n d f o r u s i n g fo r c e p r o m p t -

ly a n d e f f e ct i v e ly . W h e n s u c h a c t i o n s f a il , t h e f a i l u r e c a n n o t



COERCIVE DI PL OM AC Y AN D LIMITED WAR 147

b e s e l f - c o n t a i n e d . I t m a k e s s u c c e s s in t h e f u t u r e m o r e d i f-

f i c u l t , n o m a t t e r w h a t w e say t o o u r e n e m i e s i n o u r l e a f l e t s o ro v e r o u r r a d i o s .

O u r e x p e r i e n ce w i th c o e r c iv e d i p l o m a c y a n d l im i t ed w a r

i n t h e la s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s c o n t a i n s s o m e c o n s p i c u o u s

f a il u re s , s o t h a t t o d a y w e m a y e x p e c t o u r e n e m i e s t o c o n t i n u e

t o t es t o u r r e s o l v e as t h e y d i d i n L e b a n o n i n 1 9 83 . T h e h i g h -

w a t e r m a r k in o u r u s e o f c o e r c i v e d i p l o m a c y c a m e in t h e

C u b a n m i s s il e c r is is , w h e n w e s e n t a c o n v i n c i n g s i g n al t o t h e

S o v i e t U n i o n b y j u d i c i o u s l y d e p l o y i n g m i l i t a ry a s s e ts w i t h o u th a v in g t o u s e t h e m . T h e p l o y w o r k e d m a i n l y b e c a u s e t h e

U n i t e d S t a te s w a s n o t y e t k n o w n f o r m a k i n g t h r e a t s it d i d n o t

c a r r y o u t a n d b e c a u s e t h e r ea l i ti es o f m i l i t a ry p o w e r i n t h e

c o n f r o n t a t i o n w e r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y in o u r f av o r . C a l l in g o u r

b l u f f c o u l d h a v e s p e ll e d d i s a s t e r f o r o u r a d v e r s a r i e s , a n d t h e

A m e r i c a n t r o o p s i n F l o r id a s t o o d r e a d y t o s h o w w h e r e o b -

d u r a c y w o u l d l e a d .

I n V i e t n a m , b e t w e e n 1 96 5 a n d 1 96 8, w e u s e d b o t h a ira n d g r o u n d f o r ce s fo r p s y c h o lo g i c a l p u r p o s e s , n o t s o m u c h

t o e f f e c t a d e ci s iv e o u t c o m e o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d a s t o p e r s u a d e

H a n o i o f o u r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o p r ev a i l . I t d i d n o t w o r k

b e c a u s e , i n r e a l it y , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e m o r e d e t er -

m i n e d t h a n w e , a n d b e c a u s e it w a s c le a r t h a t w e d i d n o t i n-

t e n d t o t h r e a t e n in a s e r i o u s w a y H a n o i ' s e x i st e n ce . 4 J u s t a s

o u r s u c c e s s o v e r S o v i e t m i s s i l e s i n C u b a g a v e u s a n e x a g -

g e r a t e d s e n se o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f c r is is m a n a g e m e n t , 5 s oo u r f a i lu r e in V i e t n a m u n d u l y h u r t o u r c o n f i d e n c e in w h a t

f o r c e c o u l d a c c o m p l i s h , a n d o u r e n e m i e s w e r e a b l e t o r e a d

o u r m o o d .

S i n c e t h e n , w e h a v e u s e d o u r a r m e d f o r c e s t o in t i m i d a t e ,

b u t o f t e n w e h a v e d o n e s o r e lu c t a n t ly , w i t h o u t c o n v i c t io n ,

h e n c e , m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t , w i t h o u t c r e d ib i li ty . O u r a g o n i z -

i n g o v e r t h e h o s t a g e s i n I r a n r e v e a l e d h o w t h e s e i z i n g o f a

g r o u p o f A m e r i c a n s c o u l d b r i n g A m e r i c a n f o r e i g n p o li c y t o ag r i n d i n g h a l t . I n a s t r o k e , i t c r e a t e d a c a n c e r t h a t h a s s i n c e

s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e M i d d l e E a s t . T h a t , t o o , w a s a

p s y c h o l o g ic a l o p e r a t i o n , b u t t h e w r o n g k i n d . T h e s u b s e q u e n t

f i a s c o a t D e s e r t O n e a n d t h e 1 98 3 d i s a s t e r a t t h e M a r i n e h e a d -



148 BERNSTEIN

q u a r t e rs i n B e ir u t c o n f i r m e d t h e m e s s a g e o f V i e t n a m f o r

m a n y , f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h in g o u r c o n f i d e n c e in c o e r c i v ed i p l o m a c y a n d t h e u s e f u ln e s s o f f o r c e a s a n i n s t r u m e n t o f

p o l i cy . O u r e n e m i e s , w h o r e g u la r ly c o n t e m p l a t e u s in g u n o r -

t h o d o x f o r m s o f v i o le n c e a g a i n st u s, c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e m i s se d

t h e p o i n t .

I f t h e y h a d a n y d o u b t s , w e h a v e g o n e s o m e w a y t o w a r d

r e m o v i n g t h e m w i th t h e p u b l i c a t io n o f t h e W e i n b e r g e r D o c -

t ri n e . ~ T h a t d o c t r i n e , w h i c h r e f le c ts t h e v ie w s o f m a n y s e n i o r

m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t s o fd o m e s t i c p u b l i c o p i n i o n o n t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f f o rc e b y t h e

U S g o v e r n m e n t in th e a f t e r m a t h o f V i e t n a m , a r g u a b l y ra is es

t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r u se o f f o r c e s o h ig h a s to p u t t h e m o u t

o f re a c h f o r a l m o s t a ll c o n c e i v a b l e s c e n a r i o s .

F o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , i t is w e l l t o r e m i n d o u r s e lv e s th a t

t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a r s

s u c h a s V i e t n a m a n d t h e u s e o f f o r c e o r t h e th r e a t o f f o r c e in

o t h e r T h i r d W o r l d s e tt in g s . I f t h e r e is a n y t h i n g t h a t s a p sp u b l i c s u p p o r t f o r f o r e i g n w a r s i n a d e m o c r a c y , i t i s t h e

p r o s p e c t o f p r o t r a c t e d U S i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h n o c le a r c r it e ri a

f o r v i c t o ry o r d e f e a t. T h e s e f e a t u r e s ar e b y n o m e a n s

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l l T h i r d W o r l d i n t e r v e n t i o n s c e n a r i o s , a s

t h e e x a m p l e s o f G r e n a d a a n d L i b y a ar e s u ff ic i en t t o s h o w .

( O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e M a r i n e p r e s e n c e in B e i r u t c o u l d w e ll

h a v e b e c o m e a d o m e s t i c p o l it ic a l l i ab i li ty o v e r t i m e g i v e n t h e

u n c e r t a i n t y a n d a p p a r e n t f u t i li ty o f i ts m i s s i o n . ) I t is n o t a ta ll c l ea r , t h e n , t h a t p u b l i c o p i n i o n w i ll f a il t o s u p p o r t l im i t e d

a n d p r u d e n t a p p l ic a t io n s o f f o r c e b y th e U n i t e d S t a t es w h e n

s u c h o p e r a t io n s a r e c o m p e t e n t l y c o n d u c t e d a n d s er ve re a d il y

u n d e r s t a n d a b l e p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s . H o w e v e r , i t is d i f f i c u l t i f

n o t i m p o s s i b l e t o i n i t i a te a n o p e r a t i o n o f th i s k i n d w i t h a n y

a s s u r a n c e o f p u b l i c s u p p o r t , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e ( a s i n t h e c a s e

o f G r e n a d a ) c o m p l e t e s u rp r i se m a y b e e s s e n ti al to t h e s u c -

c e s sf u l e x e c u t io n o f t h e m i s si o n .T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s w h y a s a n a t i o n , d e s p i t e al l o u r

p o w e r , w e h a v e i n c r e a s i n g l y f u m b l e d o u r u s e o f m i l i t a r y

f o r c e in l i m i te d o p e r a t i o n s , u n d e r m i n i n g o u r c r e d i b il it y i n t h e

p r o c e s s . S in c e V i e t n a m w e h a v e b e c o m e m o r e i s o l a ti o n is t a n d



COERCIVE DI PL OMA CY AND LIMITED WAR 149

self-absorbed, not very good at gauging accurately the

perceptions and determination of others. We concentrate on

our own actions rather than the likely reactions of the enemy.

We are more concerned with our image, both in our own eyes

and in the eyes of others, than we are with the realities of

power, a focus that com mon ly exacts a price. We convenient-

ly forget the extent to which the image is determined by the

realities of power. How else explain the interminable jawbon-

ing that hardly ever issues in military action?

We also have a concomitant tendency to engage inwishful thinking, overestimating the impact on the enemy of

the mere appearance of our impressive hardware and the ef-

fect of our threatening rhetoric, while underestimating the

impor tance of having the appropriate resources on the spot to

carry out threats. The Cuban missile crisis seemed to give us

an unwar ran ted conf idence in the power o f gestures, as we

forgot the very real need to use our military assets on occa-

sion to exact a cost that makes our opponents unwilling tocall our hand. What is more, in exercises of coercive

diplomacy our liberalism (in a broad sense of that term) in-

clines us more toward the diplomatic than the coercive, for

we prefer to persuade rather than to compel.

Finally, we worry too much about the negative

diplomatic effects of military operations on friendly or

unaligned regional powers. In fact, recent experience has

shown very little lasting negative fallout when the United

States has used force against a Third World nation, because

othe r states usually have no real alternatives to us. Even when

we used force unsuccessfully (as in Southeast Asia and

Lebanon), the regional powers, while they may have leaned

toward a reluctant neutrality, did not actually fall away from

us in anger or dismay. The conversion of SEATO to ASE AN

does not seem a very severe diplomatic punishment for the

Vietnam debacle.

This doubt or delicacy is natural for a country that in-stinctively prefers being loved to being feared. We must

acknowledge, however, that this cultural proclivity places

severe restrictions on our military's ability to use coercive

diplomacy as an effective psychological weapon.



1 5 0 B E R N S T E I N

Vietnam and Lebanon notwithstanding, though, i t

would seem that firmness is gradually coming back into

fashion. The United States, if not the West generally, seems

to be regaining some of its former confidence in the limited

application of military force as an effective instrument of na-

tiona l policy. Tha t limited force can be applied effectively to

achieve important psychological and political purposes can

be considered, in retrospect, an impo rta nt lesson of the

Falklands or Malvinas War between Britain and Argentina.

That war saw the British employ a very clever

psychological operati on, which ma y well have been a decisive

element, not so much in their winning the war, but in reduc-

ing the cost of their final victory. We all know how, after the

sinking of the B e l g r a n o on 2 May 1982, the Argentine surface

navy played virtually no active role in the war. There were

good reasons for this. Carlos E. Zartmann, a retired Argen-

tine naval captain, in a revealing article published shortly

after the Argentine surrender, 7 argued that two concurrent

factors kept the fleet in home waters, factors that no other

navy had faced in wartime before: nuclear attack submarines

and electronic surveillance satellites. His view deserves quo ta-

tion in full:

The first [nuclear attack submarines] posed a threat to

the very existence of Argentine naval power, which was very

difficult to accept because the conflict was limited in natureand possession of the islands at stake did not represent an

objective upon which the survival of Argentina depended.

The naval command had to weigh carefully the necessity of

risking the destruction of the nation's small and costly sur-

face fleet. Not to incur any unnecessary risks was a wise

strategic decision . . . The second factor, the United States

intelligence support to Britain, was the most important

United States contribution to the conflict .. . It proved to

be decisive for the naval surface actions because it deprived

the Argentine fleet of any chance of obtaining a tactical sur-

prise over the British. (Admiral Woodward, the British on-

scene commander, was quoted by the press as saying that he

always knew exactly where every Argentine ship was, except



COERCIVE DIP LOMA CY AN D LIMITED WAR 151

the submarines.) British naval superiority was overwhelm-

ing, but United States support made it so lopsided as to

become crushing. In such a situation one would not expect a

fleet to go out only to be spotted by satellites and

slaughtered by nuclear submarines that had no trouble in be-

ing at the right place at the right time.

Not only Admiral Woodward but also the British media

in general made similar claims at the time regarding the

nature of satellite aid received from the United States.

However, there is reason for not taking these media reports

as gospel. American sources do not corroborate the claim

that the United States provided the kind of "real time"

photographic reconnaissance suggested by the statement of

Admiral Woodward and assumed by Captain Zartmann. In-

deed, a careful reading of the British White Paper on media

relations during the Falklands War suggests precisely the op-

posite. 8 It notes that relaying live satellite photography toBritain directly from the South Atlantic would have required

a slight tilting of an American satellite, but that the British

abandoned the idea of requesting that this be done when in-

formal approaches met a negative American response. The

British nuclear submarines were a real enough danger, but it

appears that they would have had to hunt for Argentine sur-

face ships in the traditional manner rather than have them

located in advance by American satellites.What lessons can be drawn from this history? In war

even more than in life, men are afraid o f the unknown. Third

World military forces have every reason to be afraid of the

military advantages provided a first-class adversary like Bri-

tain or the United States by high technology and by advanced

weapons systems whose operational characteristics they

under stand imperfectly if at all. Just as the British exploited a

traditional fear of the co mp et en ce -a nd (in the case of theirGurk ha contingent) the sa va g er y -o f British troops, so they

exploited an up-to-date fear of the competence of contem-

porary technology. And this psychological operation proved

extraordinarily successful. For the United States, this sug-



152 BERNSTEIN

g e s ts , a m o n g o t h e r t h in g s , t h a t s y s t e m a t ic t h o u g h t s h o u l d b e

g i v e n to t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e e x i s t e n c e a n d c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f

U S i n t e l l i g e n c e c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m s c a n b e u t i l i z e d i n a l i m i t e d

c o n t i n g e n c y t o i n d u c e f e ar a n d c a u t i o n in T h i r d W o r l d

m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d e r s a n d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s .

G r e n a d a p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r r e c e n t e x a m p l e o f th e u s e f u l

p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f fe c ts o f l i m i te d m i li ta r y a c t io n . O u r o p e r a -

t io n o n t h e i s l a n d in O c t o b e r 1983 p r o v o k e d a l m o s t u n iv e r s a l

c o n d e m n a t i o n a t t h e t im e . B u t i t h a s b e c o m e c le a r s in c e t h a t

v i r tu a l l y a ll t h e i s l a n d e r s , w i t h th e e x c e p t i o n o f t h o s e w h o

h a d ju s t m u r d e r e d t h e B i s h o p c a b i n e t , w e r e d e l i g h t e d b y th e

U S a c t io n , a n d t h a t G r e n a d a ' s G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l h a d a c tu a l -

ly r e q u e s t e d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e w h o f ir st

c o n d e m n e d o u r ac t i on as i l leg al a n d i m m o r a l - m o s t c o n -

s p i c u o u s l y , m a n y o f o u r o w n m e d i a a n d o u r NAT O

a l l i e s - h a v e n o w f a l l e n s i l e n t , t h o u g h v e r y f e w o f t h e c r i t i c s

h a v e h a d t h e g o o d g r a ce t o sa y th e y w e r e w r o n g .

T h e r e s c u e o f G r e n a d a w a s a s u cc e ss p a r t l y b e c a u s e it

w a s o v e r q u i c k l y , a n d p a r t ly b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s n o f o r c e i n th e

a r e a a v a il a b le t o th w a r t u s . O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e ff e c ts

o f t h e a c t i o n h a s b c e n t o u n s e t t l e o t h e r l e f t- w i n g r e v o l u -

t io n a r ie s t h r o u g h o u t t h e C a r ib b e a n a n d t o p u t b a c k i n to t h e ir

c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n A m e r i c a n i n t e r v e n t i o n .

T h o u g h C a s t ro s e e m e d g e n u in e l y f o n d o f M a u r ic e B i s h o p

a n d a n n o y e d w i th t h e C o a r d f a c t i o n t h a t m u r d e r e d h i m , h e

w a s h e l p le s s t o a i d a n y M a r x i s t r e g i m e in G r e n a d a , a s h e s a i d

a t t h e t im e . T h e S a n d i n i s ta s in N i c a r a g u a d i d n o t m i ss t h e

l e ss o n . T h e y n o t i c e a b l y ra i se d t h e v o l u m e o f t h e ir c l a im s t h a t

a n y a n a l o g o u s i n v a s i o n o f N i c a r a g u a w o u l d t u r n i n t o

" a n o t h e r V i e t n a m . "

T h e A p r i l 1 98 6 b o m b i n g o f L i b y a s e em s t o b e y et

a n o t h e r i n s ta n c e o f a r e l u c t a n t ly a c k n o w l e d g e d s uc c es s. C o n -

t e m p o r a r y r e a c t i o n s p r e d i c t e d d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s : " T h e

u s e o f su c h f o r c e is m u c h m o r e l ik e ly t o p r o m o t e a n d e x p a n d

t e r r o r i s m " ( a n e d i t o r i a l i n t h e Nation); " W h a t w e 'v e r e a ll y

d o n e i s w e a k e n t h e m o d e r a t e p r o - A m e r i c a n f a c ti o n s w i t h in

t h e L i b y a n e l i t e " ( a H a r v a r d M i d d l e E a s t s p e c i a l i s t a n d p r o -

f e s so r o f g o v e r n m e n t ) ; " W e c a n e x p e c t Q a d d a f i t o g o a ll o u t in



COERCIVE DIP LOM ACY AND LIMITED WAR 153

s e e k i n g r e v e n g e . W e h a v e n o t s e e n t h e e n d o f t h i s " ( a h i g h -

r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l i n t h e F B I ) 2 C e r t a i n l y , n o n e o f t h e s e

p r e d i c t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s h a v e m a t e r i a l i z e d .

F i r s t o f a l l , o u r a t t a c k f e l l f a r s h o r t o f m a k i n g Q a d d a f i

t h e " h e r o o f t h e A r a b w o r l d . " R a t h e r , i t s e e m s t o h a v e i n -

c r e a s e d h i s i s o l a t i o n t h e r e . T h e o t h e r A r a b s d i d n o t l i f t a

f i n g e r - b a r e l y e ve n r ai s ed a n e y e b r o w - o n h is b e h al f .

W i t h in t w o w e e k s , S a u d i A r a b i a r e je c t ed a L i b y a n a p p e a l f o r

m o r e f o r e i g n a i d ; t w o o t h e r A r a b c o u n t r i e s , J o r d a n a n d

T u n i s i a , d i d n o t e v e n r u n e d i t o r i a l s o n t h e a c t i o n . E v e n h i sS y r i a n f r ie n d s s o u n d e d le ss t h a n s u p p o r t i v e . N e i t h e r I r a q n o r

T u n i s i a b o t h e r e d t o i s s u e a n y c o m p l a i n t s o n L i b y a ' s b e h a l f ,

w h i le t h e re s p o n s e o f E g y p t , O m a n , a n d t h e U n i t e d A r a b

E m i r a t e s w a s n o t i c e a b l y m i l d . A L i b y a n c a ll f o r a n e m e r g e n -

c y A r a b s u m m i t m e e ti n g r es u lt ed in f o u r c o u n t r i e s - I r a q ,

J o r d a n , S y ri a, an d S a u d i A r a b i a - p u b l i c l y s ta ti ng th a t t h ey

w o u l d b e u n a b l e t o a t t e n d . E v e n th e S o v i e ts , r a t h e r t h a n g i v e

t h e c o l o n e l m o r e g u n s , a s w a s a ls o p r e d i c t e d , h a v e b e e n g iv -i n g h i m a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s a b o u t t h e e v i l s o f t e r r o r i s m ; o n e

h i g h - r a n k i n g S o v i e t o ff ic i a l w a s q u o t e d a s s a y in g , " Q a d d a f i i s

a m a d m a n o n t o p o f a p i l e o f g o l d . "

S e c o n d , t h e r a i d m a y e v e n h a v e h u r t Q a d d a f i i n s i d eL i b y a . T h e p r e d i c t e d u p s u r g e o f n a t i o n a l u n i t y b e h i n d t h e

c o l o n e l h a s n o t m a t e r ia l iz e d . I n s t e a d , h i s t e m p o r a r y d i sa p -

p e a r a n c e i n t o t h e d e s e r t , s u b s e q u e n t r e t u r n , a n d b a r e l y

c o h e r e n t b l u s t e r i n g s o n t e l e v i s i o n s u g g e s t n o t o n l y t h a t h ew a s p e r s o n a l l y s h a k e n b u t a l s o t h a t h e m a y a c t u a l l y h a v eb e e n w e a k e n e d p o l it ic a l ly b y t h e a t ta c k . Q a d d a f i h a s

r e t re a t e d i n to B e d o u i n s ec lu s io n b e f o r e a n d m a n a g e d t o s ur -

v i v e - h e h as a n e x c e ll en t b o d y g u a r d t r a i n e d b y th e C u b a n sa n d s u p e r v is e d b y th e E a s t G e r m a n s ~ _ b u t h i s r e c e n t r a m b l -

i n g s h a v e p r o d u c e d w h a t a p p e a r s t o b e a n u n e n t h u s i a s t i cp u b l i c r e a c t i o n .

F i n a l ly , t h e s ix m o n t h s f o l lo w i n g t h e 15 A p r i l b o m b i n g

c e r t a i n l y sa w f a r le ss t e r r o r i s m w i t h a L i b y a n s t a m p o n i t t h a n

t h e s i x m o n t h s p r i o r t o i t . I t w o u l d b e p r e m a t u r e t o c l a i m

c o n c l u s i v e l y t h a t t h e r a i d h a s s a v e d li v es , s i n ce C o l o n e l Q a d -d a f t, t h o u g h d o w n , i s c e r t a in l y n o t y e t o u t . B u t t h o s e w h o

s a i d t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d l e a d t o a n e s c a l a t i n g s p i r a l o f



154 BERNSTEIN

v i o le n c e h a v e f ew g r o u n d s f o r c l a im i n g t h e y w e r e r ig h t . E v e n

t h e f ea r s o f t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s e e m t o h a v e b e e n a

b i t p e s s i m i s t i c . I t s m o s t r e a l i s t i c e x p e c t a t i o n - a s h o r t - t e r m

w a v e o f r e t a li a to r y t e rr o r i s t a c t i v i t y - d i d n o t o c c u r e it h e r.

T h e r e w e re , h o w e v e r , s e v er al r e a s o n s w h y so m a n y

A m e r ic a n a n d E u r o p e a n c o m m e n t a t o r s p re d ic t ed d ir e c o ns e -

q u e n c e s . T h e L i b y a n b o m b i n g ra id , l ik e o u r G r e n a d a o p e r a -

t i o n , w a s a c a lc u l a te d r is k . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l w i s d o m s in c e

V i e t n a m h a s b e e n t h a t r i s k - t a k i n g a l m o s t a l w a y s t u r n s o u t

b a d l y . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e E u r o p e a n s s e e m in c r e a s in g l y r e l u c t a n t

t o g i ve t h e R e a g a n a d m i n i s t r a t io n t h e b e n e f i t o f a n y d o u b t .

T h e m a i n r e a s o n f o r th e b a d p re ss in E u r o p e , t h o u g h , w a s t h e

f ea r , c a r e f u ll y c u l t iv a t e d b y Q a d d a f i h i m s e l f , t h a t h e w o u l d

h i t b a c k a t E u r o p e i f a t t a c k e d b y th e U n i t e d S t a te s .

T h e m o s t g r a t i f y i n g e f f e c t o f t h e r a i d w a s t h a t i t i m -

m e d i a te l y m a d e t h e p r e v io u s l y u n c o o p e r a t i v e E u r o p e a n s fe el

m o r e e x p o s e d t o c r it ic i sm c o n c e r n i n g t h e l ax i ty o f th e i r a t-

t i tu d e t o w a r d t e r r o r i s m , a n d i n d e e d m o r e e x p o s e d t o te r-

r o r i s m i ts e lf , n o w t h a t t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s h a d s u d d e n l y m a d e

i t s e l f a le ss a t t r a c t i v e t a r g e t f o r t e r r o r i s t s t a t e s . A c c o r d i n g l y ,

t h e r e f o l l o w e d a f lu r r y o f r e l u c t a n t a n t i te r r o r i s t a c t i v it y b y

t h e E u r o p e a n s . T h e F r e n c h , w h o c o n d e m n e d th e ra id ,

s o m e h o w f o u n d th e m s e l ve s a t t h e T o k y o s u m m i t a p p r o v i n g a

t o u g h a n t i t e rr o r is t c o m m u n i q u 6 o f a k i n d t h e y h a d c o n -

s i s t e n t ly r e j e c t e d a t a ll e a r l ie r t o p - l e v e l m e e t i n g s . 1~ E v e n

I t a l i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r C r a x i ' s p r o t e s t s w e r e f o l l o w e d b y a

m o v e to t r a n s f e r I ta ly 's o il d e p e n d e n c e f r o m L i b y a t o N i g e ri a

a n d t h e N o r t h S e a , a n d g e n e r a l l y t o d e c r e a s e his c o u n t r y ' s

e c o n o m i c d e p e n d e n c e o n Q a d d a f i 's r e g im e . H e r e , i f

a n y w h e r e , w a s a s u c c e s s fu l p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n .

A l l t h i s i s g o o d f o r u s a n d b a d f o r t h o s e s t a t e s a g a i n s t

w h o m w e m i g h t w i s h to u s e v io l e n ce . S u c h s u cc e ss e s b e g in t h e

a r d u o u s t a sk o f r e h a b i l i ta t in g o u r c o n f i d e n c e in t h e u se o f

l im i t e d m i l i ta r y a c t io n a s a n i n s t r u m e n t o f p o l ic y a n d o u ra d v e r s a r i e s ' r e s p e c t f o r t h e t h r e a t o u r p o w e r i m p l i e s . T h e

b o m b i n g o f L i b y a a t le a st p u t t h e te r r o ri s ts o n w a r n i n g a n d

e n h a n c e d t h e c r e d ib i li ty o f a n y f u t u r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a -

t i o n o r d i p l o m a t i c e x er cis e t h a t i n t i m a t e s th a t A m e r i c a n f o r c e




m a y b e u s e d . R e p r i sa l w o r k s , p r o v i d e d th e t a rg e t s a r e

j u d i c i o u s l y s e le c te d a n d e s c a la t io n i s - a n d is p e r c e iv e d t o

b e - m o r e d a n g e r o u s f o r o u r e n e m y t h a n fo r u s.

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , th e L i b y a n l e s so n h a s h a d o n l y

l i m i t e d e f f e c t s o f a r o n t h e o t h e r m a j o r t e r r o r i s t s ta t e s, S y r ia

a n d I r a n . B e c a u s e w e h a v e ye t t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t w e a re

c a p a b l e o f u s i n g r e t a l ia t o r y f o r c e w h e n o u r c i ti z en s a r e t a k e n

h o s t a g e ( r a t h e r t h a n m u r d e r e d o u t r i g h t ) , h o s t a g e - t a k i n g r e -

m a i n s a n a t tr a c t i v e o p t i o n t h a t w i ll c o n t i n u e t o b e u s e d

a g a i n s t u s . I t i s a l s o n o t c l e a r t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s

p r e p a r e d t o u s e f o r c e o p e n l y a n d d i re c tl y a g a i n st S y r i a o r

I r a n i n v ie w o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r S o v i e t i n v o l v e m e n t i n s u p -

p o r t o f t h o s e s ta te s , n o t t o m e n t i o n U S h o p e s f o r e v e n t u a l ly

r e p a i ri n g i ts r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e r e g i m e o f t h e m u l l a h s .

I n b r i e f , t h e n , t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f s u c c e s s i n c o e r c i v e

d i p l o m a c y a n d l i m i t e d c o n f l i c t i s t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f

A m e r i c a ' s w i l l a n d a b i l i t y t o u s e i t s p o w e r e f f e c t i v e l y i n s u p -

p o r t o f i t s i n t e r e s t s a n d t h e l a r g e r i n t e r e s t s o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l

d e c e n c y a n d o r d e r . A t a m o r e o p e r a t i o n a l le v el , m a n y i n-

t e r e s ti n g q u e s t i o n s a r is e c o n c e r n i n g t h e u s e o f t h e m i l it a r y i n -

s t r u m e n t s a v a i la b l e t o t h e U n i t e d S t a te s f o r p r o j e c t i n g it s

p o w e r i n to t h e T h i r d W o r l d . T h e r e is , o f c o u r s e , a l o n g t ra d i -

t io n o f t h e u s e o f n a v a l f o r ce s as a n i n s t r u m e n t o f d i re c t

p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o r c o m p u l s i o n . ~ 2 N a v a l p o r t v is it s, c o m -

b i n e d e x e rc is e s w i t h a l li ed f l e et s, f i r e p o w e r a n d o t h e r o p e r a -

t io n a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , a n d s p e ci al d e p l o y m e n t s a r e all

r o u t i n e t o o l s f o r e s t a b l is h i n g a n A m e r i c a n p r e s e n c e in f o r e i g n

s e a s, a n d f o r s i g n a ll in g A m e r i c a n c o n c e r n o v e r a d v e r s e i n te r -

n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d s u p p o r t f o r a l li ed a n d f r i e n d l y

s t a t e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e t h a t s u c h a c -

t i v i t i e s p l a y f o r t h e U S N a v y a n d f o r t h e n a t i o n ' s o v e r a l l

f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s u n d e r a p p r e c i a t e d a n d u n d e r s t u d i e d , a n d i s

n o t s u p p o r t e d b y a s y s te m a t i c b o d y o f d o c t r in e a n d t r a i n i n g .

W h a t is t r u e o f t h e N a v y i s, if a n y t h i n g , m o r e t r u e o f t h e

o t h e r s er vic e s, w h i c h a re u n a c c u s t o m e d to t h i n k i n g o f t h e

a ss e ts a v a il ab l e t o t h e m a s c a p a b l e o f h a v i n g a n i n d e p e n d e n t

a n d m e a s u r a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l - p o l it i c a l e f f e c t. I n f a c t ,

h o w e v e r , a i r p o w e r h a s m a n y o f th e s a m e c h a r a c te r is t ic s a s



1 5 6 B E R N S T E I N

n a v a l p o w e r in t e r m s o f its p re s e n c e , m o b i l i ty , a n d r e a d y

a v a i l a b i l i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . T h e A i r b o r n e W a r n i n g

a n d C o n t r o l S y s t e m ( A W A C S ) a i r c ra f t h a s i n r e c e n t y e a rs ac -

q u i r e d m u c h o f t h e d i r e c t p o l i ti c a l s i g n i f ic a n c e o f a i r c r a f t c a r -

r ie rs a s a re s u l t o f it s f r e q u e n t u s e t o s i g n a l s u p p o r t f o r T h i r d

W o r l d a ll ie s t h r e a t e n e d b y a p o w e r f u l re g i o n a l e n e m y . T h e

o c c as io n a l e m p l o y m e n t o f c o n v e n t i o n a ll y a r m e d B - 5 2

b o m b e r s i n c o m b i n e d e x er ci se s s e n d s a m e s s a g e a n a l o g o u s t o

t h a t o f a b a t t l e s h i p o f f h o s t i l e s h o r e s .

A p a r t f r o m t h e p s y c h o lo g i c a l i m p a c t o f th e s e m a j o r a ir

a n d n a v a l w e a p o n s s y s t e m s , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e

s c o p e t o e x p l o i t a w i d e r a n g e o f m i l i t a r y c a p a b il it ie s f o r t h e

p u r p o s e s o f p o l i ti c a l -p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e in t h e T h i r d

W o r l d . T h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l d i m e n s i o n o f m i li ta r y h ig h

t e c h n o l o g y w a s m e n t i o n e d e a rl ie r . I t is i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p i n

m i n d t h e i m m e n s e a d v a n t a g e t h e U n i t e d S t a te s e n j o y s i n th is

r e sp e c t w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e S o v ie t U n i o n . E v e r y e ff o r t

s h o u l d b e m a d e t o i m p r e ss o n T h i r d W o r l d S o v i et c l ie n ts th e

u n r e l i a b i l i t y a n d o b s o l e s c e n c e o f S o v i e t e q u i p m e n t w h e nm a t c h e d a g a in s t A m e r i c a n e q u i p m e n t in t h e h a n d s o f th e U S

m i l i ta r y o r f r i e n d l y s ta t e s s u c h a s I s ra e l . T h e u n w i l li n g n e s s o f

t h e L i b y a n A i r F o r c e t o p r e s e n t e v e n a p r o f o r m a c h a l le n g e t o

U S c a r r ie r - b a se d a i r c ra f t i n th e G u l f o f S i d r a in t h e m o s t r e-

c e n t U S - L i b y a n c o n f r o n t a t i o n is a d i re c t c o n s e q u e n c e n o t o f

j u s t t h e L i b y a n s ' o w n r e c e n t e x p e r i e n c e , b u t o f a n e n t i r e

h i s to r y o f u n e q u a l c o m b a t b e t w e e n A r a b s a n d Is ra el is in v o lv -

i n g l a te - g e n e ra t io n S o v i et a n d A m e r i c a n m i l i ta r y t e c h n o l o g y .N o r i s t h i s a u r a o f W e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y

l i m i t e d t o w e a p o n s ; i t a l s o e x t e n d s t o a r e a s s u c h a s i n -

t el l ig e n ce a n d c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l . A s m e n t i o n e d e a rl i er ,

A r g e n t i n e b el ie fs a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f A m e r i c a n s p a c e re c o n -

n a i s s an c e t e c h n o l o g y a n d p r a c t ic e s a f f e c t e d t h e c o u r s e o f t h e

F a l k l a n d s W a r . T h e U n i t e d S ta te s e n j o y s a n i m m e n s e a d v a n -

t a g e o v e r T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f i t s

c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d o t h e r e l e c tr o n ic te c h n o l o g ie s . T h e n a -t i o n s h o u l d b e a b l e to e x p l o i t t h a t a d v a n t a g e t o c o n s i d e r a b l e

e f f ec t , b o t h p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y a n d o p e r a t i o n a l l y . I n t e r r u p t i o n

o f s e ns it i ve e n e m y c o m m a n d l i nk s , f o r e x a m p l e , c o u l d b e




e x p e c te d to h a v e a n u n n e r v i n g e ff ec t o n c o m m a n d e r s p r e p a r-

i n g t o c h a l l e n g e U S m i l i ta r y f o r c es . T a c t i c a l d e c e p t i o n t e c h -

n i q u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s n e e d t o b e t h o u g h t t h r o u g h i n te r m s o f

t h e i r e f f e c t n o t o n l y o n t h e ir i m m e d i a t e t a rg e t s b u t a l s o o n

t h e en t ir e e n e m y c o m m a n d s t ru c t u re . W a y s n e e d t o b e de -

v i se d to e n s u r e t h a t t h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p o f a T h i r d W o r l d

a d v e r s a r y is f u ll y a n d p a i n f u l l y a w a r e o f t h e p r e c is e m i l i ta r y

c o n s e q u e n c e s li ke ly t o r e s u lt f r o m a d e c i s io n t o e n g a g e o r

p e r s e v e r e i n a c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .

S o m e f in a l re m a r k s m a y b e i n o r d e r o n t h e u s e o f d ir e c t

c o m m u n i c a t io n s o r p r o p a g a n d a i n T h i r d W o r l d c o n t i ng e n -

c i e s . T h e c r i s e s t h a t w i l l c a l l u s t o e n g a g e i n c o e r c i v e

d i p l o m a c y a n d l im i t e d u s e o f m i l i ta r y f o r c e a re u n l i k e l y t o

p r o v i d e t h e ti m e n e c e s sa r y t o d e v e l o p e la b o r a t e c o m m u n i c a -

t i o n s c h a n n e l s a n d m e s s a g e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t i s w o r t h g i v i n g

s e r i o u s t h o u g h t t o p o s s i b l e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n

b o t h w i t h t h e a d v e r s a r y ' s a r m e d f o r c e s a n d w i t h t h e c i v i l i a n

p o p u l a t i o n .

I n a s i t u a t io n w h e r e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r c e , i f i t o c c u r s

a t a l l, is l ik e ly t o b e e x t r e m e l y c o n s t r a i n e d a n d s u r g i c a ll y

r e s t r i c t e d t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s , t h e r e i s e v e r y r e a s o n t o m a k e

s p e c i a l e f f o r t s t o a s s u r e b o t h m i l i t a r y u n i t s a n d t h e g e n e r a l

p o p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t ate s h a s n o i n t e re s t in h a r m i n g

t h e m , t h a t i ts re a l e n e m y is t h e r e g i m e . I n c a se s o f p r o t r a c t e d

U S i n v o l v e m e n t i n a T h i r d W o r l d c o u n t r y , s u c h as t h e

M a r i n e p r e s e n c e in B e i r u t, e f f o r t s s h o u l d b e m a d e t o m a i n -

t a in c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t w i t h t h e lo c a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d t o e x-

p l a i n a s c l e a r l y a s p o s s i b l e t h e U S r o l e a n d t h e r e a s o n s

u n d e r l y i n g i t .

T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t i t i s a l w a y s d e s i r a b l e t o r e a s s u r e

p o t e n t i a l a d v e r s a r i e s t h a t o u r i n t e n t i o n s a r e p a c i f i c . T h e

l a n g u a g e o u r p o l i c y m a k e r s u s e w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e t a c t i c s

o f a d v e r sa r ie s i n t h e l o w - i n t e n s i ty c o n f l i c t a r e n a t o o o f t e n

c o n f i n e s t h e o p t i o n s a v a i l a b le t o t h e U n i t e d S t a te s b y i n v o k -i n g th e s e l f- li m i ti n g a n a l o g y o f d o m e s t i c l aw e n f o r c e m e n t .

W e k n o w t h a t d u l y c o n s t i tu t e d g o v e r n m e n t s h a v e d i re c te d th e

a t t a c k s , b u t t r e a t t h e s e a c t s a s s i m p l e l e g a l i n f r a c t i o n s t h a t r e -

q u i r e s t ri ct r u le s o f e v i d e n c e f o r c o n v i c t i o n a n d d e s e r v e o n l y a



158 BERNSTEIN

s t ri c tl y p r o p o r t i o n a t e r e s p o n s e . T h i s a p p r o a c h is l ik e ly t o

c r ip p l e m a n y i f n o t m o s t p s y c h o lo g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s c o n d u c t e d

a t t h e t a c t i c a l l e v e l .

B e f o r e w e c a n f a s h i o n e f f e c t iv e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s tr a te g i es

f o r t h e v a r io u s c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f s u b c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n f l i c t, w e

m u s t i n e a c h c a s e a s k o u r s e l v e s t h e most b a s ic o f q u e s t i o n s :

A r e w e a t p e a c e o r a r e w e a t w a r ? W h e n A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s

h a v e b e e n k i l le d a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h e a d s o f s t a te , w e s h o u l d

c o n s i d e r a b a n d o n i n g t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s w e h a v e i m p o s e d o n

o u r s e l v e s b y u s i n g t h e m o d e l o f d o m e s t i c l a w e n f o r c e m e n t .

W e s h o u l d a d m i t t h a t a s t a te o f b e l l i g e r en c y e x is ts b e t w e e n u s

a n d t h o s e s t a te s t h a t k il l o u r c i ti z e n s. T h e v e r y b e s t

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n , w e s h o u l d r e m i n d o u r s e l v e s , i s t h e

r e p u t a t i o n o f a g r e a t p o w e r f o r a c t i n g li ke o n e .



C O E R C I V E D I P L O M A C Y A N D L I M I T E D W A R 159

Notes

1 . E l l io t t Har r i s , T h e " U n - A m e r i c a n " W e a p o n ( N e w Y o r k ,

1 96 7); s ee a l s o A f r e d H . P a d d o c k , J r . , " U . S . P s y c h o l o g i c a l O p e r a -

t i o n C a p a b i l i t i e s : A n A s s e s s m e n t , " Defense "83 ( D e f e n s e a n d

F o r e i g n A f f a i r s C o n f e r e n c e s , L t d . , W a s h i n g t o n , D C , 1 98 3),

p p . 2 7 2 - 8 6 .

2 . C a r l v o n C la u s e w i t z , O n W a r , e d . M i c h a e l H o w a r d a n dP e t e r P a r e t ( P r i n c e to n : P r i n c e to n U n iv e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 97 6), p . 92 .

3 . E d w a r d N . L u t t w a k , T h e G r a n d S t r a t e g y o f t h e R o m a n

E m p i r e ( B a l t im o r e : T h e J o h n s H o p k in s U n iv e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 97 6),

p p . 3 - 4 .

4 . S e e S t e p h e n P . R o s e n , " V i e t n a m a n d t h e A m e r i c a n T h e o r y

o f L i m i t e d W a r , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y (Fal l 1982) , pp. 83-113.

5 . S e e E l i o t C o h e n , " W h y W e S h o u l d S t o p S t u d y i n g t h eC u b a n Mis s i l e C r i s i s , " T h e N a t i o n a l I n t e r e s t (Win te r 1985) ,

p p . 3 - 1 3 .

6 . S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , S e c r e ta r y o f D e f e n s e C a s p a r W .

W e i n b e r g e r , A n n u a l R e p o r t t o t h e C o n g r e s s , F i s c a l Y e a r 1 9 8 7

( W a s h i n g t o n , D C : U S G P O , 1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 7 8 - 8 1 .

7 . " A n O l d - fa s h i o n e d M o d e r n W a r , " P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e

U n i t e d S ta t e s N a v a l I n s t i t u t e , (February 1983) , p . 87 .

8 . " T h e H a n d l i n g o f P r e s s a n d P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n D u r i n g th e

F a l k l a n d s C o n f l i c t , " H o u s e o f C o m m o n s F ir st R e p o r t f r o m th e

D e f e n s e C o m m i t t e e , 1982-83 sess ion , vo l . I , pp . xxv-xxv i .9 . T h e s e q u o t a t i o n s a r e a s s e m b l e d i n T h e N e w R e p u b l i c ,

14 & 21 Ju ly 1986 , pp . 7 -8 .

1 0. S e e S t e v e n D a v id , "S o v i e t I n v o lv e m e n t i n T h i r d W o r ld

C o u p s , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y ( S u m m e r 1 9 8 6 ) , p p . 8 - 9 .

1 1. S e e R i c h a r d B e r n s te i n , " T h e T e r r o r: W h y F r a n c e ? W h y

N o w ? " T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s M a g a z i n e , 1 9 O c to b e r 1 9 8 6 .

1 2. S e e, f o r e x a m p l e , E d w a r d N . L u t t w a k , T h e P o l i ti c a l U s e s

o f S e a P o w e r , S t u d i e s i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s X X I I I ( B a l t i m o r e :

T h e J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i ty P r es s , 1 97 4); J a m e s C a b l e , G u n b o a tDip lomacy , 1919-1979 ( N e w Y o r k : S t . M a r t i n s , 1 98 1).



Comment

J O S E P H G O L D B E R G

PSYCHOLOGICAL WARFARE IS THE ATTEMPT to i n f l u e n c e a n

adversary audience's behavior by shaping its thinking.

Leaders of nations, like individuals, often act in terms of

what they believe will provide them the greatest amount ofbenefit. Again, in the same way that individuals may err in

what they understand to be beneficial for themselves, so too

may leaders err in their understanding of what is beneficial

for their nations. Decisions may be in error because leaders

are wrong as to what constitutes their proper objective, or

decisions may be defective because they are based on insuffi-

cient or erroneous information. Whatever may account for

failures, the behavior of adversaries and their decisions areinfluenced by their understanding of reality, and the

manipulation of their perception and interpretation of reality

is the concern of psychological warfare.

As Professor Bernstein has argued, the success of any

psychological operation depends upon the believability of

what is being conveyed. His concern, of course, has been withcoercive diplomacy-the threat of force as an influence on

be ha vi or -w hi ch requires the enemy to believe that force canbe and will be used to accomplish military and political objec-

tives. Successful coercive diplomacy requires the promise of

force with the adversary acting in the desired manner wi thoutits actual use.

Psychological warfare does not depend solely on speech

or the prin ted word. An enemy is as concerned with what he

sees or does not see as with what he can read or hear. Disin-

formation, or the att empt to mislead an adversary by supply-

ing false information, should be distinguished from percep-

tions management. Perceptions mana gement is the attempt to

lead an enemy to certain conclusions by carefully fashioning

what he perceives. For example, the significance of the move-

ment of a carrier fleet or the redeployment of troops is

160



COERCIVE DI PL OM AC Y AN D LIMITED WAR 161

l e a rn e d t h r o u g h a n al ys is a n d n o t b y p e r c e p t i o n . I f a n a d v e r -

s ar y c o n s tr u e s s u c h m o v e m e n t s as t h r e a t e n i n g a n d t h e th r e a tr e su l ts in a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h a t e n e m y ' s b e h a v i o r , t h e n a

p o t e n t ia l ly d a n g e r o u s s i tu a t io n m a y h a v e b e e n d e f u s e d a t a

c o s t s i g n i fi c a n tl y le ss t h a n m i l i t ar y c o n f r o n t a t i o n .

D i s i n f o r m a t i o n c a m p a i g n s , p e r c e p t i o n s m a n a g e m e n t

o p e r a t i o n s , a n d c o e r ci v e d i p l o m a c y c a n b e e f fe c t i v e a s in -

d e p e n d e n t o p e r a t i o n s o r c a n b e u s e d e f fe c t i v e ly t o g e t h e r . F o r

e x a m p l e , P r o f e s s o r B e r n s t e i n h a s c a l l e d o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

A m e r i c a n b o m b i n g r a id o n L i b y a a s a r e s p o n s e t o L i b y a ns t a te - s p o n s o r e d t e r r o r i s m . T h e i m m e d i a t e t a rg e t w a s L i b y a,

t h o u g h m o s t a n t i te r r o r i s t a n a ly s t s w i ll a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e

m e s s a g e th a t t h e U n i t e d S t a te s w o u l d n o t t o l e r a te s u c h s u p -

p o r t f o r t e r r o r i s t a c t i o n s w a s d i r e c t e d a t S y r i a a n d I r a n a s

w e ll . F u r t h e r m o r e , a n t i t e rr o r i s t e x p e r ts d i d n o t e n v i s i o n t h is

r a i d a s e n d i n g t e r r o r i s m f o r e v e r . T h a t o b j e c t iv e w a s

f a b r i c a te d a f t e r t h e f a c t b y cr it ic s o f th e b o m b i n g r a id w h o

h o p e d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t th e r a i d w a s e i th e r f u ti le o rc o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e .

T h e c le a r i n t e n t i o n w a s t o d e t e r - i f n o t f o r c e e l e m e n t s

w i t h in L i b y a t o r e t h i n k - L i b y a ' s i n v o l v e m e n t i n t e rr o r is t ac -

t iv i ty . I n t h a t r e g a r d , i f t h e r a id h a d e n c o u r a g e d a n t i - Q a d d a f i

f a c t i o n s w i t h i n L i b y a t o r e p l a c e h i m w i t h m o r e m o d e r a t e

l e a d e r s h ip , t h e i n d i r ec t c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e r a id w o u l d h a v e

b e e n e v e n m o r e f r u i t f u l . I b e l ie v e t h a t P r o f e s s o r B e r n s t e i n is

c o r r e c t i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t e r r o r i s t a c t i v i ty in t h e r e g i o n d i dd i m i n i s h fo l lo w i n g t h e r a i d - c o n t r a r y t o t h e p r e d ic t io n s o f

c r i t i c s - a n d t h a t o t h e r W e s t e r n n a t i o n s h a v e r e c o g n i z e d ,

d e s p i t e t h e d i f f ic u l t y o f d o i n g s o , t h a t t h e r a i d p r o v i d e d s o m e

s i g n i f i c a n t b e n e f i t s .

F o u r m o n t h s a f te r t h e r a id , A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e rs

r e p o r t e d t h a t Q a d d a f i w a s o n c e a g a in a b o u t to e m b a r k o n

n e w t e r r o r i s t a c ti v it ie s t h a t , i f c a r r i e d o u t , c o u l d r e s u l t in n e w

U S m i l i ta r y r e t a l i a t io n . A Wall Street Journal a r t i c l e ( 2 5A u g u s t 1986) r e p o r t e d , " t h e P e n t a g o n is c o m p l e t i n g p l a n s f o r

a n e w a n d l ar g er b o m b i n g o f L i b y a in c as e t h e P r e s i d e n t

o r d e r s i t . " O f c o u r s e , s u c h c o n t i n g e n c y p l a n s p r o b a b l y d i d

e xis t in s o m e f o r m . O n 2 O c t o b e r 19 86, B o b W o o d w a r d o f



1~ GOLDBERG

t h e Washington Post r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a c c o u n t s w e re p a r t o f

a p l a n i n it ia t e d b y th e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y P l a n n i n g G r o u p t oe n c o u r a g e i n te r n a l o p p o s i t i o n to Q a d d a f i a n d b r in g a b o u t h is

r e m o v a l . A c c o r d i n g to t h is r e p o r t , t h e i n t e n t i o n o f th e c a m -

p a i g n w a s t o n u r t u r e a n t i - Q a d d a f i e l e m e n t s w i t h i n L i b y a w i t h

h o p e s t h a t h e w o u l d b e o v e r t h r o w n .

D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t Q a d d a f i ' s r e g im e h a s h a r d l y b e e n

h o s p i t a b l e t o A m e r i c a n o b j e c t i v e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s , a n d t h a t

L i b y a h a s n o t b e e n t h e r e c ip i e n t o f p r a is e f r o m t h e p r e ss , t h e

l im i t e d a ir s tr ik e a n d t h e a t t e m p t t o u n d e r m i n e Q a d d a f i ' sd o m e s t i c s u p p o r t r e c e iv e d , o n t h e w h o l e , n e g a t i v e p r e ss

c o v e r a g e . T h e i n t e n t o f th e o p e r a t i o n w a s n o t t o p r o v i d e f a ls e

i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l ic , h o w e v e r , b u t t o d e ce iv e

t h e L i b y a n s. T h a t d e c e p t i o n d id n o t h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

r e a c h i ts o b j e c t iv e b e c a u s e o f th e W o o d w a r d d i s cl o s u re .

W h a t t h is e p i s o d e d e m o n s t r a t e s is t h e e x t r e m e d i f f ic u l t y t h a t

d e m o c r a c i e s h a v e c a r r y in g o n p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a r f a r e in c o n d i -

t i o n s o f l e s s t h a n d e c l a r e d w a r .W h a t d i s ti n g u i sh e s w a r f a r e in th e p r e s e n t p e r i o d ( a n d

p r o b a b l y t h e f u t u r e ) f r o m i ts p a s t is , as P r o f e s s o r B e r n s t e in

h a s a r g u e d , t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t w a r s w i ll b e l i m i t e d , w il l o f t e n

i n v o l v e i r re g u l a r o r g u e r r i ll a f o r c e s , a n d w i ll o f t e n b e l i n k e d

w i t h te r r o r i s m . F o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , t h e s e t r e n d s

p o s e p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s . N o t t h e le a st o f

t h e p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n s t h e sine qua non o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s - i n t e l l i g e n c e c o l le c t i o n a n d a n aly s is .I n t e ll ig e n c e c o l le c t i o n o n i r re g u l a r f o r c e s a n d t e r r o r i s t

g r o u p s - e s p e c i a l l y t e r r o r i s t c e l l s - d e p e n d s o n i n t e l l i g e n c e

s o u r c e s i n t h e f i e ld . S u c h i n f o r m a t i o n is d i f f i c u l t t o a c q u i r e

a n d o f t e n w il l r e q u i re m a n y y e a rs t o d e v e l o p . O n c e e s ta b -

l is h e d , h o w e v e r , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f te r r o ri s t g r o u p s m a k e s t h e m

v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . T e r r o r i s t

g r o u p s , s u c h a s t h e v a r i o u s f a c ti o n s o f th e P L O , h a v e

e s t a b li s h e d th e i r a u t h o r i t y t h r o u g h v i o le n c e . F a t a h ' s c l a im t ob e i n g th e l e a d i n g s e g m e n t o f th e P L O h a s r e st e d o n i ts u se o f

t e r ro r . Y a s si r A r a f a t ' s l e a d e r sh i p p o s i t i o n d e p e n d s o n h i s

d e m o n s t r a t e d l o y al ty to t h e c au s e a s w ell a s i ts m e a n s - t e r -

r o r . T h e P L O , l ik e o t h e r t e rr o r is t g r o u p s , is d i s p o s e d t o w a r d



COERCIVE DI PLO MAC Y AND LIMITED WAR 163

i n t e r n a l d i v i si o n s o v e r i d e o l o g i c a l p u r i t y , l e a d e r s h i p r i v a l ri e s ,

a n d i ts r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h s u p p o r t i n g s t at e s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e ,t h e P L O h a s b e e n v u l n e r a b l e to t h e c o n f l i c ts w i t h in t h e A r a b

w o r l d , a n d t h e t e rr o r is t s h a v e d e v o t e d a s m u c h e n e r g y t o i n -

t e r n a l c o m b a t a s t o t h e w a r a g a i n s t I s r a e l .

B e c a u s e o f t h e i n s ta b i l it y o f t h e P L O a n d i ts s u sc e p ti b il i-

t y to m a n i p u l a t i o n b y e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , i t is a li k e ly t a r g e t f o r

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h o s e s ta t e s t h a t c o n -

t i n u e to p r o v i d e a i d to P L O t e r ro r i s t f ac t io n s a r e t h e m s e l v e s

v u l n e r a b l e to m a n i p u l a t i o n in v a r io u s w a y s . A s i n th e c a se o f

t h e F a l k l a n d s W a r , t h e U n i t e d S t a te s h as b e e n i d e n t i f i e d a s a

s u p p l i e r o f i n t el li g en c e i n f o r m a t i o n t o I r a q i n t h e I r a n - I r a q

c o n f l i c t . W h e t h e r t r u e o r n o t i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , d e v e l o p -

m e n t o f a r e p u t a t i o n a s a s u p p l i e r o f c h o i c e in t e l l ig e n c e t o k e y

p l a y e r s i n t h e r e g i o n i s s o m e t h i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c a n e x -

p l o it p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s t o a d v a n c e i ts in -

t e re s ts . O f c o u r s e , t h e c a p a b i l it ie s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t es i n t h isa n d o t h e r m i l it a ry a r e a s a r e w e ll k n o w n . W h a t m u s t b e

d e m o n s t r a t e d i s t h e a b i l i t y a n d w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e U n i t e d

S t a t e s t o u s e s u c h c a p a b i l i t i e s t o b e s t a d v a n t a g e i n s i t u a t i o n s

w h e r e t h e d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r c e b y t h is c o u n t r y is s e v e re -

l y c o n s t r a i n e d .

ED WAR D N. L UT TWA K

I T H IN K T H E R E IS A V E R Y C L EA R d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n

p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s i n w a r , e v e n i f l i m i t e d w a r , a n d t h e



164 L U T T W A K

psychological dimension of the conduct of diplomacy. In

war, a particular discipline regulates psychological opera-

tions, and that is their contribution to the conduct of the

fighting. The psychological element is equivalent to the

logistic element, or engineering support.

Of course, the content and importance of the

psychological element varies greatly according to the s t y l e of

war. If the style is close to pure attrition, when one is just try-

ing to grind down the enemy (treated as a mere array of

targets) by the application of firepower, then one does notmuch care what the other fellow is thinking as he is being

ground down. But if there is a high relat ional-maneuver con-

tent in the conduct of war, then the psychological element

becomes much more important and may even be decisive.

That psychological element can take the form of explicit-

ly PSYOP activity, such as distributing leaflets. But much

more commonly, it is an integral part of the operation as a

whole. When two or three of Rommel's tanks break through

the desert, take up a position on the coastal road, and start

shooting up British transport, and the British, thinking they

are cut off, abandon their forward positions to leg it down

the road to Alexandria, those tanks are not functioning as in-

struments of destruction but rather as very persuasive

leaflets, carrying the message, "You are surrounded; your

best bet is to abandon your ammunition and fuel stocks andbug out."

The greater the content of relational maneuver, the more

the psychological element counts as a dimension of warfare.

Whatever else one does or does not do, there is more scope

for the use of explicitly PSYOP instruments such as radio

broadcasting or leaflets. And, of course, the greater the rela-

tional maneuver content as opposed to attrition, the more the

outcome depends on the a c c u r a c y with which you have the

enemy figured out. In maneuver, even if your game is just a

very simple outflanking move, you'd better know exactly

what the enemy's dispositions are; otherwise, you might drive

right into a prepared killing ground.



COERCIVE DIP LO MAC Y AN D LIMITED WAR 165

Similarly, insofar as one relies on the psychological ele-

ment, one mustunderstand

the soul of the enemy-and notjust know his order of battle or dispositions. If you want to

induce Russians to surrender, you will have to act differently

than if it is the Germans or the Italians who are your enemy.

The side that practices relational maneuver must first of all

study the enemy he wants to relate to, and the psychological

element depends on a close fit between the specific action and

the specific enemy, whether it's an explicitly psychological

operation one is dealing with or the psychological dimensionof the combat operation as a whole.

So the discipline of PSYOP is the discipline of the con-

duct of warfare in its totality. It's part of the plan and the en-

tire operation; it is a general command responsibility. The

only thing that varies is that attrition-minded commanders

and attrition-oriented forces will tend to neglect the

psychological dimension. (They will, incidentally, also tend

to look down on any explicit PSYOP units or officers theymay have attached to them.) The more maneuver-oriented

will naturally give greater attention to the psychological

dimension. Of course, one cannot simply say that one of

these ways of waging war is good or bad. In some situations,

a straightforward attrition approach is the best way to deal

with the enemy; in others, there is more sc o p e - o r n e e d - f o r

maneuver. If one is in really desperate circumstances and very

weak, only relational maneuver can yield success, and then

one must rely very heavily on the psychological dimension.

As far as diplomacy (which I regard as a completely

separate phenomenon) is concerned, the chain of com man d is

the leadership structure of the nation's foreign policy. Then

the fundamental difference from nation to nation is in the

overall method of statecraft, which is practiced differently

according to culture, traditions, and, to some degree, the di-

recting personalities.

There is what one might call the pragmatic method,

which is generally though not always favored by Anglo-

Saxon culture: one issue at a time, no complications, a firm

focus on the matter at hand, and so on. Then there is the



166 L UT TW A K

other method that stresses long-range thinking, planning, and

calculation-what one might call the classic method. The

pragmatic style fails, of course, because its practitioner dis-

regards other relevant factors and has a very short -term view.

The strategic style also fails, however, when one sets the

wrong goals; one is then punished by the very discipline with

which those goals are pursued over the long run.

In regard to the psychological element, the contrast be-

tween the two methods is clear. Those who follow the

pragmatic method tend to disregard the essentialpsychological mechanism involved, which is, as Dr. Bernstein

points out, the role of reputation as the equivalent of capital.Think of yourself as a banker who makes money by

guaranteeing deals. Perhaps you can work for your entire

career without anybody ever calling a guarantee . Very profit-

able, yes, but not comfor table because you have to treat every

problem in terms of what it will do to your accumulated

reputa t ion-and not on its own merits.Take the example of the United States and Iran, the last

time around. President Carter saw the problem as one of get-

ting fifty-odd hostages out o f I r a n - as if there were only two

countries in the world, Iran and the United States, no othergoal but regaining the hostages, and no future beyond the

moment when the hostages would come back. Obviously,

what this approach does for capital accumulation is to nullify

past achievement from 1776 to the present. When one is aspragmatic as Jimmy Carter (and he was not so different in

that respect from most other American presidents, only

perhaps more extreme), one ignores that aspect of statecraft.

Following the classic method, on the other hand, you f ocus

on the accumulation of capital no matter what is the issue at

hand.Soviet leaders have been very good at accumulating

capital. When the Soviet embassy in Iran is threatened by a

mob, the Soviet charg6 d'affaires telephones the Iranian

foreign ministry and says that if the mob enters the embassy,

Tehcran will become a smoking ru in -- and the mob stops, asif miraculously. But it is the Mafia families that are the most

professional practitioners of the classical method. Hundreds



C O E R C I V E D I P L O M A C Y A N D L I M I T E D W A R 1 6 7

of people do their bidding even though each family only has a

very poor mechanism of supervision and control, and of

course has the whole legal system standing against it. Condi-

tions are very unfavorable, but the families overcome that by

relentlessly focusing on their reputation , not short-t erm cost

and benefit: if you steal fifty dollars from a Mafia family, it

will cheerfully spend half a million dollars to find you. Their

game is to accumulate the maximum leverage to obtain real

results with a minimum use of actual force.

Let me give you a specific example in a quasi-combatsituation, which relates to some of the things the British did

in the Falklands. In 1982, when the Israeli army invaded

Lebanon, it had to cross the UNIFIL lines on the Litani

River. One crossing was a very high bridge over a deep

ravine, held by Norwegian UN troops. The Israeli division

command er had absolutely no authority to use force, but he

wanted the bridge and was in a hurry. After the UN com-

mander refused to let him by, the Israeli commander droveright up to the Norwegians on the bridge and gave the order

to rev up the tank engines. The Norwegians--with their

typical Scandinavian attitude about warfare, that it is terrible

and so on-simply scattered.

Another Israeli column came to a bridge that was held by

Gurkhas from Nepal. The Gurkha officer on the bridge told

the Israelis how splendid it was that a war would be fought,

and how delighted the Gurkhas would be to have a chance toparticipate in i t - which would assuredly happen if the Israelis

attempted to drive across the bridge. His men were dug in,

grinning, and eager. The Israelis spent six hours building

another bridge to bypass the position. The Gurkha officer

was using accumulated r ep ut a ti on -as it happens, not that of

a country but of a particular ethnic gr o u p - and obtained real

power over events that will only increase the group's reputa-

tion in the future. The classical method is economical, but it

does require a constant discipline-and the occasional act

that seems irrational if viewed in a one time, one place, one

issue perspective.



Political Strategies for General War:The Case of E astern E urope

HEN RY S. ROW EN

H U G H S E T O N - W A T S O N , in a p o s t hu m o u s ly p u b -

l i sh ed a r t i c l e i n Encounter, ~ d e s c r i b e s t h e c u l t u r a l

u n i t y i n E u r o p e t h a t h a d e m e r g e d b y t h e e n d o f t h e n i n e -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y d e s p i t e d i v i s i o n s a m o n g t h e c h u r c h e s a n d t h e

r is e o f n a t i o n a l i d e n ti ti es a n d e m o t i o n s . T h i s c o m m u n i t y w a s

r u p t u r e d b y t h e B o l s h e v i k s w h e n t h e y a s s u m e d p o w e r i n

R u s s i a t h r o u g h w h a t a m o u n t e d t o a d e - E u r o p e a n i z a t i o n o f

t h a t c o u n t r y . T h e s h if t to t h e w e s t o f S o v i e t p o w e r d u r i n g t h e

S e c o n d W o r l d W a r s u b j e c te d th e E a s t E u r o p e a n s , a c c o r d in gt o S e t o n - W a t s o n , " to m a n i p u l a t i o n by c o n q u e r o rs w h o m

t h e y d e s p i s e . " H e t e l l s u s t o " s t o p t h i n k i n g o f t h e S o v i e t c o -

l o n ia l e m p i r e as p e r m a n e n t a n d s to p s p e a k in g o f t h e E E C ' s

n e o - C a r o l i n g i a n e m p i r e a s E u r o p e . "

T h e W e s t h a s c o m e to r e g a r d t h e S o v ie t c o l o n i a l e m p i r ei n t h e E a s t , a s a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , a s p e r m a n e n t . A t l ea s t t h e r e

i s n o p l a u s i b l e p a t h t h a t i s n o w f o r e s e e n f o r i t s e n d i n g .

M o s c o w s e e s t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f i t s c o n t r o l o v e r E a s t e r nE u r o p e a s b e i n g o f t h e h i g h e s t i m p o r t a n c e , a n d it h a s th e

m i l i t a r y p o w e r t o e n f o r c e i t . B u t n o n e o f t h i s c h a n g e s t h ef a c t, a s S e t o n - W a t s o n p u t i t , t h a t " t h e d i v i si o n is p e r m a n e n t -

ly u n a c c e p t a b le f o r m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d m i l l io n E u r o p e a n s . "

T h e m o v e m e n t t o w a r d t h e w e s t o f t h e l i m i t o f S o v i e t

p o l i ti c a l c o n t r o l i n s e r t e d S o v i e t m i l i ta r y p o w e r i n t o t h e h e a r t

o f E u r o p e . T h i s s h i ft p r o v i d e d a d e f e n s iv e g la c is a n d a n o f -

f e n s i v e b a s e a g a i n s t t h e r e s t o f E u r o p e . A n a l y s t s d i v i d e o n" d e f e n s i v e " v e r su s " o f f e n s i v e " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S o v ie t i n te n -

t io n s , b u t S o v i e t m i l it a r y d i s p o s it io n s i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e

c l e a r ly se r ve b o t h p u r p o s e s . T h e S o v ie t m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e

i n a n d o n t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e E a s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s i s e s -s e nt ia l t o m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e C o m m u n i s t r e gi m e s. T h i s

169



170 ROWEN

military power has been used on several occasions for that

purpose and has deterred any conceivable Western interven-

tions in support of these popular revolts. It also poses a

serious threat to Western Europe. The Soviet Union has long

been seen as having a dominant military position in Europe,

one that could only be held in check by an armed Western

Europe, an American military presence, and the threat to re-

spond if necessary to a S ov ie t - and in due course a Warsaw

Pact-conventional attack by use of nuclear weapons.

A crucial part of this strategy, the threat to use nuclear

weapons first, is increasingly perceived as having been over-

taken by the Soviet nuclear buildup. Changes in NATO's

strategy are widely held to be needed. An altered strategy

should address explicitly the importance of the role the East

Europeans would play in a Warsaw Pact attack on Western

Europe, on the deterrent value of their potential defection

from Moscow's ranks in the event of such an attack, and the

contribution of possible defections in defeating such an at-tack were it to occur.

The Degrees of Success in Anticoalition Strategy

In Europe, two alliance systems face each other, one

voluntary, the other coerced. There is strength in collective

security, but there are also potential vulnerabilities-aperception expressed early in recorded history. The goal of

disrupting the opposing alliance was placed well up in the

ranking o f policies by Sun Tzu, the great Chinese strategist. It

is worth reminding ourselves that his counsel for an offensive

strategy against an enemy included the advice "to disrupt his

alliances." Sun Tzu's advice is even more applicable to the

nuclear age than to his own. The Soviets have long followed

and practiced the advice of the Chinese sage. For instance, atStalingrad they found the Romanians and Italians to be weak

links, which they exploited. Later, in 1944, the German 6th

Army was lost through Soviet pressure on the Romanian

forces on its flanks.



G E N E R A L W A R 1 H

S o v i e t a u t h o r i t i e s c l e ar ly p e r c e iv e th e N A T O a l li a n c e as

v u l n e r a b l e t o p o l i ti c a l, a n d p o t e n t i a l l y m i l i ta r y , f r a g m e n t a -

t i o n . T h e r e is a s u b s t a n t i a l S o v i e t l i te r a t u r e o n " c o a l i t i o n w a r -

f a r e , " w h i c h i s b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e p t t h a t a p r i m a r y s t r a t e g i c

o b j e c t i v e i s t h e d i s m a n t l i n g o f t h e e n e m y ' s c o a l i t i o n w h i l e

h o l d i n g o n e 's o w n t o g e t h e r . I n t h e 1 94 0s a n d 1 95 0s, M o s c o w

u s e d th e C o m m u n i s t p a r t i es o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e t o t ry t o p r e-

v e n t t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f a W e s t e r n a l l ia n c e in w t )i ch b o t h t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d G e r m a n y w o u l d p l a y c r u c i a l r o l e s . I t h a s

t r i e d t o u n d e r m i n e t h e W e s t e r n w ill t o r e sis t b y p la y i n g u p t h ei d e a t h a t a n y c o n f l i c t w o u l d b e c o m e n u c l e a r a n d i n e v i t a b l y

e s c a la t e to t h e g e n o c i d a l le v el. I t h a s h a r p e d o n t h e t h e m e o f

b a si c d iv e r ge n c e s b e t w e e n E u r o p e a n a n d A m e r i c a n in te r es ts

a n d o f t h e r ec k le s s b e h a v i o r o f t h e U n i t e d S t at es . I t h a s m a d e

p r o m i s e s a n d t h r e a t s ( f o r i n s t a n c e , t o t h e D u t c h ) t h a t t h e r e -

j e c t io n o f N A T O m i ss ile s w il l c a u s e t h e m t o b e s p a r e d i f w a r

c o m e s a n d v i ce v e r s a. I t h a s g i v e n fi n a n c i a l s u p p o r t t o p e a c e

g r o u p s i n t h e W e s t , a n d s o fo r t h .T h i s i s i n p e a c e t i m e . S o v i e t w r i t i n g s a r e a l s o e x p l i c i t o n

h o w t o p r o c e e d in w a r . R e t r o s p e c t i v e S o v i e t a n a l ys e s o f t h e

b a t t le o f S t a l i n g r a d , f o r e x a m p l e , re g u l a r ly p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e

m a i n a x e s o f a t t a c k w e r e s e l e c t e d s o a s t o e x p l o i t t h e r e l a t i v e

w e a k n e s s o f t h e R o m a n i a n a n d I ta l ia n t r o o p s h o l d i n g k e y

p o s i t i o n s o f t h e G e r m a n l in e . T h i s is s e e n as a l e s so n f o r w a r

a g a i n s t N A T O . I t s e e m s h ig h l y l ik e ly t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,

t o a c h i e v e t h e g o a l o f th e m i l i ta r y a n d p o l it ic a l d e f e a t o fN A T O , w o u l d s ee k t o f o r c e t h e w i t h d r a w a l o r d e f e a t o f in -

d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s o f t h e W e s t e rn a ll ia n ce .

I n a d d i t io n t o s o u n d L e n i n is t re a s o n s c o n s t a n t ly to p r es s

o n e ' s a d v e r sa r ie s , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p e o p l e s o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e

a r e p e r m a n e n t l y ir re c o n c i l a b le g iv e s M o s c o w a n a d d e d i n c en -

t iv e t o w e a k e n a n d d o m i n a t e th e r e g io n b e y o n d .

T h e r e i s n o p a r a l l e l i n t h e W e s t , e i t h e r i n d o c t r i n e o r i n

p r a c t i c e , t o t h is S o v i e t s t r a te g y o f p r o m o t i n g d i v is i o n s i n t h e

e n e m y c a m p . T h e W e s t' s a ct iv i t ie s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g s o m e

b r a v e " r o l lb a c k " r h e t o r ic a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e E i s e n h o w e r

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , h a v e l a r ge l y b e e n l i m i t e d t o r a d i o b r o a d -

c a s t s , h e l p f o r e m i g r e s , c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e s - - a n d e c o n o m i c



1 7 2 R O W E N

s u b s i d i e s . W e s t e r n s u b s i d i e s t o t h e E a s t c a n b e v i e w e d a s a

f o r m o f s u b v e r s i o n - b u t i f so , th e y ar e a n e xc e pt io n a ll y

s u b tl e f o r m ; t h e y c a n m o r e p l a u s ib l y b e r e g a r d e d a s p r o p p i n g

u p i n e f fi c ie n t a n d d e t e s t e d re g i m e s . B u t t h e s e e c o n o m i c p r o -

j e ct s d o b r i n g p e o p l e i n t h e E a s t i n t o d a n g e r o u s c o n t a c t w i t h

W e s t e r n e r s , a n d t h e b o o m c r e a t e d i n P o l a n d i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s ,

w i t h th e h e l p o f W e s te r n m o n e y , d i d h e l p to c r ea te c o n d i t io n si n w h i c h S o l i d a ri t y e m e r g e d . B u t i n t h e e n d t h e S o v i et s h a v e

m a n a g e d t o c o n t a i n t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t h a v e b e e n c r e a t e d .

T h e U S p o l i c y o f " d i f f e r e n t ia t i o n " a m o n g t h e E a s t E u r o -

p e a n c o u n t r ie s a n d b e t w e e n th e m a n d t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a ls o

h a s t h e f l a v o r o f a n a n t i c o a l i t i o n s t r a te g y . B u t i t h a s i n v o l v e d

w e a k a c t io n s . I t is o f t e n h a r d t o k n o w w h o i s b e i n g r e w a r d e d

a n d w h o is b e i n g p u n i s h e d , a n d w i t h w h a t m e a n s , u n d e r th is

p o l i c y .

I n s h o r t , t h e W e s t h a s m o r e o r l e s s a c c e p t e d a d o u b l e

s t a n d a r d : w h a t ' s y o u r s is y o u r s a n d w h a t ' s m i n e is n e g o t i a b l e .

W e a c c e p t t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n c a n e n g a g e in o v e r t a n dd i v is iv e t h r e a t s a g a i n s t t h e W e s t , w h i l e w e r e g a r d a n y t h i n g

t h a t s m a c k s o f a c t i o n s s t re s si n g t h e S o v i e t c o a l i t io n a s p r o -

v o c a ti v e. ( A l t h o u g h w h a t i s p r o v o c a t i v e d e p e n d s o n w h e r e

y o u s i t . O u r r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s , f r e e p r e s s , i n e f f e c t a l l o u rd e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , a r e p r o v o c a t i o n s a s s e e n f r o m

M o s c o w . )

T h e W e s t 's g o v e r n m e n t s h a v e f ai le d t o m a k e a n i m p o r -

t a n t d i s t in c t io n . W e b a c k e d o f f f r o m s u p p o r t o f d is s i d en c e i n

E a s t e r n E u r o p e d u r i n g t h e f i rs t h a l f o f t h e 1 95 0s o n p r a c t i c a l

a n d m o r a l g r o u n d s ; e s p e c i al ly a f t e r 1 95 6, m o s t o f th i s su p -

p o r t w a s se e n t o b e i n e ff e c ti v e a n d d a n g e r o u s . B u t w e a l so

c a m e t o n e g l e c t S u n T z u ' s a d v ic e ev e n w i t h r e g a r d t o o u r o w n

s e c u r i t y .

A s s e s s i n g T h e P r e s e n t S i t u a t i o n

T h e W e s t h a s a c c e p t e d th e s e a sy m m e t r i c g r o u n d r u le s in

l ar g e m e a s u r e o u t o f f e a r o f S o v i e t p o w e r . B u t o f w h a t d o e s

t h i s p o w e r c o n s i s t ? T h e S o v i e t s ' v a s t a r r a y o f n u c l e a rw e a p o n s a n d d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s is i m p r e s s i v e , b u t i t h a s l a rg e l y



GENERAL WAR IN

just a canceling effect on US and other Western nuclear

forces. At least as important is the formidable alignment of

ground and tactical air and missile forces of the Warsaw

Pact. The numbers are familiar-around 90 divisions in

Eastern Europe and the Western part of the Soviet Union

versus less than half that number in Western Europe, in-

cluding quickly available reinforcements from the United

States. Moreover, the Warsaw Pact forces are seen as being

under central Moscow control, whereas the NATO govern-

ments would each decide in a crisis whether, and how, to par-ticipate in the collective defense.

The principal means of preventing this superior force

from moving into Western Europe has long been the presence

of several thousand US nuclear weapons, a commitment to

use them first if needed, and 300,000 American troops. But

the nuclear commitment, in the view of many serious

analysts, has become ineffective. This view is debatable, but

there can be little doubt that the set of circumstances in whichan American president would use nuclear weapons first has

shrunk greatly. Nor has that shrinkage been offset by an ap-

parently greater willingness of the authorities in France and

Britain to use their nuclear weapons in the defense of Ger-

many or of other parts of Europe. So we have the familiar

qu es ti on - how to assure the security of Europe? The familiar

American answer-build up the Alliance's conventional

strength, a sound policy-meets with a European responsethat this is too costly (meaning that Europe's welfare pro-grams are more important), or that it will weaken the deter-

rent effects of the threat to use nuclear weapons first, or that

it is unnecessary.

The belief in Soviet conventional superiority rests,

however, on the assumption that the members of the WarsawPact would follow Moscow's orders in military operations

against Western Europe. But should they, when there is over-whelming evidence that the East Europeans despise their con-

querors and long to be free? Three reasons are offered why

they will, or might, obey Moscow:

1. Their leaders, true believers or not, are beholden to

Moscow for their positions and even their lives.



174 ROWEN

2. The fact that Soviet forces are stationed in or on the

borders of their countries gives these leaders little

choice.

3. Moscow has a system to control directly their

military forces.

So perhaps, or probably, or very l ik el y- so judgments by

analysts r u n - t h e East Europeans, or various of them, would

join with Moscow in a war with the West.

This is the point where Western thinking on this subject

has stopped. Western planners take the position that since we

can't count on non-Soviet defections we have to assume that

the full weight of all the members of the Pact would be felt.

Others of a more hopeful persuasion take comfort from the

thought that the Poles or others might not join in, or that

they and other East Europeans might not try very hard or

fight very well. They conclude, therefore, that the military

balance is not in bad shape, and even that NATO might get

away with spending less.There is a curious passivity along this optimism-

pessimism spectrum on the "reliability" of the East Euro-

peans. It is as though we are predicting the weather. We

might agree or disagree on whether raincoats should be worn ,

but we don't expect to influence the weather. Similarly, vir-

tually no one has seen the behavior o f the East Europeans in

East-West crisis or war as a possible object of influence; one

looks in vain through the Western literature on the WarsawPact to find any substantial discussion of what the West

might do to affect the behavior of the East Europeans in cir-

cumstances when our security is at stake.

Much depends, of course, on how important the role of

the East Europeans is in a war with NAT O. If the non-Soviet

forces are useful for Moscow to have on its side but not vital,

then our neglect of the behavior of the East Europeans is

perhaps excusable. But this is an empirical matter.There are two main measures of the importance of the

East Europeans: the weight of their military forces and the

security of the Soviet lines of communication that run for

long distances through their territories.



GENERAL WAR 1~

If one simply counts units in place today west of the

Soviet Union, in the northe rn tier the non-Soviet forces make

up 50 percent of the ground and air forces (somewhat less if

counts are weighted by modernity of equipment). The non-

Soviet share of military manpower is 70 percent. The total

number of active duty troops in this part of the Pact today is

about equal to the number of NATO troops in the Federal

Republic of Germany alone. This comparison, which does

not count the forces back in the USSR on the one hand and in

the United States, Britain, and France on the other, is perti-nent to an attack designed to catch NATO's forces

unawares -- a classical, Pearl Harbor-like, Sunday morningstrike. Such an attack presumably would feature Spetsnaz

units operating behind the NATO lines and other fast-moving

units trying to get inside and around NATO's unprepared for-

mations. It might work if the signals of attack preparations

were wrongly interpreted or the defender's response was slug-

gish- as they were at Pearl Harbor and in several other sud-den attacks since World War II. So this clearly is a case to

take seriously.

But look at this case from the Soviet perspective. It

necessarily assumes little prior reinforcement from the Soviet

Union; therefore, most of the attacking soldiers would have

to be non-Soviet. Could the Soviets afford to take the chance

of putting Czech, Polish, or GDR units up front where their

collapse or defection would open gaping holes in the front?Could they trust these forces in the second echelon role to ar-

rive on schedule if the Soviet formations in the van get

stalled? Could they leave them unattended in the rear when

they could be a threat to Soviet lines of communication?

The Soviet General Staff doubtless has given a lot of

thought to these questions and to ways of answering

them-perhaps to its satisfaction. The Soviets have followed

the advice of Sun Tzu not only to try to disrupt the enemy's

coalition but also vigorously to try to assure the cohesion of

their own. Their exhortations on this topic and their efforts

toward this end are so vehement as to betray a deep concern

about the problems in their coalition.



176 ROWEN

They cannot tolerate a principle fundamental to any in-

dependent state, which is that each nation reserves to itself

the decision to go to war. The Soviets have created a com-

mand structure in which the power to take most of the East

European military forces to war resides in Moscow. Although

Romanian President Ceausescu has openly and forcefully re-

jected such an arrangement , the other leaders of the Warsaw

Pact nations, whatever their reservations, have evidently ac-

ceded to the Soviet demand that their forces be put under

direct Soviet command.

The Soviets use a number of tools to try to make such

control effective. These include training and indoctrination

of East Europeans in Soviet military schools (over 1,000 of-

ricers by now have graduated from the Soviet General Staff

military academy), Party membership requirements for ad-

vancement in the military, recruitment of agents, Soviet

theater-level command of coalition forces, and Soviet assign-

ment of officers to each of the defense ministries andthroughout the hierarchy of non-Soviet forces down to the

divisional level. In addit ion, the Soviets are likely to break up

allied units into small parcels and sandwich them among

Soviet units to prevent a critical mass of "friends" collapsing

or defecting and opening a gaping hole in the line of contact

with the enemy.

Would all of this work? The specialists on the region re-

ply that it all depends on national character and attitudes(Poles and Romanians are unreliable, Germans and

Bulgarians are reliable), on the nature of the events

precipitating the crisis (with particular reluctance to get in-

volved in crises originating in the Third World or China), on

prior conditioning (the crisis requires defense against revan-

chist Germans), on which Eastern national units are in con-

tact with which Western ones (Germans should not be al-

lowed to face Germans), and on allowing the East Europeanstoo little time to generate resistance (a proposition not easily

reconciled with the need to whip up enthusiasm). Where is

the evidence that Western thinkers have given thought to how

to make all of this more difficult for Moscow? This apparent



G E N E R A L W A R 1 7 7

n e g l e c t o f a s t r at e g ic p a r a m e t e r a s i m p o r t a n t a s th e r o l e o f th e

n o n - S o v i e t f o r c e s - e s p e c i a l l y in l i gh t o f t h e o p i n i o n h e l d b y

m a n y s p e c i a l i s t s o n t h e r e g i o n t h a t p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e a n d

d e f e c t i o n s a re l ik e ly u n d e r c e r ta i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s - i s p o w e r -

f u l t e s t i m o n y t o t h e l a c k o f s e r io u s n e s s a b o u t s t r a t e g y a n d t h e

w i d e s p r e a d d e f e a t i s m t h a t e x i s t s i n t h e W e s t .

A f a m i l i a r c o n c l u s i o n f r o m W e s t e r n a n a l y s e s is t h a t i f

P a c t f o r c e s g e t t h e j u m p o n N A T O w i t h li t tle e ff e c ti v e w a r n -

i n g, t h e y w i ll ra p i d l y s u c c e e d i n o c c u p y i n g th e F e d e r a l

R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y . B u t i f d e f e c t io n s o r d e la y s w e re t o o c -c u r a m o n g t h e S o v i e t s ' a l l i e s , t h e P a c t a d v a n c e w o u l d l i k e l y

s lo w ; i f t h e r e w e r e w i d e s p r e a d d e f e c t i o n s , t h e P a c t w o u l d

h a v e m o r e d i f f i c u l t y i n a d v a n c i n g ; i f t h e r e w e r e a l s o s e r i o u s

t r o u b l e i n t h e r e a r t h a t d i s r u p t e d a n d d i v e r t e d S o v i e t r e i n -

f o r c e m e n t s , t h e P a c t a t t a c k m i g h t s t a l l o r b e d r i v e n b a c k .

S i m p l e n o n p a r t i c i p a t i o n o r s i g n i f i c a n t d e l a y s i n r e s p o n d i n g

t o o r d e r s b y M o s c o w ' s all ie s w o u l d h a v e a d o u b l e e f fe c t : N o t

o n l y w o u l d t h e S o v i et g e n e ra l s be d e p r i v e d o f n e e d e d c o m b a tf o rc e s , b u t t h e y a ls o w o u l d h a v e t o d i v e r t s o m e o f th e i r o w n

f o r c e s t o w a t c h , s u r r o u n d , a n d d i s a r m t h e d e f e c t o r s a n d t o

g u a r d t h e r o a d a n d r a il lin e s t h r o u g h t h e ir r e a r a re a .

A n i g h t m a r e f o r t h e G e n e r a l S t a f f m u s t b e th e p o s s ib i li ty

o f s e r i o u s t r o u b l e e r u p t i n g in t h e r e a r , e s p e c ia l ly i n P o l a n d ,

w h i le a b a t t le i n t h e W e s t is in th e b a l a n c e . M o s t o f th e m a i n

E a s t - W e s t r a i l l i n e s a n d r o a d r o u t e s r u n t h r o u g h t h a t c o u n -

t ry . T o s u p p o r t t h e ir a t ta c k w i t h re i n f o r c e m e n t s a n d s u p p l i e s,t h e S o v i e ts m u s t r u n 3 00 t r a in s a d a y w e s t a n d a n e q u a l

n u m b e r e a st . I f th e y a r e s e r io u s ly d e la y e d , t h e c a m p a i g n

w o u l d s u f f e r . T h e s e r o u t e s p a s s t h r o u g h m a n y P o l i s h c i t i e s

a n d t o w n s , t h r o u g h l o n g st re t ch e s o f c o u n t r y s id e , a n d o v e r

m a n y b r id g e s . I n a s u d d e n a t t a c k , o n e m o u n t e d w i t h li t t l e a d -

v a n c e m o v e m e n t o f S o v i e t f o rc e s , th e s e ro u t e s w o u l d h a v e t o

b e o p e ra t e d b y P o l i s h w o r k e r s - m a n y o f t h e m m e m b e r s o f

S o l i d a r i t y - a n d g u a r d e d b y P o l i s h t r o o p s . S u p p o s e t h a t , a t

t h a t p o i n t , m a n y P o l e s d e c i d e t h a t t h e y d o n ' t w a n t t o g e t i n t o

a w a r , d o n ' t s u p p o r t M o s c o w , a n d o p p o s e t h e m a s s i v e S o v ie t

i n t r u s i o n i n t o t h e i r t e r r i t o r y . S o v i e t f o r c e s c o u l d , n o d o u b t ,

o c c u p y P o l a n d , r e o p e n t h e lin es o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , r e p a ir



178 ROWEN

damage, and guard the routes. But this would take time, and

the war in the West meanwhile might become a disaster forthem. Such a contingency, which is not a prediction of Polish

(or Czechoslovak or East German) revolt in such a case, can-

not be wholly discounted by the General Sta ff in Moscow. In

effect, the General Staf f might have a view of the Polish army

like that of a former SACEUR who used to ask his staff on

which side of the balance Polish forces should be entered.

One might infer that the Soviets would not launch an at-

tack with such uncertainties. Precisely. That is the reason foraddressing the subject. We should want the Soviet General

Staf f to believe, correctly, that the East Europeans would not

come to any such war, or that it is very doubtful that they

would, or that they would take long enough in making up

their minds that a Pact attack would be weak and fail. As a

result, the Soviet military would decide not to attack at all or

might decide to reinforce heavily with Soviet forces in ad-

vance in order to dilute the effect of the East Europeans and

render less likely their defection. But doing this would also

give the West time to reinforce.

Sun Tzu has another salient observation. He says that of

the five fundamenta l factors affecting war, the first is moral

influence. "By moral influence I mean that which causes the

people to be in harmony with their leaders so that they will

accompany them in life and unto death without fear of mor-tal peril. ''2 The Soviet leadership has not always had moral

harmony even with its own people; still less does it have it

with the oppressed peoples of Eastern Europe.

This analysis leads to two central questions. How do we

strengthen deterrence of Soviet attack on Western Europe by

reinforcing in the minds of the Soviet General Staff the no-

tion that any military move against the West would be too

dangerous because of the East European factor? And howmight we minimize the likelihood of East European help to

Moscow in the unlikely event that deterrence fails and an at-

tack occurs?



G EN ERAL W A R 179

A n En l ig h ten ed Po l i cy o f In f l u en ce

I m p o r t a n t e le m e n t s o f a N A T O s t r a te g y w i t h th i s a i m

a r e in p l a c e . T h e r e is a w i d e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e E a s t E u r o -

p e a n s p r e s e n t a " r e li ab i li ty " p r o b l e m t o t h e S o v i e t s . W h a t

h a v e b e e n l a c k in g a re W e s t e rn p o l ic y g o a ls a n d p r o g r a m s o f

a c t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e m .

A n o b v i o u s g o a l is t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e a c t

i n d e p e n d e n t l y . I f th e y c a n a c t i n t h e i r o w n i n t er e s ts , a l m o s t

n o n e o f t h e m w i l l s u p p o r t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n i n a n y m i l i t a r ya c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e W e s t ; t o h e l p M o s c o w w o u l d b e t o r i s k

d e s t r u c t i o n a n d e x t i ng u i sh a n y h o p e o f f r e e d o m . A l s o , t h e r e

is n o b a s i s f o r c o n f li c t b e t w e e n t h e tw o h a l v e s o f E u r o p e . T h e

F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y h a s r e n o u n c e d c la im s o n

E a s t e r n l a n d s l o s t , a l t h o u g h d i s p l a c e d S i l e s i a n s a n d o t h e r s

p r o b a b l y m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o d i s p e l f e a rs in P o l a n d t h a t

p e r h a p s s o m e d a y G e r m a n y w i ll t ry t o r e co v e r th e s e la n d s .

B u t t h e s e ar e n o l o n g e r c e n tr a l c o n c e r n s . ( O n e m i g h t s a y t h a ta n c i e n t a n i m o s i t i e s h a v e r e c e d e d b e c a u s e o f t h e d i v i s io n o f

E u r o p e ; t h i s i s t h e b e n e f i c i a l a s p e c t o f a n o t h e r w i s e

d e p l o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n . ) A l a rg e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e in W e s t e r n

E u r o p e , b u t n o t i n t h e E a s t , c le a rl y f i n d t h e s t a tu s q u o a c-

c e p t a b l e , e v e n i f i t is n o t t h e b e s t o f a ll i m a g i n a b l e w o r l d s ; t h e

p r o b l e m is h o w t o a s su r e t h a t M o s c o w d o e s n o t t ry to c h a n g e

t his s t a t u s q u o i n to s o m e t h i n g m u c h w o r se .

T h i s W e s t e r n o b j e c t i v e o f p r o m o t i n g i n d e p e n d e n t d e c i -s io n s by t h e p e op l e s a n d a r m e d f o rc e s o f E a s te r n E u r o p e i f

t h e S o v i et s t r y t o d r a g t h e m i n t o w a r c a n b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h

t w o a l t e r n a t i v e p o s i t i o n s : o n e i s t h e c u r r e n t o n e o f p a s s i v i t y ;

t h e o t h e r is r o l l b a c k o r l i b e r a t i o n . T h e f o r m e r l ea v es m u c h t o

c h a n c e ; t h e l a t te r h a s c o n s i s t e n t l y b e e n r e j e c t e d b y t h e W e s t ,

a n d t h e r e is n o d i s p o s i t i o n t o c h a n g e it .

T h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r a W e s t e r n e f f o r t is t h e m o r e

e x p li ci t e x p r e s s io n b y g o v e r n m e n t s a n d p r i v a t e g r o u p s i nW e s t e r n E u r o p e o f t h e s h a r e d v a l u es in h i s to r y , r e l ig i o n , in -

d i v i d u a l li b e rt ie s , a n d a d e s ir e t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t . F o r t h e G e r -

m a n s t h e r e i s t h e u n i q u e i n t e r - G e r m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p ; f o r t h e

F r e n c h , h i s to r ic ti es t o P o l a n d ; f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t es , P o l i s h



180 R O W E N

a n d o t h e r e t h n ic g r o u p t ie s. M u c h is d o n e n o w a n d m o r e

s h o u l d b e d o n e t o f o s t e r c u l t u r a l e x c h a n g e s , h e l p f o r e m i g r e

g r o u p s , a n d a n i m p r o v e d e f fo r t a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n s t o th e

E a s t .

O f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e i s t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r -

m a n y ' s O s t p o l i t i k . I t co n s is ts o f a n a c c o m m o d a t i n g li ne

t o w a r d t h e E a s t o n m a n y m a t t e r s , i t s u p p o r t s a r m s c o n t r o l ,

a n d i t i n v o l v e s su b s i d i e s t o t h e E a s t , e s p e c i a ll y t o t h e G D R .

I n r e tu r n , t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c o b t a in s s o m e e m i g r a t i o n o f

p e o p l e f r o m t h e G D R a s w e l l a s o t h e r b e n e f i t s . I t i s a c c o m -

p a n i e d b y a n u n e n t h u s i a s t i c a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s u c h m a n i f e s ta -

t io n s o f t h e h u m a n s t ru g g l e f o r f r e e d o m a s S o l id a r i t y . T h e r e

a r e o b v i o u s d a n g e r s f o r t h e F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c i n s u c h a l i n e ,

b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o p o t e n t i a l s t r a t e g i c b e n e f i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n

g e t t in g c lo s e r t o t h e p e o p l e o f t h e G D R . T h e S o v i e t l e ad e r -

s h i p e v i d e n t l y b el ie v e s th a t i t s m i l i t a r y p o w e r e n a b l e s i t to

c o n t r o l t h i s p r o c e s s , b u t i t m u s t v i e w O s t p o l i t i k w i th m i x e d

f e e l i n g s a s i t s e e s t h e t w o h a l v e s o f G e r m a n y c o m i n g c l o s e r

t o g e t h e r .

T h e r e i s a c o m m u n i t y o f in t er e st b e t w e e n t h e t w o h a lv e s

o f E u r o p e o n t h e n o n u s e o f f o rc e w i th i n E u r o p e . T h e r e is a

b a sis f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h e r e th a t E u r o p e s h o u l d n o t a l l ow

i ts e lf t o b e d r a g g e d i n t o a w a r b y o u t s i d e p o w e r s . T h i s id e a

m i g h t b e t h o u g h t t o e n c o u r a g e t h e e x is ti ng t e n d e n c y o f s o m e

W e s t E u r o p e a n s t o a d o p t a n e q u i d i s t a n t , p l a g u e - o n - b o t h -

y o u r - h o u s e s s t a n c e t o w a r d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e S o v i e t

U n i o n . B u t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is n o t g o i n g to t r y to d r a g t h e

W e s t E u r o p e a n s i n t o a w a r ; a n d t h e p e o p l e s o f th e E u r o p e a n

d e m o c r a c ie s ar e m o s t u n l ik e l y t o d e c i d e t o a b a n d o n a n

a l l i a n c e s o c e n t r a l t o t h e i r i n t e r e s t s .

T h e m a i n p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t t h is c o n c e p t is o n l y l a t e n t in

t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n ; t h e W e s t h a s d o n e t o o l it tl e t o s ig n a l t o

t h e p e o p l e s i n t h e E a s t a r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e c o m m o n i n te r e s t

i n a v e r t i n g a n y c o n f l i c t . T o d a y , t h e e x p e c t a t i o n m u s t b ew i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e m t h a t i f w a r c o m e s th e y w i ll i n e v it ab l y

b e a t t a c k e d a n d d e s t r o y e d . T h e r e h a v e b e e n s i gn s r e c e n t l y o f

r e s e n t m e n t o n t h e i r p a r t o f t h e s t a t i o n i n g o f S o v i e t n u c l e a r -

a r m e d m i ss il e s o n t h e i r te r r it o r ie s . F o r i n s t a n c e , P r i m e



GEN ERA L WAR 181

M i n is t e r S t r o u g a l o f C z e c h o s l o v a k i a p u b l ic l y e x p r e s s e d

u n h a p p i n e s s o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f h i s g o v e r n m e n t " a c c e p t i n g "S o v i e t I N F m i s s i l e s . T h e s e p e o p l e s h a v e n o t b e e n t o l d t h a t i f

t h e y c a n m a n a g e t o s ta y o u t o f a n y M o s c o w - i n d u c e d c on f l i c t

t h e y w o u l d b e s p a r e d g r e a t d e s t r u c t i o n , w h e r e a s , i f t h e y w e r e

t o j o i n i n a w a r t h e y w o u l d s u r e l y s u f f e r g r e a t l y .

T h i s c o u l d b e a p o w e r f u l m e s s a g e . I t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e

g o v e r n m e n t s o f W e s t e rn E u r o p e ( a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t es a s

w e ll) w o u l d t re a t a s n e u t r a l a n y E a s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y o p t -

i n g o u t o f a c o n f l i c t. F u r t h e r , t h e y w o u l d tr e a t i n a s im i la rv e i n g r o u p s w i t h i n a n y c o u n t r y - m i l i t a r y u n i t s , w o r k e r

g r o u p s , a n d o t h e r s - t h a t s ig n a le d t h ei r i n te n t t o s ta n d a l o o f

e v e n if t h e i r le a d e r s w e r e o b e y i n g M o s c o w . T o b e s u r e, t h e

c e r t a in t y o f b e in g s p a r e d a ll d a m a g e c a n n o t b e a s s u r e d t o t h e

E a s t E u r o p e a n s a n d s h o u l d n o t b e p r o m i s e d , b e c a us e So v ie t

f o r ce s a re a l r e a d y o n t h e i r te r r i to r y a n d m o r e w o u l d m o v e in .

( T o t h e S o v i e t s t h e r e a r e n o n e u t r a l s , c e r t a i n l y n o t i n t h i s

r e g io n ; i f y o u a r e n o t f o r t h e m , y o u a r e a g a in s t t h e m . ) I f t h eS o v i et s a t t a c k e d t h e W e s t d e s p i te th e s t a n d i n g a l o o f o f t h e ir

a l l i e s , N A T O f o r c e s w o u l d c e r t a i n l y a t t a c k t h o s e S o v i e t

f o rc e s . A l l t h e W e s t e r n p o w e r s c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y p r o m i s e is

t h e i r b e s t e f f o r t s t o a v o i d n o n h o s t i l e f o r c e s . B u t a c h a n c e o f

s u r v i v a l i s b e t t e r t h a n n e a r c e r t a i n d e v a s t a t i o n . M o r e o v e r ,

d e li ve r i ng o n t h es e p r o m i s e s w o u l d e n a bl e N A T O c o m -

m a n d e r s t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e ir e f f o r t a g a i n st S o v i e t f o r ce s a n d

w o u l d e n c o u r a g e d e f e c ti o n s f r o m t h e P a c t .T h e r e r e m a i n s t h e m a t t e r o f n u c le a r w e a p o n s . H e r e , t o o ,

t h e S o v i e t s h a v e b e e n a c t i v e a n d t h e W e s t n e g l e c t f u l . T h e

S o v i e t s o f f e r t h r e a t s o f n u c l e a r a t t a c k a n d p r o m i s e s o f

w i t h h o l d i n g a t t a c k t o W e s t e r n n a t i o n s . I n c o n t r a s t , th e W e s t

h a s n o t m a d e e x p l i c i t a p o l i c y t h a t i s s t r o n g l y i n i t s i n t e r e s t ,

w h i c h i s t o p r o m i s e n o t t o u s e n u c l e a r w e a p o n s a g a i n s t a n y

W a r s a w P a c t c o u n t r y th a t s u c c ee d s i n o p t i n g o u t a n d a ls o to

a s s e rt t h a t , i f t h e i r n e u t r a l i t y is v i o l a t e d , N A T O w o u l dr e s tr i ct a n y u s e o f n u c l e a r w e a p o n s t o u s e a g a i n s t S o v i e t

f o r c e s .

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n h a s n o t m a d e m u c h o f a d i s t i n c t i o n b e -

t w e e n t h e v a l u e s a n d i n c e n t i v e s o f t h e l e a d e r s o f E a s t e r n



182 ROWEN

Europe and the peoples. This assumption is not always

wrong, as the examples of Nagy and Dubcek show, and even

such a tyrant as Ceausescu derives popularity at home from

his anti-Soviet stance. It is safe to say tha t the leaders of these

states, all of whom are in place on Soviet sufferance, would

feel a tension between patriotic sentiments and those o f loyal-

ty, habit, status, and personal vulnerability to the Soviets.

What would they do if faced with a Western offer that com-

bined an olive branch in one hand and a missile in the other

versus a Soviet order backed up by tanks in the neighborhood

(or even Spe t snaz troops in the courtyard)? The tanks being

closer, it is reasonable to expect that most would go along

with the Soviets. But some might not. Perhaps one should ex-

pect most to try to temporize, to find excuses of any kind not

to commit. Of course, delay in responding to Moscow's

demands would provide much of what NATO would need.

Those people who are not in the East European

equivalent of the nomenklatura-the middle managers and

those below, such as in the military, in the worker groups,

and among students-are less directly accessible to Soviet

coercion and are likely to be less responsive to Moscow's

directives. They are more likely to want to stay out and

perhaps better able to do so.

It should be a central Western aim to prevent the Soviet

control system from working. The East Europeans should be

given the option of avoiding war and destruction in the

(unlikely) case that conflict comes. We should encourage

Polish or East German or Czechoslovak commanders, who

receive orders from Moscow to put their troops into the

trucks and drive them West, to consider other possibilities

before acting. And the troops and the workers and everyone

else should also be so encouraged.

Ear ly E f fo r t s a t In f luence

This analysis underscores the importance of Western

communications to all of these people. Although secret



G E N E R A L W A R 183

d i p l o m a c y w o u l d h a v e a r o l e i n a c r i s i s , t h i s i s n o t a n e n t e r -

p r is e f o r s ec re t d i p l o m a c y o n ly . W h a t m i g h t be c o m -

m u n i c a t e d w o u l d v a r y w i t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s . I n p e a c e t i m e , i t is

t h e s o r t o f m a t e r i a l n o w o f f e r e d , i n c l u d i n g n e w s a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g b o t h t h e E a s t a n d t h e W e s t, t h e

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t a k i n g p l ac e i n C h i n a , c u l t u ra l p r o g r a m s , a n d

e n t e r t a i n m e n t . T o t h e s e m i g h t b e a d d e d a c t iv i ti es t h a t b e a r

o n s h a r e d s e c u r i t y i n t e r e st s a l o n g t h e l in e s a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d .

T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o s s i b il i t y a n d l im i ts o f a f f e c t i n g th e

a t t i tu d e s a n d b e h a v i o r o f th e E a st E u r o p e a n s , a n d t h e r e f o r e

a f f e c t i n g S o v i e t d e c is i o n s , a r e v ie w o f t h e h i s t o r y o f s u c h e f-

f o r t s i s u s e f u l .

A s a l a r m m o u n t e d i n 1 9 46 a n d 1 94 7 a b o u t S o v i e t i n te n -

t io n s , p a r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n s t r a te g y th a t e m e r g e d , w h i c h in -

c l u d e d m a n y o t h e r e l e m e n t s , w a s t h e m o u n t i n g o f a p o l i ti c a l

a c t i o n c a m p a i g n . A c t i v i t i e s u n d e r t a k e n i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e

a n d t h e S o v ie t U n i o n , b o t h c o v e r t a n d o v e r t , i n c l u d e d in f o r -

m a t i o n g a t h e r in g , s u p p o r t f o r p e o p l e t r y i n g t o e s c a p e, h e l pf o r r es is ta n c e g r o u p s , a n d t h e s u p p l y o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o p e o -

p l e i n t h e E a s t b y r a d i o s ( a n d f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d , p a m p h l e t s

c a r r ie d b y b a l lo o n s ) . E a r l y a i m s w e r e a m b i t i o u s ; f o r i n s ta n c e ,

N S C 5 8 / 2 ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 9 ) s a i d t h a t t h e s e a i m s w e r e t o

" r e d u c e a n d e v e n t u a l l y t o e l i m i n a t e d o m i n a n t S o v i e t i n -

f l u e n c e i n t h e s a te l li te s t a te s . ''3 A n o v e r t a n d c l a n d e s t i n e " o f -

f e n s iv e " w a s to b e l a u n c h e d to i s o la t e t h e " t r u e " C o m m u n i s t s

i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e . T h i s a p p r o a c h r e s u lt e d f r o m a w i d e s p r e a db e l ie f t h a t t h e S o v i e t r u l e o v e r t h is r e g i o n w a s s h a k y a n d t h a t

o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r i t m i g h t b e r e m o v e d , a l th o u g h a t n o p o i n t

w a s t h e u s e o f W e s t e r n m i l i t a r y f o r c e s s e e n a s t h e m e a n s t o

t h a t d e s i r e d e n d .

A n i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t o f th is p r o g r a m w a s a m a j o r

e f f o r t i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , e s p ec ia ll y t h e c r e a t io n o f R a d i oF r e e E u r o p e a n d R a d i o L i b e r a t i o n ( l a t e r R a d i o L i b e r t y ) a s

c o v e r t (o r m o r e a c c u r a t e ly , u n a c k n o w l e d g e d ) o r g a n i z a t io n s

t o b r o a d c a s t t o E a s te r n E u r o p e a n d t h e S o v i et U n i o n , r e sp e c-

t i v e l y . I n 1 9 5 3 , P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r c r e a t e d t h e U S I n f o r -

m a t i o n A g e n c y ; t h e V o i c e o f A m e r i c a b e c a m e o n e o f i t sp r i o r i t y i n s t r u m e n t s . S i m i l a r b r o a d c a s t a c t iv i ti e s w e r e c a r ri e d

o u t b y t h e B B C , t h e G e r m a n s t a t i o n s , a n d o t h e r s .



1 84 R 0 W E N

I n t h e e a r l y d a y s o f t h e r a d i o s , i n t h e l a t e 1 9 4 0 s , t h e r e

w a s a w i d e s p r e a d a s s u m p t i o n , o r h o p e , t h a t t h e S o v i e t h o l d

o n E a s te r n E u r o p e w o u l d , o r m i g h t , b e t e m p o r a r y . R F E ,

e s pe c ia ll y, w a s t h e v o i c e o f e m i g re s w h o h o p e d t o r e t u r n s o o n

t o c o u n t r i e s fr e e o f S o v i e t o c c u p a t i o n . T h a t h o p e s lo w l y

r e c e d e d a n d t h e n f ell d r a st ic a l ly a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e U S f a i lu r e

t o r e s p o n d t o t h e u p r i s in g o f G e r m a n w o r k e r s i n 1953, t o t h e

t r o u b l e s in P o l a n d i n 1 95 6, a n d , m o s t o f a ll , t o t h e g e n e r a l

r e v o lt in H u n g a r y i n t h a t y e a r . T h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e ra d i o s

b e c a m e th o s e o f p r o v i d i n g n e w s a b o u t t h e W e s t a n d , m o r e

i m p o r t a n t ly , n e w s a b o u t d e v e l o p m e n t s in th e E a s t E u r o p e a n

c o u n t r i e s .

T h e r a d i o s h a v e p l a y e d e s p e c ia l l y i m p o r t a n t r o le s d u r i n g

c ris es . F o r e x a m p l e , R F E w a s a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f n ew s to

t h e P o l e s d u r i n g t h e P o z n a n u n r e s t in P o l a n d i n 1 9 56 ; i ts

c o v e r a g e w a s t i g h t l y d i s c i p l i n e d a n d d e s i g n e d t o a v o i d e x -

c i ti n g t h e P o l e s . I n th e H u n g a r i a n u p r i s in g , w h i c h o c c u r r e d a

f ew d a y s a ft e r , R F E w a s a k e y s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e

H u n g a r i a n p e o p l e , a l t h o u g h i t h a d a d i ff ic u l t t a s k in s o r t in g

o u t t h e f a c t s b e c a u s e o f t h e t u r m o i l i n t h a t c o u n t r y . G i v e n

E i s e n h o w e r ' s d e c i s i o n n o t t o i n t e r f e r e i n a n y w a y ( r e c a l l t h a t

t h e s e e v e n t s o c c u r r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e S u e z c ri sis ), i t

c le a rl y w a s n o t t h e f u n c t i o n o f R F E d i re c t ly to i n f l u e n c e

e v e n ts in s id e H u n g a r y . I n t h e in v e s t ig a t i o n s t h a t t o o k p l a ce

a f te r t h e se ev e n ts , th e j u d g m e n t w a s t h a t R F E h a d b e h a v e d in

a d i s c i p li n e d a n d r e s p o n s i b le w a y o n t h e w h o l e , w i th o n l y a

f e w l a p s e s .

T h e r a d io s h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o p l ay a k e y i n f o r m a t i o n a l

r o l e in c ris e s, n o t a b l y i n C z e c h o s l o v a k i a i n 1 9 6 8, in P o l a n d i n

1 9 8 0- 81 , a n d in 1 98 6 i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e C h e r n o b y l

n u c l e a r p l a n t d i s a s t e r . I t w a s n o d o u b t l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f

R a d i o F r e e E u r o p e ' s r e p o r t i n g t h a t t h e e m e r g i n g le a d e r s h i p

o f S o l i d a ri ty r ea li ze d t h e n a t i o n w i d e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p r o -

t e s t s t h a t w e r e t a k i n g p l a c e . O n C h e r n o b y l , R L ' s U k r a i n i a n

b r o a d c a s ts w e re an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h eU k r a i n i a n p e o p l e a b o u t w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d a n d p r e c a u t i o n s

t o t a k e . T h i s w a s e q u a l l y t r u e o f R F E ' s b r o a d c a s t s ; m a n y

p e o p l e i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e c a l l e d i n t o R F E t o g e t m o r e n e w s

a n d t o e x p r e s s a p p r e c i a t i o n .



GEN ERA L WAR 185

T h e m i s s i o n o f R F E a n d R L i s t o c o m m u n i c a t e i n f o r m a -

t i o n a n d i d e a s t o t h e p e o p l e s o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n d t h e

S o v ie t U n i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e y a ls o p r o v i d e w o r l d n e w s , u n l ik e

t h e V O A a n d o t h e r n a t i o n s ' ra d i o s , t h e i r d i st in c t iv e m i s s io n is

t o b r o a d c a s t n e w s a n d i n f o r m a t i o n b a c k t o t h e se p e o p l e s o n

t h e i r o w n s o c i e t i e s .

A c c o r d i n g t o f o r m a l p o l ic y g u id e l i n es d e v e l o p e d b y t h e

B o a r d f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l B r o a d c a s t i n g , t h e y a re t o a v o i d p r o -

g r a m m i n g t h a t c o u l d " le g i t im a t e ly b e c o n s t r u e d a s i n f l a m -

m a t o r y o r c o n d u c i v e t o i r r e d e n t i sm , " o r " r e a s o n a b l y c o n -

s t r u e d a s i n c i t e m e n t to r e v o l t " o r p r o v i s i o n o f " s u p p o r t f o r il-

l eg al a n d v i o le n t a c t i o n s ." N o i n f o r m a t i o n o n " h o w t o d e f e c t "

w i ll b e b r o a d c a s t , n o r s h o u l d t h e r e b e a n y " s u g g e s t i o n th a t

m i g h t l e a d a u d i e n c e s t o b e l ie v e t h a t , i n t h e e v e n t o f i n t e r n a -

t i o n a l c r is is o r c iv il d i s o r d e r , t h e W e s t m i g h t i n t e r v e n e

m i l i t a r i l y . "

G i v e n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e p a s t f o r t y y e a r s , t o g e t h e r w i t h

t h e f ac t t h a t t h e p o l i c y o f t h e r a d i o s m u s t b e h i g h l y se n s it iv et o W e s t E u r o p e a n a s w e ll a s A m e r i c a n o p i n i o n , t h e se p o li c y

r e s tr a i n ts c o u l d h a r d l y b e o t h e r w i s e . B u t d e s p i t e t h e s e c o n -

s t ra i n t s , w h i c h a r e o b s e r v e d r i g o r o u s l y , t h e r e a r e r e g u l a r p r o -

t es ts f r o m t h e E a s t . T h e v e ry o p e r a t i o n o f th e s e ra d i o s a n d o f

t h e o t h e r n a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t m e d i a i s a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e

d e s ir ed S o v i et m o n o p o l y o n n e w s a n d , t h e r e fo r e , t o S o v ie t

p o w e r .

E v e n w i t h i n t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s , t h o u g h , m o r e c o u l d b ed o n e t o e x p re s s c o m m o n s e c u r it y i n te r e st s . F o r i n s t a n c e , a

p r o g r a m m i g h t b e d i r e c t e d a t t h e E a s t E u r o p e a n m i l i t a r y .

T h i s w o u l d b e a f a c tu a l a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l ly o r i e n t e d p r o g r a m

o n m i l i t a ry d e v e l o p m e n t s i n th e W e s t a n d i n t h e E a s t ( in -

c l u d i n g th e S o v i e t U n i o n ) . I t s b a s ic p u r p o s e w o u l d b e t o

s t r e n g t h e n t h e l i n k w i t h a n e s p e ci a ll y i m p o r t a n t g r o u p i n t h e

E a s t . I n t h e e v e n t o f a cr is is o r c o n f l i c t , th i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n

l i n k m i g h t b e c o m e o f g r e a t o p e r a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e .O u t s id e o f b r o a d c a s t c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t s t i ll w i t h i n t h e

r ea lm o f " c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , " o t h e r a c ti o n s n ee d t o b e p u r -

s u e d . F o r e x a m p l e , a u s e f u l s t e p h a s b e e n t h e v i s i t o f

A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s t o E a s t E u r o p e a n c a p i t a l s a f t e r t h e



186 RO WE N

Geneva arms cont rol talks in early 1985 to report on these

talks. The Americans and the West Europeans should meet

regularly with the East Europeans to discuss with them the

status of these negotiations and exchange views. Also,

Western military officers should visit their counterparts and

invite them to visit the West. In addition to the useful sym-

bolism of such exchanges, these officers have much to

discuss. Our military should not be timid about expressing

views on shared security interests; indeed, they should be in-

structed to do so.

Examining a Crisis Scenario

Perhaps no fundamental changes are feasible, or

desirable, in communications policy toward the East in non-

crisis periods or during a crisis confined to the East. This con-

dition would presumably change, however, during a crisis in

which Western security becomes endangered. And if a crisis

were to occur, Moscow would mount a campaign charging

the West with planned or actual aggression, would work to

arouse fears of war in Western Europe, and would try to elicit

among its Warsaw Pact allies active support and ready par-

ticipation in any action.

Consider a likely course of developments if the West

were to detect military movements in the East, which then

grow in scale and increasingly seem oriented toward the

West. The West would feel a powerful impulse to interpret

the evidence as nonthreatening, at the beginning almost cer-

tainly seeing this activity as only exercises or perhaps actions

attributed to a local security problem that requires military

action. As data accumulated about the mobilization in the

Eastern countries and movement of Warsaw Pact forces to

the west, the psychological pressures on NATO governments

to cling to a benign interpretation would grow-in cor-

respondence to the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance.

This psychological phenomenon caused Stalin to reject

mounting evidence of German preparations for attack in




1940, American leaders to do the same vis-a-vis Japanese

military preparat ions in 1940 and 1941, and the Israelis the

same with respect to the Arab attack preparations in 1973.

Western political leaders would be under similar pressures

not to interpret the situation as one of attack, whatever the

reality. At some point, assuming this was a real attack, they

would learn otherwise, perhaps after enemy troops attacked

their territory, as did Stalin, Roosevelt, and Golda Meir.

But until the perception switched, the Western line

toward the peoples of the East would probably be something

like this:

1. Western governments are concerned about the

military preparations in the Warsaw Pact.

2. Western governments have no intention of interfer-

ing in the East.

3. The Warsaw Pact should pull back its forces.

When perceptions tipped to the point of regarding a

Warsaw Pact attack as a serious possibility, then Western

aims, and policies, would become very complicated. On the

one hand, diplomatic efforts to prevent war, which by then

might seem imminent, would be frantic. A component of this

effort to prevent war might be a last-ditch effort to try to

detach the East Europeans from the impending attack. At

some point the West might encourage and actively support

sabotage and active resistance in the East. But the primary

purpose of this stage still would be to deter Soviet attack by

doing what could be done to weaken the ability of the War-saw Pact to act against us.

If a crisis were to occur, some of our messages would

become highly operational. We would want the East Euro-

pean commanders who receive orders from Moscow on the

"Red" telephones to then pick up the "Green" ones and talkto their national bosses, peers, and subordinates before

deciding what to do. Conceptually, we should think o f a third

telephone, a "Blue" one, also on the desks of these com-manders, through which they would exchange views with

their Western counterparts . At that stage we should also be intouch with many other groups such as railroad, electricity,

and telephone workers, among others.



GENE RAL WAR 189

e v a c u a t i o n t o t h e W e s t , u n l e s s t h e y w e r e p r e p a r e d t o s a cr if ic e

t h e m s e l v e s .

L e s s i m p l a u s i b l e , t h o u g h p e r h a p s o n l y m a r g i n a l l y s o ,

w o u l d b e E a s t e r n l e a d e r s ' d e c l a r a t i o n s o f o p t i n g o u t o f t h e

c o n f l i c t ( t o g e t h e r w i t h a n a p p e a l t o t h e W e s t n o t t o a t t a c k

t h e i r t e r r i t o r y ) w h i l e n o t r e si s ti n g S o v i e t u s e o f t h e i r t e r r i t o r y .

T h i s s t a n c e w o u l d b e h a r d l y l e s s d a n g e r o u s f r o m t h e E a s t

E u r o p e a n p e r s p e c t i v e b e c a u s e i t w o u l d g r a n t t h e S o v i e t s i m -

m e d i a t e a c ce ss to t h e m . B u t i t w o u l d h a v e t h e b e n e f i t o f c a us -

i n g N A T O m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s t o b e d i r e c t e d o n l y a g a i n s t

S o v i e t f o rc e s . T h e r e w o u l d b e c o ll a te r a l d a m a g e f o r m i s i d e n -

t i f i e d t a r g e t s a n d o t h e r e r r o r s a n d s p i l l o v e r e f f e c t s , b u t

d a m a g e t o p e o p l e a n d p r o p e r t y in th e E a s t m i g h t b e m u c h

r e d u c e d . ( H o w m u c h w o u l d d e p e n d o n t h e r e sp o n s iv e n e s s o f

N A T O f o rc e s t o th is E a s t E u r o p e a n p o s t u r e . )

M o s t l i ke ly w o u l d b e t h e s t a n d i n g a s id e o r d e f e c t i o n o f

g r o u p s o f s o ld i er s a n d i n d i v id u a l s , f o o t d r a g g i n g in c o m -

p l ia n c e w i t h o rd e r s , a n d s a b o t a g e . W e s t e r n p la n n e r s s h o u l d

a i m t o m a x i m i z e s u c h a c t s , a n d t h e i r e f f e c t i n t h e a g g r e g a t e

m i g h t b e su b s ta n t i a l. W e s te r n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , b r o a d c a s t

a n d c o v e r t , c o u l d b e d i r e c te d a t d i s r u p t i n g p i p e li n e s ,

l o gi st ic s , a n d t h e m o v e m e n t o f S o v i e t f o r ce s o n r a il a n d r o a d

l in e s, a s w ell as e n c o u r a g i n g d e f e c t i o n s t h a t m i g h t o p e n u p

g a p s in t h e W a r s a w P a c t f r o n t .

W a r a i m s w o u l d b e a v i t a l f a c t o r . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e

A l l i ed g o a l o f u n c o n d i t i o n a l su r r e n d e r in W o r l d W a r I I d id

n o t f a ci li ta te G e r m a n o r J a p a n e s e d e f e c t i o n s ( a n d w a s a b a n -

d o n e d a t t h e e n d w i t h re sp e c t t o t h e E m p e r o r o f J a p a n ) . T h e

S o v i e t s ' s t r a t e g y w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e d e s i g n e d t o d i v i d e t h e

W e s t er n a l l ia n ce . T h e y w o u l d a t t e m p t t o d o s o t h r o u g h

t h r e a t s ( e . g ., o f n u c l e a r a t t a c k ) a n d p r o m i s e s ( o f b e i n g l e ft

a l o n e ) d e l i v e r e d s el ec t iv e ly t o d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s . T h e S o v i e t s

w o u l d a ls o e m p l o y th e f u ll p a n o p l y o f t h e ir a c t i v e m e a s u r e s .

W h a t a b o u t th e W e st 's a im s ? D e c l ar e d N A T O p e a c e t im ea i m s a r e t o d e f e n d N A T O t e r r i t o r y a n d n o m o r e . T a c t i c a l

c o u n t e r a t t a c k s a r e p e r m i t t e d , b u t n o t s t r a t e g i c c o u n t e r a t t a c k

i n t o W a r s a w P a c t t e r r it o r y . T h i s a p p r o a c h is a f a r c r y f r o m

C h u r c h i l l 's s ta t e m e n t o n 13 M a y 1 94 0 i n t h e H o u s e o f C o m -



190 ROWEN

m o n s , " Y o u a s k e d , w h a t i s o u r a i m ? I c a n a n s w e r i n o n e

w o r d : i t i s v i c t o r y , v i c t o r y a t a l l c o s t s , v i c t o r y i n s p i t e o f a l l

t e r ro r , v i c to r y h o w e v e r h a r d a n d l o n g t h e r o a d m a y b e . TMN A T O h a s n o t a d o p t e d a n y t h i n g l i k e s u c h a n a i m ,

d e s p i t e i t s a p p a r e n t u t i l i t y i n d e t e r r i n g a S o v i e t a t t a c k , f o r

s e v e ra l re a s o n s : t h e a i m o f v i c t o r y w o u l d s e e m t o e n t a i l h a v -

i n g m u c h l a r g e r m i l i t a r y fo r c e s ( o r a t le a st g i v i n g t h e N A T O

m i l i t a ry a u th o r i t ie s a p o w e r f u l a r g u m e n t f o r t h e m ) t h a n p e o -

p l e w a n t t o p a y f o r; W e s t G e r m a n y is s e ns it iv e a b o u t b e i n g

a s s o c ia t e d w i th a n y t h i n g t h a t l o o k s " a g g re s si v e" t o w a r d t h e

E a s t , e v e n i f o n l y w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f d e t e r r i n g a t t a c k o n

it se lf ; t h e W e s t b e l ie v e s ( t h o u g h t h e b e l ie f is n o t w a r r a n t e d b y

t h e e v i d e n c e ) t h a t s u c h a n a i m w o u l d r e s u l t i n a s t e p p e d - u p

a r m s r a c e w i t h t h e W a r s a w P a c t ; t h e W e s t d e s i r e s t o d o

n o t h i n g t h a t w o u l d s u g g e s t a W e s t e r n i n t e r v e n t i o n in E a s t e r n

E u r o p e d u r i n g t h e u p r is i n g s a n d t r o u b l e s t h a t a r e e n d e m i c

t h e re ; a n d p e r h a p s t h e W e s t b e lie v es t h a t s u c h a n a p p a r e n t l y

s t ri d e n t a im w o u l d b e i n c o m p a t i b l e w i th v a r i o u s a im s o f

d i p l o m a c y . ( T h i s re t ic e n c e is n o t , h o w e v e r , m a t c h e d b y

s i m i l a r r e s t r a i n t i n S o v i e t p o l i t i c a l i n d o c t r i n a t i o n a n d p r o p -

a g a n d a . )

I r o n i c a l l y , t h e s a m e l e a d e r s w h o h a v e a d o p t e d t h i s

r e s tr ic t iv e s t a n c e h a v e b a c k e d a p o l i c y o f t h r e a t e n i n g

w h o l e s a l e s l a u g h t e r w i t h n u c l e a r w e a p o n s i n r e t a l i a t i o n t o a n

a t t a c k ; t h is p o l i c y , o f c o u r s e , t h e y n e v e r e x p e c t to s e e c a r r i e d

o u t . T h e N A T O t h r ea t t o u se n u c l e a r w e a p o n s i f c o n v e n -

t i o n a l d e f e n s e f a i l s i s a n a c t i o n b u t n o t a n a i m . A s g e n e r a l l y

p o r t r a y e d b y W e s t e rn g o v e r n m e n t s , a n d b y m u c h o f th e

W e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e o n n u c l e a r w a r , i t is a t h r e a t t o i n f l ic t l a r g e

a n d i n d i s c r im i n a t e d a m a g e o n t h e S o v ie t U n i o n ; it t h e r e f o r e

a m o u n t s t o a n a c t o f s u i c i d e . T h i s i s n o t a n a i m t o b e t a k e n

s e r i o u s l y .

S o N A T O is n o t i n g o o d s h a p e w i th re s p e c t t o w a r a im s .

I m a g i n e t h e si tu a t i o n o f t h e p l a n n e r s w h o , a t s o m e p o i n t ,

w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y b e d e s p e r a t e l y t r y i n g t o p e r s u a d e E a s t

E u r o p e a n s - f r o m p o li t ic a l a n d m i li ta r y l ea d e rs to w o r k e r s in

k e y f a c i l i t i e s t o s o l d i e r s a n d a i r m e n t o w i d e p u b l i c s - n o t t o

f o l l o w M o s c o w ' s o r d e r s a n d i n s t e a d t o o p t o u t , t o c o m m i t



GENE RAL WAR 191

sabotage, and to defect to the West. NATO's posit ion implies

that if the East Europeans succeeded in helping to frustrate

Moscow's attack on the West, little would be done for them.

They would not be freed; instead they would be suppressed

and many of them killed. This implication, one can assume,

would be well understood in the East.

Clearly, something would have to be done about

NATO's war aims if the goal of fragmenting the Warsaw Pact

at this stage were to have much of a chance. But why wait?

To change aims after an attack has already occurred would be

late in the process, arguably much too late. It would be far

better to affect Soviet and East European expectations much

earlier so as to prevent the attack.

There is a parallel here from World War II. Only after

the German attack on Poland and the declaration of war by

Britain and France did Britain declare the aim of liberating

the peoples occupied by the Nazis (in a statement by Neville

Chamberlain on 20 September 1939).5 Churchill repeated this

aim after the fall of France and after the fall of Yugoslavia

and Greece. The pertinent analogy here would be the presi-

dent of the United States declaring the aim of liberating

Europe only after its occupation by the Soviets. But such a

declaration would seem to be accompanied by no credible

means of accomplishment and, being voiced too late, would

have no deterrent effect.

These observations are perhaps brought more sharply in-to focus by an early recorded example of ef forts to dislodge

members of an opposing coalition. According to Herodotus,

when the Persian King, Xerxes, invaded Greece in 480 B.C.

with a force that included Greek Ionians whom the Persians

had conquered, the Athenian commander, Themistocles, sent

Athenian ships along the coast to cut inscriptions on the

rocks saying,

Men of Ionia, you do wrong to fight against your own

fathers, and to give your help to enslave Greece. We

beseech you therefore to come over, if possible, to our side.

If you cannot do this, then, we pray you, stand aloof from



192 ROWEN

t h e c o n q u e s t y o u r s e l v e s . . . . I f n e i th e r o f t h e se t h in g s b e

p o s s i b le , a n d y o u a r e h i n d e r e d b y a f o r c e t o o s t r o n g t ore s is t f ro m ven t u r i ng o n dese r t i on , a t le a s t w h en w e co m e to

b l o w s , f ig h t b a c k w a r d l y , r e m e m b e r i n g t h a t y o u r a r e s p r u n g

f r o m u s , a n d t h a t i t w a s th r o u g h y o u w e f ir s t p r o v o k e d t h e

h a t r e d o f t h e b a r b a r i a n s .

H e r o d o t u s a t t r i b u t e d t o T h e m i s t o c l e s t h e r e a s o n in g t h a t

X e r x e s w o u l d d i s t ru s t t h e I o n ia n s a n d w o u l d n o t a l l o w t h e m

t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s e a f i g h t s .

T h e b a t t l e o f S a l am i s f o l l o w e d . H e r o d o t u s s a i d o f th e

I o n i a n p e r f o r m a n c e , " a f e w o n l y f o l lo w e d t h e ad v i c e o f

T h e m i s to c l e s , t o f ig h t b a c k w a r d l y ; t h e g re a t e r n u m b e r d i d

f a r o t h e r w i s e . " A y e a r la te r , h o w e v e r , t h e G r e e k f le e t s a il ed

a c r o s s t h e A e g e a n a n d c o n f r o n t e d t h e P e r s i a n s a t M y c a l e .

B e f o r e t h e b a t t l e , t h e G r e e k c o m m a n d e r , L e o t y c h i d e s ,

r e p e a t e d T h e m i s t o c l e s ' p l e a . H e r o d o t u s s a i d ,

W h e n t h e P e r s i a n s . . . t h o u g h t o f t h e a d v i c e w h i c h h a d

been o f f e re d t o t he Ion i ans , t he ir f i r s t a c t w as to d i sa rm t he

S a m i a n s , w h o m t h e y s u s p e c t e d o f c o m p l i c i t y w i t h t h e

e n e m y . . . . A f t e r d i s a r m i n g th e m , th e P e r s i a n s n e x t d is -

p a t c h e d t h e M i l e s i a n s t o g u a r d t h e p a t h s l e a d i n g u p t o t h e

h e ig h ts o f M y c a l e . . . . T h e i r t r u e o b j e c t , h o w e v e r , w a s t o

r e m o v e t h e m t o a d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e c a m p .

I n t h e b a t t l e , " T h e S a m i a n s . . . a l t h o u g h d i s a r m e d . . .

s e e in g f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f th e f ig h t t h a t v i c t o r y [ f o r t h e

P e r s i a n s] w a s d o u b t f u l , d i d a ll t h a t l a y in th e i r p o w e r t o

r e n d e r h e lp to th e G r e e k s . A n d t he o t h e r I o n ia n s l i k e w i s e . . .

r e v o l t e d a n d a t t a c k e d t h e P e r s i a n s . " T h e M i l e si an s , g u a r d i n g

t h e m o u n t a i n p a t h s , " g u i d e d t h e f ly in g P e r s i a n s b y w r o n g

r o a d s w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e m i n to t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e e n e m y ;

a n d a t la s t t h e y s e t u p o n t h e m w i t h t h e i r o w n h a n d s . ''6T h e a t t e m p t t o p e r s u a d e t h e I o n i a n s t o d e f e c t in 4 8 0 B . C .

f a il e d , w h i le in 4 7 9 B . C . i t s u c c e e d e d . T h e o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n t h e t w o c a s e s is t h a t i n th e f o r m e r t h e P e r s i a n s w e r e

o n t h e o f f e n s i v e a n d h a d a s u p e r i o r f o r c e ; in th e l a t t e r t h e



194 RO WE N

be temporizing and fence-straddling-tipping toward resis-

ting Moscow's orders. Conversely, greater confidence in

NATO's potential for defense and counterattack would

create and communicate a sense of possibilities that would

reinforce the likelihood of getting volunteers from the East in

a conflict-and that greater likelihood would help to justify

these favorable expectations. All of these possibilities should

help to make the Soviets more cautious.

But we still must consider the question of the Soviet

response to such a counteradvance in the unlikely event that

it ever had to be carried out. If successful, it could put in

question Party control of the Soviet Union itself. Might the

regime, if so challenged, unleash a nuclear holocaust? We

should not expect this response from Leninists under

stress-people who should never be confused with Hitler in

the bunker. But the main point is that the purpose of this line

of policy would be to keep any conflict from happening. The

likelihood of such a conflict would be reduced if the NATO

authorities weighed seriously the potential payoffs f rom non-

Soviet defections in the Warsaw Pact and drew the ap-

propriate conclusions.

To proceed further along this line of inquiry requires

assuming that, at some point before it was too late, the

Western governments would alter their aims so as to give the

East Europeans a stake in deviating from Moscow's com-

mands. Let us make that assumption.The essential messages would have to be those of hope

and control over one's fate. The element of hope would stem

from the postulated change in NATO's war aims as discussed

above. Similarly, that of control over one's fate would derive

from the conviction that action by individuals and groups of

people could make a difference to themselves personally, to

their families and friends, and to their nation. For those in a

position to defect-for example, pilots, troops at the front,sailors-these themes have most obvious application. For

those less favored, the message would also be that their ac-

tions could make a difference because Soviet victory is not

assured and their contribution (in foot-dragging or sabotage)

would affect the outcome.



GENERAL WAR 1~

Deciding What to Do Now

One of the crucial questions in all of this is how much to

do now and how much to do later. For reasons discussed

above, the instinct of most politicians and bureaucrats, who

might agree with the actions proposed if an actual attack

should come, is not to rock the boat now. But NATO faces a

crisis of strategy; doing nothing is becoming more dangerous.

One alternative is to massively build up NATO conventional

forces, a hard choice. Another (one that is by no means anadequate substitute for a buildup) is for the NATO govern-

ments to shift their stance toward Eastern Europe in the way

suggested here .

The main changes in Western policy that such a shift

would entail are explicit recognition of the mutual interest of

the West and the East Europeans in avoiding a conflict, a

Western declaration of respect for the neutrality of those

countries that would stay out of any conflict with the West,and an abandonment of NATO's doctrine of doing no more

than restoring the status quo ante in the event of an attack.

Supporting this overall strategy would be continued efforts to

engage the peoples of Eastern Europe in many ways.

None of these changes would alter the fixed conviction

of Western publics and governments that they will not in-

tervene in the recurring eruptions in Eastern Europe. The

(noncrisis) policy guidelines for Radio Free Europe andRadio Liberty would remain unchanged.

Finally, this line of argument by itself is no solution to

the defense of Europe. One simply cannot be confiden t of the

effectiveness of an anticoalition policy aimed at deterring

conflict. But one can say the same about some other elements

of Western strategy, including the assumed political cohesion

of NATO in a crisis and the credibility of our nuclear threat.

We live with a lot of uncertainty.

If such a policy were to be adopted, it would be only a

component of a larger strategy. The main emphasis in that

larger strategy should be on building a stronger nonnuclear

defense, a goal clearly within the technical and economic



1 ~ R O W E N

c a p a c i t y o f t h e N A T O s t at e s. I t is a l so n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a

p r o t e c t e d a n d c o n t r o l l a b l e c a p a c i t y t o u s e n u c l e a r w e a p o n sa g a i n st a n i n v a d e r , i f o n l y t o d e t e r h i m f r o m u s i n g t h e s e

w e a p o n s .

T o f o l l o w t h e a d v i c e o f S u n T z u , t o d i s r u p t t h e o p p o -

n e n t ' s a ll ia n c e s is o n l y p r u d e n t , b u t it is n o t e n o u g h .




Notes

1. Hugh Seton-Watson, "What is Europe, Where is Europe?:

From Mystique to Politique," E n c o u n t e r 65, no. 2 (July/August

1985), pp. 9-17.2. Sun Tzu, T h e A r t o f W a r, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (Ox-

ford: Clarendon Press, 1963), p. 64.

3. NSC draft s tatement on US policy toward Soviet SatelliteStates in Eastern Europe. NSC report (25), December 6, 1949. Top

Secret. Declassified September 2, 1981. Sanitized.4. Great Britain, Parliament, P a r l i a m e n t a r y D e b a t e s (Com-

mons), 5th Series 360 (1940).

5. Neville Chamberlain, Vi ta l S p eech es , vol. 5, no. 24 (Octo-

ber 1, 1939), p. 755.

6. Herodotus, H i s t o r i e s VIII 22, IX 96-104.



Comment

ALEXANDER ALEXIEV

DR. ROWEN'S PAPER deals with a subject I have been in-

terested in for quite some time. It is a subject in which I have

somewhat of a personal interest, since I had the dubious

privilege of serving in an East European army. I really don'thave any disagreements with Dr. Rowen's paper. What I

would like to do is elaborate on some of the points he has

made, and emphasize both the opportunities that are present

and the need for some caution in addressing this overall issue.Let me start by saying that, in spite of the opportunities

Dr. Rowen has documen ted for us, virtually nothing has been

done along these lines. Yet the case for doing something has,

if anything, become stronger. In Western Europe you have atrend toward a growing decoupling of the NATO allies fromthe United States. You now have established West European

parties, like the British Labor Party, arguing for unilateral

disarmament , and the German Social Democratic Party is not

far behind with a de facto renunciation of NATO doctrine.

You also have a situation in which, if the nuclear arms con-trol agreement of which there has been so much talk actually

comes to pass, the Soviet preponderance in conventional

forces will become even more politically important. So the

situation in Western Europe does not look good.

On the other hand, in Eastern Europe you have a trendthat could not encourage the Soviets very much. You have a

growing disillusionment with the Soviet system as such-the

economic system has proved a failure not only to the peoples

of Eastern Europe but to their leaderships as well. You now

have in Eastern Europe what I would call the institutionaliza-tion of dissent. Solidarity, despite the fact that it was sup-

pressed, is not dead; in fact, you have a very active

underground in Poland. And not only in Poland: you have

peace movements in various countries; you have

underground church movements in a number of East Euro-pean countries; you have new ecological dissent movements,

198



G E N E R A L W A R 199

a n d s o f o r t h . I n o t h e r w o r d s , y o u h a v e f u r t h e r d e c o u p l i n g , a t

l ea st p s y c h o l o g ic a l ly o f t h e E a s t E u r o p e a n s f r o m t h e S o v ie t

U n i o n . T h i s w o u l d s e e m to b e t h e k i n d o f c l i m a t e t h a t m i g h t

b e c o n d u c i v e to p o l ic y e f fo r t s o n o u r p a r t t o g e t t h e E a s t

E u r o p e a n s t o c o l l a b o r a t e w i th u s i f p u s h c a m e to s h o v e .

L e t m e s k e t c h o u t w h a t I t h i n k a r e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

e l e m e n t s o f a U S o r W e s t e r n p o l i c y t o e x p l o i t th i s s i t u a t io n .

W e c l e a r ly s h o u l d a t t e m p t t o e x p l o i t t h e s e c l e a v a g es , c e r t a in -

l y b e f o r e a c o n f l i c t b r e a k s o u t b u t a l s o d u r i n g a c o n f l ic t .

S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f c l ea v a g e s s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d a s

w e d e s i g n o u r p o l i c y .O f c o u r s e , c l e av a g e s a t t h e t o p a r e c r u ci a l. T h e s e a r e t h e

p r o b l e m s t h a t s t em f r o m t h e c o er c iv e n a t u r e o f t h e W a r s a wP a c t a l l i a n c e , w h i c h in f a c t is n o t a re a l a ll i a n c e b u t r a t h e r a

S o v i e t - i m p o s e d s y s t em o f p o li ti c a l c o n f o r m i t y . S o v i e t a i m s i n

a w a r a g a in s t W e s t e r n E u r o p e d o n ' t r ea l l y h a v e a n y t h i n g t o

o f f e r t o th e E a s t E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i s t l ea d er s . T h e s e a r e

s t ri c tl y S o v i e t a i m s , a n d t h a t ' s i m p o r t a n t t o k e e p in m i n d .

T h e n , y o u h a v e c l ea v a g es b e t w e e n t h e r e g i m e s in E a s t e r nE u r o p e a n d t h e p e o p le s o f E a s te r n E u r o p e ; I w o n ' t e l a b o r a te

f u r t h e r o n t h a t . A n d t h e n y o u h a v e c l ea v a ge s w i t h i n t h e E a s t

E u r o p e a n s o ci et ie s t h e m s e l v e s .

A p o l i c y t o e x p l o i t th e s e c l e a v a g e s h a s a p o l i t i c a l d i m e n -

s io n , b u t i t a l so n e e d s s o m e s p e c if ic i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s to m a k e

i t e f f e c t i v e . T h e e s s en t ia l m e s s a g e t h a t w e n e e d t o g i v e t o t h e

E a s t E u r o p e a n s is t h a t t h e r e is s o m e t h i n g in it fo r t h e m . I n

o t h e r w o r d s , i f t h e y w a n t t o e n g a g e in th e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o rD r . R o w e n h a s d e s c r i b e d , i t is i n t h e i r o w n i n t e r es t ; c o n v e r s e -

l y , i f t h e y f a i l t o d o s o , t h e y w i ll p a y a v e r y h e a v y p r i c e i n

t e r m s o f t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s . W e n e e d to

le t t h e E a s t E u r o p e a n s k n o w t h a t i f t h e y w e r e n o t t o

c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e W e s t i n p r e v e n t i n g t h e S o v i e t s f r o m p u r -

s u i n g a n a g g r e ss iv e p o li c y , th e y t h e m s e l v e s w o u l d b e m u c h

w o r s e o f f .

I t h i n k t h e E a s t E u r o p e a n s c le a r l y u n d e r s t a n d t h a t . T og iv e o n e e x a m p l e , s o m e s ix m o n t h s a g o a P o l i s h g e n e r a l

w r o t e a n a r t ic l e i n a m i l i ta r y n e w s p a p e r i n w h i c h h e s a id t h a t

in t h e e v e n t o f w a r h e e x p e c t e d a b o u t 3 00 n u c l e a r b o m b s o f a

m e g a t o n e a ch to b e d r o p p e d o n P o l a n d , a d d i n g th a t a o n e

m e g a t o n b o m b w o u l d c o m p l e t e ly d e s t r o y a P o li sh c ity o f h a l f



200 ALEXIEV

a m i l l i o n p e o p l e . N o w , t h e m e s s a g e t o th e P o l i s h p e o p l e f r o m

t h a t a r ti c le is t h a t t h e r e w i ll b e n o P o l a n d l e ft . W h e t h e r t h is

w a s d o n e o n p u r p o s e o r n o t is a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r , b u t t h e y

c l ea r ly u n d e r s t a n d w h a t i t w o u l d m e a n t o b e i n v o l v e d in a

g e n e r a l w a r . W h a t w e n e e d t o te ll E a s t e r n E u r o p e i s t h a t t h is

i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y g o i n g t o b e t h e c a s e .

I n f a ct , I t h i n k w e n e e d t o g o b e y o n d D r . R o w e n ' s l is t o f

t a r g e ts f o r i n f l u e n c e a n d i n c l u d e a r e a s o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n

t h a t a r e r e a ll y p a r t o f E a s t e r n E u r o p e . T h e B a l ti c s t a te s a re

c e r ta i n ly m u c h m o r e l ik e E a s t e r n E u r o p e t h a n l ik e R u s s i ap r o p e r . I w o u l d g o s o fa r as t o i n c l u d e t h e U k r a i n e . I w o u l d

e v e n g o s o fa r a s t o i n c l u d e S o v i e t f o r c e s in E a s t e r n E u r o p e .

A t t h e R a n d C o r p o r a t i o n , w e h a v e re c e n tl y d o n e a s t u d y o f

t h e r e li ab i li ty o f th e E a s t E u r o p e a n s b a s e d o n i n t e r v ie w s w i th

f o r m e r E a s t E u r o p e a n a n d S o v ie t s e rv i ce m e n . O n e o f o u r

m o s t s u r p r i s i n g f i n d in g s w a s t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r o f

S o v i e t s o l d i e r s h a v e t r i e d t o d e f e c t f r o m t h e i r u n i t s i n E a s t

G e r m a n y . W e t a l k e d t o E a s t G e r m a n b o r d e r g u a rd s w h o

c o n f i r m e d t h is t o u s . S o i t 's n o t t h a t t h e S o v i e t a r m y i t s e l f is

t h a t m o n o l i t h i c - a n d t h a t m a y b e a n o t h e r a r e a w e n e e d to

l o o k a t .

W e a l so n e e d t o i n s t i t u te a n u m b e r o f p o li c i es b e y o n d

t h e b as ic m e s s a g e th a t D r . R o w e n d e s c r i b e d . W e n e e d to

d e s ig n p o l ic i e s t h a t w o u l d s e r v e t o c o u n t e r a c t e f f o r t s t h e

S o v i e ts a r e n o w p u r s u i n g t o e n f o r c e c o h e s i o n a n d p r e v e n tu n r e l ia b i l it y . I n th e s t u d y I j u s t m e n t i o n e d , o n e o f o u r f i n d -

i n g s w a s t h a t w h i l e t h e r e i s a g r e a t d e a l o f f r a g i l i t y in t h e E a s t

E u r o p e a n a r m i e s , t h e r e is a l s o n o r e a s o n t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e y

w il l s i m p l y r is e u p a n d c o m e o v e r to o u r s id e w i t h o u t o u r d o -

i n g a n y t h i n g t o e n c o u r a g e i t . M a n y f a c t o r s m i l i t a t e a g a i n s t

t h is , s u c h a s t h e m a s s i v e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n t o w h i c h s o l d i er s in

E a s t e r n E u r o p e a r e s u b j e c t e d , w h i c h w o r k s to s o m e e x te n t .

M a n y o f t h e p e o p l e w e t a lk e d t o w e r e c e r ta i n ly n o f r i e n d s o ft h e r e g im e , b u t w e r e s ti l l c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e r e w a s a t h r e a t

f r o m t h e W e s t t o th e ir p a r t ic u l a r c o u n t r ie s . T h e y h a d n o i d e a

o f th e r e al b a la n c e o f fo r c e s . T h e y h a d n o i d e a t h a t N A T O

h a s n o o f f e n s i v e c a p a b i l i ti e s .



G E N E R A L W A R 2 01

Let me give you one example of the Soviets' vulner-

ability. In the early 1960s, the second edition of Marshal

Sokolovskiy's seminal work on Soviet military strategy in-

cluded a minor change. According to the new edition, it was

now possible that a fter the outbreak of war there would be a

short period during which the war would be localized, even if

it were nuclear. The East Europeans-in this particular case

the Czechs, many of whom we interviewed-looked at that

and said, "Look at th i s - w ha t they're trying to tell us is that

they will use us as cannon fodder, then try to make a dealwith the Americans."

This circumstance led to very serious dissatisfaction

within the officer corps in Czechoslovakia beginning in the

mid-sixties, and within two years you had a major problem in

their military, when they started looking at the Warsaw Pact

as something that might not be the best for them. In fact,

anyone familiar with the Prague Spring knows that the

military were in the forefront of the reform movement, atleast partly because of their dissatisfaction with Soviet doc-

trine, which they believed would sacrifice their own men for

Soviet purposes. Messages about this aspect of Soviet doc-

trine would, I think, still find a very receptive audience.

Let me say just a few words about the instrumentalities

of the kind of policy I am discussing. What we need to do

now is convince the Soviets that we're not only talking about

these things but also serious about doing something aboutthem. Unless they're convinced that we are prepared to ex-

ecute certain policies, they're not going to be bothe red much.

Talk is cheap, and they know that the West's talk is

sometimes cheaper than anybody else's.

Dr. Rowen mentioned the crucial role of radio com-

munications-Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. Not

long ago, a Soviet propagandist gave a lecture in which he ad-

mitted that 60 percent of the Soviet population listens to

Western radio and, what is even more important, that the

number of people below the age of 30 that listen to it is two to

three times higher than the number of those above 30. That

fact has definite implications for us.



202 ALEXIEV

A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t t r e n d in E a s t e r n E u r o p e , a s w e ll a s in

t h e W e s t , t h a t o f f e r s g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n f lu e n c i n g th e s e

p e o p l e is t h e s o - c a ll e d i n f o r m a t i o n r e v o l u t io n . A g a i n , n o t

l o n g a g o t h e r e w a s a se r ie s o f a rt i c le s in a P o l i s h n e w s p a p e r

a u t h o r e d b y t h e m i l i ta r y p ol it ic a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( a n d

t h e r e f o r e f r o m t h e to p ) c a l le d " T h e I n f o r m a t i o n W a r . " P e r -

s o na l c o m p u t e r s a r e a g r ea t w o r r y fo r t h e m - a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e s e a u t h o r s , t h e r e a r e s o m e 1 50 ,0 00 p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r s in

P o l a n d t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t c a n n o t c o n t r o l . M o r e i m p o r t a n t

is t h e i n f l u e n c e o f W e s t e r n T V . T h e y te ll u s t h a t in P o l a n dn o w , w i t h a v e r y s i m p l e a n t e n n a , y o u c a n r e c e iv e t w e l v e

W e s t e rn T V s t a t i o n s - w i th r e c e p t i o n o f a t le as t so m e a s g o o d

a s r e c e p t i o n o f P o l i s h T V , a n d w i t h m o r e a t t r a c t i v e p r o -

g r a m s . B u t t h e y s ay th is is n o t h i n g c o m p a r e d t o w h a t w ill

h a p p e n w h e n t h e y p u t a g e o s t a t i o n a r y s a te ll ite a b o v e

P o l a n d - t h e n t h ey ' l l b e in b ig t r o u b l e . T h is b u s in e s s o f

s a te l l it e T V h a s b e c o m e a s e r io u s c o n c e r n i n a ll o f E a s t e r n

E u r o p e , a n d i t's n o t s o m e t h i n g th e y c an d o m u c h a b o u t .A b o v e a n d b e y o n d t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s f o r c o m -

m u n i c a t io n , t h e r e a r e s o m e a re a s th a t a r e m u c h m o r e o p e r a -

t i o n a l . I 'd p r e f e r n o t t o d i sc u s s t h e m h e r e , b u t t o g i v e o n e e x -

a m p l e , a s I m e n t i o n e d a t t h e o u t s e t , y o u h a v e in P o l a n d a n

e f f e c t i v e u n d e r g r o u n d t h a t h a s b e e n f u n c t i o n i n g f o r f iv e

y e a rs , a n d t h e r e g im e h a s n o t b e e n a b l e t o d o m u c h a b o u t i t .

A n d i t 's n o t j u s t in P o l a n d - i n L i t h u a n i a y o u h a v e a n

u n d e r g r o u n d c h u r c h o p e r a t i n g n o w f o r c l os e t o t w e n t y y e a r s ,a n d t h e s a m e th i n g h a s h a p p e n e d in C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , in t h e

W e s t e rn U k r a i n e , a n d s o o n . E v e r y b o d y ta lk s a b o u t t h e

v a u n t e d S o v i e t Spetsnaz; b u t r i g h t h e r e i n t h is c o u n t r y w e

h a v e e t h n ic A m e r i c a n s w h o c o u l d b e u s e d in a v a r ie t y o f

c a p a c i t i e s .

B e f o r e I f i n is h , l et m e s o u n d a n o t e o f c a u t i o n . A l l t h e s e

t h i n g s a r e i m p o r t a n t , a n d it is h i g h ti m e w e t o o k a c l o se lo o k

a t t h e m a n d d i d s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e m . B u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e ,

w e s h o u l d b e v e r y c a r e f u l n o t t o p r e s e n t th e s e k i n d s of poten-

tiai S o v i e t v u l n e r a b il i t i es a s a p a n a c e a f o r o u r m i l it a r y p r o b -

l e m s w i t h t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , a s i s o f t e n d o n e . S o m e p e o p l e

l o o k a t t h e E a st E u r o p e a n s a n d c o n c l u d e t h a t w e d o n ' t n e e d



GENERAL WAR 2 ~

t o w o r r y a b o u t t h e m . T h e G e r m a n S o c ia l D e m o c r a t s , a f t e r

t h e i r l a t e s t c o n g r e s s a t E s s e n , e s s e n t i a l l y r e n o u n c e d N A T O

n u c l e a r d o c t r in e , w h i le a t th e s a m e t i m e s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e

w a s n ' t e n o u g h m o n e y f o r c o n v e n t i o n a l d e fe n s e ; a n d s h o r t l y

a f t e r w a r d t h e y c a m e u p w i th a p a p e r a g u i n g t h a t t h e S o v i e t s

a r e n o t t h a t m u c h o f a t h r e a t a n y w a y b e ca u s e a ll t h e E a s t

E u r o p e a n s a r e u n r e li ab l e . S o w e h a v e to b e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t

t h a t . P o l i ti c a l w a r f a r e is o n l y e f f e c t i v e i f y o u h a v e a d e q u a t e

m i l i t a r y p o w e r t o b a c k i t u p .

E DW A R D A T K E S ON

I C AM E T O T H E T HE SIS o f D r . R o w e n ' s p a p e r w i t h s o m e

d e g r e e o f s k ep t i c i sm . D r . R o w e n w a s f o r m e r l y m y b e n e v o l e n t

b o s s o n t h e N a t i o n a l I n te l l i g e n c e C o u n c i l . O n e d a y h e c a l l e d

m e u p t o h is o f f i c e a n d a s k e d m e to b r i n g m y e s t i m a t e o f

S o v i e t g e n e r a l p u r p o s e f o r c e s . W e s a t d o w n a n d h e s a i d ,

" N o w , t a lk t o m e a b o u t t h e r e l ia b i l it y o f E a s t E u r o p e a n

f o r c e s . " 1 b e g a n l e af in g t h r o u g h t h e e s t im a t e , b u t c o u l d f i n d

o n l y o n e s h o r t p a r a g r a p h w i t h p e r h a p s s ix s e n t e n c e s in i t ,

e s se n t i a l ly s a y in g t h a t w e d o n ' t k n o w m u c h a b o u t t h i s s u b -

j e c t . H e t o l d m e th a t I n e e d e d n o f u r t h e r i n s t r u c t io n s b u ts h o u l d c o m e b a c k w h e n I h a d s o m e t h i n g m o r e in t e re s t i n g a n d

i n s tr u c t iv e t o s a y o n t h e m a t t e r .

I s aw D r . R o w e n a b o u t t e n m o n t h s l a te r , a f t e r m u c h

b u r e a u c r a t i c b l o o d h a d b e e n s pi l l e d . W e m u s t h a v e w o r k e d



204 A TK ES ON

s ix d a y s a w e e k d u r i n g m o s t o f t h a t p e r i o d . I t w a s a n e n o r -

m o u s l y e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , n o t j u s t f o r m e , b u t f o r th e

e n t ir e i n t e l l ig e n c e c o m m u n i t y . I ' m n o t s u r e t h a t w e a ll c a m e

o u t a w h o l e lo t w i se r , b u t w e c a m e o u t s o m e w h a t m o r e h u m -

b le a b o u t o u r p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t t h e ro le o f th e E a s t E u r o -

p e a n f o r c es in t h e W a r s a w P a c t . T h e o n e t h in g t h a t p a r -

t ic u l a r l y i m p r e s s e d m e w h e n w e h a d f in i sh e d t h e e x e rc is e w a s

t h a t t h e r e o u g h t t o b e a p o l i c y d o c u m e n t t o m a t c h t h e in -

t e l l i g e n c e e s t i m a t e . I h a v e n e v e r s e e n o n e . T h e c l o s e s t t h i n g

I 'v e s e en to a m a t c h i n g p o l i c y p r o p o s a l is D r . R o w e n ' s p a p e r .

E a r l y o n i n h is p a p e r , D r . R o w e n p o i n t s o u t t h e b a s i c

a s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n E a s t e rn a n d W e s t e r n s tr a t eg ie s r e g ar d in g

t h e p r o m o t i o n o f d iv i s io n s w i t h in t h e o p p o s i n g c a m p . I t h i n k

h e m a k e s a v e r y p e r s u a s i v e c a s e t h a t t h e W e s t h a s m i s s e d a n

o p p o r t u n i t y t o a r m i ts e l f w i th a p o t e n t i a l l y e f f e c t i v e d e v ic e

f o r e n h a n c i n g d e t e r r e n c e a n d i t s o v e r a l l s e c u r i t y p o s t u r e . P a r -

t i c u l a r ly i m p o r t a n t , I t h i n k , is t h e p o i n t t h a t S o v i e t p l a n n e r s

a r e f a r le s s l ik e l y t o a d v o c a t e r e s o r t t o a r m s f o r th e s u b j u g a -t io n o f W e s t e r n E u r o p e in a t i m e o f c ri s is i f t h e s p e c t e r o f t h e

d i s i n te g r a t i o n o f th e i r r e a r a r e a h a n g s o v e r t h e m .

T h r e c a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s m i g h t b e m a d e t o s t r e n g t h e n h is

c a s e . F i r s t, t h e r e i s s o l i d e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e S o v i e t s a r e a c u t e l y

a w a r e o f a n d s e n si ti v e t o W e s t e r n i n f lu e n c e w i th t h ei r E a s t

E u r o p e a n a ll ie s , m o d e s t a s t h a t i n f l u e n c e h a s b e e n in r e c e n t

y e ar s . J u s t la s t y e a r, G e n e r a l G r i b k o v , d e p u t y c o m m a n d e r

a n d c h i e f o f s t a f f o f th e W a r s a w P a c t , h a d t h i s t o sa y : " F r o mt h e f ir st y e a r s o f it s e x i st e n ce , t h e W a r s a w P a c t h a s b e e n s u b -

j e c t e d t o c o n s t a n t a t t a c k s b y b o u r g e o i s i d e o l o g i s t s s t ri v in g t o

d i s t o r t i ts g e n u i n e g o a l s a n d n a t u r e a n d t o a s c r i b e i n t e n t i o n s

t o it w h i c h a r e i n n o w a y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e s p ir it a n d l e t t e r

o f t h e P a c t . T h e i n t e n t i o n s o f o u r i d e o l o g i c a l a d v e r s a r i e s a r e

c le a r. T h e y w o u l d l ik e t o u n d e r m i n e t h e u n i t y a n d c o h e s i o n

o f t h e W a r s a w P a c t m e m b e r s ta t e s , a n d t o d e s t r o y t h e c o m -

b a t c o m m u n i t y o f t h e f r a t e r n a l c o u n t r i e s a n d t h e i r a r m i e s , in

o r d e r t o w e a k e n t h e c o m b i n e d m i g h t o f th e s o ci a li s t d e f e n s e

p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e . "

I t h i n k t h e g e n e r a l p r o t e s t s t o o m u c h . T h e r e h a v e b e e n

f e w s u c h " a t t a c k s . " B u t w h a t e v e r d i d ~ o a c r o s s G e n e r a l




Gribkov's desk apparent ly struck a raw nerve, suggesting very

keen awareness on the Soviets' part of the true nature of their

"alliance": It is an organization run by Russians for the sup-

port of Russian interests, and with the potential for

dangerous developments should the West adopt a strategy of

the sort Dr. Rowen suggests.

Second, I believe Dr. Rowen may have understated the

degree to which the Soviets depend on the forces of the non-

Soviet Warsaw Pact states. The Warsaw Treaty Organization

dates from 1955, but it was not until the beginning of the suc-

ceeding decade that the Soviets began to take their own crea-

tion seriously. The first combined exercise was held in 1961,

in response, John Caravelli .has suggested, to a growing

perception on the Soviets' part that there was a need to in-

crease their defensive (or striking) posture in Eastern Europe

in light of heightened tensions over Berlin and in the Far

East.

The Soviets appear now to have many more military

problems to deal with than they did then. There is

Afghanistan, and the whole matter of the Persian Gulf and

the southern theater of military operations. There is renewed

participation by France in NATO planning. There is thedevelopment by the United States of a far less passive and

defensive tactical doctrine, with its concept of AirLand Bat-

tle; NATO, too, has developed the notion of deep attack

against follow-on forces. There is the qualitative upgrade ofNATO forces underway with the Leopard II and M-1 tanks,

and much other new equipment. There is the addition of

Spain to the all iance -admi tt edl y not much in the way of

ready forces, but a lot of additional terrain for Pact planners

to worry about.

In short, if the Soviets felt a pinch for forces in the

mid-1960s, they are certainly aware of a need for help from

their allies today. Matters are now probably well past thepoint where a Soviet unilatera l attack on the West would be a

feasible option , even if the Soviets were administratively sup-

ported by their allies. The Soviets have become more depen-

dent on the military contribution of their allies, particularly



2 06 A T K E S O N

those of the northern tier, just as their allies have been show-

ing less basis for Soviet confidence in their reliability. We

should not be surprised to see more Soviet writings now deal-

ing with the notion of protracted conflict.

Third, and finally, I would add a remark to Dr. Rowen's

point that there are really not many reasons that East Euro-

pean states would want to participate in an attack on the

West in the first place. Perhaps the East German regime har-

bors dreams of controlling the Ruhr-it sounds a little far-

fetched, but I suppose anything is possible for the doctrinaire

mind. As a practical matter, however, the East European

peoples have many more issues for dispute among

themselves-and with the Soviet Union-than they do with

the West. After Bonn's acceptance of the Oder-Neisse Line

and adoption of O s t p o l i t i k , there is simply not much left to

inspire East European hatred or fear of the West. On the

other hand, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania can all

look back at territories taken from them by the Soviet Union.The Romanians and Bulgarians have the issue of southern

Dobrogea between them; the Romanians and Hungarians

have Transylvania. And I don't want to guess about possible

differences between East German and Polish views of the

ideal order of things in Pomerania and Silesia.

Christopher Donnelly, of the Center for Soviet Studies

in Sandhurst, has pointed out that many of these people hate

each other, and if there is anyone they hate more, it is theRussians. In any event, there is simply not a great deal about

the West to raise the ire of the broad populations of Eastern

Europe. There would have to be some sort of stimulus to

arouse hostility, such as fear of West German military

resurgence. Although there is little practical prospect for in-

vasion of the East by any Western army during the early days

of a NAT O-Warsaw Pact conflict, it is not at all clear that all

East Europeans would necessarily oppose such an invasion,depending, of course, upon the circumstances and the par-

ticular nationalities involved.

So the Soviets are in a bit o f a dilemma. If they cry wolf

very often over the "threat" of Western attack, they may



Afterword-Twelve Steps toReviving American PSYOP

F R A N K R . B A R N E T T

SO M E M A Y T H I N K I T O D D t ha t a c o n fe re n ce o n s uc h

s e ns i t i ve m a t t e r s a s S ov i e t p r a c t i c e s o f d ive r s ion ,

c a m o u f l a g e , a n d d e c e p t i o n s h o u l d i n v o l v e p e o p l e a n d e n ti ti es

o u t s i d e g o v e r n m e n t . S u r e ly , h o w e v e r , t h e v al id r e a s o n f o r p r i v a t e

s e ct o r c o n c e r n is t h a t o n e m a j o r t a r g e t f o r S o v ie t P S Y W A R is

p u b f i c o p i n i o n . A n t i - t a n k w e a p o n s h u r t s o l d i e r s ; b u t M o s c o w ' s

" P S Y O P b o m b s " d i s o r i e n t M a i n S t r e e t c i v i l i a n s a s w e l l a s

p o l i c y m a k e r s .

T h e K r e m l i n , w h o s e l e a d e r s h a v e s t u d i e d t h e m a n i p u l a t i v e

a r ts o f S u n T z u a n d P a v l o v , r o u t i n e l y a c ts to e n e r v a t e t h e n a -

t i ona l w i ll o f o pp os in g st at e s. By a l t e rna t i ng t he s t r a t e gy o f t e r ro r

w i t h p r o m i s e s o f d e t e n t e , t h e P o l i t b u r o s ee k s t o i n d u c e n e u r o t i c

m o o d - s w i n g s i n n o n c o m m u n i s t elites. W h a t d e m o c r a c y c a n s u s-

t a in a g r a n d d e s i g n i n f o r e i g n p o li c y w h e n it s l e a d e r sh i p g r o u p s

a r e m o v e d f i r s t f r o m a l a r m t o e u p h o r i a , t h e n b a c k t h r o u g h

d e s p o n d e n c y t o f eb r il e h o p e , b y a c y cl e o f S o v i e t- e n g in e e r e d

t h r e a ts a n d t h a w s , i n v a si o n s a n d r e f o r m s , i n su r g e n c ie s a n d

glasnos t , a n d d o u b l e j e o p a r d y d i s a r m a m e n t g a m e s ?

F r o m L e n i n ' s " N e w E c o n o m i c P o l i c y " t h r o u g h

K h r u s h c h e v ' s " P e a c e f u l C o e x i s t e n c e " t o G o r b a c h e v ' s " N e w

T h i n k i n g , " W e s t e r n t h o u g h t h a s b e e n s o e n t r a n c e d b y t h e

c a re s s o f ve lve t s e m a n t i c s i t c ou ld no t d i s c e rn t he unva ry ingc o m p o n e n t s o f S o v i e t s ta t e cr a ft : b l o o d a n d i r o n ; i d e o l o g y ,

g u ile , a n d p r o p a g a n d a ; t h e p r im a c y o f P a r t y , a r m y , a n d

s e c r e t p o l i c e . W h o e v e r i s e v e n s o m e w h a t a w a r e o f S o v i e t a c -

t ive m e a s u re s i n t he f ie ld pe rc e ive s t ha t i n t im e o f s o -c a ll e d

p e a ce , i n si de o u r o w n d e m o c r a c y a n d in o t h e r v u l n e r ab l e

209



2 1 0 B A R N E T T

s o c i e t i e s ( e . g . , B r i t a i n , M e x i c o , N e w Z e a l a n d , t h e P h i l i p -

p in e s , W e s t G e r m a n y , J a p a n , S o u t h K o r ea ) , id e o lo g ic a l

r a d i a t i o n i s c o n s t a n t l y i n f l i c t i n g c a s u a l t i e s a m o n g c i v i l i a n

o p i n i o n - m a k e r s . S o t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r m u s t s t u d y S o v i e t

P S Y W A R t o h e l p p r o t e c t i t se l f a n d , s h o u l d i t h a v e t h e

c r e a t i v i t y , t o i n n o v a t e s o m e p o s i t i v e c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s i n t h e

b a t t l e o f i d e a s .

S o m e w o u l d a r g u e t h a t t h e e th ic s o f d e m o c r a c y p r e c lu d e

t o o s t r e n u o u s a c o n c e r n w i th p r o p a g a n d a . P r o p o n e n t s o f th is

s c h o o l h a v e l o n g m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e V o ic e o f A m e r i c a

s h o u l d b e a d i s p a s s i o n a t e n e w s s e r v i c e r a t h e r t h a n a n

i d eo l o gi c al c o m b a t a n t a g a i n st C o m m u n i s m . S u c h a n i de a l is

s u p e r f i c i a ll y a t t r a c t iv e . B u t i n a w o r l d w h e r e i n f a l s e h o o d isa g g r e s s i v e l y d i s s e m i n a t e d b y a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g y , i s i t n o t

b o t h n e c e s s a r y a n d m o r a l t o p r o p a g a t e t h e t r u t h w i t h e q u a l

v i g o r a n d p e r s i s t e n c e , e v e n t h o u g h s u c h s t r u c t u r e d a c t i v i t y

c o n s ti tu t es a f o r m o f p r o p a g a n d a ?

T h e o r y a s i d e , h i s to r y r ev e a ls t h a t A m e r i c a h a s w a g e d e f -

f e ct iv e p r o p a g a n d a o n c e t h e e n e m y w a s o f f ic i a ll y i d e n t i f i e d .F o r e x a m p l e , t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f t h e A n g l o - A m e r i c a n p r o p -

a g a n d a c a m p a i g n in W o r l d W a r I w a s a r e su l t p a r t ly o f

W o o d r o w W i ls o n 's c r e a t i o n o f t h e C o m m i t t e e o n P u b l i c I n -

f o r m a t i o n i n A u g u s t o f 1 91 7. I ts c iv i l ia n c h i e f w a s G e o r g e

C r e e l , b u t i t s o t h e r m e m b e r s w e r e t h e s e c r e t a r i e s o f s t a t e ,

w a r , a n d n a v y - a n u n u s u a l m ix o f d i r e c t o rs fo r w h a t w a s t o

b e c o m e th e e q u iv a le n t o f a m i n i s t ry o f p r o p a g a n d a . ' T h a t

" m i n i s t r y " - - b y r e c r u i t i n g e d i t o rs , p r e s s a g e n t s , s c h o l a r s , a n dj o u r n a l i s t s - m a n a g e d A m e r i c a ' s t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a n i s o l a -

t io n i s t , a n t im i l i t a r y d e m o c r a c y t o a m i l i t a n t w a r m a c h i n e t h a t

s u s ta i n e d t h e A E F w i th a d r a f t l aw , L i b e rt y B o n d s , a n d f o o d

r a t i o n i n g .

T h e C r e e l C o m m i t t e e e n g i n e e r e d " v o l u n t a r y " c e n s o r s h ip

o f a ll w a r n e w s . I t f in a n c e d p a t r i o t ic a d s . I t i n f l a m e d p a s s i o na g a i n s t t h e K a is e r b y i n s p ir i n g c a r t o o n s , s p o n s o r i n g w a r e x -

h i b it s a t s t a te f a ir s , p r o d u c i n g p r o - w a r b u t t o n s a n d w i n d o ws ti ck e r s, a n d g e n e r a t i n g r u m o r s . I t c o m m i s s i o n e d s c h o l a r ly

1 . See Mo ck an d La r so n , W o r d s T h a t W o n t h e W a r

(Pr ince ton : Pr inc e ton U niver s ity Press , 1939).



R E V I V I N G A M E R I C A N P S Y O P 2 1 1

b o o k s , t r a i n e d t e a c h e r s , p r e p a r e d f i l l e r s f o r s c h o o l

n e w s p a p e r s , m a d e f il m s , a n d m a i n t a i n e d a n a t i o n a l ca d r e o f

" F o u r - M i n u t e M e n " w h o a g i ta t e d c iv ic c lu b s w i th o r a t o r y

p r e p a r e d b y t h e c o m m i t t e e . I t w a s c e r ta i n l y e f fe c t iv e ; b u t f o r

m o d e r n t as te s t h e C r ee l C o m m i t t e e (o r C P I ) w a s to o z e a l o u s ,

t o o i n d i f fe r e n t t o t h e n u a n c e s o f t h e f ir st a m e n d m e n t , a n d

t o o p r o n e t o o v e r s t a t e (e v e n f a b ri c a te ) t h e " A t r o c i t i e s o f t h e

H u n . " I n m a n y q u a r t e r s , t h e r e w a s a s ig h o f r e li e f w h e n t h e

C P I w e n t o u t o f b u s in e s s i n J u n e 1 91 9. F o r m o r e t h a n t w e n t y

y e a rs , A m e r i ca ' s p r o p a g a n d a w e a p o n w a s a g a in s h e a t h e d a n dl e f t h a n g i n g o n t h e w a l l .

T h e n , l ar g el y a v o i d i n g t h e e x c es se s o f t h e C P I , d u r i n g

W o r l d W a r II t h e t ea m s o f E l m e r D a v is a n d W i ld B i ll

D o n o v a n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e B r i t i s h , p l a y e d a p r o f e s s i o n a l

p r o p a g a n d a g a m e v e rs u s t h e N a zi s. A t t h e w a r 's e n d ,

W a s h i n g t o n a n d N e w Y o r k C i ty w e r e h o m e t o h u n d r e d s o f

a l u m n i o f O W l a n d O S S . T h e p o l i t ic a l c l i m a t e , ch i ll ed b y t h e

R e d A r m y ' s i m p o s i t i o n o f R u s s i an h e g e m o n y o n t h e n a t i o n so f E a s t e rn E u r o p e , h a r d e n e d a g a in s t M o s c o w ' s f u r t h e r a m b i -

t io n s . W i t h h i s c o n s p i c u o u s c r u e lt y , S t a l in w a s a l m o s t a s e f-

f ec ti v e a s H i t le r i n c r e a ti n g a m o r a l c o n s e n s u s t o o p p o s e h i m .

I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e o n s e t o f t h e C o l d W a r e n li s t ed th e

e n e r g i e s o f s u c h p r o m i n e n t f i g u r e s a s A l l e n D u l l e s , D a v i d

S a r n o f f , F r a n c is C a r d i n a l S p e l l m a n , a n d L u c i u s C l a y . G o r -

d o n G r a y l e n t h is p a t r i c i a n p r e st ig e t o t h e c h a i r m a n s h i p o f

t h e P s y c h o l o g i c a l S t ra t e g y B o a r d , w h i c h h a d d i r e ct a cc e ss t ot h e p re s i d e n t. T h e l e g e n d a r y C . D . J a c k s o n , p u b l i s h e r o f F o r -

t u n e a n d E i s e n h o w e r ' s t o p w a r t i m e a d v i s e r o n P S Y W A R ,

w a s b u s y s e t t i n g u p R a d i o F r e e E u r o p e a n d R a d i o L i b e r -

t y - i n t h o s e e x h i la r a t in g d ay s ca ll ed R a d i o L i b e r a t io n .

P e r h a p s t h i s w a s t h e g o l d e n e r a f o r A m e r i c a n P S Y O P .

I n t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n o f 1 9 5 2 , c a n d i d a t e

E i s e n h o w e r a n d h is fu t u r e s e c r e ta r y o f s ta t e , J o h n F o s t e r

D u l le s , p r o m i s e d t o a b a n d o n t h e p a ss iv e p o l i c y o f c o n t a i n -m e n t i n f a v o r o f a ro l l- b a ck o f th e I r o n C u r t a i n f r o m E a s t e r n

E u r o p e . I n a u d i t o r i u m s in C h i c a g o , D e t ro i t , P i t ts b u r g h , a n d

N e w Y o r k , t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f A m e r i c a n s - - w i t h C z e ch ,

H u n g a r i a n , P o l i s h , B a l t i c , a n d U k r a i n i a n o r i g i n s - - c h e e r e d



212 BARNETT

senators from both parties who spoke in honor of "Captive

Nations Week." Rhetoric was underlined with legislation. In

the Mutual Security Act o f 195 I, a bipart isan vote author ized

$100 million to create-from Iron Curtain exiles of military

a g e - a Legion of Freedom to be attached to NATO for

paramilitary and PSYOP objectives.

The Congress for Cultural Freedom financed hundreds

of Eur opean scholars and journalists who articulated the case

for NATO. Later on, the Asia Foundation supported the

cause of freedom in the Pacific theater. In 1951, the author

worked for the "American Friends of Russian Freedom," a

private committee set up by Eugene Lyons of the Reader's

Digest and a young Wall Street lawyer named William J.

Casey. Its aims were to provide jobs and visas to assist the

defection of Russian troops in Berlin and to drive a prop-

aganda wedge between the Russian people and their Leninist

overlords.

The congenial climate for American PSYOP was• polluted in the seventeen years that followed 1956; not until

President Reagan's Westminister speech was there again

much sunshine. The theme of "liberation" was consigned to

the dustbin by the crushing of the Hungarian Revolution, thewinterizing of the Prague Spring, and the erection of the

Berlin Wall. The brutal mismatch between raw Soviet power

and ineffectual diplomatic protest was plain to see. And how

could commitme nt to the eventual freedom of captive nationssurvive the Bay of Pigs, the Soviet share in the Helsinki Ac-

cords, and the illusions of detente?

We did have a robust PSYOP program during the Viet-

nam War and some heroic practitioners in the field, both

military and civilian. But American PSYOP in Southeast

Asia was tactical and largely limited to the immediate theate r

of conflict, while Communist PSYOP was strategic and

global, as well as diverse, disguised, and emotiona lly strident.The occasional State Department White Paper sent to Euro-

pean capitals-or the earnest foreign service spokesman

dispatched to the American ca m p u s - m e t negation in a rip-

tide of anti-Vietnam hysteria. We were trying to win the



R E V I V I N G A M E R I C A N P S Y O P 213

hearts and minds of various ethnic groups in Vietnam, Laos,

and Cambodia. Our enemy was aiming to stir the souls and

passions of statesmen, students, editors, and television pro-

ducers throughout Europe and the United States. We sought

defection from guerrilla ranks in the Southeast Asian jungle.

Hanoi--aided by Moscow and its world network of Com-

munist parties and front groups-was intent on severing the

political life-support system for Saigon precar iously sustained

by US public opinion and the Congress.

Why was the PSYOP contest so asymmetrical? One

might assume that a "battle of ideas" should have been won

by a superpower that had more communications consultants,

advertising executives, information and media specialists,

political advisers, public relations professionals, and

psychologists than the total number of infantry soldiers in

Hanoi's army. It would not be sufficient to answer that US

media (and political) elites were divided over war aims, or

even that acknowledged American skill in marketing pro-ducts or enter tainment ideas does not necessarily translate in-

to competence in a serious ideological conflict. The most im-

portant reason for the Hanoi-Moscow "ideo-military" victory

was that American PSYOP in Vietnam had no moral or

political grounding in the deepest levels of White House

policy. Against Hitler, Washington was certain that its cause

was just and America was in the fight to win. In Vietnam, the

feckless objective of stalement through attrition helped todissipate those assets of political elan and rectitude with

which anti-Nazi PSYWAR was intermeshed.

In short, cheerleading in favor of a tie score, for a team

whose opponents are perceived as moral ly equivalent even by

many hometown fans, is an exercise in self-stultification. The

fault sometimes may lie not in our PSYOP but in our policy;

no magic communications can for long make credible a

flawed objective. In Nicaragua, unhappily, we may be on the

verge of re-proving that melancholy thesis o f r e a l p o l i t i k . The

polls indicate that President Reagan has not persuaded a ma-

jority o f the US citizenry to support aid to the Contras. Does

that suggest a failure at public education by the Whi te House



2 1 4 B A R N E T T

or artful Soviet-Cuban-Sandinista disinformation at work?

Probab ly a little of both. Ano ther explanation, however, lies

in the disparity between the magnitude of the alleged threat

and the insipid prescription.

If the Sandinistas are, in fact, the myrmidons of the

Soviet Empire, and if they harbor the zeal both to grant the

Russians a military base on our doorstep and to export fur-

ther Communist revolution up the ladder of Central America

into Mexico, then why are we entrusting so vital a matter of

our own national security to a smallish band of exiles,

however brave the Contra volunteers may be? The means

don't square with the premise of the peril. Or consider the

message of our uncertain trumpet from the acoustical angle

of the Contras. It is one thing to risk one's life to overthrow

an illegitimate Leninist regime and establish a free Nicaragua;

it is quite another to be asked to die for a remote Washington

game of merely needling Ortega until he cuts of f supplies for

Communist rebels in El Salvador.

Given such a paltry goal, how can American PSYOP

create any "bandwagon" effect for the Contra cause and en-

courage mass defections of those impressed into service by

Managua? Yes, Soviet active measures have spawnedmisleading myths about the issues in Nicaragua; but exposing

those myths will not pave the way to democracy in that coun-

try unless the US objective can command the passion and in-

telligence of honorable men.Granting that even brilliant PSYOP is no substitute for

sound policy, one should not minimize the urgent need to

upgrade American sensitivity to the whole spectrum of non-

military warfare. No treaties to limit this mode o f conflict are

even proposed. No arms control agreement seeks to reduce

Soviet arsenals of propaganda weapons; no verification

would be possible of KGB cutbacks in deployment of subver-

sive agents across borders; no promised dismantling of Com-munist active measures production lines could be enforced.

But on our side, especially if we move into the era of born-

again detente, unilateral self-denial of PSYWAR options will

be fostered by societal ignorance or disapproval.



REVIVING AMERICAN PSYOP 215

T o o v e r c o m e t h a t i g n o r a n c e a n d r e m o v e th e d i sa p -

p r o v a l , w e n e e d p e r s u a s i v e ( b i p a r t i s a n ) t u t o r i a l s o n t h e

r e a l i t i e s o f U S - S o v i e t c o m p e t i t i o n . W e n e e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s -

r a is i n g a b o u t t h e K r e m l i n 's d i s i n f o r m a t i o n ta c ti cs a n d

P S Y O P g a m b i t s p r ec is e ly b ec a u s e w e m a y b e o n t h e e ve o f a

s e r i e s o f a r m s c o n t r o l a g r e e m e n t s t h a t w i l l r e d u c e n u c l e a r

s t o c k p i le s a n d p e r h a p s e v e n c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r ce s . I f t h e t e rm s

a r e e q u i t a b l e a n d c a n b e v e r if i ed - a n d i f w e r e s p o n d t o v io l a -

t io n s b y M o s c o w w i t h m e a n i n g f u l sa n c t io n s , n o t ju s t " p r o -

t e s t s " - t h e W e s t s h o u l d w e l c o m e t h is p r o c es s . I t is m a n i f e s t l yw o r t h t e s t i n g w h e t h e r glasnost i s a s i m p l e f a c e l i f t o r d e e p

t h e r a p y t h a t w i l l p e r m a n e n t l y a l t er t h e b e h a v i o r o f M o t h e r

R u s s i a . B u t th e d e m o c r a c i e s m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t , e s p e ci al ly

a s s o m e n u c l e a r m i s s i l e s a r e d i s m a n t l e d , p s y c h o l o g i c a l

w e a p o n r y c o u l d b e c o m e e v en m o r e d ec is iv e t h a n in t h e p a s t.

S a t e l l i t e T V c o n n e c t s w i t h t h e e n t i r e g l o b e ; a n d S e c r e t a r y

G o r b a c h e v - a p r o te g e o f A n d r o p o v a n d S u s l o v -- is a v e te r an

o f i d eo l o g ic a l c o m b a t w h o h a s a r m e d h i m s e l f w i th c o m -m u n i c a t i o n s a r ts t h a t a r e e f f ec t iv e l y t r a n s c u l t u r a l .

W e c a n n o t y e t j u d g e w h e t h e r glasnost w i ll l e a d t o s t r u c -

t u r a l a n d i rr e ve r si b le c h a n g e s in t h e L e n i n i s t m o n o p o l y o f

p o w e r o v e r t h e S o v i e t E m p i r e t h a t w o u l d t r u l y e n h a n c e o u r

s e c u r i ty . W h a t is a l m o s t c e r t a i n is t h a t t h e " s p i r i t o f

glasnost," m a d e p a l p a b l e b y m e d i a h y p e , w i l l c r e a t e a m o n g

t h e d e m o c r a c i e s t o o o p t i m i s t i c a n e s t i m a t e o f f u t u r e d e f e n s e

n e e d s. W h i le n e g o t i a t i n g p r u d e n t l y a b o u t " z e r o o p t i o n s , " w em u s t r e c o g n i z e t h a t , i n a c l im a t e o f h o p e f u l c r e d u l i ty , S o v i e t

P S Y O P c a n r e p l a y u p - t o - d a t e v e rs i o n s o f its h is t o r ic a l t h e m e s

o f p e a c e f u l c o e x is t e n ce , r e d e s i g n e d t h is t i m e t o d e n i g r a t e t h e

P e n t a g o n , S D I , U S S p e c ia l F o r ce s , a n d N A T O m o d e r n i z a -

t i o n . T h e p r e s u m e d b e n i g n i n t e n t o f glasnost, f o r e x a m p l e ,

h a s n o t y e t i n h i b i t e d G o r b a c h e v ' s r e g i m e f r o m i n c i t i n g

A f r i c a n s t o b e li ev e t h a t U S d e f e n s e f a c t o ri e s g e n e r a t e d t h e

A I D S v ir us , o r f r o m i n f l a m i n g I n d i a w i th t h e r u m o r t h a tW a s h i n g t o n h a t c h e d t h e p l o t t o a s s a s s i n a t e M r s . G a n d h i .

T h e s e c a n a r d s s e e m s o i r r a t i o n a l a s t o b e s e l f - d e f e a t i n g . B u t ,

o w i n g t o o u r p a ss iv i t y i n re b u t t i n g M o s c o w ' s m y t h - m a k i n g ,

S o v i e t P S Y W A R h a s c r e a t e d a m o n g T h i r d W o r l d s t u d e n t s



216 BARNETT

a n d p o l it ic i an s a P a v l o v i a n a n t i p a t h y t o a n y t h i n g t h a t c a n b e

l a b el e d a p r o d u c t o f A m e r i c a n i m p e r i a l i sm .

I n a d d i ti o f i, w i t h G o r b a c h e v l e a d in g t h e S o v ie ts , w e f a c e

t h e " m o d e r n i z a t i o n " o f l~he w a r o f i d e a s . J u s t a s t h e h a r d w a r e

o f m i s sil es c a n b e m o d e r n i z e d , s o c a n t h e s o f t w a r e o f

P S Y W A R . s t a li n 's p r irf i i t iv e p r o p a g a n d a b o m b s w e r e a i m e d

a t t h e " w o r k i n g m a s s e s " o f A m e r i c a i n a c r u d e e f f o r t t o

f o m e n t r e v o l u t io n a g a i n s t W a l l S t re e t. T o d a y , n e w S o v ie t

P S Y O P w a r h e a d s a r e p r e c i s io n - g u i d e d a n d i n d e p e n d e n tl y

ta rge te d no t 6n the f i a a s se s bu t on the e l i t e : s c i e n t i s t s ,e d u c a t o r s , l a w y e r s , p h y s i c i a n s , b u s i n e s s m e n , c o n g r e s s m e n .

F r o m b l a t a n t p o l e m i c s i n t h e Daily Worker t o l o w - k e y ,

p l a u s ib l e K G B l o b b y i s t s o n C a p i t o l H i l l, t h e r e is a d i s q u i e t i n g

e v o l u ti o n i n P S Y W A R s o ft w a re . E v e n th e d e p o r t m e n t a n d

e l o c u t i o n c o d e o f t h e S o v ie t ag e n t h a s b e e n m o d e r n i z e d . T h e

S t a l i n i s t r o b o t d r e s s e d a n d t a l k e d l i k e a B u l g a r i a n A 1

C a p o n e ; t h e G o r b a c h e v s a l e sm a n l o o k s a n d b e h a v e s lik e t h e

d e a n o f a l i b e r a l a r t s c o l l e g e .

T h i s m o d e r n i z a t i o n i n P S Y O P h e l p s t o e n s u r e t h a t

S o v i et t w i l ig h t w a r i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d is ef f ec t iv e l y c o o r -

d i n a t e d w i th a n U m b r e ll a o f a c t iv e m e a s u r e s in E u r o p e a n d

t h e U n i t e d S t h t e s . M o s c o w ' s a i m i s t o i n t e r d i c t t h e b a t -

t l e f i e l d - n o t w i t h a i r s t r i k e s b u t w i t h p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e t h a t

d i s c r e d i t s a n t i c o m m u n i s t r e s i s t a n c e a n d d r i e s u p i t s l o g i s t i c a l

s u p p o r t f r o m n a t u r a l a ll ie s i n th e W e s t e r n d e m o c r a c i e s.G o r ba ch e v 's n e w P S Y O P e xe cu tiv e t e a m - h e a d e d b y

A l e x a n d e r Y a k o v l e v - ar e ra t h e r l i ke c u l tu r a l a n th r o p o l o g i s ts

w h o h a v e d e v e i o p e d s h r e w d i n si gh t s i n t o t h e m o r e s o f th e

A m e r i C a n m e d i a a n d t h e v a n i t i e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n e s t a b l i s h -

m e n t . T h e y a r e a i d e d b y S ov ie t m a r k e t r e s e ar c h a n d o p i n i o n

p o l l i n g ( u n t h i n k a b l e i n S t al in 's e ra ) . W i t h u p - t o - d a t e a n a ly s is

o f o u r s o c ie ta l d e lu s i o n s ; t h e y n o l o n g e r n e e d t o r e ly s o le l y o n

f o r c i n g a l i e n c 6 n c e p t s i n t o o u r s y s t e m . N o w , t h e y t r o l l o u r

m a i n s t r ea m f o r u se fu l b its o f i d i o c y - a n d s im p l y r e p a c k ag e

t h e m . ( F o r e x a m p l e , t h e " n u c l e a r w i n t e r " h o b g o b l i n , s o e x -

p l o i t e d b y p e a c e g r o u p s , w a s n o t i n v e n t e d b y M o s c o w , b u t

r e c y c l e d . )



REVIVING AMER ICA N PSYOP 217

N o w le t u s s p e n d a m i n u t e o n t h e c e n t r a l it y t o s u c c e s s f u l

P S Y O P o f m o r a l p a s si o n a n d t h e c o n v i c ti o n o f a j u s t c au se .

I n t h e T h i r d W o r l d a n d i n E u r o p e , L e n i n is t a g i ta t o rs a r o u s e

e m o t i o n a l f r e n z y - n o t j u st in te l l e c tu a l d i s s e n t - o v e r s uc h

s h i b b o l e t h s a s n e o - F a s c i s t r e v i v a l i n W e s t G e r m a n y a n d t h e

A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l c o m p l e x . C o m m u n i s t P S Y O P ,

i n s h o r t , d o e s n o t s i m p l y re a c h f o r h e a r t s a n d m i n d s ; i t a c -

t i v a t e s e n v y , f e a r , a n d a n g e r b y s t i r r i n g p r i m a l e m o t i o n s . I n

t h e s u b s o i l o f h a t r e d , S o v i e t a c t i v e m e a s u r e s t a k e e a s y r o o t

a n d g a i n n u t r i e n t s . H o w e a s y i t i s t o b e l i e v e s o m e t h i n gs i n i s t e r a b o u t s o m e o n e w e a l r e a d y h a v e b e e n i n d u c e d t o

d e s p i s e .

B y w a y o f c o n t r as t , C o m m u n i s m ' s m a n i f o l d c rim e s

a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y a r e o f t e n c i t e d b y W a s h i n g t o n i n t o n e s o f

B r i t i s h u n d e r s t a t e m e n t . S u c h m o d e r a t i o n m a y s u i t t h e

p r e f e r e n c e o f t h e f o r e i g n s e r v i c e , b u t i t w i l l n e v e r p r o d u c e

s tr e e t t h e a t e r o u t s i d e S o v i e t e m b a s s i e s . L e s t t h is o b s e r v a t i o n

b e m i s u n d e r s t o o d , l e t m e m a k e c l e a r I d o n o t s u g g e s t t h a tA m e r i c a b o r r o w t h e ta c ti cs o f G o e b b e l s o r S u s lo v . W e s h o u l d

n e v e r m a n u f a c t u r e l i e s , a n d h a t r e d i s s c a r c e l y d e m o c r a c y ' s

e x p o r t p r o d u c t . B u t o n e o f t h e h a l l m a r k s o f W e s t e r n c iv il iz a-

t i o n h a s b e e n t h e c a p a c i ty o f it s p e o p le s f o r m o r a l i n d i g n a t i o n

t o w a r d d i c ta to r s w h o c h o k e h u m a n f r e e d o m a n d s q u a s h

s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r s m a l l n a t i o n s . I t is n e i t h e r u n c i v il iz e d

n o r a n t i d e m o c r a t i c t o m o b i l i z e l e g i t i m a t e r e v u l s i o n a g a i n s t

t y r a n t s g u i l t y o f c o n s p i c u o u s , p r o v a b l e c r u e l t y .

L e t u s a g r e e t o d e t e s t a p a r t h e i d a n d r e v i l e H i t l e r ' s

h o l o c a u s t . B u t w h e r e is t h e e q u i v a l e n t e m o t i o n a l d i s g u st f o r

t h e C o m m u n i s t w a r d e n s w h o s u pe r v i se to d a y ' s h o l o c au s t s in

C a m b o d i a , E t h io p i a , a n d A f g h a n i s t a n ? W h y n e e d w e

s m o t h e r o u t ra g e a b o u t c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s i n

C u b a a n d V i e tn a m ? E f f e c ti v e P S Y O P m u s t a r o u se t h e p a s-

s i o n th a t g e n e r a t e s c o m m i t m e n t . W e a r e e n t it le d to r i g h t e o u sw r a t h .

S o , in t h e P S Y O P c o m b a t w i t h M o s c o w , w e n ee d t o a d d

a l in g u i s t ic b a r b t o o u r i n s i p i d s e m a n t i c s . W e r e f e r t o t h e

P o l i t b u r o g a n g a s "a d v e r sa r ie s " o r " c o m p e t i t o r s . " S u c h t e rm s



2 1 8 B A R N E T T

are more suitable to the context of the Olympic Games. The

men whose underlings have severed Europe with 1,100

kilometers of barbed wire and mine fields - from the Baltic tothe Adriatic--are not opponents; they are barbarians. And

Red Army troops who drop booby-trapped toys in

Afghanistan as lethal gifts for children are savages and war

criminals.

If we gloss over Communist atrocities, we should not be

surprised that much of the world adopts the posture o f moral

neutrality between Moscow and Washington. We will not

animate many audiences by observing, "East German security

personnel collaborate in assisting the Soviet mission in

Africa." We could, however, put the case more bluntly by

saying, "The reborn Gestapo is alive and well and policing

Moscow's colonies in Africa." This is crude by racquet club

st and ar ds - but it's true and may increase the flow of virtuous

adrenalin. This is not to suggest that the president or

secretary of state should use that language; but senators,editors, professors, lawyers, and labor and business leaders

are not strangers to acerbic slogans.

Our mission, of course, is not to list tiresomely all the

cultural and historical factors that favor Moscow, but ratherto innovate ideas that may help narrow the gap in PSYWAR

capabilities between the Leninist bloc and the open societies.

To do so, we need not emulate the totalitarians. We are not

entirely strangers to intense ideo-political combat in ourcu l tu re - we only need to think of Democrats vs. Republicansin election years. Staying well within the limits of our tradi-

tion and the law, we need not treat the Pol itburo any more in-

decorously than American partisans treat each other during a

presidential campaign. It is not so much the constraint of

ethics that hampers our psychological contest with theSoviets. It is perhaps that most of those Americans with

natural instincts for political warfare are preoccupied with

electing clients to the Senate and White House or negotiating

between mana geme nt and labor. We lack neither aficionados

of politics nor matadors; their priorities are merely centered

more on struggles in Detroit and Iowa than on contests in

Angola or Poland.



R E V I V IN G A M E R I C A N P S Y O P 219

How will we know when we begin to redress the balance

in the PSYOP arena? There are, to be sure, hundreds of

ways. Let me, as an agent provocateur, list twelve:

1. When the curricula of our sta ff and war col-

leges-plus those of our allies in Europe-include

adequate instruction in ideology, PSYOP, "active

measures," and subversive war. (In the modern

military arts, Lenin and Mao are as relevant as

Clausewitz.)

2. When career foreign service officers and USIA pro-

fessionals are sensitized to the same subject matter

in their own institutes and training programs, since

perhaps 70 percent of the o f f i c i a l PSYOP mission

should be the responsibility of civilian agencies.

3. When DOD contrac ts to a task force of Russian

scholars and East European specialists, together

with clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and

carefully screened Iron Curtain defectors, to preparesophisticated audio cassettes for clandestine

distribution in time of crisis to diverse national

troops in the Warsaw Pact. The same exper-

t i s e - based on a discriminating knowledge of Polish

history, Hungarian culture, Ukrainian national

pride, etc.-should be available for messages on

black radio and S a r n i z d a t U n d e r g r o u n d V i d e o . (The

substance and uncertain delivery system of armyleaflets need to be upgraded to become state-of-the-

art PSYOP.)

4. When professional US PSYWAR specialists attend

future Helsinki, Geneva, Vienna, and Reykjavik

type conferences to neutralize the current Soviet

PSYOP edge ensured by the presence of Yakovlev

and Arbatov.

5. When, on a NATO-wide basis, as there are now

periodic meetings of foreign and defense ministers,

there will be annual meetings of information and

education ministers to discuss Psychological

Defense, including joint subsidies for the translation



220 BARNETT

and distribution of relevant books that now are

published--often for very limited readership-in

Spanish or French, German or English, but forwant of small grants to cover translation costs

never see the light of libraries in other languages.

6. When the defunct Institute for Propaganda

An al ys is -s et up in the late 1930s to moni tor Nazi

themes--is reconstituted to study and expose

Soviet PSYWAR gambits.

7. When, in Paris or Rome, European intellectuals

schedule "War Crimes Trials" of the Soviet Em-

pire, charging the Red Army and its Spetsnaz units

with at least forty My Lai-scale massacres in

Afghanistan.

8. When American college st ud ent s- in addition to

building shanty-towns to protest racial apar-

theid- erect Gulag prison huts to protest the abuse

of dissident Soviet writers doomed to drug-inducedpsychosis by the wardens of Soviet clinics. And

when American "physicians for social responsibil-

ity" show social outrage against the Politburo for

this unspeakable perversion of medicine.

9. When more Amer ican schools of journal ism and

communications emulate Boston University and

offer courses on how to safeguard US media

against Soviet disinformation.10. When another dozen or so of our professional

societies form their own in-house committees to

mobilize private sector talent for the PSYOP game.

The American Bar Association and the Interna-

tional Confederation of Reserve Officers have

taken that step. The officers have a committee on

psychological defense with a program focused on

European public opinion. The ABA has a BlueRibbon Committee of Lawyers that has trained

thousands of teachers in Communist propaganda

strategy and that refutes Soviet disinformation

about SDI and Central America.



REVIVING AM ER IC AN PSYOP 221

11.

12.

W h e n , i f t h e W a r sa w P a c t a s sa u lt s N A T O , t h e U S

A r m y a n d p e r h a p s o u r G e r m a n a n d B r i t i s h a l l i e s c a nq u i c k l y d e p l o y t r a i n e d s p e ci al is ts f o r " d e e p s t ri k e "

c o m m a n d o m i s s i o n s a t h w a r t R e d A r m y s u p p l y l i n e s

in E a s t er n E u r o p e - t h e i r a im b e in g t o i nc ite

s a b o t a g e , d e f e a t i s m , a n d r e v o l t a m o n g P o l e s , C z e c h s ,

H u n g a r i a n s , a n d E a s t G e r m a n s w h o d e s p is e R u s s i an

h e g e m o n y . T h e n e c e s s ar y p r e l u d e t o s u c h a c o n -

t i n g e n c y p l a n c o u l d b e a v a r i e t y o f s u b t l e , " p e a c e -

t im e " P S Y O P t a rg e t e d o n a s e le c te d h a n d f u l o f E a s tE u r o p e a n m i l i t a r y a n d p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s . T h a t j o b w i l l

r e q u i r e f i n e s s e , c u l t u r a l e m p a t h y , a n d l i n g u i s t i c

s k i l l s - t a l e n t s t h a t l ie in A m e r i c a 's m e l t i n g - p o t

s o c i e t y .

F i n a l l y , w e c a n c l a i m s o m e s u c c e s s w h e n A m e r i c a n

P S Y O P - - b o t h p r i v a t e a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l - h a v e

t o g e t h e r c r e a t e d a n " o p i n i o n c l i m a t e " t h a t w i l l p e r -

m i t , e v e n a p p l a u d , t h e r ev e rs a l o f t h e B r e z h n e v D o c -t r in e , w h e t h e r b y d i p l o m a t i c p r e s s u r e , i d e o l o g i c a l

a s sa u lt , a i d t o f r e e d o m f i g h te r s , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f

a ll t h e a b o v e . G r e n a d a w a s t o o s m a l l t o b e d e c is iv e .

A f g h a n i s t a n m a y b e t o o c lo se t o t h e U S S R a n d t o oi n v e s t e d w i t h R e d A r m y d i v i s io n s t o a l lo w f o r a c o m -

p l e t e r e v e r s a l . ( O f c o u r s e w e s h o u l d t r y e v e n t h e r e ,

e sp e ci al ly o w i n g t o t h e i m p a c t o f A f g h a n i s t a n ' s

f a t e - - o n e w a y o r t he o t h e r - o n t h e f u tu r e o f I ra n ,P a k i s t a n , a n d t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . )

O t h e r o p p o r t u n i t e s f o r n u l l i f y in g t h e B r e z h n e v

f a l l a c y - - t h a t " t h e ti d e o f t y r a n n y i s i r r e v e r s i b l e " - l i e

in E t h i o p i a , A n g o l a , N i c a r a g u a , M o z a m b i q u e , a n d

L i b y a . A l l th o s e p r i s o n s t at es a r e d i s ta n t f r o m M o t h e r

R u s s i a . A l l h a v e s e a p o r t s v u l n e r a b l e t o b l o c k a d e o rq u a r a n t i n e . N o n e h a v e a r m e d f o rc e s u p t o th e q u a l i t y

o r n u m b e r s o f th o s e in V i e t n a m o r N o r t h K o r e a . I ne v e r y c a s e , t h e r e i s a s u b s t a n t i a l r e s i s t a n c e p o t e n t i a l .

M o r a l l y , e a c h i s a n " o u t l a w " n a t i o n w h o s e l e a d e r s

s p e ci al iz e in e v e r y t h i n g f r o m t e r r o r i s m t o S t a li n 's o l dt e c h n i q u e o f g e n o c i d e th r o u g h f o r c e d s t a rv a t io n

( M e n g i s t u , f o r e x a m p l e ) .



2 2 2 B A R N E T T

Liberation of even one of those outer islands of the

Gulag Archipelago will not be casualty free. But if we do

liberate one, it may spare us blood and treasure elsewhere in

the Third World, whence lie the oil, cobalt, chrome, and

manganese that underpin the productivity of Europe, Japan,

and the United States. Someplace, we need to put the Soviet

bandwagon of proxy warfare in the ditch. Someplace, we

must prove to wavering Third World leaders-fearful of

Moscow's ju gg er na ut -t ha t the future no more belongs to the

dogma of Brezhnev than it belongs to disproven Marxisteconomics.

Moreover, there is a strategic bonus to be derived from

helping to liberate Angola or Libya, Nicaragua or Ethiopia,

Mozambique or Afghanistan. Even one such success would

send seismic political shockwaves back into Poland, the

Ukraine, Lithuania, and Mongolia. The Politburo and Red

Army marshals would be even more unsure of Warsaw Pact

allies. The liberation of a Third World satellite-plusvigorous PSYOP in both Western and Eastern Europe--

would be another deterrent in another dimension. He who

cannot trust the troops in his unstable coalition is less likely

to put things to the test in the fog of war.

It will not be easy to do any of the above. Distaste for

PSYOP, even in the defensive mode, will make it difficult to

familiarize Western political, diplomatic, and military elites

with this unorthodox dimension of conflict. Some foreignpolicy establishments will see proposals for US initiatives or

counte rattack in the PSYOP arena as provocative. Then too,

predictably, Soviet PSYWAR weaponry will launch preemp-

tive strikes against the blueprint and R&D phases of even pro-

tective NATO measures in this field. For example, training of

Western editors to analyze Moscow's ongoing disinformation

campaigns will be branded as an atavistic urge to refight the

Cold War.

Must we, therefore, abjectly concede that we can do

nothing to prevent the intellectual climate from being

polluted by borrowings from Goebbels and Pavlov, Lenin andMao? The encouraging answer is, no. Over the past fifteen



REVIVING AME RI CA N PSYOP 223

y e a r s , a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f s c h o l a rs i n t h e s e c u r i ty f ie ld h a v e

i l lu m i n a t e d t h e l o w e r e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m o f c o n f l i c t . T h e

s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f I n t e l l ig e n c e is n o w t a u g h t i n a t l e a st 1 00

A m e r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s . A d o z e n E u r o p e a n t h i n k - t a n k s h a v e

r e c e n t l y a d d e d t h e t o p i c o f S o v i e t d i s i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e i r

p o r t f o l i o o f s t u d i e s . M o r e j o u r n a l i s t s a r e w r i t i n g a b o u t t h i s

a r ea w i t h d e p t h a n d s o p h i s t i c a ti o n . I n o u r g o v e r n m e n t , a n e w

D O D d i r e c to r a t e a n d i n t e ra g e n c y c o m m i t te e s a d d r e ss

t h e m s e l v e s to t h is s u b j e c t m a t t e r , w h i l e C o n g r e s s is p r e s s in g

t h e P e n t a g o n t o d e v o t e m o r e f u n d s a n d p e r s o n n e l to l o w -

i n t e n s it y w a r f a r e .

M a n y T h i r d W o r l d n a t i o n s a re n o l o n g e r b e g u i le d b y

M a r x is t e c o n o m i c d o g m a , a n d L e n i n 's t h es e s h a v e b e c o m e

b o r i n g - e s p e c i a l l y t o R u s s ia n s , E a st E u r o p e a n s , a n d t h e

C h i n e se . O n h u m a n r ig h t s i s su es , W e s t e r n d i p l o m a t s (a n d

p r i v a t e g r o u p s o f e m i g r e s a n d c iv il l ib e r ta r ia n s ) h a v e b e c o m e

m o r e r e s o l u t e a n d a d e p t a t d e b a t e ; S o v i e t p r o p a g a n d a n o

l o n g e r p re v a i ls a t h u m a n r ig h t s c o n f e r e n c e s . B o o k s o n S o v i e td i s i n f o r m a t i o n h a v e a p p e a r e d r e c en t ly in G r e e c e , I ta ly , a n d

W e s t G e r m a n y ; r e s e r v e o f f i c e r s i n S c a n d i n a v i a h a v e p u t

C o m m u n i s t P S Y O P o n t h ei r s tu d y a g en d a ; a s e m i n a r o n

P S Y W A R w a s h e l d ea rl ie r th is y e ar in T h e H a g u e ; t h e p r es s

i n L o n d o n is n e w l y a liv e t o t h e s a m e s u b j ec t ; a n d t h e m o s t

a n t i - L e n i n i s t i n t e l l ig e n t s i a i n t h e w o r l d p u b l i s h p r o l i f i c a l ly in

P a r i s .

O b v i o u s l y , a l l t h e s e in i ti a ti v e s m u s t b e m u l t i p l i e d a n d e x-p a n d e d i n to n e w d i m e n s i o n s i f t h e d e m o c r a c i e s a r e to

s a f eg u a r d th e i r p o lic ie s f r o m C o m m u n i s t P S Y O P a n d d is in -

f o r m a t i o n . B u t g o o d p e o p l e a r e i n p l a c e o n t h e f o r t r es s w a ll s

a n d g o o d p r o g r a m s a r e u n d e r w a y . W e a re n o t a l o ne . W h i le

w e n e g o t i a t e s t r e n u o u s l y w i t h M o s c o w f o r e q u i t a b l e r e d u c -

t io n s i n m i l it a ry h a r d w a r e , w e c an i m m u n i z e o u r s o ci al o r d e r

a g a i n s t p o l i t i c a l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , t h u s a v o i d i n g i n c r e m e n t a l

d e f e a t i n t h e tw i l i g h t z o n e o f P S Y O P b y r e v i v in g t h o s e s ki llsA m e r i c a e m p l o y e d w i th s u c h f i n es se o n b e h a l f o f f r e e d o m

s e v e r a l d e c a d e s a g o .



The E di tors

F r a n k B a r n e t t is P r e s i d e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l S t r a te g y I n f o r m a -

t i o n C e n t e r a n d a c iv i li an a id e to S e c r e ta r y o f t h e A r m y J o h n

O . M a r s h . H e is a c o - e d i t o r o f Special Operations in US

Strategy.

C a r n e s L o r d s e rv e d a s D i r e c to r o f I n t e r n a t io n a l C o m m u n i c a -

t io n s a n d I n f o r m a t i o n P o l i c y o n t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r it y C o u n -c il s t a f f f r o m 1 9 8 1 t o 1 98 4. H e i s c u r r e n t l y a d e f e n s e a n a l y s t

w i t h t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e f o r P u b l i c P o l i c y .

Contributors

A l e x a n d e r A l e x i e v i s a S e n i o r S o v i e t A n a l y s t a t t h e R a n d

C o r p o r a t i o n .

M a j o r G e n e r a l E d w a r d A t k e s o n , U S A r m y ( R e t ir ed ) , f o r m e r

N a t i o n a l I n te l li g e n c e O f f i c e r f o r G e n e r a l P u r p o s e F o r c e s , is a

d e f e n s e c o n s u l t a n t .

A l v i n B e r n s te in is C h a i r m a n o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S t ra t e g y a t

t h e N a v a l W a r C o l l e g e .

C o l o n e l R i c h a r d B r a u e r , U S A i r F o r c e , s e r v e d a s a s t a f f o f -

r ic e r f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s f o r t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f

S t a f f a n d is c u r re n t l y C o m m a n d a n t o f th e A i r F o r c e S p e ci al

O p e r a t i o n s S c h o o l a t H u r l b u r t F i e ld , F l o r i d a .

A n g e l o C o d e v i l l a , f o r m e r s t a f f m e m b e r o f th e S e n a t e S e le ct

C o m m i t t e e o n I n te l li g e n c e, is a S e n i o r F e ll o w a t t h e H o o v e r

I n s t i t u t io n o n W a r , R e v o l u t i o n a n d P e a c e .

225



2 2 6 C O N T R I B U T O R S

J o s e p h D o u g l a s s , J r . , a f o r m e r i n t e l l i g e n c e a n a l y s t , is a

d e f e n s e c o n s u l t a n t .

J o s e p h G o i d b e r g i s a p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t a n d P r o f e s s o r o f

R e s e a r c h a t t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e U n i v e r s i t y .

F r e d I k le f r o m 1 9 81 t o 1988 w a s U n d e r s e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e

f o r P o l i c y . I n t h e 1 97 0s h e w a s D i r e c t o r o f t h e U S A r m s C o n -

t ro l a n d D i s a r m a m e n t A g e n c y . H e is t h e a u t h o r o f " E v e r y

W a r M u s t E n d " a n d " H o w N a t io n s N e g o t ia t e . "

D o n a l d J a m e s o n , a f o r m e r C e n t r a l I n t el li g e n c e A g e n c y o f-

f i c e r, is a c o n s u l t a n t o n i n t e l li g e n c e a n d S o v i e t a f f a i r s .

G e n e r a l R o b e r t K i n g s t o n , U S A r m y ( R e t i r e d ) , f o r m e r

C o m m a n d e r - i n -C h i e f o f th e U S C e n t r a l C o m m a n d , h as h a d

e x t e n s iv e e x p e r i e n c e i n s p e c ia l w a r f a r c .

E d w a r d L u t t w a k i s a d e fe n s e a n a ly s t a n d S e n i o r F e l lo w a t th e

C e n t e r f o r S t r a t e g i c a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s .

C o l o n e l A l f r e d P a d d o c k , J r . , U S A r m y , h as c o m m a n d e d t h e

F o u r t h P s y c h o lo g i c a l O p e r a t io n s G r o u p a t F o r t B r a g g ,

N o r t h C a r o l i n a , a n d is t h e f o r m e r D i r e c t o r o f P s y c h o l o g i c a l

O p e r a t i o n s i n t h e O f f i c e o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e .

H e n r y R o w e n , a S e n i o r F e l lo w a t t h e H o o v e r I n s t i t u t i o n o n

W a r , R e v o l u t io n a n d P e a c e , w as fo r m e r l y C h a i r m a n o f t h e

N a t i o n a l I n te l li g e n c e C o u n c i l .

A b r a m S h u l s k y , f o r m e r M i n o r i ty S t a f f D i r e c to r o f th e S e n a t e

S e le c t C o m m i t t e e o n I n t e ll i g e n c e , is a S e n i o r F e l l o w a t t h e

N a t i o n a l S t r a te g y I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r .

R i c h a r d S h u l t z , J r . , i s a n A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r o f I n t e r n a -

t i o n a l P o li ti c s a t th e F l e t c h e r S c h o o l o f L a w a n d D i p l o m a c y .

H e is a l so a c iv i li a n m e m b e r o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f D e f e n s e 's

S p ec ia l O p e r a t i o n s P o l ic y A d v i s o r y G r o u p .



CONTR IB U TOR S 22 7

P a u l S m i th , J r . , f o r m e r e d i t o r o f Problems o f Communism,

i s a t w o r k o n a s t u d y o f p r o p a g a n d a a n d p o l i t i c a l w a r f a r e ,On Political War, t o b e p u b l i s h e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l D e f e n s e

U n i v e r s it y P r e s s .

G e n e r a l R i c h a rd S ti lw e li , U S A r m y ( R e t ir e d ), f o r m e r D e p u t y

U n d e r s e c r e t a r y f o r P o l i c y i n t h e O f f i c e o f t h e S e c r e t a r y o f

D e f e n s e a n d c u r r e n t l y a d e f e n s e c o n s u l t a n t , h a s a n e x t e n s i v e

b a c k g r o u n d i n i n te l li g e n c e a n d s p e c ia l w a r f a r e .

B a r r y Z o r t h i a n , f o r m e r D i r e c t o r o f t h e J o i n t U S P u b l i c A f -

fa irs O f f ic e o f t h e U S M i li ta ry A s sis ta n c e C o m m a n d - V i e t -

n a m , i s c u r r e n t l y w i t h t h e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s f i r m A l c a l d e ,

O ' B a n n o n , R o u s s el o t a n d W a h l q u is t .



I ndex

Active measures, 18, 209, 214,

216

Active measures, CIA-FBI report

on, 140--41

Aegean Sea, 192

Afghanistan, 93, 96, 108, 128,

205,217, 218, 220, 221Africa, 215, 218

African National Congress (ANC),

91, 92

Agency for International Develop-

ment, 20

Agent of disinformation, 83Agents of influence, 85-87

AIDS, 215

Air Force. See US Air ForceAir National Guard, 54, 57

Air power and PSYOP, 155-56

Airborne Warning and ControlSystem (AWACS), 156

Aircraft and PSYOP, 46, 47, 48,

49

B-52, 156

C-130, 54

EC-130E Volant Solo, 69Alliances, disruption of, 23,

191-93, 196, 198, 221, 222.

See also Ea~stern Europe, and

the Soviet Union

effect of, 172-78, 199-200,

204-05Soviet efforts, 17, 89, 170-71,

198US and Western efforts, 108,

171-72, 198-99Allied Expeditionary Force, 46Allies, support for. See Foreign

groups, support forAmerican Bar Association, 220American Expeditionary Forces

(AEF), 46, 210

"American Friends of Russian

Freedom," 212

Andropov, Yuri, 215

Angola, 9, 93, 108-09, 117, 128,

221

Anticoalition strategy, 170-72. See

also Alliances, disruption ofApplications of force. See Limited

war

Arafat, Yassir, 162. See also

Palestine Liberation Organ-

ization (PLO)Arbatov, Georgiy, 219

Arbenz, Jacobo, 106

Argentina, 150. See also Wars,

FalklandsArms control, 21, 85, 97, 98, 181,

185-86, 215Army. See US Army

Armies, numbered

German 6th, 170

US 8th, 47

Army, Department of the, 51

Army, secretary of the, 59-60

ASEAN (Association of SoutheastAsian Nations), 149

Asia Foundation, 212

Asprey, Robert, 112

"Atrocities of the Hun," 211

Audiovisual communications, 57,69, 219

Audiovisual teams, 49Austria-Hungary, 39, 40

Balloons, 46, 183Baltic states, 200Bank, Col. Aaron, 60Battlefield PSYOP. See

Psychological operations(PSYOP), battlefield

Bay of Pigs, 15,212

229



2 3 0 I N D E X

BBC (British Broadcasting Corp.),183

Beaverbrook, William M. Aitken,Baron, 40

Beirut, 92, 147-48. S ee a l s o

Lebanon

B e l g r a n o (Argentine cruiser), 150

Berlin, 205

Berlin Wall, 212"Big Lie," 142

Biomedical Science Corps, USAF,

71Bishop, Maurice, 152

Black propaganda. S e e u n d e r

PropagandaBoard for International Broad-

casting, 63, 185

Bonnet, Col. Georges, 114

Boston University, 220

Bozeman, Adda B., 78

Brezhnev Doctrine, 221Brezhnev, Leonid, 118

Broadcasting. S e e News media;

Radio broadcasting; Televi-

sion

"Burden of empire," 118

Bureaucracy, 21, 26-27, 41. S e e

a lso Government organiza-

tion.

Burma, 113

Byzantine Empire, 4, 5

Cadre, role and training, 116,121, 131

Caesar, 86

Cambodia, 95, 128, 217CAPSTONE program, 55-56

"Captive Nations Week," 212Caravelli, John, 205Carter, James E., 166Casey, William J., 212Castro, Fidel, 140, 152. S ee a l s o

CubaCeausescu, Nicolae, 176, 182

Central America, 21, 106, 220. S e ealso specific country

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),

14, 15, 27-28, 63, 84

and public diplomacy, 18, 42-43Chamberlain, Neville, 191

China, 113

Church Committee, 82Churchill, Winston, 189-90, 191

Civic action, 19

Civil affairs, 54

Clausewitz, Carl von, 3, 145,219

Clay, Lucius, 211

Clemenceau, Georges, 103Coard faction, 152

Coercive diplomacy, 30, 155. S e e

a lso Limited war

defined, 18, 145, 160

and reputation, 146-48

Cognitive dissonance, 186-87Cohen, William, 63

Cold War, 211

Combined Forces Command,

Korea, 67

COMCENTAG (Commander,

Central Army Group,NATO), 67

Committee on Public Information

(CPI; Creel Committee),

210-11

Communication consistency, 74

Communist atrocities, 217-18,

220Communist parties, 213

China, 113Europe, 14, 171

South Africa, 91Soviet Union (CPSU). S e e

Soviet Union

Communist unions, 89Conferences, 219, 223

Congress for Cultural Freedom,212Congress, US

and Angola, 9committees, 7, 32-33n7, 82

and low-intensity conflict,63-64, 125, 138n21, 223



INDEX 231

and Nica ragua , 7 , 9

a n d P S Y O P - P O L W A R , 6 - 7 ,

2 8 , 2 1 2and Savimbi , 108

and South Afr i ca , 91

and Vie tnam, 213

Cong resse s, CP SU , 118

C on s o l ida t i on P S Y O P , 19

Conta inment , 97, 98, 107Co nt ras , 140, 213-14. See also

N i c a r a gua

C o o r d i n a t o r o f I n f o r m a t i o n(COl ) , 14

Counte r insurgency s t ra t egy . See

Insurgency-counte r insurgencypolicies

Covert opera t ions , 4 , 14, 18

Craxi , Bet t ino, 154

Cred ib i li ty and repu ta t i on , 142,

146-49, 150-52, 154-56, 160,

163, 16 7, 213Cree l Commi t t ee . See C o m m i t t e e

on P ub l i c I n f o r m a t i on

Cree l , George , 210

Cr i s i s management , 30

C uba , 117 , 217 . Seealso B a y o f

Pigsa nd G r e na da , 152

di s in forma t ion , 214

and Radio Mar t i , 20 , 21

C ub an missile crisis , 14 7, 149

Cul tura l an thropology , 143

Cul tura l inhibi t ions and biases , 5 ,17, 21-23, 142 , 149 , 179 , 214,

215, 222. See also D e m o c r a c y

Czechoslovakia , 14, 202

and los t t e r r i tory, 206

and Soviet missiles, 181

P r a gue S p r ing , 184 , 201 , 21 2

Daily Worker, 216

Davis , Elmer , 211

D ece pt io n, 20, 106-07, 157

"Deep s t r ike ," 205, 221

Defense Inte l l igence Agency, 71

Defense , Depa r tment o f , 19 , 20 ,

36n27, 54, 1 43 . See also

M ili tary servicesP S Y O P e va l ua t i on , 49 , 50

P S Y O P m a s t e r p l a n , 50 - 53, 58 ,

62, 63, 64-66, 73, 74reorgan iza t i on , 63

Defense , Of f i ce o f t he Sec re t a ry of

(OSD), 51, 67

Defense , secre ta ry of , 49, 50, 53,

65

Defense , unde r sec re t a ry fo rpol icy, 53, 64

D e m o c r a c y

a nd P O L W A R , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 10 ,

162

a nd pub l i c d i p l om a c y , 18

p r om ot i ng d e m o c r a t ic i n s ti tu -t ions, 21

p r o t e c t i on o f , 8 - 10

Democracy Versus Dictatorship

( T r o t s ky ) , 9

Deser t O ne , 147

Deterrence , 29, 204Diem fami ly , 86

Diplomacy, 165-66, 182-83. See

also C oe r c ive d i p l om a c yD i s a r m a m e n t , 1 9 8 . See also A r m s

c on t r o lDis informat ion, 83, 85, 104,

160 - 61 , 214 , 215 , 220 , 223D obr oge a , 206Donne l ly , Chr i s tophe r , 206

Donovan, Wi l l Bi l l , 211D ubc e k , A l e ks a nd r , 182

Dulles, Allen, 211Dul les , John Foste r , 211

Eas t European forces , r e l i ab i l i t yo f . See E a s t e r n E u r ope , a ndthe Sovie t Union

Eas t G e rm any , 80 , 180 , 200, 206E a s t e rn E u r o pe , 171 , 172 . See also

W a r s a w P a c t

and the Sovie t Union, 173-78,

180--82, 198-206



~ 2 I N D E X

and the Wes t , 179-81 ,206

disputed territories, 206

Eco logical dissent mo vem ents, 198Economic subvers ion, 171-72

Educa t ion and t ra in ing , PSYOP-

P O L W A R . See Tra in ing an d

e d u c a t i o n , P S Y O P - P O L W A R

Educa t ion and t ra in ing p rograms ,

US administered, 19, 20, 131Mobi le Tra in ing Teams (M TTs) ,

56

Egypt , 153

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 14, 15,46, 183 , 184 , 211

adm inis tra t ion , 108, 172El Salv ado r, 7, 11 1, 126-27, 128,

214

Encounter, 169

England . See Great Bri ta inEscala t ion , 3

Essen, 203

Ethiopia, 217, 221External a id . See Fore ign g roups ,

su p p o r t f o r

Face- to-face app roac h, 124, 131Fall, Bernard, 114Fatah, 162

Federa l Repub l ic o f Germany . See

West Germany

Florida, 147FM LN (of E1 Salvador) , 126

Fore ign a rea o f f ice r (FAO) , 57Foreign groups, support for ,

87-94, 117 , 133 . See also

Afghan is tan ; Angola ;Insurgency-counter insurgencypolicies; Iran; H'mong;

Nicaragua; Pales t ine Libera-

t ion Organ iza t ion (PLO);Western All iance

Fort Bragg, NC, 14, 48, 49, 54,6 0 , 6 1

Fort Riley, KS, 47

"Four-Minu te Men ," 211

Four teen Po in ts , 39

Fr an ce , 14, 40, 10 3, 191

a n d NAT O, 2 0 5

and revo lu t ionary war fa re ,113-14

and the bombing o f L ibya , 154Frelim o regime, 10 5. See also

M o z a mb iq u e

Gallipoli , 5

Gandhi , Indira , 215

G D R . See E a s t Ge rma n yGemayel , P ierre , 92Ge n e ra l W a r a n d P S YOP . See

Psychological opera t ions

(PSYO P) , and mi l i ta ry p lan-ning

Ge neva arms co ntrol ta lks , 186Ge rma n Hig h Co mma n d , 3 9

G erm any , 49 , 171. See also East

Ge rma n y ; W e s t Ge rm a n y

Glasnost, 215Goldwate r -Nicho ls Depar tmen t o f

Defense Reorgan iza t ion A c t ,1986 (P L 99-433), 63

Go rbachev , M ikhai l, 209, 215 ,21 6

Government o rgan iza t ion , 26-28 ,

42-44, 143. See also Defense ,

Department of ; specif ic

agency or military service

Gra y p ro p a g a n d a . See under P r o -p a g a n d a

Gray , Gordon , 211Great Britain

and PSYOP in the Fa lk landsWar, 150-51

war aims, World War II , 189-90,191

Wor ld War I p ropaganda , 39-40

G ree ce, 14, 89, 11 3, 191Gre e n h a m Co mmo n , 1 4 2

Grenada, 9, 11, 25, 36n27, 148,152, 221

Gribkov, (Soviet) General, 204-05

G uate m ala, 14, 10 6, 128



INDEX 233

Guerrilla warfare, 112-13, 114.

See also Insurgency-counter-

insurgency policies; Low-intensity conflict;

Revolutionary warfare

Gurkhas, 151, 167

H'mong, 90, 95, 102

Hall, Col. Donald P., 60

Hanoi. See North Vietnam, gov-

ernment of

Hasenfus incident, 4Helsinki Accords, 212Helsinki Final Act, 1975, 82

Herodotus, 191-92

Hindenburg, Marshal Paul von,

39

Hitler, Adolph, 211

Holland, 83Hostages, 86, 147, 155, 166

House Intelligence Committee, 7Human rights, 98

Human rights conferences, 223

Hungary, 80, 108, 184, 212

Hurlburt Field, FL, 53, 54Huyser, Gen. Robert, 90

India, 215

Indian wars, 113

Indochina, 90, 114

Indoctrination, 116

Indonesia, 82, 83

Influence operations, 18"Information War," 202

Instability. See Political warfare

(POLWAR), and national

goals

Institute for Propaganda

Analysis, 220Insurgency, 3. See also Revolu-

tionary warfare

Insurgency-counterinsurgency

policies

Cuba, 117

France, 113-14

Roman Empire, 146

Soviet Union, 117, 118-21, 125,

131, 133, 135, 139, 140

United States, 112, 122-28, 133,

140

Intelligence, 88-89, 162-63,223

reputation, 151-52, 156, 163

International aid and human-

itarian affairs, 20

International communications,

19-20, 20-21, 31, 42.See

also Radio broadcasting;

Television

International Communications

Agency, 19

International Confederation of

Reserve Officers, 220

International educational and

cultural affairs, 19

International information, 17, 19,42

International Information Admin-

istration, State Department,

14

International Military Education

and Training (IMET), 19-20

International organizations, 130

International political action, 17

Ionians, 191-92lran, 14

and the bombing of Libya, 155

Mossadegh, 89, 106

revolutionary Islamic regime,

90-91, 109

US hostage situation, 147, 166

lraq, 153, 163

Iron Curtain, 211

lslamabad, 85Israel, 92, 156, 163, 187

army of, 167

Italy

army of, 170, 171

and tile bombing of Libya, 154



234 INDEX

Jackson Committee report,

32-33n7

Jackson, C. D., 211Japan, 96-97

Jews, 145-46

John F. Kennedy Center for

Military Assistance, 61

John F. Kennedy Special Warfare

Center and School, 68

Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS),

36n27, 67

Joint Chiefs of Staff, Office of(OJCS), 51, 62

Joint Psychological Operations

Center, 62, 63-65, 67, 70Joint PSYOP doctrine, 51, 67, 143

Joint PSYOP Staff Planning

Course, 51, 67

Joint Senior Psychological Opera-

tions Course, 53, 68

Joint Special Operations Agency(JSOA), 62, 70

Joint US Public Affairs Office

(JUSPAO), 49, 73, 123-24

Jordan, 153

Josephus, 146Just cause. See Morality and ethics

Kachins (of Burma), 113

Kaznacheyev, Alexander, 103-04Kennedy administration, 139-40

Kennedy-Khrushchev meeting, 140

KGB lobbyists, 216

Khrushchev, Nikita, 139-40, 209

Korcan War. See under Wars

Labor Party, British, 198

Laos, 95

Latimer, Harry, 124Leadership, role of, 40, 75

Leaflet bombs and shells, 46, 48

Leaflets and pamphlets, 46, 47,

48, 49, 124, 219

Lebanon, 25, 86, 92, 147

Israeli invasion, 1982, 167

Legion of Freedom, 212

Lenin, V.I., 4, 117, 209, 219, 223

Leotychides, 192

Lewy, Gunther, 124

Liberty Bonds, 210Libya, 30, 148, 221

air force of, 156

bombing of, 152-55, 161-62

Limited war, 3, 9, 163

defined, 145

and psychological effects, 145,146-58, 167

Litani River, 167

Lithuania, 202

Lloyd George, David, 40

Loudspeaker and Leaflet (L&L)

Company, 1st, 47-48

Loudspeakers, 46, 47, 49

Low-intensity conflict, 3, 15,

29-31, 64, 65, 73, 125,223.See also Revolutionary war-

fareLuttwak, Edward, 145

Lyons, Eugene, 212

MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 113

Mafia and statecraft, 166-67

Managua. See Nicaragua

Mao Tse-tung, 114, 219Marine Corps. See US Marine

Corps

Marshall Plan, 84

Masada, 145-46

Mass mobilization, 115-16

McCarthy, Joseph R., 13

McClure. Brig. Gen. Robert A.,

6O

Media Production Center, 4th

PSYOP Group, 57, 69

Meir, Golda, 187

Mengistu Halle Mariam, 221

Mexico, 113, 124

Mid-East Peace Process, 92



I N D E X ~ 5

Military occupational specialty

(MOS), 57

Military parity, 3Military services. See also Defense,

Dept. of; specific service

civilians in PSYOP, 52-53, 58,

63, 68, 69, 73, 74

and PSYOP, 28-30, 42, 54-55,

57, 63, 67-68, 74, 155-56.See also Terrorism, and the

bombing of Libya

and PSYOP modernization,57-58, 68-69, 70

Missiles, 85, 95, 180-81. See also

Nuclear weaponsMobile Radio Broadcasting (MRB)

companies, 46-47, 48. See

also Radio broadcasting

Mobile Radio Broadcasting (MRB)

Company, RB&L Group, 48

Mobile Training Teams (MTT), 56Moderate factions, 90-93, 105, 109

Monitoring sets, 46

Montana, 90

Morality and ethics, 5-6, 7, 95-97,

108, 178, 210, 217-18. See

also Cultural inhibitions and

biasesMossadegh, Mohammed, 89, 106

Mozambique, 105,221MPLA, 117. See also Angola

Mujahedeen, 96. See also Afghan-

istanMutual Security Act, 1951, 212

Mycale, battle of, 192

Nagy, Imre, 181National Endowment for

Democracy, 21

National Guard, 54, 57National policy and strategy, 13,

15-17, 20, 42, 111. Seealso

Political warfarc (POLWAR),

and national goals;Psychological operations(PSYOP), and national goals

and anticoalition strategy. See

Alliances, disruption of

and consistency, 77-78, 81-82,104, 105-06, 107, 109

and insurgencies. See Insur-gency-counterinsurgencypolicies

and isolationist tendencies,1 4 8 - 4 9

and limited force, 147-50,157-58. See also Limited

war; Low-intensity conflictNational security adviser, 21National Security Agency, 71

National Security Council (NSC),27, 43

National Security Decision Direc-

tives (NSDDs)77, 35-36n20, 42-43

130, 42-43National Security Planning Group,

35-36n20, 162National security policy, 42NATO, 171, 175, 193-94, 212.

See also Western Europeand an anticoalition strategy,

179-82crisis of strategy, 195-96

and Eastern Europe, 173-74,190-91

modernization, 205,215

nuclear strategy, 170, 173, 190,203. See also Nuclear

weaponsperceptions of, 173,200and war aims, 189-91,204

Negotiation, 20Nepalese troops, UNIFIL, 167

Neutron bomb, 85"New Economic Policy," 209

"New Thinking," 209News media, 7, 41, 213, 216. See

also Radio broadcasting; Tele-

vision; Wall Street Journal;

Washington Post

and censorship, 25-26, 36n27

and covert operations, 4



236 INDEX

and government information

programs, 26

and national consensus, 23-25and the bombing of Libya,

161-62

Nicaragua, 4, 11, 93, 111, 127-28,

213-14, 221. See also

Contras; Sandinistas

and El Salvador, 7and POLWAR, 41, 152

Nigeria, 154

North Africa, 46North Korea, 221

army of, 47

North Sea oil, 154North Vietnam, 90, 95, 147

and PSYOP, 142, 212, 213

Northcliffe, Alfred C. W.

Harmsworth, Viscount, 40Norway, 86

Norwegian troops, UNIFIL, 167NSC 58/2, 183

Nuclear weapons, 142, 170,

172-73, 180-81,215

"Nuclear winter," 216

Nunn, Sam, 63

Oder-Neisse Line, 206

Office of Public Diplomacy for

Latin America and theCaribbean, 36

Office of Strategic Services (OSS),

14, 113, 211Okinawa, 49

Oman, 153

Ortega, Daniel, 4, 214, See also

Nicaragua

Ostpolitik, 180, 206

OWl (Office of War Information),211

Pace, Frank, 59-60

Palestine Liberation Organization

(PLO), 92, 121, 132, 162-63

Pakistan. See IslamabadPanama, 49

Pavlov, 209Peace Corps, 20

Peaceful coexistence, 209, 215

Perceptions management, 160-61.See also Disinformation

Pershing II, 85Persian Gulf, 205

Peru, 128Philippines, 113

Phoenix program, 95, 96Pike Committee, 82Poland, 80, 172, 177-78, 191

and lost territory, 206

and tclcvision, 202unrest in, 80, 184, 198

and the West, 172, 179-80Political action, 18Political combat, 73Political communication, 16

Political warfare (POLWAR). Seealso Agents of influence;Credibility and reputation;Coercive diplomacy; Insur-

gency-counterinsurgency

policies; Propagandadefined, 16, 18, 38, 77-79

and military action, 9, 73, 203.See also Limited war; Low-intensity conflict

and national goals, 3, 6, 8-1 l,41, 77, 93-100, 105, 106,

109, 134and US culture, 5, 6, I0, 16,

21-23. See also Culturalinhibitions and biases

Polybius, 146

Pomerania, 206

Poznan, 184

Prague Spring, 184, 201, 212

President, US. See also Roosevelt,Franklin D.; Carter, James

E.; Eisenhower, Dwight D.;

Reagan Ronald; Truman,

Harry S; Wilson, Woodrow

directives, 49, 99



IN DEX 2 3 7

Press spokesman, 74

Printing presses, 46, 49. See also

Leaf le ts and pamphletsPropaganda 7, 13, 140-41, 157,

210, 220. See also Radio

broadcast ing

black, 18, 82-85

Cold War , 211-12

gray, 79-81, 84Korean War , 47 -48

and r evo lu t ionary war fa re , 41 ,

114, 116 , 117-18, 120Vietnam, 49

World War I , 39-40, 46, 210-11

World War I I , 46 , 211Propaganda o f the deed , 52

P r o p a g a n d a S e c t i o n , G - 2 , G H QA EF , 4 6

Psychological ac t ions, 52

Psycho logical defense , 220

Psychological opera t ions( P S Y O P ) . See also Defense ,

Depar tmen t o f ; L imi ted war ;

M ilitary services; News m ediabatt lef ield, 19, 23, 28-30,

46-48, 49, 72-75, 263-65

and coerc ive d ip lomacy. See

Coerc ive d ip lomacy

and credibi l i ty. See Credibil i ty

and r epu ta t ion

defined, 19, 45, 72and deter rence , 29emot ion in , 217-18and m il i tary planning , 16-17,

74, 142, 169, 170. See also

Alliances, disruption ofand mora l i ty . See M ora l ity and

ethicsand n ation al goals, 10-11,

15-16, 54-55, 66, 71-72,

105-06, 134. See also

Insurgency-counter insurgencypolicies

and revi ta liza t ion of U Scapabilities, 28-29, 30-31,142-43, 150 , 217-19

and r evo lu t ionary war fa re . See

Rev olu t ionary war fa re

and Specia l Operat ions, 58-62,64-65, 70

Psychological Op erat ions ba t ta l ion ,

6th, 49Psycho log ica l Opera t ions Coo rd i -

na t ing Commi t t ee , 14

Psychological Operat ions Director -

ate, OSD, 51, 61, 62, 64, 67,68, 223

Psycho logical opera t ion s d iv ision ,DA, 51, 143

Psycho logical Op erat ions Divis ion ,

J - 3 , M A C V , 4 9

Psycholog ical opera t ion s d iv is ion ,

OJCS, 51, 143

Psychological opera t ions groups

4th, 49, 54, 56, 57, 69, 71

7th, 49

Psychological S t ra tegy Board , 14 ,32-33n7, 211

Psycho log ica l war fa re (PSY W AR ) ,

16, 46, 10 5, 160, 209, 216.

See also Pol i t ica l w arfare

( P O LW A R ) ; P sy c h ol o gi c al

opera t ions (PSYOP)

Psycho log ica l W ar fa re B oard , 48

Psycho log ica l W ar fa re Branch

(PWB) Al l ied Forces Head-quar t e r s (AFHQ) , 46

Psycho log ica l W ar fa re Cen te r ,

Fort Bragg, 14, 48, 60, 61

Psycho logical W arfare Divis ion

(PWD) , SHAEF, 46 , 47 , 60

Psycho log ica l W ar fa re Schoo l , 48

Psycho log ica l W ar fa re Sub-

Sec t ion , G -2 , 46

Psycho log ica l W ar fa re , Of f i ce o ft h e C h i e f o f ( O C P W ) , 6 0

P S Y O P A u t o m a t e d D a t a Sy ste m s

(POADS) , 70

P S Y O P M O S , 5 7

Public address systems, 46



238 INDEX

Public affairs , 17, 18, 38, 39

Publ ic diplomacy, 42, 43

defined, 17, 18, 38Reagan admin i s t ra t i on , 21

Publ i c educa t ion and in forma t ion ,

213, 215, 219-20

Public opinion, 41, 85, 209, 213,

221. See also Cul tura l in-

hibi t ions and biases; News

m e d i a; P r o p a g a n d a

Q a dda f i , Mua m m a r , 152 - 53 ,

161-62. See also L i bya

Radia t i on weapons , 142 . See also

N uc l e a r w e a pons

R a d i o a nd B r oa dc a s t i ng G r oup ,

6th, 48

Radio broadcas t ing, 14, 15, 26,

106 , 124 , 183-85 ,201 . See

also I n t e r na t i ona l c om m un i -

c a t i ons ; P r opa ga nda , g r a y ;

specific stat ion

communi s t media , 81 , 82

mi l i ta ry, 46-49, 54, 69. See

also Psycholog ica l ope ra t i ons

(PSYOP) , ba t t l e f i e ld

Radio Broadcas t i ng and Lea f l e t

(RB&L) Group, 1s t , 47-48Radio Free Europe , 14, 19, 26,

80, 82, 108, 183, 184, 201 ,211

miss ion of , 185

Radio Libera t ion, 14, 183,211

Radio Liberty, 14, 19, 26, 80, 183,184, 201,211

miss ion of 185Radio Mart i , 20, 21

R a d i o Mos c ow , 26

R a nd C or po r a t i on , 200

Reader's Digest, 212

Reagan adm in i s t ra ti on , 17

and na t iona l s t ra tegy, 7 , 20-21,111, 1 25, 12 7, 133, 135

a nd t he bom bi ng o f L i bya , 154

Reagan , Rona ld , 7 , 21 ,212 , 213Red Te r ror , 9

Reserves , 55-57, 69

Responsibi l i ty , 80-82, 108

Revel , Jean-Frangois , 140

R e v i ta l iz a ti on o f P S Y O P -

P O L W A R c a pa b i l i t i e s . See

under Uni ted Sta tes

R e vo l u t i ona r y w a r f a r e. See also

Guer r i l l a wa r fa re ; Insurgency-

cou nter insu rgen cy policies ;

Low-intens i ty conf l ic t ;P r o p a g a n d a

de f i n e d , . l l 3 , 114 , 139

and in t e rna t iona l o rgan i za t i ons ,

120-21

pol i t i ca l -mi l i t a ry infras t ruc ture ,116

strate gy of , 114-17, 139

R obe c k , R . A dm . J ohn de , 5

R om a n E m pi r e , 145 - 46R om a n i a , 206

a rm y of , 170 , 171

R o m e r o , N a p o l e o n , 7Roosevel t , Frankl in D. , 187

Russia , 40. See also Soviet Union

Salamis, 192

Samizdat l i terature, 82

Samizdat U nde r g r ound V i de o , 219Sand inis tas , 4 , 41, 1 17, 152. See

also N i c a r a gua

Sa rnof f , David , 211

Satelli te TV. See Televis ion

Saudi Arabia , 153

Savimb i , Jon as , 108 , 109S D I , 2 1 5 , 2 2 0

S E A T O ( S ou t he a s t A s i a T r e a t y

Organiza t ion) , 149Senate , US, 82

Se ton-Wat son , Hugh , 40 , 169

Shah of I ran , 89 , 90S H A P E ( S u p r e m e H e a d q u a r t e r s ,

Al l ied Powers Europe) , 67Shi ' i te gro up s , 132



I ND EX 239

Sidle , Gen. Winant , 36n27

Sidra , Gu l f o f , 156

Silesia, 206S oc i a l D e m oc r a t i c P a r t y , G e r m a n ,

198 ,203

Sol idar i ty , 177 , 18 0, 184 , 198

South Afr ica , 41, 91, 92

S ou t h A f r i c a n C om m un i s t P a r t y ,

91South Korea , 47

South Vie tnam, 49, 86, 124. See

also Wars , Vie tnampac i f i ca t i on and counte r -

insurgency, 122

North Vie tnamese leaders in ,95 -96

S ou t h - W e s t A f r i c a n P e op l e ' s

O r ga n i z a t ion ( S W A P O ) , 121

Southeas t Asia , 27, 212. See also

spec i f ic count ry

Sovie t Psycholog ica l Aw arenessP r o g r a m ( S P A P ) , 6 8

Soviet Union, 4, 13, 29, 31, 41, 50,

68, 80, 96, 97-99 . 11 7. 139,

183. See also A ge n t s o f

influence; All iances,

d i s rup t ion of ;D i s i n f o r m a t i on ; I n s u rge nc y -

counter insurgency pol ic ies ;

Russ i a ; Warsaw Pac tand Cent ra l Amer i ca , 214 . See

also C uba ; N i c a r a gua

and coe rc ive d ip lom acy , 166a nd E a s t e r n E u r ope 108 ,

169-70, 17 1, 172-73. See

also E a s t e r n E u r ope

Gene ra l S t a f f , 174 , 177 , 178technology , 97-98 , 156a nd T h i r d W or l d s t ude n t s a nd

pol i t i c ians , 215-16and US backed re s i s t ance

g r oups , 93 - 94a nd U S pub l i c op i n i on , 41 , 209 ,

2 1 3 , 2 1 6a nd W a r s a w P a c t f o r c e s ,

172-78

and Wes t e rn Europe , 89 , 142 ,

171. See also N A T O

Spa , 39

Spain, 205

Special Forces, 28, 48, 59-60, 215

Special Fo rces G ro up , 10th, 48, 60Specia l opera t ions , 58-62, 65, 70

Spec i a l Ope ra t i ons Command, 1s t ,

61, 64

Spec ia l Ope ra t i ons Div i sion ,

O C P W , 6 0

Spec i a l Ope ra t i ons Forces (SOF) ,63-64, 125

Spec i a l Ope ra t i ons School , USAF,

53, 54, 68

Specia l opera t ions uni t s , USAF,

49

Specia l Planning Group, 21Spec i a l Warfa re Cente r , 48 , 61

Spec t rum of conf l i c t , 30

Spel lman, Franc is Cardina l , 211Spetsnaz, 175 ,202

Stabi l i ty, 8. See also Pol i t i ca l

w a r f a re ( P O L W A R ) , a n dna t iona l goa l s

S t a l i n , Joseph , 186-87 ,211

Sta l ingrad, 170 , 171

Sta te , Depar tment of , 14, 19, 63,

73, 130

S t a t e - D e f e ns e D e pa r t m e n t r e po r ton C ent ra l Am er i ca , 1984 , 140S t e e d , W i c kha m , 40

Sterl ing, Claire , 141Sti lwel l , Gen. Richard, 143

St ra tegic Studies Divis ion, 4thP S Y O P G r oup , 69 , 71

St rouga l , Lubomi r , 181

Subve rs ion , 13 . See also Pol i t i ca lw a r f ar e ( P O L W A R ) , a n d

na t iona l goa l sSu ez crisis, 19 56 , 184S uka r no , 83Sun T zu, 6 , 23, 170 , 178 , 196 , 209Supreme Headqua r t e r s , Al l i ed

E xpe d i t i ona r y F o r c e( S H A E F ) , 4 6



240 INDEX

Syria , 92, 15 3, 155

Tac t i ca l Decept ions Group(Atlant ic), 54

T a c t i c a l I n f o r m a t i on D e t a c hm e n t ,

47

T a n k s

Leopa rd I f , 205

M - l , 2 0 5Teacher t ra ining, 220

Technology t rans fe r , 97-98

Televis ion, 25, 124 -25 ,202 , 213,215. see also N e w s m e d i a

Te rror i sm , 3 , 9 , 132 , 13 9, 141

a nd t he bom bi ng o f L i bya ,152-55, 161-62

a nd dom e s t i c la w e n f o r c e m e n t ,

157-58

t e r r o r i s t g r oups a nd P S Y O P ,

161-63

vic t ims of and te levis ion, 25Tet , 1968 , 142

Tha i l and , 90

Themis toc les , 191-92

T o ky o s um m i t, 154

T r a i n i ng a nd e duc a t i on ( P S Y O P -

POLWAR), 52 , 53 , 57 , 67 ,68, 70-71, 74, 143,219. See

also Psycholog ica l Warfa re

C e n t e rTransy lvan i a , 206

Trehol t , Arne , 86

T r o op i n f o r m a t i on , 19T r o t s ky , L e on , 9

Tru m an, H ar ry S , 14 , 15Tu Mu, 6 , 7

Tunisia , 153

T ur ke y , 89

Two-t rack pol icy, 78, 106

U kra in e , 184 , 200, 202

U nc onve n t i ona l w a r f a r e ( U W ) , 60

U n d e r g r o u n d c h u r c h m o v e m e n t s ,

198, 202

Uni f i ed commands , 51 , 55 , 62

Un i la t e ra l d i sa rm am ent , 198

Uni t ed Arab Emi ra t e s , 153

U n i t e d K i ngdom . See Great Bri ta in

Uni ted Nat ions (UN), 48, 119

f o r c e s i n L e ba non ( U N I F I L ) ,

167

Uni ted Sta tes . See also All iances ,

d i s rup t ion of

a nd t he C a r i bbe a n , 152 . See also


and Cent ra l Amer i ca , 21 . See

also spec i f ic count ryand the Diem fami ly , 86

and Eas t e rn Eu rope , 80-82 , 108 ,

172, 183, 184. See also


and fore ign l abor un ions , 89

and the Middle Eas t , 147-48.

See also Pales t ine Libera t ion

Organiza t i on (PLO) ; spec i f i c

c oun t r yand the mode ra t e s , 90-93 , 105 ,

109

and official visits, 185-86rev i t a l i za t i on of PSYOP-

P O L W A R c a pa b i l i t i e s , 28 - 31 ,50-53, 63, 65, 66, 67, 125,

129-34, 143 , 150, 217-19and the Shah , 89 , 90

and Southeas t As i a . See

spec if ic count ry ; W ars ,Vie tnam

spec t rum o f conf l ic t , 30, 150technology, 150-51, 156

and Wes t e rn Europe , 84 , 85 , 89 ,102, 1 42 , 154 , 173 , 180 . See

also N A T O ; s pe ci fi c c oun t r yU S A i r F o r c e

and PSYOP, 29 , 52-54 , 57-58 ,

69, 71. See also Mil i ta ryservices

spec ia l opera t ions uni t s , 49U S A r m y

and PSYOP, 14, 28, 45-50, 54,62, 67, 12 3, 124 , 143. See

also M ili tary services



I N D E X 2 4 1

a n d P S Y O P m o b i l i z a t i o n , 5 5 - 5 7

guerr i l l a and counterguerr i l l a

act ions, 113U S C E N T C O M (U S C e ntr al

C o m m a n d ) , 6 2

U S I n f o r m a t i o n A g e n c y ( U S I A ) ,

14, 15, 19, 43, 63, 79, 130,

183

US Marine Corps , 52 , 54 , 92 ,147-48. S e e a l s o Mil i tary

services

U S M i li ta r y A s si st an c e C o m m a n d ,V i et na m , C o m m a n d e r o f

( C O M U S M A C V ) , 4 9

US Navy, 52 , 54and Libya, 156

and PSYOP, 29 , 30 , 52 , 54 ,

124, 155. S e e a l so Mil i tary

services

U S S O U T H C O M ( U S S o u t h e r n

C o m m a n d ) , 5 1 , 6 2

Vel ikhov, Y. P . , 83

Venice, 78

Vietnam, 217, 221 . S e e a l s o u n d e r

W a r s

Vie tnam, Repub l i c o f . S e e S ou th

Vie tnam

Voice of Am erica , 26, 63 , 80, 81 ,

183, 185 ,210

Voice o f t hc Un i t ed Na t ions ,

47, 48

Volckmann, Col . Russel l , 60

V ulnerab i l it ies , 131 , 133

W a l l S t r e e t J o u r n a l . 161

War, 3, 6 , 38. S e e a l so Guer r i l l a

war fa re ; L imi t ed war ;

R e v o l u t io n a r y w a r f a r e

W a r D e p a r t m e n t , 4 6

W a r i n t h e S h a d o w s : T h e G u e r r il la

i n H i s t o r y (Asprey) , 112

W ar o f i deas , 50

War planning, 30, 31, 50, 193-94.

S e e a l s o P s y c h o l o g i c a l

o p e r a t i o n s ( P S Y O P ) , a n d

mi l i ta ry p l ann ing

Ara b- I s rae l i war , 1973 , 187W or ld W ar I I , 186 -87

W a r s

Civi l War (US), 113Falk lands (Malvinas) , 150-51 ,

156, 163

Greco-P ers i an , 191-93

l ran - l r aq , 163

Korean, 14, 47, 48, 59

Vietnam, 4, 15, 24, 25, 49, 72,73, 94-9 5, 12 2, 123-25, 142,

147, 149 , 212

W ar o f Independence (US ) , 113

W or ld W ar I , 39 -40 , 46

World War II , 13, 23, 46, 48,

113, 170, 191W arsaw Pac t , 172-74 , 175-78,

199, 203-06. .See a l s o Eas t e rn

E u r o p e

W a r s a w T r e a t y O r g a n i z a ti o n .S e e W a r s a w P a c t

W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , 7, 162W e a p o n s d e p l o y m e n t a n d

P S Y O P , 1 4 2

W einberger Doc t r i ne , 148

Wells , H. G. , 40

W es t Germany , 85 , 175

and Eas tern lands , 179

a n d N A T O , 1 9 0a n d r e a r m a m e n t , 1 9 3

mi l i t ary resurgence, 206

o s t p o l i t i k , 180, 206

radio s ta t ions , 183

Western Al l iance , 89 , 198 . S e e

N A T O

W es te rn Europe , 14

and Ea s t e rn Eu rope , 179 , 180

and t he S ov ie t U n i o n , 169-70

and th e Un i ted S ta tes , 180 , 198

W h a t l s t o B e D o n e (Lenin), 117

W h y D e m o c r a c i e s P e r is h (Revel),

140

Wilson, Lt . Gen. Sam, 61



242 INDEX

Wilson, Woodrow, 39, 103,210

Woodward, Admiral, 150

Woodward, Bob, 161-62World Peace Council, 102

World War I. See under Wars

World War II. See under Wars

Xerxes, 191-92

Yakovlev, Alexander, 216

Yugoslavia, 191

Zartmann, (Argentine) Capt.

Carlos E., 150

Zulu tribe, 92



P O L I T I C A L W A R F A R E

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RETHL,~'KING the US APPROACH

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N A T I O N A L D E F E N S E U N I V E R S I T Y

L i e u t e n a n t G e n e r a l B r a d l e y C . H o s m e r , U S A F

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I N S T I T U T E F O R N A T I O N A L S T R A T E G I C S T U D I E S

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