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POLICY INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE CLIMATE SMART PRODUCTION SYSTEMS SHIPRA SHAH, FIJI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY ELIKI SENIVASA, MINISTRY OF FISHERIES & FORESTS VINESH PRASAD, SPC - PACIFIC COMMUNITY

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Page 1: POLICY INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE CLIMATE SMART …devpolicy.org/Events/2016/Pacific Update/4b Climate... · CONTRACT TREE FARMING: A SUCCESSFUL INDUSTRIAL FARM FORESTRY MODEL Pulp wood

POLICY INITIATIVES TO PROMOTE

CLIMATE SMART PRODUCTION

SYSTEMS

SHIPRA SHAH, FIJI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

ELIKI SENIVASA, MINISTRY OF FISHERIES & FORESTS

VINESH PRASAD, SPC - PACIFIC COMMUNITY

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“Food security exists when all people, at all times,

have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe

and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and

food preferences for an active and healthy life”. (World

Food Summit, 1996).

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Fig. 1: THE PILLARS OF FOOD SECURITY

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PRESENT STATE OF PACIFIC FOOD

SECURITY

Food production (the adequacy pillar)

Food production index in the Pacific declined until the

middle of the1990s, and from then on, it either stagnated

or showed a marginal rise in most countries (Figure 2).

However over the long-term, agricultural production

exhibits a fluctuating rather than a steady trend.

Increases in food crop production in the Pacific have

come mainly from area expansion rather than from

increases in yield.

Over the last five decades agricultural productivity (yield

per hectare) has in general stagnated.

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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

Net per capita Production Index

1960s

1990-1994

2000-2008

Fig.2: Food production index across the Pacific

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The annual growth rate of agriculture showed a mixed

trend across the Pacific, with countries like Fiji,

Samoa, and Tuvalu all recording a negative growth in

agriculture in the 2000s (Figure 3).

Agriculture’s contribution to the GDP showed an

overall decline between the 1990s and the 2000s.

There was a decline of 3.6% in the contribution of the

agriculture sector to the total GDP of Fiji (Figure 4).

PRESENT STATE OF PACIFIC FOOD

SECURITY

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05

10152025303540

Share of Agriculture in total GDP

1990s

2000-2008

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

1990s

2000-2008

Fig.3: Annual growth rate of

agriculture (%)

Fig.4: Share of agriculture in

total GDP (%)

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Food consumption – the availability pillar

A paradigm shift from the traditional Pacific diets based on starchy

root crops supplemented by coconuts, fish and sometimes livestock

products to imported foods (particularly in urban areas).

PRESENT STATE OF PACIFIC FOOD

SECURITY

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The present food consumption pattern in the Pacific is the net

result of the following factors:

population growth,

decline of sustainable traditional farming,

urbanization,

increasing preference for cheaper imported foods.

Most of the countries in the Pacific are net food importers with

relatively high Food Import Capability Indices (FICI - 5.48 for

Tuvalu).

PRESENT STATE OF PACIFIC FOOD

SECURITY

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Health and nutrition – the Utilisation pillar

The transition towards imported food and sedentary lifestyle is

responsible for a surge in NCDs in the Pacific.

Environmental sustainability- Stability pillar

Traditional food production systems have been partly replaced by

more modern food production systems having reduced crop, tree and

livestock diversity.

The introduction of new species, has dramatically changed the

landscapes in many countries.

PRESENT STATE OF PACIFIC FOOD

SECURITY

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VULNERABILITY OF THE PICTS

Small island states are the most vulnerable countries of the world to

the adverse impacts of climate change (IPCC (2007).

Some PICTs are in a “constant mode of recovery” because of

recurring episodes of climatic disasters

Around 70 per cent of the gross cropped area in the PICTs is

geographically located to benefit from the summer season rains

hence agricultural productivity is heavily dependent on the seasonal

rainfall.

The average size of land holdings for farming is around one hectare

per household (Ng, 2008).

Food availability and people’s accessibility to food are among the

first to be affected following climatic disasters.

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OBSERVED CLIMATIC TRENDS

IN THE PACIFIC

Since 1910 ocean surface and island air temperatures – increase 0.6 to

1.0 °C

1961 to 2003 - increases in the annual number of hot days and warm

nights (Manton et al., 2001; Griffiths et al., 2003).

1990–2004 - Nearly twice the number of category 4 and 5 storms relative

to 1975–1989 (Webster et al., 2005)

The overall average mean relative sea-level rise in the Pacific basin is

+0.77 mm/year (Mitchell et al., 2001).

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Table 1: Change in the number and percentage of hurricanes in

categories 4 and 5 for the 15-year periods 1975–1989 and 1990–

2004 for the different ocean basins.

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Year Event Affected Country/

Region

Economic

valuation of the

incurred losses

to agriculture

1997/98 El Nino Southern Oscillation

(ENSO)

drought

Fiji FJ$104 million

2003 Cyclone Ami Fiji US$35 million

2008 Cyclone Gene Fiji FJ$45 million

2012 TC Evan Fiji & Samoa US$97m &

US$26m

2014 TC Ian Tonga US$18 m

2015 TC Pam Vanuatu US$56 m

2016 Cyclone Winston Fiji USD 104 million

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CC IMPACTS ON PACIFIC

AGRICULTURE

Event Impact on agricultural

ecosystems

Intense cyclones and storm

surges

Soil erosion, nutrient depletion,

damage to agricultural crops

Rising sea levels and increasing

salt spray

Saltwater intrusion and soil salinization

Rapidly changing environmental

conditions and ecosystems

Proliferation of existing and new

invasive pests and diseases

Changing rainfall pattern Increased incidences of drought and/or

floods

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Fiji

Rising temperature - low sucrose content (Bonnet

et al., 2006) and poor sprouting and emergence of

sugarcane (Rasheed et al., 2011).

Tuvalu

Groundwater salinization - affected traditional pit

production of giant swamp taro

Kiribati

Drought – decline in quality and production of

breadfruit and coconut

Palau

Salt water intrusion –declining taro production

Vanuatu

Prolonged dry periods – higher incidences of

sweet potato weevil and taro beetle (APN, 2012)

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POTENTIAL IMPACTS

In the absence of adaptation, a high island such as

Fiji, could experience damage ranging between US$

23 million to 52 million per year by 2050.

With a 2-4 C° temperature increase, the overall

change in agricultural welfare is expected to range

between -8 and +4 billion US$ per year (IFAD, 2009).

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TRANSISTION FROM THE

TRADITIONAL TO THE MODERN

FOOD SYSTEM IN FIJI

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The traditional Fijian food system was “ a highly diversified hybrid

mix of domesticated and wild plants and animals coupled with

similarly diverse and sophisticated foraging and fishing strategies

drawn from both Polynesian and Melanesian traditions” (Thaman,

1990).

In the traditional system intercropping was often adopted and it

offered not only diversification and yield augmentation but also

resilience of food supply to hazards.

Traditional food preservation techniques were adopted such as

drying and the pit-preservation methods. Food was hence

available during cyclones, floods and droughts.

THE TRADITIONAL FIJIAN FOOD

SYSTEM

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THE TRANSITION

The factors which were instrumental in bringing about a transition

in the food systems of Fiji are as follows:

Early European contact

Cession to the United Kingdom and indentured laborers

World War II

Urbanization and exodus from villages

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THE MODERN FOOD SYSTEM

The modern food system in Fiji has contributed to the

rising vulnerability of food security in the Pacific region:

Decreasing self sufficiency

Increased reliance on imports

Nutritional degradation

Preference for less labour intensive staples like

cassava and sweet potato

Agrodeforestation

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THE SOLUTION

“Climate-smart” agriculture sustainably increases productivity, resilience

(adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation), and enhances

achievement of national food security and development goals (FAO,

2010).

Climate-smart crop production contributes to food security, by addressing

different aspects of current and projected climate change impacts

through adaptation and mitigation actions (FAO, 2013).

Among the land use strategies that promise a synergy between food

security and climate change mitigation is agroforestry.

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Activity Functions

Climate

change

Agroforestry

Adaptation Enhancing

ecosystem

resilience in the

face of rising

environmental

threats

Microclimate amelioration

Habitat diversity promoting pollinators and

beneficial insects

Soil conservation

Nutrient cycling

Water quality improvement and protection

of catchments

Product diversification

Insurance against crop failure

Mitigation Carbon

sequestration

and reduction

of GHGs

Carbon accumulation in biomass and

soil

Alternative energy sources

Agroforestry in climate change adaptation and

mitigation

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CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS RELATED TO

ADOPTION OF AGROFORESTRY

Long gestation period of trees

Land tenure system

Marketing of produce

Lack of Awareness

Access to improved planting material

Capacity and knowledge

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Agroforestry Policy

Tenuresecurity

Extension

Marketing Incentive

R& D

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Tenure security

Expiring land leases

Renewal of leases

Differences in institutional arrangements under Agricultural

Landlord and Tenant Act (ALTA) and Native Land Trust Act

(NLTA)

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Terms and conditions ALTA NLTA

Lease tenure Minimum 30 years Rolling- 5 to 10 years

Renewability Non-renewable beyond 30

years

Renewable subject to NLTB’s

consent.

Recently renewable with

additional goodwill payment to

NLTB as well as

to the landowners.

At expiry –

compensation

Value of improvements payable by

landowners if approved by them

Compensation as determined

by the Board, or the

Independent Arbitrator

Choice of land

utilisation

Tenant Stipulated in the Act

Subletting/

Sharecropping

Illegal, although common Possible, but with NLTB’s

permission

Settlement of

disputes

By the Fiji Sugar Industry

Tribunal

By an Independent Arbitration

Source: Lal, et al., 2001

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Extension

Awareness

Confidence building

Capacity building and better access to training for farmers

Improvements in training for extension officers

Wider use of demonstration plots

Support in pest and disease management

Funding for extension services

Development of partnerships with the private sector and NGOs

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Marketing

Investment in marketing

Storage facilities

Transport infrastructure to support domestic and export market

creation and get food to where it’s needed

Well developed markets for agroforestry products

Better communication and linkages between actors in the

market chain

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Incentives

Adequate planting material and establishment of nurseries

Access to credit and microfinance

Financial incentives and PES

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CONTRACT TREE FARMING: A SUCCESSFUL INDUSTRIAL

FARM FORESTRY MODEL

Pulp wood based contract farming system in Tamil Nadu.

Aims to produce quality and sustained raw material through a strong supply

chain.

This model incorporates industry, growers and financial institutions.

The industry supplies quality planting material at subsidized rate and assures

minimum support price of Rs. 2000 per tonne. Also facilitates felling and

transport, helps to repay the loan after felling.

The financial institutions provide credit facilities to the growers at the rate of Rs.

15000 to 20000 per acre.

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SOFALA COMMUNITY CARBON

PROJECT: AGROFORESTRY CONTRACTS

The project zone is split into two sites, the Gorongosa and Zambezi Delta sites with a total area of

511,392 ha.

The project proponent is Envirotrade Carbon Limited. Mozambique Carbon Livelihoods Trust

(MCLT), manages the carbon funds - agro-forestry payments to farmers and community trust fund.

Two broad activities generate carbon offsets: carbon sequestration through agroforestry (individual

farmers) and REDD through miombo woodlands (entire community). Agroforestry options for

farmers are:

homestead planting,

Faidherbia dispersed interplanting,

Gliricidia dispersed interplanting,

non-burning of agri-residues,

field boundary planting with native hardwoods,

mango orchard growing,

cashew orchard growing,

woodlot creation

1,834 farmers have signed 4,573 contracts.

While carbon offsets are generated over 100 years, farmers are paid the entire value of these

offsets during the first 7 years of the contract upon the condition that they do burn their farmlands.

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AGROFORESTRY CONTRACTS IN COSTA RICA

In Costa Rica, a national forestry financing fund assigned in 1996 by law to subsidize

forestry activities was extended in 2001 and 2005 to agroforestry systems combining crops,

trees and cattle.

Since its creation, the programme has signed nearly 13,000 contracts, covered nearly

800,000 hectares of forests and distributed almost US$280 million.

Since 2003, 4.4 million trees were planted under agroforestry alone (Tacconi et al., 2011).

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R & D

Increasing research on tree–crop combinations

Increasing funding for research in agroforestry

Removing barriers between scientific research and field

adoption of agroforestry

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POLICY IMPLICATIONS

People growing and marketing food for local market require support .

Policies need to boost investment in the agricultural sector and it needs to be the right kind of investment

Land management is vital to improving productivity

Policies need to reflect the fact that PICTs face differing vulnerability to food security

Recognise the value of exports in contributing to food security and improve marketing and transport infrastructure to facilitate trade

Small improvements in agricultural productivity and markets can reduce vulnerability significantly in these countries.

Recognise the strength and resilience of smallholder traditional cropping systems and ensure extension approaches support them

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REFERENCES

IFAD. 2009. Climate Change Impacts - Pacific Islands.

FAO. 2010. “Climate-Smart” Agriculture: Policies, Practices and Financing for Food

Security, Adaptation and Mitigation. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Webster, P.J., Holland, G.J., Curry, J.A. and Chan, H.R. 2005. Changes in Tropical

Cyclone Number, Duration, and Intensity in a Warming Environment. Science, 309:

1844-1846.

E Mackenzie, B Prasad and A Kaloumaira (2005), Economic impact of natural disasters

on development in the Pacific. University of the South Pacific, Suva.

Thomson Reuters. 2016. Fiji sugar production to be halved this year after cyclone. Thu

Mar 17,2016 http://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFL3N16O084accessesd

on 6/7/2016

Asian Development Bank. 2011. Food Security and Climate Change in the Pacific

rethinking the options. 1-73 p.

Ng E (2008). Pacific Islands could benefit from cooperative approach to farming. World

Bank blog.http://eapblog.worldbank.org/content/pacific-islands-could-benefit-from-

cooperative-approach-to-farming

Lal, P., Lim-Applegate, H. and Reddy M. (2001), ‘The land tenure dilemma in Fiji — can

Fijian landowners and Indo–Fijian tenants have their cake and eat it too?’, Pacific

Economic Bulletin, 16(2), pp. 106-119.

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Rasheed R, Wahid A, Farooq M, Hussain I and Basra S M A (2011). Role of prolineand glycine betaine pretreatments in improving heat tolerance of sprouting sugarcane (Saccharum sp.) bud. Plant Growth Regul 65: 35–45.

Bonnett GT, Hewitt ML, Glassop D (2006). Effects of high temperature on the growth and composition of sugarcane internodes. Australian J. Agric. Res. 57(10):1087-1095.

Webb, A. 2007. Assessment of Salinity of Groundwater in Swamp Taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis) “pulaka” pits in Tuvalu. EU EDF8-SOPAC Project Report 75 Reducing Vulnerability of Pacific ACP States, Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva Fiji.

Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research. 2012. Impact of Climate Change on Food Security and Biosecurity of Crop Production Systems. 157 pp

FAO. 2013. Climate-smart Agriculture Sourcebook. 557 pp.

MINAET (2011), Decree Nº 36935-MINAET, 29/11/2011, Ministry of Environment and Energy, San José, Costa Rica.

Tacconi, L., Mahanty, S. And Suich, H. 2011. Payments for Environmental Services, Forest Conservation and Climate Change: Livelihoods in the REDD? Edward Elgar Publishing. 288 pp.

REFERENCES

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VINAKA