Plato’s Republic

Plato (429-348)

• Student of Socrates• Wrote Socratic “Dialogues”• Established first school: The Academy• Teacher of Aristotle• The Republic represents the 1st: political

treatise, educational reform, systematic psychological and epistemological theory, aesthetics, and theory of virtue or the good (just) life.

Structure of Republic

Elenchus

Main Argument

Digressions

I

II III IV

V VI VII

VIII IX

X

Justice (dikaiosune)Elenchus (Bk. I)

– dialogue on conventional definitions of Justice.

Main Argument – a response to challenge in Bk. II to (a) define

justice, and (b) show that justice is better than injustice.

Digressions – provides a theory of knowledge/wisdom, aesthetics,

and afterlife in support of main argument.

Book I: 3 Definitions of Justice

• Cephalus (327a-337d)– Justice is honesty in word and deed or simply

paying one’s debts and obligations.

• Polemarchus (331e-336a)– Justice is helping friends and harming enemies, or

giving everyone his due.

• Thrasymachus (336b-354e)– Justice is the interest of the strong (rulers) and is

less profitable than injustice.

Book I: First Definition

• Cephalus (327a-337d)– Justice is honesty in word and deed or simply

paying one’s debts and obligations.

• Socrates Replies: imagine an angry friend wants his weapon back to harm another… Cephalus’ definition is inadequate…need further determination of justice (doing what is right)

Book I: Second Definition

• Polemarchus (331e-336a)– Justice is helping friends and harming enemies, or

giving everyone his due.

• Socrates Replies: difficult to determine what is appropriate to each; it may be appropriate to be unjust at times…P’s definition is inconsistent (never just to harm others?)

Book I: Third Definition

• Thrasymachus (336b-354e)– Justice is the interest of the strong (rulers) and is

less profitable than injustice.• A type of relativism or distortion of the just by the rulers. • (a new “golden rule” = he with the gold makes the rules)

– Cf. Melian Dialogue or Plague in Athens

• Socrates Replies: (difficult)– T suggests only ideology, not independent ethics– But elenchus can’t be employed if ideological– Abandon the elenchus?

At this point…

• In Euthyphro Plato/Socrates rejects a divine justification for morality (piety).

• In Republic, Bk. 1, Plato rejects conventional definitions of morality (justice).

• What is the alternative left to Plato?

Book II: The Problem

• Glaucon (& Adeimantus) argues justice is only instrumentally good; that the life of the unjust is better, and only the appearance of justice is worthwhile.

• Ring of Gyges (359b-360d)

Book II: The Challenge

a) What is justice, if not merely the interest of the powerful?

b) Show that the just life is intrinsically valuable, and not just instrumentally valuable.

Book II: Socrates Replies

• Analogy with justice in the soul and justice in the city. (368c-e)

• Two Principles of a City:1) No one is self-sufficient, need cooperation

2) Individuals are naturally better/worse at performing some task

Organization of Cities

• Since no one can do everything, individuals should focus their energies in those areas for which they have a natural abilities. In this way the city will best meet its needs.

• Healthy City– City that meets all the basic needs without flourish.

• Luxurious City– City that meets all the basic needs plus some

luxuries desired by citizens.

Book III (n/a)

• Education of the Guardians…– Happiness and Virtue (460b ff.)

• Tripartite Division of the City (~412)– Rulers*– Guardians* (protectors of the city)– Producers & Craftsmen

• Myth of Metals (“noble lie”; ~414)– Gold = rational– Silver = spirited– Iron = appetitive

Book IV

• Virtues of the Good City

• Tripartite Soul

• Virtues of the Soul

• Justice in the Soul*

Book IV:Virtues of the Good City

Wisdom

Knowledge and judgment regarding how the city is best served.

Chief virtue of Rulers

(& Guardians)

Courage

Spirit (honor) tempered with reason, a type of perseverance in the face of fear.

Chief virtue of Guardians

(Auxillaries or Soldiers)

Moderation

(Sophrosune)

A type of harmony or order between parts; an agreement about who does what (e.g., rulers rule)

A well ordered society.

Justice

Doing one’s work/role well, and not doing someone else’s work/role.

An effect of proper functioning

Book IVTripartite Soul

• Just as in the city so too in the soul (434d)

• Three Parts:– Rational part: Reason, judgment, etc.– Spirited part: Anger, ambition, courage, etc.– Appetitive part: Desire for food, sex, comfort, etc.

Book IVVirtues of the Soul

City Virtue Soul

Rulers Wisdom Rational

Soldiers Courage Spirited

Producers & Craftsmen

Appetitive

Justice?

Book IVJustice in the Soul

Answer to 1st Challenge: What is justice, if not merely the interest of the powerful?

By Analogy…Just as justice in the city is each part performing its natural role, we should expect the soul to be just in the same way (434d ff.)

Justice in the soul is each part doing its function well. Rational part rules, spirited part motivates good action, and the appetitive is to be ruled by the rational and spirited parts. Injustice in the soul amounts to civil war or revolution.

Book VIII (n/a)

Different types of character in a city/soul and the level of injustice in each:

AristocracyTimocracy (ruled on principles of honor & military glory)

Oligarchy

Democracy

Tyranny

Best

Worst

Book IXThe Just Life is Better

• Answer to 2nd Challenge

• Three Demonstrations that justice is better.1. Unjust soul is wretched, unfree, slavish, fearful, etc. Thus,

justice is most happy (576c, ff.)

2. Rational pursuits (life) have greater and longer lasting pleasure associated with it; spirited and appetitive pleasures are only transitory (580d, ff.).

3. A just person, ruled by reason, comes closer to truth and knowledge, and so is better off -- truth is intrinsically good because it is the most real (583b, ff).

Main Argument Summary

• Analogy between city and soul– Parts…– Virtues…– Justice…

• Questions– Do you agree with the analogy?– Do you think Plato is right about justice?

Structure of Republic

Elenchus

Main Argument

Digressions

I

II III IV

V VI VII

VIII IX

X

Books V, VI, VII(473d-521a)

• Socrates has just laid out the organization and virtues of the ideal city: Kallipolis

• Glaucon and Adaimantus ask whether this is a dream or something possible: How is Kallipolis possible?

• Answer: What is needed are Philosopher-Kings

Philosopher-Kings

Until philosophers rule as kings in their cities, or those who are nowadays called kings and leading men become genuine and adequate philosophers so that political power and philosophy become thoroughly blended together, while the numerous natures that now pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils, my dear Glaucon, nor, I think, will the human race. And until that happens, the same constitution we have now described in our discussion will never be born to the extent that it can, or see the light of the sun. It is this claim that has made me hesitate to speak for so long. I say how very unbelievable it would sound, since it is difficult to accept that there can be no happiness, either public or private, in any other city.

(Republic, 474d)

Philosophers vs. Others?

• What distinguishes a philosopher from others?– Philosophers desire wisdom or truth in

whole, not merely in part;– Genuine knowledge

• Distinction between knowledge, belief, and ignorance

Knowledge Belief Ignorance

What is; Being; always the same in all

respect

What is and what is not; a mixture of both;

mere appearance

What is not

“Philosophers”“Philodoxers”

(lover of opinion)Idiots?

Distinctions

Knowledge of the Good…

• The philosopher’s nature, desiring the truth is consistent with the type of nature we expect in a ruler - guided by knowledge of what is the good.

• Knowledge of the Good is the highest object of knowledge.

• Sun, Line, and Cave to illustrate…

Analogy of the Sun

The sun is the light that connects what is seen with the seer; the one connects the many.

Analogy of the Sun

The sun is the light that connects what is seen with the seer; the one connects the many.

Seen Seer

Analogy of the Sun

The sun is the light that connects what is seen with the seer; the one connects the many.

Seen Seer

ONE(Definition)

MANY(Examples)

Identifies

Analogy of the Sun

So…Knowledge of the good is like this:

Without knowledge of the definition (sun), we would not know any of the examples (seen); that is, we wouldn’t be able to identify the examples.

Div

ided

Lin

eForm

(1st Principle)

“noesis”: Understanding or

intellection

Mathematical Objects

“dranoia”:

Thought

Original Objects“doxa”:

Belief, or trust and faith (“pistis”)

Shadows or reflections of

images

“eikasia”:

Imagination

Kno

wle

dge

Opi

nion

Intelligible

Sensible(Visible)

(509d-511e)

Divided Line

• Levels of knowledge– Highest levels are universal and intellectual– Removed from sensible world

• Knowledge corresponds to degree of reality– More knowable = Closer to truth – Closer to truth = More real (unchangeable)

Allegory of the Cave(514a-521b)

Allegory of the Cave(514a-521b)

Cave = Line

Sun = FormObjects in world = mathematical objects

Objects behind wall = original objectsShadows on wall = imagination

Also:Model of education for

Philosopher-Kings

Quick Flashback…

A just person, ruled by reason, comes closer to truth and knowledge, and so is better off -- truth is intrinsically good because it is the most real (Book IX, 583b).

Knowing the form of the Good (the first principles) is to know what is real (unchangeable) and so is not subject to the vagarities of mere belief…thus better off…

What discourages philosophers from becoming kings?

(487b-497a)

1. Masses don’t appreciate philosophy(-ers)

2. Philosophers are feared and/or ridiculed

3. Philosophers wouldn’t risk the danger

4. Philosophers, once they know the truth, don’t want to return to worldly business

5. And its just plain difficult to be a philosopher…think of the educational program Plato lays out…

Book X (n/a)

• Immortality of the Soul– Knowledge is knowledge of the real– The real is incorruptible and thus immortal– To know the real the soul must also be

incorruptible and thus immortal.

• Myth of Er and mimesis– Story about afterlife and reincarnation– Choosing lots for one’s next life

Concluding Thoughts

• Allegory of the Cave and levels of reality are most influential ideas of Republic.

• Do you agree with the image of knowledge depicted in the allegory?– Agree that the knowable is the most real?

• Do you agree about philosopher-kings?– Until philosophers rule as kings…cities will have no rest from

evils…nor, I think, will the human race…