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Political Geography
Chapter 8
Introduction
Political geography helps explain the cultural and physical factors that underlie political unrest
Political geographers study how people have organized Earth’s land surface into countries and alliances, the reasons for doing so, and the conflicts that can erupt from the organization
Where are States Located?
Almost all land on the Earth belongs to a country
Not true as recently as 1940s – only about 50 countries then Now there are 192 members of the UN
State- an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established gov. that has control over its internal and foreign affairs Occupies a defined territory and has a
permanent population
continued
Sovereignty- independence from control of its internal affairs by other states
States are examples of formal regions because the entire territory is ruled by a common gov., laws, military etc.
Country and state are synonyms
Problems of Defining States
Antarctica is the only large landmass on Earth that is not part of a state Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
Zealand, Norway, and the UK all claim portions of Antarctica
The US and Russia do not recognize these claims
The Treaty of Antarctica 1959 (1991) says states may establish research stations but may not have a military presence
continued
There is some disagreement about the number of sovereign states around the world
Korea, China, and Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic) are examples of places that test the definition of state
Korea: One State or Two?
After Japan was defeated in WWII, Korea was divided into two occupation zones by the US and Russia
Division was made at 38 degrees N. Latitude
N. Korea invaded South Korea in 1950
After 3 years, a cease-fire was agreed upon near the 38th parallel
continued
Both gov. are committed to reunification In 2000 they agreed to exchange visits of
families separated for more than 50 years and for increased economic cooperation Progress slowed by N. Korea’s decision to
build nuclear weapons even though the country can’t provide its citizens with food, electricity, etc.
Both countries were admitted into the UN in 1992
China and Taiwan: One State or Two?
In 1949 the ruling gov. of China lost a civil war and fled to the island of Taiwan They claimed to still be the rightful gov. of
China and that they were waiting for the defeat of the communists so they could return to the mainland
Communist China claimed Taiwan and vice versa They agreed there was only 1 states, but not
about who ruled it
continued
In 1999, Taiwan decided to claim itself a separate sovereign state
In the 1950s and 1960s the US did not recognize communist China as a country
Not until 1971 did the US recognize communist China—they were awarded the UN seat formerly held by the Taiwanese gov.
Taiwan is now the most populous country not in the UN
Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic)
Most African countries recognize as a sovereign state
Morocco does not They claim the territory and built a 3,000
kilometer wall around it to keep out rebels The territory was controlled by Spain until
1976 when they withdrew An independent state was declared, but
Morocco and Mauritania annexed the Northern and Southern portions
continued
After 3 years, Mauritania withdrew and Morocco claimed the entire territory Today Morocco controls most of the territory However, there is a gov. group that operates in the
sparsely populated deserts (esp. the 1/5 of territory outside the wall)
A cease-fire was signed in 1991 and a UN peacekeeping force upholds it
While all of this is going on, Spain controls 2 cities in Morocco—the were annexed into Spain 500 years ago and the combined 140,000 residents favor remaining part of Spain
Varying Size of States
Largest – Russia= 6.6 million sq. miles 11% of total land area
China, Canada, United States, Brazil, and Australia are the only other states of more than 2.9 million sq. miles
Microstates- states with very small land areas
Smallest is Monaco=0.6 square miles Many microstates are small islands
Development of the State Concept
Relatively recent concept Before the 1800s Earth was organized in
other ways City-states, empires, and tribes
Ancient States
The first states to develop in the Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia) were city-states
A sovereign state that compromises a town and the surrounding countryside
City was walled for protection and surrounding countryside was used for agriculture
continued
Sometimes one city-state would assert dominance in the area and create an empire Ex. Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians
About the same time the Egyptians were forming an Empire along the Nile River Valley
Early European States
Roman Empire controlled most of Europe, North Africa, and SW Asia
Spanned from England in the North to Egypt in the South and from Spain in the West to Iran in the East
After the fall of the Empire, Europe was broken up into large estates owned by Kings, Dukes, etc.
They fought each other and some consolidated lands into Kingdoms
continued
Around 1100, powerful Kings began to emerge as they consolidated large estates England, France, and Spain Germany and Italy however were not
consolidated until the 1800s
Colonies
Def.- a territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being completely independent
Usually sparsely populated before the colony is established
Colonialism- the effort by one country to establish settlements and impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on a territory
continued
European states created colonies for three reasons
1. To promote Christianity
2. To gain valuable resources
3. To show their relative power
GOD, GOLD, and GLORY
continued
Europeans first started colonizing in the late 1400s—Americas
Most of those colonies declared independence by 1824 and Europe turned to Africa and Asia
Imperialism- control of territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society
continued
UK created largest colonial empire “sun never set” on British empire France also had a large empire- colonies
concentrated in West Africa and SE Asia
continued
France attempted to assimilate its colonies into French culture and educate an elite group to provide local leadership
After independence most French colonies remained close to France
The British created different gov. policies in each of its colonies
Allowed local inhabitants to maintain their diverse cultures and local customs
British colonies made peaceful transitions to independence in most cases
concluded
Most African and Asian colonies became independent after WWII
Only a handful of colonies still exist Most are islands in the Pacific or Caribbean Most populous is Puerto Rico
Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?
Boundary- an invisible line marking the extent of a state’s territory
Can be natural physical features or cultural features such as religion and language
Boundary locations often generate conflict because the lines are the only place two neighboring countries must have physical contact
Shapes of States
Shape of a state controls the length of its boundaries with other states
Shape also can influence the ease or difficulty of internal administration and can affect social unity
There are 5 basic shapes: Compact Prorupted Elongated Fragmented Perforated
Compact States: Efficient
Def.- state where the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly
Ideal compact state would be a circle with the capital in the center
Allows for good communications from all regions
Ex’s Burundi, Kenya, Uganda
Prorupted States: Access or Disruption
Def. – an otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension
Proruptions are created for 2 reasons1. To provide a state with access to a resource
such as water (Congo stretches to Atlantic Ocean) (why Cabinda is separated from the rest of Angola)
2. To separate two states that would otherwise share a border (Afghanistan separates Russia from Pakistan)
Elongated States: Potential Isolation
Def.- states with a long narrow shape Only a handful of these Ex. Chile – over 2500 miles long, but only 90
miles wide Italy is a less extreme example 700 by 120
miles Gambia is an elongated state on an East-
West orientation (300 miles wide by15 miles long) by that is completely surrounded by Senegal
continued
May suffer from poor internal communication and some regions may be isolated from the capital which is usually near the center
Fragmented States: Problematic
Def.- state with several discontinuous pieces of territory
Technically, any state that has offshore islands is considered fragmented – fragmentation is particularly significant for some states
2 types:
1. Areas separated by water
2. Areas separated by an intervening state
continued
Indonesia is most extreme fragmented state 13,677 islands spread over 3,000 miles in the
Indian Ocean 80% of pop. lives on the two islands of Java
and Sumatra Fragmentation hinders communication and
makes integration of people living on remote islands nearly impossible
Indonesian gov. encourages migration from major pop. centers to more remote areas to encourage national integration
continued
The US, Russia, Angola, and Bangladesh are examples of countries with territory separated by other states
Kaliningrad is separated from the rest of Russia by 250 miles Important to Russia because it gives them
access to the Baltic sea The Tin Bigha corridor of India divides
Bangladesh
continued
Panama was a fragmented state while the US controlled the canal and the surrounding canal zone Now that the US has returned control of the
canal, Panama is now a elongated state
Perforated States: South Africa
Def.- a state that completely surrounds another one
South Africa is a great example It completely surrounds Lesotho
Lesotho dependent upon S. Africa for import and export of goods
Can You Identify Each Type of State?
Landlocked States
Landlocked states- a state that lacks a direct outlet to the sea because it is completely surrounded by several other countries 14 out of the 54 countries in Africa are
landlocked Remnant of European colonialism
continued
Access to a seaport is critical because it facilitates international trade Bulky goods are usually transported by ship Landlocked states are at the mercy of other
states for the use of their seaports
Types of Boundaries
•Historically, frontiers separated states
•-a zone where no state exercises complete political control
•Frontiers are tangible geographic areas
•Boundaries are thin, invisible, and imagined lines
•Boundaries have replaced frontiers almost everywhere on Earth
continued
Antarctica and the Arabian Peninsula are the only places that still have frontiers
Saudi Arabia is separated from Qatar, UAE, Oman, and Yemen by frontiers
continued
Boundaries can be physical or cultural Physical boundaries can be seen on a map
and on the ground Neither type necessarily better than others Best boundaries are those that all affected
states agree upon
Mountain Boundaries
Serve as effective boundaries when they are difficult to cross
Also pretty permanent Argentina and Chile are separated by the
crest of the Andes Mountains They have had disagreements about where
exactly that crest lies
Desert Boundaries
Deserts are hard to cross and sparsely inhabited
Type of boundary common in Africa and Asia Sahara desert separates Libya, Algeria, and
Egypt from their southern neighbors Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad and the Sudan
Water Boundaries
Rivers, lakes, and oceans are often used to mark boundaries
Very common in East Africa Ex. Boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania,
and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria Boundaries are typically in the middle of the
water, but not always Water makes attack from neighbors more
difficult because of troop transport
continued
Water boundaries can cause some difficulties Position of water changes over time
Ex. Rio Grande along the US – Mexico border Ocean boundaries can also be problematic
Most states claim the boundary is not at the coastline, but out at sea
Done for defense and resources
The Law of the Sea (1983), signed by 117 countries, recognizes borders at 12 nautical miles – with exclusive fishing rights to 200 nautical miles
Cultural Boundaries
A nation-state exists when the boundaries of a state match the boundaries of the territory inhabited by an ethnic group
Geometric Boundaries
Part of US border with Canada is an arc that follows the 49th parallel for 1300 miles from Minnesota to Washington
Religious Boundaries
In a few cases religion has been used to select a boundary between states
The British split India into states based on religion Hindus in India, Muslims in Pakistan
Northern Ireland is majority Protestant and is part of the UK
Ireland is 95% Catholic and is independent from the UK
Language Boundaries
After WWI, language was the most important factor the Allies used in creating new states and changing the boundaries of existing states– esp. in Eastern and Southern Europe
Ex. Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were created by
grouping people of similar languages together into one country– both separated into many countries in the 1990s
Cyprus’s “Green Line” Boundary
Read about this p. 271-272
Boundaries Inside States
Local gov. boundaries are sometimes drawn to separate different nationalities or ethnicities
In the US, they are sometimes drawn to provide an advantage to a political party
Unitary state- an internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of the central government officials
Federal state- an internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government
Unitary States
Works best in nation-states characterized by few internal cultural differences and a strong sense of national unity
Smaller states are more likely to adopt Common in Europe Some multinational states have adopted
unitary systems so the values of one nationality can be imposed on the others
Ex. Rwanda
Federal States Local governments have the authority to
adopt their own laws Multinational states may adopt federal
systems to empower different nationalities, esp. if they live in different regions of the country
Well suited for large states-most large countries are US, Russia, Canada, Brazil, and India
Electoral Geography
Legislative districts in the US are redrawn every 10 years to reflect relative population changes
In most European countries independent commissions are created to draw the districts
In the US, state legislatures are responsible for drawing congressional districts
Party in power attempts to draw lines to keep them in power
Gerrymandering
Def.- the process of redrawing legislative boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the party in power
Named for Elbridge Gerry, Gov. of Mass. 1810-1812 One of the districts he drew looked like a
salamander– critic called it a gerrymander
Types of Gerrymandering
Basically three types:
1. Wasted Vote- spreads opposition supporters across many districts in minority numbers
2. Excess Vote- concentrates opposition supporters into a few districts
3. Stacked Vote- links distant areas of like-minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries
continued
Most gerrymandering in the Us is now “stacked vote” gerrymandering Leads to the party in
power owning a majority of support in a majority of the districts
Often used to create districts made up largely of ethnic minorities
Ex. 12th district in NC
continued
Supreme Court ruled Gerrymandering illegal in 1985, but doesn’t have the power to keep it from happening
Estimated that only 10% of congressional seats are actually competitive because of gerrymandering
Political and Military Cooperation
The United Nations was created to prevent the likelihood of a third World War
It was created at the end of WWII by the Allies
In 1945 there were 45 members, by 2007 there were 192
The UN replaced the failed League of Nations that was created after WWI
The United Nations
The UN has had three major expansionary periods 1955- 16 countries were added –mostly
European countries that had been liberated from Nazi Germany
1960- 17 new members added –mostly former British and French colonies in Africa
1990-1993- 26 countries were added—mostly from the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia
continued
UN members can vote to send a peacekeeping force into unstable areas Member countries send troops to make up the
force China, Russia, France, the UK, and the US
(permanent members of the UN Security Council) have the power to veto a peacekeeping force
Happened often during the Cold War
continued
The UN is currently trying to separate warring groups in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and sub-Saharan Africa Ties to maintain neutrality b/w the two sides Not always possible, esp. in cases involving
genocide Ex. Bosnian Serbs were seen as the aggressor
versus Bosnian Muslims
Regional Military Alliances
In addition to the UN, many states also joined regional military alliances after WWII
Era of Two Superpowers
During the Cold War, the US and Soviet Union were the World’s two superpowers
Before this time, there were usually multiple powerful states, none of which could dominate on their own
Major states joined together for temporary alliances
Balance of power- condition of roughly equal strength between opposing countries or alliances of countries
continued
After WWII, the US and Soviet Union were the only powers left that were not battered to the point of losing there power status
During the Cold War, the world was split into allies of the US and allies of the Soviet Union
Both superpowers created military bases in ally countries around the world Therefore, they could maintain strength in
regions not near their own territory
Military Cooperation in Europe
2 military alliances were formed in Europe after WWII –NATO and the Warsaw Pact
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was a military pact between the US, Canada, and 14 democratic European States
The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement among 7 Communist countries in Eastern Europe
continued
NATO and the Warsaw Pact were created to maintain a bipolar balance of power in Europe
NATO wanted to prohibit the Soviets from taking over W. Germany and many smaller nations in Europe
The Warsaw Pact created a buffer zone between the Soviet Union and W. Germany
continued
After the Cold War, the Warsaw Pact disbanded and most of its former members joined NATO Which offers its members a sense of security
against Russian threats in the future
Other Regional Organizations
The Organization of American States (OAS) includes all 35 states in the W. Hemisphere Cuba has been suspended since 1962 Promotes social, cultural, political, and
economic links b/w member states The African Union (AU) was created in 2001
and has 53 members Tries to promote economic integration in Africa
Economic Cooperation
The need for a bipolar balance of power ended when the Soviet Union disbanded in 1992
We are now back to having more than 2 major powers—like before WWII, but with 2 diff.
1. Economic power becoming more important than military power—allows Japan and Germany to be considered powers
2. The leading power is not a single state, but an economic union in Europe led by Germany
European Union
Predecessor was established in 1958 with 6 members Originally designed to help Europe’s WWII scars heal Expanded to 12 countries in the 1980’s and now has
27 members with 2 more wanting to join (Croatia and Turkey)
Wants to promote development through economic cooperation Removes barriers to free trade– goods and services
and people can travel throughout the Union without stopping
Created a common currency (the Euro) Has become the World’s wealthiest market
Terrorism
Def- the systematic use of violence by a group to intimidate a population or coerce a gov. into granting its demands
Terrorism attacks usually target ordinary people rather than military or political leaders
Al-Qaeda
Terror network founded by Osama bin Laden Believed to be living in Afghanistan since
1994 Issued a declaration of war against the US
because of its support for Saudi Arabia and Israel
Al-Qaeda means “the foundation” Created around 1990 to unite jihad fighters
around the world—est. 20,000 members in 34 countries
continued
Network consists of a large number of autonomous cells who have little contact with other cells and other members of their own
Not all Muslims agree with the terror tactics of Al-Qaeda
Americans and Europeans have the challenge of distinguishing b/w peaceful Muslims and the handful of terrorists out of the 1.3 billion Muslims in the World
State Support of Terrorism
Several Middle Eastern states have provided support for terrorists—3 types
1. Providing sanctuary
2. Supplying weapons, money, and intelligence
3. Planning attacks using terrorists Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran have all
been accused by the US of supporting terrorism
Libya
1986- bombing of a night club popular with US service men in Berlin
Bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988
Bombing of UTA flight 772 over Niger in 1989 After 8 years of UN trade sanctions, Colonel
Muammar el-Qaddafi turned over flight 103 suspects and agreed to compensate survivors of the victims
Afghanistan
Sheltered Osama bin Laden and other terrorists after the attack on the World Trade Center in NY
Gov. known as the Taliban Strict Islamic Fundamentalist
Ruled for six years until the US expelled them in 2001
Iraq
US claimed Iraq was supporting terrorism and creating weapons of mass destruction
Invaded in 2003 and deposed longtime ruler Saddam Hussein
Iran
Hostility with the US began in 1979 when a revolution removed pro-US leader from office and placed the Ayatollah Khomeini as ruler
In Nov. of 1979, 62 Americans at the US embassy were kidnapped and held hostage until Jan. of 1981
US has accused Iran of harboring terrorists and of trying to develop nuclear weapons