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Variations in shape and design

Some early pianos had shapes and designs that are no longer in use. The square piano (not truly

square, but rectangular) was cross strung at an extremely acute angle above the hammers, with the

keyboard set along the long side. This design is attributed to Gottried Silbermann or !hristian "rnst

#riderici on the continent, and $ohannes %umpe or &arman 'ietor in "ngland, and it was improved

by changes irst introduced by Guillaumeebrecht *et+old in #rance and lpheus -abcock in the

nited States. Square pianos were built in great numbers through the /012s in "urope and the

/032s in the nited States, and saw the most visible change o any type o piano4 the ironramed,

overstrung squares manuactured by Steinway 5 Sons were more than twoandahal times the

si+e o %umpe6s woodramed instruments rom a century beore. Their overwhelming popularity was

due to inexpensive construction and price, although their tone and perormance were limited by

narrow soundboards, simple actions and string spacing that made proper hammer alignment diicult.

The mechanism and strings in upright pianos are perpendicular to the keys.

The tall, vertically strung upright grand was arranged like a grand set on end, with the soundboard

and bridges above the keys, and tuning pins below them. The term was later revived by many

manuacturers or advertising purposes. Girae, pyramid and lyre pianos were arranged in a

somewhat similar ashion in evocatively shaped cases.

The very tall cabinet piano was introduced about /027 and was built through the /012s. 8t had

strings arranged vertically on a continuous rame with bridges extended nearly to the loor, behind

the keyboard and very large sticker action. The short cottage upright or pianino with vertical

stringing, made popular by 9obert :ornumaround /0/7, was built into the ;2th century. They are

inormally called birdcage pianos because o their prominent damper mechanism. The oblique

upright, populari+ed in #rance by 9oller 5 -lanchet during the late /0;2s, was diagonally strungthroughout its compass. The tiny spinet upright was manuactured rom the mid/3<2s until recent

times. The low position o the hammers required the use o a =drop action= to preserve a reasonable

keyboard height.

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>odern upright and grand pianos attained their present orms by the end o the /3th century.

8mprovements have been made in manuacturing processes, and many individual details o the

instrument continue to receive attention.

Types>odern acoustic pianos have two basic conigurations, the grand piano and the upright piano, with

various styles o each. There are also speciali+ed and novelty pianos, electric pianos based on

electromechanical designs, electronic pianos that synthesi+e pianolike tones using oscillators,

and digital pianos using digital samples o acoustic piano sounds.

Grand

Steinway grand piano in the :hite &ouse

 ugust #?rster  upright piano

8n grand pianos, the rame and strings are hori+ontal, with the strings extending away rom the

keyboard. The action lies beneath the strings, and uses gravity as its means o return to a state o

rest.

There are many si+es o grand piano. rough generali+ation distinguishes theconcert

grand  (between ;.; and < meters long, about @A/2 eet) rom the parlor grand  or boudoir grand  (/.@

to ;.; meters long, about BA@ eet) and the smaller baby grand  (around /.7 metres (7 eet)).

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 ll else being equal, longer pianos with longer strings have larger, richer sound and

lower inharmonicity o the strings. 8nharmonicity is the degree to which

therequencies o  overtones (known as partials or harmonics) sound sharp relative to whole

multiples o the undamental requency. This results rom the piano6s considerable string stinessC as

a struck string decays its harmonics vibrate, not rom their termination, but rom a point very slightlytoward the center (or more lexible part) o the string. The higher the partial, the urther sharp it runs.

*ianos with shorter and thicker string (i.e., small pianos with short string scales) have more

inharmonicity. The greater the inharmonicity, the more the ear perceives it as harshness o tone.

8nharmonicity requires that octaves be stretched , or tuned to a lower octave6s corresponding sharp

overtone rather than to a theoretically correct octave. 8 octaves are not stretched, single octaves

sound in tune, but doubleDand notably tripleDoctaves are unacceptably narrow. Stretching a small

piano6s octaves to match its inherent inharmonicity level creates an imbalance among all the

instrument6s intervallic relationships, not Eust its octaves. 8n a concert grand, however, the octave

=stretch= retains harmonic balance, even when aligning treble notes to a harmonic produced rom

three octaves below. This lets close and widespread octaves sound pure, and produces virtually

beatless perect iths. This gives the concert grand a brilliant, singing and sustaining tone qualityD

one o the principal reasons that ullsi+e grands are used in the concert hall. Smaller grands satisy

the space and cost needs o domestic use.

Upright (vertical)

pright pianos, also called vertical pianos, are more compact because the rame and strings are

vertical. pright pianos are widely used in music conservatories and university music programs as

rehearsal and practice instruments and they are popular models or inhome purchase. Thehammers move hori+ontally, and return to their resting position via springs, which are susceptible to

degradation. pright pianos with unusually tall rames and long strings are sometimes called upright

grand pianos. Some authors classiy modern pianos according to their height and to modiications o

the action that are necessary to accommodate the height.

• Studio pianos are around 1; to 17 inches (/2B to //1 cm) tall. This is the shortest cabinet

that can accommodate a ullsi+ed action located above the keyboard.

• Console pianos have a compact action (shorter hammers), and are a ew inches shorter than

studio models.

• The top o a spinet  model barely rises above the keyboard. The action is located below,

operated by vertical wires that are attached to the backs o the keys.

•  nything taller than a studio piano is called an upright .

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Specialized

*layer piano rom /3;2 (Steinway)

The toy piano, introduced in the /3th century, is a small pianolike instrument, that generally uses

round metal rods to produce sound, rather than strings. The Sibrary o !ongress recogni+es the

toy piano as a unique instrument with the subEect designation, Toy *iano Scores4 >/@7 TB3. F/@

8n /0B<, &enri #ourneaux invented the player piano, which plays itsel rom a piano roll.  machine

perorates a perormance recording into rolls o paper, and the player piano replays the perormance

using pneumatic devices. >odern equivalents o the player piano include

the -?sendorer  !"S, Hamaha Iisklavier  and J9S *ianomation,F/0 using solenoids

and >8I8 rather than pneumatics and rolls.

  silent piano is an acoustic piano having an option to silence the strings by means o an interposing

hammer bar. They are designed or private silent practice.

"dward 9yley invented the transposing piano in /02/. 8t has a lever under the keyboard as to move

the keyboard relative to the strings so a pianist can play in a amiliar key while the music sounds in adierent key.

The minipiano 6*ianette6 model viewed with its original matching stoolC the wooden lap at the ront o the

instrument has been dropped revealing the tuning pins at the ront.

The minipiano, an instrument patented by the -rasted brothers o the "avesta td.piano company,

was patented in /3<1.F/3 This instrument has a braceless back, and a soundboard positioned below

the keysDmeaning that long metal rods pulled on the levers to make the hammers strike the strings.

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The irst model, known as thePianette,'  was unique in that the tuning pins extended through the

instrument, so it could be tuned at the ront.

The prepared piano, present in some contemporary art music, is a piano with obEects placed inside it

to alter its sound, or has had its mechanism changed in some other way. The scores or music or

prepared piano speciy the modiications, or example instructing the pianist to insert pieces o

rubber, paper, metal screws, or washers in between the strings. These either mute the strings or

alter their timbre. harpsichordlike sound can be produced by placing or dangling small metal

buttons in ront o the hammer.

8n /371 a German company exhibited a wireless piano at the Spring #air in #rankurt, Germany that

sold or K;<0. The wires were replaced by metal bars o dierent alloys that replicated the standard

wires when played.F;2  similar concept is used in the electricacoustic 9hodes piano.

Electric, electronic, and digital

:urlit+er ;/2 "lectric *iano

"lectric pianos have metal tines in place o strings and use electromagneticpickups similar to those

on an electric guitar . The resulting electrical, analogue signal can then be ampliied with a keyboard

ampliier  or electronically manipulated with eects units i required. "lectric pianos are rarely used in

classical music, where the main usage o them is as inexpensive rehearsal instruments in music

schools. &owever, electric pianos, particularly the #ender 9hodes, became important instruments

in unk, Ea++ usion and some rock musicgenres.

"lectronic pianos are nonacoustic, they do not have strings but are a simple type o synthesi+er  that

simulates piano sounds using oscillators that synthesi+e the sound o an acoustic piano.F;/

Iigital pianos are also nonacoustic and do not have strings but use digital sampling technology to

reproduce the sound o each piano note. Iigital pianos can include pedals, weighted keys, multiple

voices, and >8I8 interaces. "arly digital pianos tended to lack a ull set o  pedals but the synthesis

sotware o later models such as the Hamaha !lavinova series synthesised the sympathetic

vibration o the other strings and ull pedal sets can now be replicated. The processing power o

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digital pianos has enabled highly realistic pianos using multigigabyte piano sample sets with as

many as ninety recordings, each lasting many seconds, or each key under dierent conditions.

 dditional samples emulate sympathetic resonance, key release, the drop o the dampers, and

simulations o techniques such as repedalling.

Iigital, >8I8 compliant, pianos can output a stream o >8I8 data, or record and play via

a !I9L> or  S- lash drive using >8I8 ormat iles, similar in concept to a pianola. The >8I8 ile

records the physics o a note rather than its resulting sound and recreates the sounds rom its

physical properties. !omputer based sotware, such as >odartt6s ;22B *ianoteq, can be used to

manipulate the >8I8 stream in real time or subsequently to edit it. This type o sotware may use no

samples but synthesise a sound based on aspects o the physics that went into the creation o a

played note.

Construction and components

(1) rame (2) lid, ront part (3) capo bar (4) damper (5) lid, back part (6) damper mechanism () sostenuto rail

(!) pedal mechanism, rods (", 1#,11) pedals4 right (sustainMdamper), middle (sostenuto), let (sotMunacorda)

(12) bridge (13) hitch pin (14) rame (15) sound board (16) string (1)

*ianos can have upwards o /;,222 individual parts,F;;supporting six unctional eatures4 keyboard,

hammers, dampers, bridge, soundboard, and strings.F;<

Luter rim o "stonia grand piano during the manuacturing process

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>any parts o a piano are made o materials selected or strength and longevity. This is especially

true o the outer rim. 8t is most commonly made o hardwood, typically hard maple or beech, and its

massiveness serves as an essentially immobile obEect rom which the lexible soundboard can best

vibrate. ccording to &arold . !onklin, F;1 the purpose o a sturdy rim is so that, =... the vibrational

energy will stay as much as possible in the soundboard instead o dissipating uselessly in the caseparts, which are ineicient radiators o sound.=

&ardwood rims are commonly made by laminating thin, hence lexible, strips o hardwood, bending

them to the desired shape immediately ater the application o glue. F;7 The bent plywood system was

developed by !.#. Theodore Steinway in /002 to reduce manuacturing time and costs. *reviously,

the rim was constructed rom several pieces o solid wood, Eoined and veneered, and this method

continued to be used in "urope well into the ;2th century.F;B  modern exception, -?sendorer , the

 ustrian manuacturer o highquality pianos, constructs their inner rims rom solid spruce, F;@ the

same wood that the soundboard is made rom, which is notched to allow it to bendC rather than

isolating the rim rom vibration, their =resonance case principle= allows the ramework to more reely

resonate with the soundboard, creating additional coloration and complexity o the overall sound. F;0

This view o the underside o a /0; cm (B oot) grand piano shows, in order o distance rom viewer4 sotwood

braces, tapered soundboard ribs, soundboard. The metal rod at lower right is a humidity control device.

The thick wooden posts on the underside (grands) or back (uprights) o the piano stabili+e the rim

structure, and are made o sotwood or stability. The requirement o structural strength, ulilled by

stout hardwood and thick metal, makes a piano heavy. "ven a small upright can weigh /<B kg

(<22 lb), and the Steinway concert grand (>odel I) weighs 102 kg (332 lb). The largest piano

available on the general market, the #a+ioli #<20, weighs 7@2 kg (/;7@ lb).F;3F<2

The pinblock, which holds the tuning pins in place, is another area where toughness is important. 8t

is made o hardwood (typically hard maple or beech), and is laminated or strength, stability and

longevity. *iano strings (also called piano wire), which must endure years o extreme tension and

hard blows, are made o high carbon steel. They are manuactured to vary as little as possible in

diameter, since all deviations rom uniormity introduce tonal distortion. The bass strings o a piano

are made o a steel core wrapped with copper wire, to increase their mass whilst retaining lexibility.

8 all strings throughout the piano6s compass were individual (monochord), the massive bass strings

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would overpower the upper ranges. >akers compensate or this with the use o double (bichord)

strings in the tenor and triple (trichord) strings throughout the treble.

!ast iron plate o a grand piano

The plate (harp), or metal rame, o a piano is usually made o cast iron. massive plate is

advantageous. Since the strings vibrate rom the plate at both ends, an insuiciently massive plate

would absorb too much o the vibrational energy that should go through the bridge to the

soundboard. :hile some manuacturers use cast steel in their plates, most preer cast iron. !ast

iron is easy to cast and machine, has lexibility suicient or piano use, is much more resistant to

deormation than steel, and is especially tolerant o compression. *late casting is an art, since

dimensions are crucial and the iron shrinks about one percent during cooling.

8ncluding an extremely large piece o metal in a piano is potentially an aesthetic handicap. *iano

makers overcome this by polishing, painting, and decorating the plate. *lates oten include the

manuacturer6s ornamental medallion. 8n an eort to make pianos lighter, lcoaworked with :inter

and !ompany piano manuacturers to make pianos using an aluminum plate during the /312s.

 luminum piano plates were not widely accepted, and were discontinued.

The numerous parts o a piano action are generally made rom hardwood, such as maple,beech,

and hornbeam, however, since :orld :ar 88, makers have also incorporated plastics. "arly plastics

used in some pianos in the late /312s and /372s, proved disastrous when they lost strength ater aew decades o use. -eginning in /3B/, the New Hork branch o the Steinway irm

incorporated Telon, a synthetic material developed by Iu*ont, or some parts o its *ermaree

grand action in place o cloth bushings, but abandoned the experiment in /30; due to excessive

riction and a =clicking= that developed over timeC Telon is =humidity stable= whereas the wood

adEacent to the Telon swells and shrinks with humidity changes, causing problems. >ore recently,

the Oawai irm built pianos with action parts made o more modern materials such as carbon iber

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reinorced plastic, and the piano parts manuacturer :essell, Nickel and Gross has launched a new

line o careully engineered composite parts. Thus ar these parts have perormed reasonably, but it

will take decades to know i they equal the longevity o wood.

Strings o a grand piano

8n all but the poorest pianos the soundboard is made o solid spruce (that is, spruce boards glued

together along the side grain). Spruce6s high ratio o strength to weight minimi+es acoustic

impedance while oering strength suicient to withstand the downward orce o the strings. The best

piano makers use quartersawn, deectree spruce o close annular grain, careully seasoning it

over a long period beore abricating the soundboards. This is the identical material that is used in

quality acoustic guitar soundboards. !heap pianos oten have plywood soundboards.F</

$e%&oard

Further information: Musical keyboard 

"Piano keys" redirects here. For the runay threshold markings, see !unay !unay markings.

Oeyboard o a grand piano

 n 00key piano, with the octaves numbered and >iddle ! (cyan) and  112 (yellow) highlighted.

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conventional piano. Iue to its double keyboard musical work that were originally created or double

manual &arpsichord such as Goldberg 'ariations by-ach become much easier to play, since playing

on a conventional single keyboard piano involve complex and handtangling crosshand movements.

The design also eatured a special orth pedal which pair the lower keyboard with upper keyboard,

so when playing on the lower keyboard the note one octave higher would also be played as i thepianist had also pressed the upper keyboard. Lnly about B2 "mPnuel >oQr *ianoorte were made,

mostly manuactured by -?sendorer . Lther piano manuactures such as -echstein, !hickering,

and Steinway 5 Sons had also manuactured a ew.F<;

*ianos have been built with alternative keyboard systems, e.g., the $ankQ keyboard.

'edals

Main article: Piano pedals

*iano pedals rom let to right4 una corda, sostenuto and sustain pedal

*ianos have had pedals, or some close equivalent, since the earliest days. (8n the /0th century,

some pianos used levers pressed upward by the player6s knee instead o pedals.) >ost grand pianos

in the S have three pedals4 the sot pedal (una corda), sostenuto, and sustain pedal (rom let to

right, respectively), while in "urope, the standard is two pedals4 the sot pedal and the sustain pedal.

>ost modern upright pianos also have three pedals4 sot pedal, practice pedal and sustain pedal,

though older or cheaper models may lack the practice pedal. 8n "urope the standard or upright

pianos is two pedals4 the sot and the sustain pedals.

Notations used or the sustain pedal in sheet music

The sustain pedal (or, damper pedal) is oten simply called =the pedal=, since it is the most requently

used. 8t is placed as the rightmost pedal in the group. 8t lits the dampers rom all keys, sustaining all

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played notes. 8n addition, it alters the overall tone by allowing all strings, including those not directly

played, to reverberate.

The sot pedal or una corda pedal is placed letmost in the row o pedals. 8n grand pianos it shits the

entire actionMkeyboard assembly to the right (a very ew instruments have shited let) so that the

hammers hit two o the three strings or each note. 8n the earliest pianos whose unisons were

bichords rather than trichords, the action shited so that hammers hit a single string, hence the

name una corda, or 6one string6. The eect is to soten the note as well as change the tone. 8n

uprights this action is not possibleC instead the pedal moves the hammers closer to the strings,

allowing the hammers to strike with less kinetic energy. This produces a slightly soter sound, but no

change in timbre.

Ln grand pianos, the middle pedal is a sostenuto pedal. This pedal keeps raised any damper

already raised at the moment the pedal is depressed. This makes it possible to sustain selected

notes (by depressing the sostenuto pedal beore those notes are released) while the player6s hands

are ree to play additional notes (which aren6t sustained). This can be useul or musical passages

with pedal points and other otherwise tricky or impossible situations.

Ln many upright pianos, the middle pedal is called the =practice= or celeste pedal. This drops a

piece o elt between the hammers and strings, greatly muting the sounds. This pedal can be shited

while depressed, into a =locking= position.

There are also nonstandard variants. Ln some pianos (grands and verticals), the middle pedal can

be a bass sustain pedal4 that is, when it is depressed, the dampers lit o the strings only in the bass

section. *layers use this pedal to sustain a single bass note or chord over many measures, while

playing the melody in the treble section. Ln the Stuart and Sons piano as well as the

largest #a+ioli piano, there is a ourth pedal to the let o the principal three. This ourth pedal works

in the same way as the sot pedal o an upright piano, moving the hammers closer to the strings. F<<

 n upright pedal piano by !hallen

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The rare transposing piano (an example o which was owned by 8rving -erlin) has a middle pedal

that unctions as a clutch that disengages the keyboard rom the mechanism, so the player can

move the keyboard to the let or right with a lever. This shits the entire piano action so the pianist

can play music written in one key so that it sounds in a dierent key.

Some piano companies have included extra pedals other than the standard two or three. !rown and

Schubert *iano !o. produced a ourpedal piano. #a+ioli currently oers a ourth pedal that provides

a second sot pedal, that works by bringing the keys closer to the strings.

:ing and Son o New Hork oered a ivepedal piano rom approximately /03< through the /3;2s.

There is no mention o the company past the /3<2s. abeled let to right, the pedals are >andolin,

Lrchestra, "xpression, Sot, and #orte (Sustain). The Lrchestral pedal produced a sound similar to

a tremolo eel by bouncing a set o small beads dangling against the strings, enabling the piano to

mimic a mandolin, guitar, banEo, +ither and harp, thus the name Lrchestral. The >andolin pedal

used a similar approach, lowering a set o elt strips with metal rings in between the hammers and

the strings ( aka rinkytink eect). This extended the lie o the hammers when the Lrch pedal was

used, a good idea or practicing, and created an echolike sound that mimicked playing in an

orchestral hall.F<1F<7

The pedalier  piano, or pedal piano, is a rare type o piano that includes a pedalboard so players can

user their eet to play bass register notes, as on an organ. There are two types o pedal piano. Ln

one, the pedal board is an integral part o the instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as

the manual keyboard. The other, rarer type, consists o two independent pianos (each with separate

mechanics and strings) placed one above the otherDone or the hands and one or the eet. This

was developed primarily as a practice instrument or organists, though there is a small repertoirewritten speciically or the instrument.

Mechanics

  pianist playing *relude and #ugue No. ;< in - maEor (-:' 0B0) rom -ach6s (he )ell*(empered Cla$ier  on

a grand piano

:hen the key is struck, a chain reaction occurs to produce the sound. #irst, the key raises the

wippen, which orces the Eack against the hammer roller (or knuckle). The hammer roller then lits the

lever carrying the hammer. The key also raises the damperC and immediately ater the hammer

strikes the wire it alls back, allowing the wire to resonate. :hen the key is released the damper alls

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The piano at the social center in the /3th century (>orit+ von Schwind, /0B0). The man at the piano

is #ran+ Schubert.

*ianos are heavy yet delicate instruments. Lver the years, proessional piano movers have

developed special techniques or transporting both grands and uprights, which prevent damage

to the case and to the piano6s mechanics. *ianos need regular tuning to keep them on pitch. The

hammers o pianos are voiced to compensate or gradual hardening, and other parts also need

periodic regulation. ged and worn pianos can be rebuilt or reconditioned. Lten, by replacing a

great number o their parts, they can perorm as well as new pianos.

ning

Main article: Piano tuning 

*iano tuning involves adEusting the tensions o the piano6s strings, thereby aligning the intervals

among their tones so that the instrument is in tune. The meaning o the term in tune in the

context o piano tuning is not simply a particular ixed set o pitches. #ine piano tuning careully

assesses the interaction among all notes o the chromatic scale, dierent or every piano, and

thus requires slightly dierent pitches rom any theoretical standard. *ianos are usually tuned to

a modiied version o the system called equal temperament (see Piano key fre+uencies for thetheoretical piano tuning ). 8n all systems o tuning, each pitch is derived rom its relationship to a

chosen ixed pitch, usually the internationally recogni+ed standard concert pitch o 112.

  piano tuner 

The relationship between two pitches, called an interval, is the ratio o their absoluterequencies.

Two dierent intervals are perceived as the same when the pairs o pitches involved share the

same requency ratio. The easiest intervals to identiy, and the easiest intervals to tune, are

those that are  Eust, meaning they have a simple wholenumber ratio. The

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-irthday party honoring #rench pianist >aurice 9avel in /3;0. #rom let to right4 conductor, Lscar

#riedC singer,"va Gauthier C >aurice 9avel (at piano)C composerconductor, >anoah eideTedescoC

and composer George Gershwin.

Iuring the /3th century, merican musicians playing or workingclass audiences in small pubs

and bars, particularly  ricanmerican composers, developed new musical genres based on

the modern piano. 9agtime music, populari+ed by composers such as Scott $oplin, reached a

broader audience by /322. The popularity o ragtime music was quickly succeeded by $a++

piano. New techniques and rhythms were invented or the piano, including ostinato or boogie

woogie, and Shearing voicing. George Gershwin6s 9hapsody in -lue broke new musical ground

by combining merican Ea++ piano with symphonic sounds. !omping, a technique or

accompanying Ea++ vocalists on piano, was exempliied by Iuke "llington6s technique.&onky

tonk music, eaturing yet another style o piano rhythm, became popular during the same

era. -ebop techniques grew out o Ea++, with leading composers such as Thelonious

>onk and -ud *owell. 8n the late ;2th century, -ill "vanscomposed pieces combining classical

techniques with his Ea++ experimentation.&erbie &ancock was one o the irst Ea++ pianists to ind

mainstream popularity working with newer urban music techniques.

*ianos have also been used prominently in rock and roll by entertainers such as $erry ee

ewis, ittle 9ichard, Oeith "merson ("merson, ake 5 *almer ), "lton $ohn, -en #olds, -illy

$oel, Nicky &opkins, and Tori mos, to name a ew.

>odernist styles o music have also appealed to composers writing or the modern grand piano,

including $ohn !age and*hilip Glass.