Political Science Political IdeologiesIdealism Immanuel Kant Categorical Imperative, Human dignity, Every man is an end in itself, no man ought to treat the other as a means to an end Hegel State is the march of God in the worldLiberalism Thomas Paine The Government even in its best state, is but a necessary evil Herbert Spencer Survival of the fittest Graham Sumner A drunkard in the gutter is just where he ought to be Concept of Liberty, natural rights of man, minimalist state, equality of opportunity and equality of status, man is rational, state is man-made not divine or natural Classical liberalism John Locke, Bentham : natural rights, utilitarianism, liberty(defined by non-interference of state) Modern liberalism J S Mill, T H Green(will not force is the basis of the state), L T Hobhouse, J A Hobson: positive freedom- liberty(defined by presence of state), welfare state, social liberalism- natural to have society, society gives man rights, no rights without society, man seen to be more social; economic management Positive freedom- at odds with classical definition not only can legal and physical restraints curtail freedom, but social disadvantage and inequality can prohibit the individuals freedom to develop, attain fulfillment and realize his or her potential state seen as a protector of this freedom, not as agent to protect freedom from(negative concept of freedom) State cant force people to act morally, it can only provide the conditions to help individual make moral decisions // modern liberalism socialism Social liberalism- due to circumstantial inequalities, states social responsibility to reduce disadvantage to create more equal life chances Harold Laski proponent of welfare state, socialist tilt of modern liberalism, believed in pluralism, held on to the concept of rights and liberty to be most essential in state definition and function; believed classical liberalisms shortcomings in only recognizing legal and political rights/liberty emphasized on the social, civil and economic rights to be just as important; right to adequate wages, right to work, right to health, right to education. Was a major influence for Nehru Every state is known by the rights it maintainsL T Hobhouse concept of progressive taxationJ K Galbraith concept of the new industrial state Keynes state should perform function of generating employment, it has significant role in the demand side of the marketsNeoliberalism Legitimation crisis suggested by Habermas welfare state policies of supporting the individual from cradle to grave will strip the government of its own resources and cause accumulated fiscal deficits. Ultimately, bodies like IMF would direct rollback of state and thered be a re-emergence of minimal state Robert Nozick, Isaiah Berlin, Milton Friedman, Michael Oakeshott privatization, liberalization, deregulation, disinvestment, withdrawal of social security provisions, market fundamentalism Libertarians critic of Welfare state; staunch belief in right to property states role to be minimal that of a night watchman, state has role to ensure that man has right to property but has no role in dictating how the property is developed; distrust socialists and social liberals; Nozicks view applicable in the international stage with oil politics and discourse between North and SouthSocialism Essentially human beings are social creatures overcoming social and economic problems by drawing on power of the community instead of individual effort, man is can be nurtured to develop himself and has ability to change through process of socialization; moral incentive is what drives an human being to develop rather than material incentive that drives an individual to progress, focus on cooperation rather than competition Central tenet of socialism is equality specifically equality of outcomes; claim the inequality witnessed today is mostly due to the flawed structure of society and the principles that the institutions (on which society stands and functions) are built are inherently unjust. //because humans are equal and given the correct socialization have the ability to develop and attain self-fulfillment Gradualism: Eduard Bernstein progress of a society from capitalist to socialist values gradually with piecemeal improvements, no idea of spontaneous revolution Classical Marxism: Marx, Engels historical materialism- material or economic conditions ultimately structure law, politics, culture and other aspects of social existence (Base Superstructure setup of historical development) Orthodox Marxism: LeninNeomarxism Critical School: based on young Marxian thought alienation of man from society, Soviet Russia/Eastern Europe only corroborated with this alienation of man with their communist model; capitalism is cause of commodification of mans labour, root cause of evil Herbert Marcuse, Theodore Adorno, Max Horkheimer Structural School: structural analysis to analyze society, maintains that economy is basic structure but more superstructures to society than Marx suggested follows mature Marxs thoughts, focus on methodological/ideological aspect of Marxism Gramsci, AlthusserFeminism First Wave: Suffragette Movement Emmeline Pankhurst, J S Mill, Mary Wollstonecraft Equal political and civil rights for women; right to vote; equality of status Second Wave: Socialist Feminism demand for social and economic rights equal wages, maternity benefits, inclusion of domestic labour in National Income Accounting Third Wave: Radical Feminism Kate Millet(Dialectics of Sex), Shulasmith Firestone(Sexual Politics), Carol Hanish (Personal is Political), Betty Friedman, Simon de Beauvoir(the Second Sex) Gender(social) is different from sex(biological), the biological differences between men and women not a justification to subordination of women in status (social) The Personal is political family not a different sphere that is kept separate from the political sphere; power relations, subordination and domination in family sphere to be open to review and reform in the political sphere Patriarchal System establishment of supremacy of males over females as basic structure of society One is not born a woman, but made one inspired from existential line of thought; woman should have freedom to determine her own way of life, instead of having the essence of womanhood imposed on her by society, customs and traditions; recommends education for women, right to abortion, and system of universal childcare provided by stateEnd of Ideology Daniel Bell political ideology has lost relevance WW Rostco all societies pass through similar stages of development regardless of political ideology followed; traditional society preconditions for takeoff develop takeoff state of maturity stage of high consumption Lipset superiority of democracy is well established, no better alternative hence end of conflict of ideas Criticism of End of Ideology C B Macpherson societies in liberal countries isnt egalitarian, the theory is status-quoist Alistair MacIntyre the theory is itself an ideology and a subtle defense of liberalism, trying to establish supremacy of liberal world viewEnd of History Francis Fukuyama victory of capitalist world view, universal acknowledgement of superiority of USA, stemming from Hegel/Marxs concept of history as discourse of dialectics with victory of capitalism, end of all conflicts to declare capitalism as the supreme idea/ideology. Criticism of End of History Samuel Huntington all contradictions havent ended there will be emergence of new faultlines Noam Chomsky World isnt comfortable with USAs self appointed role of global police man Emanuel Wallerstein too premature to establish permanence to unipolar movement US economy still fragile compared to house of cards John Lewis Gaddis new threats of socio-ethnic conflicts that could threaten US hegemonyDEMOCRACYMacPhersons Classification of Democratic Models

Normative approach: focus on philosophy or theory of what democracy is supposed to achieve empowerment of masses Protective Model: Locke, Bentham- democracy necessary to protect rights of people, liberty can be protected when govt listens to people Developmental Model: J S Mill democracy necessary to develop human to his potential and democracy goes hand in hand with the freedom of speech and expressionEmpirical Approach: focus on how democracy really plays out and not just what it is supposed to mean Elitist/Market theory: Schumpeter, Max Weber- Power ultimately gets concentrated in the hands of few, in reality it becomes an oligarchy; market model suggests the politicians to be the entrepreneurs who seek consumers (voters) and compete with each other (other politicians) to get power. MacPherson says this model of democracy focuses solely on the process of getting elected (procedural) and doesnt explain democracy outside the process of elections Pluralist model: Robert Dahl - liberal democracies not oligarchies by polyarchy in addition to politicians, peoples associations, pressure groups also play role in taking power this approach also focuses just on procedural aspect of how power is taken (elections) and not on the substantive understanding of the working of a democracy as a wholeMacPhersons Model: claims liberal democracy to not be egalitarian and the basic objective of democracy is empowerment of people; democracy has two aspects Procedural the process of how people exercise choice Substantive more important, the process of how people are empowered by exercising their choiceFurther explains that power is of two types Developmental the power to develop and help themselves Coercive the power to force others to follow their own suitMacPherson describes democracy to be true when all sections of society have Developmental Power and no section of society has Coercive Power.Forms of Democracy Representative Participative Deliberative

Theory of JusticeRawls theory of justiceTheories of justice deal with public policy main concern of public policy is t determine the principles of distribution or allocation of goods, honors, psitions, awards (sharing burden of state)Liberals: survivial of the fittest theory of justice greatest happiness of the greatest numberSocialists: equality of outcomesRawls(positive liberal) : 3 principles of The Grand theory of Justice Maximum equal liberty Equality of opportunity The difference principle- differential treatment in favor of the least advantaged of society is supported concept of minimal safety netRawls Supports welfare state expresses concern for the least advantaged sections of society Grand theory of justice is to be purely procedural and NOT an end-state theory like communism/Marxism (the end is predetermined in the theory so it is inherently biased in its approach, in favor of a particular section, to reach justice) Claims the theory to employ a procedure that would result in an absolute, uncontested universal theory of justice applicable to any society Values considered sacred: 1. Individuality (socialism neglects this) 2. Human Dignity (liberalism neglects this) Procedure of grand theory of justice: Original position like state of nature, the state before a social contract has been fleshed out every person in it is a rational negotiator and behind the veil of ignorance Veil of ignorance no person is aware of his abilities, his position in general standing of society or which qualities, assets and abilities are valued or pejorative in society but man is rational and has a general understanding of how society functions and about human psychologyCriticism of rawls Marxists principle given most importance should be the difference principle Feminists Rawls doesnt consider the question of gender inequality at all, do women participate in the making of social contract? Communitarian thinkers dont believe a universal and absolute theory of justice is possible for the contexts of different societies Libertarians criticize Rawls compromise on liberty for welfare Amartya Sen critic of universal idea of justice says its impracticalCommunitarianism Community more immediate and source of natural membership in a community for man compared to society; of two types Natural membership caste, religion, ethnicity Identity of interest environmentalists, humans rights activists Communitarianism is emerging as a reaction to western domination in international politics; also as a reaction to the imposition of more superior/rational values of west Asian Values in SE Asia, Islamic fundamentalism in Middle East Increasing call for a multicultural approach instead of a standard, absolute and universal code of justice Their view of Man not atomistic, criticize libertarian derivative of individualistic and alienated man; believe man is conscious of situated self or embedded self View on Society focus on community rather than society man naturally finds himself a member of community, plays significant role in shaping his view/values/beliefs View on politics politics of difference, recognition of different communities, multicultural approach View of Justice Michael Waltzer concept of spheres of justice and complex equality different spheres of life require different application of principles understanding of context is primaryRawls criticism of Communitarian criticism Rawls accepts limitations of theory says applicable only to liberal societies admits difference principle and aspects of theory not applicable to international politics/global context. Charles Beitz asks Rawls where the Difference Principle should also be applied in global context should wealthy sections of the North be taxed for upliftment of the least advantaged in the South Rawls says no, separate laws should be followed in international context (Laws of the people) Respect international law Relinquish use of force Promote respect for human rightsTheory of Equality Equality of Welfare (liberals) Locke, Bentham; equality of opportunity to pursue ones pleasures Equality of resources (positive liberals) Dworkins; distribution of which should consider two criteria: 1. Ambition 2. Endowment (natural quality additional re-distribution to combat natural deficiencies to level playing field) Equality of capacity (social liberals) Amartya Sen; resources not sufficient; no point handing out books if you dont know how to read; recommends capacity building; each person is striving for functional freedom (freedom to do what one wants given that he has the capability to do it); human development is seen as opportunity to enjoy freedom- literacy, health, political empowerment Differentiated Equality: supported by Communitarians and welfare state theorists; based on differentiated citizenship Universal citizenship treats all citizens at power and gives them equal rights Differentiated citizenship differential treatment for weaker sections or disadvantaged sections like women, minorities; supporting affirmative actions policies Complex Equality: arising from Walzers views on equality/ communitarian perspective of justice (spheres of justice)