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2003 Learners PublishingPte Ud First published 2002 byLearners Publishing PteUd 222 TagoreLane,#03-01TGBuilding,Singapore 787603 Reprinted2004,2006 AIIrightsreserved.No part 01 thisbook shall bereproduced,or transmitted by any means,electronic or mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording, or by any inlormation storage andretrievalsystem,without writtenpermission Irom thepublisher. Email:learnpub@learners.com.sg Visit our website:http://www.learners.com.sg ISBN 978 9814107129 PrintedbyB&Jo Enterr:-risePteUd,Singapore Please remember that unauthorized photocopying of thisbookisillega!. ASSOCIATECOMPANIES RICLearnersInternationalLimited PO Box 332 Greenwood Western Australia 6924 RICPublicationsLimited(Asia) 5thlIoor,Gotanda MikadoBuilding 2-5-8 Hiratsuka Shinagawa-ku Tokyo JAPAN142-0051 Email:elt@ricpublications.com Website: www.ricpublications.com Tel:03-3788-9201 Fax:03-3788 9202 Prefacev Part1:WhatisaSentence?1 1WhatisaSentence?2 Quick Summary8 Part2: The BasicElementsof aSentence10 2Subjects,PredicatesandVerbs12 3Subject-VerbAgreement18 4Direct andIndirect Objects;TransitiveandIntransitive Verbs26 5Complements.LinkingVerbsandComplex TransitiveVerbs32 6Adverbials37 7SentenceStructureandGrammaticalCorrectness45 8SentenceFunctionsandPartsof Speech53 9VocativesandExclamations60 Quick Summary64 Part3: Phrasesandtheir Functions66 10WhatisaPhrase?68 1 1PrepositionalPhrases73 12AdjectivePhrasesandAdjectivalPhrases82 13NounPhrases86 14AdverbPhrasesandAdverbialPhrases97 15VerbPhrasesandPhrasalVerbs101 16Co-ordination110 Quick Summary120 Part4:ClausesandtheirFunctions122 17Co-ordinateClauses,MainClausesand SubordinateClauses124 18RelativeClauses132 19AdverbialClauses140 20NounClauses150 [ 1 ]21Non-FiniteandVerblessClauses156 22Ellipsis163 Quick Summary170 Part5:Sentence Types172 23Simple,Compound,ComplexandCompound-complex Sentences174 24PositiveandNegativeSentences178 25Interrogative SentencesandQuestion Tags184 26ActiveandPassiveSentences192 Quick Summary195 Index 197 Answer Key 202 This revised andenlarged edition of Phrases, Clauses and Sentences, while itcoversmuchthesamegroundasthefirstedition,isquitedifferentinits approach.Firstly,thematerialisnoworganizedntoafewmajortopicsand presentedinanorderthatiseasytounderstand.Secondly,manyofthe grammaticalpointsaredealtwithingreaterdetail.Thirdly,andnotleast, somecompletelynewmaterialhasbeenaddedtogivethebookawider coverage. Thepurposeof thebook,however,remainsexactlythesameasbefore:to provide a concise,straightforward, but complete description ofthe basic rules andsentencestructuresof Englishgrammar,withclearexplanationsof the terminology used. An important feature of Phrases, Clauses and Sentences isthe many examples includedtoillustratetherulesandstructuresbeingdiscussed.Withineach unit,thereareal sooneormoreexercisesrelatingtothetopicsunder consideration. Throughoutthebook,theaimhasbeennot just toanalysephrases,clauses andsentencesbut al sotorelatetheseanalysestoother aspectsof language usesuchassubject-verbagreement,punctuationandhyphenation. Aftermasteringthematerialpresentedinthisbook,theusershouldbeable tounderstandandanalyseallthemaingrammaticalstructuresof Standard English. Thisisabook that could be equally useful to native speakers of English andthosewhospeakit asasecondor foreignlanguage. Whilecomplete initself,Phrases, Clauses and Sentences could also serve as anintroduction to larger andmore comprehensive works onEnglish grammar. ThanksareduetoAnneSeatonandYHMewfortheirhelpfulcriticismsand suggestionsduringthewritingof botheditionsof thisbook. CeorgeDavidson [ 2 ]WhatislSentence? Asentenceisagroup of wordsthat isusedtosay something,to asksomething,or to tellsomebody to dosomething: Theold mansighed. I don'tunderstand whatyou'retellingme. Acyy of horror went upfromthecyowd. Whatshallwedonow7 Haveyou got any change? Cet out of my way' Asentenceshouldgiveenoughinformationtothe personhearingit or readingitfor themtoforma completeideaintheir mindof themessagethatis beingcommunicatedtothem. Asentenceshouldbeginwithacapitalletter,andend witheither afullstop,aquestionmark or an exclamationmark: Thegirllooked at himand frowned. Aren'tyoucomingwithus7 Stopdoingthat' [ 3 ] KnOW?) Theword'sentence' comesfromLatin sententia,meaning 'anopinion' or 'a thought'. c-Handy Alwayscheckinyour ownwritingthat your sentencesare conveyinga completemessage. WflatfsaS'eFlte.nce? Sentences: --,-.-.-- Asentenceisagroupof wordsthatisusedtomake a statement,toask aquestion,or togivean order or make a request. Asentenceshouldprovide thepersonhearingit or reading it withenoughinformationfor themtoformacomplete ideaintheir mindof themessagethatisbeing communicatedtothem. Thefollowinggroupsof wordsaresentences: Mynew houseisverv small. Their sondoesn'twant to goonholiday withthem. Theweddingwas agreat success. Itwasrainingheavilywhenwearrived. Thelocalteam'sperformance last Saturdaywas abysmal. Tellmewhat youthink of it. Areyou goingintotownthisafternoon7 Whatalovely day it hasbeen! Howdid shemanagetodothat? Wheredoyouthink she's going7 Agroup of wordsthatdoesnot convey acompletemessageis not acompletesentence: theboy alongtheroad wecannot havewithus watched thebig greeninsect inamazement their new car yesterday strongemotion,likeexclamations,arecalledexdamatory /Iks'klam;:>t;)rt/sentences: Whata{oolI'vebeen/ HowI hatemaths! Typesof Sentence Thereare(our maintypes o( sentence. Ifl Sentencesthatmakestatementsarecalleddeclarative /dr'klar;:tTv/sentences: Thatisn't theway todoit. Lionsand tigersbelongtothecat {amily. I havetwobrothers and onesister. Canadaand theUnited States areneighbours. Thishat only cost me$I 5. Theseshoes aretootight. I don'treallywanttobehere. My{ather doesn'tlikechocolateice-cream. 11Sentencesthat askquestions arecalledinterrogative /lnt;:'rog;)tlv/sentences: Whatareyoudoing? Am I toolate7 Wheredidyouput the spade? CanVOlA see anvthing7 WhVdoeslJ'tshe just tellhimwhat shethinks7 Howold isyour daughter7 Who'sthat thev aretalkingt07 Wouldvoulikeacup o{ co{{ee7 ESentencesthatgiveordersor makerequestsarecalled imperative /lm'per;:1tlv/sentences: Comeback' 00 bereasonable. oon't ever dothat again' Yousit over there,)ack. Situpstraight' Comeand have acupo{ tea. Mindvour ownbusiness' f{ Sentencesthatexpressopinionsor feelingswithforceor WhatisaSentence7 -; r --- ..

[ 4 ]J:;>.- Phrases.Clausesand Sentences

..Somegrammariansrecognizeafifthsentencetype,theoptative /'npt;;tlv/sentence.Optativesentencesexpresswishes: Cad savetheQueenlLonglivethePresident' Peacebeuponhim. Cadforbidthat that should ever happen. Mayyoulivealongand happy lifetogether. Mayshenever know aday'speaceaslongasshe lives' Optativesentencesarenot ascommonastheother four typesof sentence.Someoccur asfixedsayings: Cadsave. Longlive... / Optativesentencesformedwithmayarefoundmainlyinvery formal al'rather datedlanguage. ;-JowtoPtlrlctuate S'entencES Awrittensentencemustbeginwithacapitalletter and endwithafuI!stop (.),aquestion mark (?) or an exclamationmark (!). 11Declarativesentencesusually endwithafull stap: I don'tfeelvery well. She'sscared of dogs. Youcanuseanexclamatanmark insteadof afullstopat theendof adeclarativesentenceif youwant toshowthat youareexpressingstrong feelings.Comparethese sentences: Harry'scoming. Harry'scoming! Thefirstsentenceisasimplestatement.Thesecond sentence,however,not only conveysthesameinformation but al soexpressesstrongemotionsuchassurprise, pleasureor fear. :.::J Interrogativesentencesendwithaquestanmark: Howdid shedothat? Whichhouseisyours? Canyoutell mewherethey are? Sometimesaquestionmarkistheonly way youcantell whether asentenceisaquestionor astatement: )ohn's leavingthisafternoon.(statement) )ohn's leavingthisafternoon?(question) Evenif only partof asentenceasksaquestion,thewhole sentenceisstilltreatedasaninterrogativesentence: If youwon't doit now,thenwhenwillyoudoit7 Whenwillyou doit,if youwon't doit now7 :141 Exclamatory sentencesendwithanexclamatanmark: Whatawonderful day! Howvery sad! Off withhishead! WasI frightened! Isn'tthattreebeautiful! JImperativeandoptativesentencesgenerally endwithafull stop,but again,if youwant toshowthatthewordsare beingspokenwithgreatforceor emotion,thenusean exclamaranmark:

Pleasesit down. Sit downat once! Mayyouhave allyour heart desires. Mayhesuffer asI have suffered! 00 comeandvisitusagain. Comebackhere! Noticethatsomeexclamatorysentenceslook likeq uestions, butareinfactcommentsor commands: Isn'tthat abeautiful flower! Willyoustopthat noise! Comebackhere! Sincesuchsentencesarenot askingquestionsbut expressingopinionsor makingrequests,they are WhatisaSentence 7 (HandyHi nt----)--- ./ Alwayscheckinyour ownwritingthatall yoursentencesstart withacapitalletter andendwitheither afullstop,a questionmark al' an exclamationmark. Makesurethat your questionsentences endwithaquestion mark. C_HandyHi nt) Becarefu Inot to overusethe exclamationmark. Witingwith exclamation is likeshoutingat people- useful sometimes,but very annoyingif youdoit allthetimel (Di dYouKnow?) WhentheFrench writer Victor Hugo sentatelegramto hispublisherstoask howwellhislatest bookwasselling,all hewrotewas'1'.The publishers'replywas just asshort:'1'. 1mB [ 5 ]Sentences What isaSentence 7 punctuatedwithexclamationmarksrather thanquestion marks.Comparethefollowingsentences: Willthey ever stopthefightinginPalestine?(question) Willyoustopfightingwithyour sister'(exclamation,expressing anorder) Isn'tTim'swifethewomaninthewhitedress?(question) Isn'tTim'swifelookinglovely inthat dress'(exclamation, expressinganopinion) Am I theonly onewhothinks she's crazy7(question) Am I glad toseeyou'(exclamatian) -oWhichof thefollowinggroupsof wordsaresentences, andwhicharenot7 Putacapitalletter atthebeginning andafullstop attheendof theexamplesyouthinkare completesentences. ,.closedthedoor 2.thelittlegirlssangbeautifully 3.hadapaininherback 4.biggreywoolly 5.'shewentinto thegarden 6.likecaketomorrow 7.wesawher lastweek 8.wascryingbitterly inherbedroom 9.bigandverystrong 10.theteacherwasvery cross 1,.theboyslaughed 12.laughedoutloud 13.for breakfastevery day 14.your nicenewis 15.helosthislovelynewwatch 16.sheopenedthe 17..climbed upthehill 18.thedoor opened ~ .m Decidewhether thefollowingsentencesaredeclarative, interrogative,imperative,exclamatory or optative,and markthem'Dec','Int','Imp','Exc'and'Opt' asappropriate. ,. Heisleavingtomorrow. 2.Areyoucomingwithus7 3.Don'tmove! 4.Cadblessthisshipandallwhosailinher. 5.Howmuchdoesit cast? 6.There'sbeenanasty accidentinOxford Street. 7.Whowereyouspeakingto justnaw7{. 8.Thebirdsflewfromthenest. 9.MayI gototheparty? 10.May thebestmanwin. 1,. Peter cuthisfootonasharpstone. Iought toleavenow. _'2. 13.MayIleavenow7 14.Don'tleaveyet. 15.Whatasillyideal 16.Whatisthehighestmountainintheworld7 17.Shutthatdoor' 18.Iwasatameetingallmorning. 19.Dohavesomemorewine. 20.Wouldyoulikesomemorewine7 21.Howdid yougetheresosoon7 22.Howrightyouare'; w Decidewhether thefollowingsentencesshouldendwith afullstop,aquestionmarkor anexclamationmark,and addtheappropriatepunctuationmark totheendof the sentence. ,. Whendidyoulastseeher 2.Idon'tknowwhat todo 3.Pleasecomein. 4.Idon'treallylikecheese. 5.Doyoulikecheese 6.I absolutelyhatecheese 7.Downwithalltraitorsto theparty 8.Whydidshegetsoupsetaboutit 9.MayIsaysomething ----..(HandyHi nt) '- ---Lookcarefu IIVatthe meaningof each sentence - isit statingsomething, askingsomething, givingacommand, makingan exclamationor expressingawish? /--- ...~ HandyHint) Theremav bemore thanonecorrect choice,depending onthedegreeof emotionvouwantto express. ~ .~ .[ 6 ]jiJ Phrases,Clausesand Sentences WhatisaSentence 7 / O. //. /2. /3. /4. /5. /6. /7. /8. /9. 20. Longliverock'n'roll Whatanawfulwomansheis Howstupid'vebeen Doesn'thelivesomewherenear here . May youalwaysbeacreditto your parents ShouldIsaysomethingtoher aboutit. How couldyounot seethatyouwerebeingfooled That'snotwhatImeant todo HowIwishIhadnever ever gonethere It doesn't seemlikely thathe'llcomenow There'snospeedlimit onthisstretchof road 3Sentencesshouldbeginwithacapitalletter,andendwith afullstop,aquestionmark or anexclamationmark. ~ Declarativesentencesusually endwithafullstop,but may endwithanexclamationmark if they express strongemotion. ~ Interrogativesentencesendwithaquestionmark. Imperativesentencesgenerally endwithafullstop,but may endwithanexclamationmarkif they express strongforceor emotion. JIExclamatory sentencesendwithexclamationmarks. mOptativesentencesgenerally endwithafullstop,but may endwithanexclamationmark if they express strongemotion. QuickSummary Thissectionsummarizesthemainpointsof whathasbeensaid aboutsentences.Beforestudyingany further unitsof thisbook, readover thesenotesandmakesurethat youfullyunderstand what youhavelearntinthisunit.If thereissomethingyouare stillnot sure about,checkback to therelevant sectionof theunit. 1Sen'1encesaregroupsof wordsthatareusedtomake statements,askquestions,giveordersor makerequests. They shouldprovideenoughinformationfor apersonto get acompleteideaof whatisbeingsaidtothem. 2Therearefourmaintypesof sentence:declarative, interrogative,imperative andexclamatory. Some grammariansalsodistinguishafifthtype,the optative sentence. 11Declarativesentencesmakestatements. 11Interrogativesentencesaskquestions. jiImperativesentencesmakerequestsor giveorders. iiII Exclamatorysentencesmakestatementswithstrong feeling. Optativesentencesexpresswishes. .... [ 7 ]Rm'eemen l-

anoObjecls; Transitiue and!ntransiHuei Uerbsj ..,.,.::":1lir Amongthewordsthatcanbefoundwithnounsandpronounsinnoun phrasesare: adjectives andparticiples: empry boxes small green apples [hosesil/y Uttleboys arallSpanishwoman abroken branch asudden bUndingIight descriptive nouns: paper towels asronewall anironmask determiners, suchasajan,the,my,his,their,some,this,that: an orangerhepresident her new carmyJob some peoplerhesebooks every right-mindedcitizen predeterminers (wordswhichprecededetermners),suchasall.both,half: AIIthebestseatsweretaken. I need borhthesebooks. Half thefruitwasbad. Wharagoodidea' Heissuch anicepersono quo.ntifiers, suchasmany,much,few,litt/e,several,enough: Manypeopleconsider himahero. I haveread several booksonthesubject. We don'thavemuchfoodlef[andwedon'thave enough money tobuy any more. We'vehad very Urtlenewsof themlately. numeral s,suchastwo,three,first,second: Thesefour booksarealll need. Thefirsrrhreecorrect entrieswillwinaprize. andpossessives: That'sJohn'scaro ~ ,[ 46 ]T ;3>./\\ rases, Clausesand Phrasesand their ~ Noticethatbe,have anddo canbeboth auxiliariesandlexicalverbs: Mariawasinrhegarden.(Iexicalverb,a'Iinkingverb') Mariawas singing.(auxiliary verb - rhemainverbis'singinq') TheWangshave anew car.(Iexicalverb) TheWangshave crashedrheir new caro(auxiliary verb - rhemainverbis 'crashed') We did lorsof interestingrhingsonour holiday.(Iexicalverbdescribingan acrian) We didn'r seeanyrhing interesting.(auxiliary verb- rhemainverbis'see') ~ .If thereisanadverbinasentence,it oftenstandsbetween the auxiliary verbandthemainverb: TheWal1gshave just crashedrheir new caro Peoplehaveofren told merhar irishard rolearnEnglish. Iwasonly joking. ~ Averbmay befo/lowedby acomplement consistingof a prepositionalphrase(seepage76): They based thefilmon atrue story. Tomsuffers terribly frommigraines. m. Operators The first or only auxiliary verb ina verb phrase issometimes known asthe operator. Shewas speakingto )ean. They have spent alltheir money. )ohn has beenwastinghistime. They should havecomebeforebreakfast. Theoperatorhasaveryimportant roleinEnglishgrammar,as akeyelementintheformationof interrogativesentencesand negativesentences(sentencesformedwithnot or -n't). Ininterrogativesentences,theoperator movestoapositionin frontof thesubject: Wasshespeakingto )ean7 Havethey spent alltheir money? Has )ohnbeenwastinghistime? Should they havecomebeforebreakfast7 Innegativesentences,not and-n't followtheoperator(and-n't isinfactattachedtoit): Shewas not speakingto )ean. They haven't spent alltheir money. )ohn has not beenwastinghistime. They shouldn't havecomebeforebreakfast. Formoreabout theuseof theoperator,seeUnits24te26. Functonsof tf:teVerbPhrase The only functionof a verbphraseisto fillthe verb or predicator slotinasentence: Wecould wait tilltomorrow. He had often seemed tired andwithdrawn. Whywas shewearing sunglassesonacloudy day? CF\ [ 54 ]----rases,Clauses and )p.ntences

onot confuse 'ohrasal verbs'with lerb phrases'. HelJ?> 1somegrammar f1ooks,only the .erb +adverb -onstructionsare calledphrasalverbs. 'erb +preposition constructionsare ..alledprepositional "erbs, andverb Tadverb + reposition constructionsare .alledphrasal..,repositional .terbs. . headverbsand 'repositionsthatgo lOformphrasal erbsaresometimes calledparticles. HandyHi nt -----_._-_/ Hyphenatingphrasal erbsisavery rommonerror and ..>houldbeavoided: reyougoingtoclear "Pthismess7 OT Areyougoingroe/earpthismess7 .....a Phras3J Aphrasalverb isanexpressionthat consistsof alexical verbplusanadverbor aprepositionor bothanadverband apreposition. Everybody pleasestand up.(verb+ adverb) Don'tyouwantto90 out and play?(verb+ adverb) Thesound of theirvoices gradually died away.(verb + adverb) Thisca/lsfor immediateaction.(verb+ preposition) Canwerely on him?(verb+preposition) Thisbookdealswith theessentialsof Englishgrammar.(verb +preposition) I get along with her very well.(verb+ adverb + preposition) I don'tknowwhy youput upwiththisnoiseevery day.(verb+ adverb +preposition) We'veallcome out inspots!(verb+ adverb +preposition) :Gell ingHeli:J Phrasalverbsshouldnot behyphenated,butnounsderivedfromthem shouldbe: Theplanewilltakeoff soon. PIe asefastenYOL/r seat beltsfortake-off-We felthehad rather let downthewholeteam. It wasrather alet-down. Insomecases,thenounisnot hyphenatedbutwrittenasasingleword: Thecomputen crashing set theprojectback abit. Itwasabitof asetback. Somephrasalverbshavemeaningsthatarepredictablefrom themeaningsof thewordsthatformthem: Why don'tyou just go away? Yourmother phonedwhleyouwereout.5hewantsyoutoca/l her back. Let'sswimasfarasthat rockand thenswim back again. T Other phrasalverbshavequiteunpredictablemeanings: We'regoingtohavetoforkout foranew caro(=spendmoney) Don't bottle up your feelingsof anger.(=keepthemto yourself,not expressthem) Hisspeciality is sending up the Prime Minister.(= making funof, ridiculing) .1( Gramma rHe1:) Likeother verbs,phrasalverbsmay betransitiveor intransitive: Coaway!(intransitive) Takeitaway!(transitive) Docheer up.(intransitive) 15 there anythingwecould dotocheer her up7(transitive) We get along very well.(intransitive) I get alongw;th her verywell.(transitive) Therulesforpositioningthedirect objectsof transitivephrasalverbsare very important: If atransitivephrasalverbisformedwithapreposition,thenthe direct object of theverbfollowsthepreposition: Theyfellinw;th Olli'SI19D'!o':io;!. I was just lookingat iJOS2lov,zlyf!owers . Youcanalwaysrely on )euJJ. 2If atransitivephrasalverbcomprisesaverbandanadverb,thena pronoun directobjectmuststandbetween theverbandtheadverb: Put t!Je:nback at oncelComeinand dryyourself offTakechaloff-Butif thedirectobjectisanoun or anounphrase itmaycomeeither before orafter theadverb: TakeYOl/rcoaloff Takeoff your coat. They always open rileshopup at sixoclock. Tileyalways open up lhesllop atsix o'e/ock. Anindirect object alwaysprecedestheadverb(andoftenprecedesthe direct object aswell): C;ve11;/11 backhisbook. C;ve11;111 hisbookback. C;veYOUybrother back hisbook. PhrasalVErbsandVerbsfollowedby Adv-erbials Manyintransitivephrasalverbs,whicharealwaysformedwith adverbs,arecloselyrelatedtoconstructionsconsistingof a .l 3-, Phrases and their Funaions 1m[ 55 ]Phrases,Clauses and Sentences Phrases and their Functions verbfollowedby aprepositionalphrasethatisfunctioningas anadverbial: Theboys ran pasto(phrasalverb) Theboys ran /past my house.(verb +adverbial) 5hewalked out.(phrasalverb) Shewalked /out of the house.(verb+adverbial) They came in and sat down.(phrasalverb) They came /into the house and sat down.(verb+adverbial) How to distinguishbetweenPhrasalVerbsfollowedb}.' Direct Objectsand VerbsfollowedbyPrepositional Phrases Constructionsconsistingof aphrasaJverbwithadirect object lookmuchthesameasconstructionsconsistingof averb followedby aprepositionalphrase.Comparethefollow;ng sentences: Hecame /to me inapanic.(verb+prepositionalphrase) Thatbookbelongs to /me.(phrasalverb+directobject) Hesaid hewou/d stand /by the door.(verb+prepositional ph rase) Hesaid hewould stand by /hiswife.(phrasalverb +direct object) Shelooked /up the road toseeif her husband wascon1ing. (verb+prepositionalphrase) Shelooked up /the road inher street atlas of London. (phrasalverb+directobject) Therearefourwaysinwhichyoucandecidewhatisaphrasal verbandwhatisn't: 1If thelexicalverbcannotstandafaneinasentencewithout a followingpreposition,consider theverbandpreposit;onto beaphrasalverb: Thatbook belongs to /me.(Youcan'tsayThatbook belongs) Wecana/ways rely on /Pete.(Youcan'tsayWecanalways re/y) Thekingsent for /thechancel/or.(Youcan'tsayTheking sent) Ontheother hand,if thelexicalverbcanstandonitsown, treat theprepositionastheheadof afollowingprepositional phrase: Hecame /to me inapanic.(YoucansayHecame) Iwouldn'tliketocomment /on that.(YoucansayIwou/dn't liketocomment) 2Phrasalverbsoftenhavemeaningsthat cannotbepredicted fromthemeaningsof thewordsthey consistof: Hepromised tostand by /hiswife.(=giveherhissupport) I must brush up on /my maths beforetheexamnext week. (=improvemy knowledgeof it,remindmyself of thefacts) Thisisnot thecasewithverbsfollowedby prepositional phrases - theirmeaningsareentirely predictable: Hewas standing /by thedoor.(=standingat thedoor, standingbesidethedoor) 3Prepositionalphrasesmay beginwithalmost anypreposition: Hewas standing /by thedoor. ...at thedoor. ...beside thedoor. ...near the door. ...in {ront o{ thedoor. Shelooked up theroad toseeif her husband wascoming. ...downtheroad .. ' . ..across theroad ... Prepositionsandadverbsinphrasalverbsaremuchmore restricted,andusually only oneprepositionor adverbis possible: He canrely on /john.BUTNOTrely withorrely at orre/y to Shelooked up /theroad inher street atlas.BUTNOTlooked downor/ookedacross If morethanoneprepositionor adverbispossible,thenthe meaningsof thephrasalverbschange: Heisstanding by /hiswife.(=supporting) Theselittlecrosses onthemap stand {or /churches. (=represent) mm:i [ 56 ] rases, Clauses and

4Withtransitivephrasalverbsformedwithadverbs,if the direct objectisanoun01'nounphrasethentheadverbcan comeeither after theobject 01'infrontof it: 5helooked up /theroad inher street atlas.OR 5helooked theroad up inher street atlas. Thisisnotpossiblewithaverbandaprepositionalphrase: 5helooked /uptheroad toseeir her husband wascoming. BUT NOT5he lool/1: .!J 1:YJgcando. Thenegativeelementthatgivesrisetothesechangesmay not benor or-n't.Other negativewordshavethesameeffect: Someonemust have sorne ideawhattodo. No-onehas any ideawhat todo. Theremust be something someone cando. Thereisnot}lng anyon,e,cando. Ihave sorne interesting newstote!1you. Younever have(J}"JIinterestingnewstotel/me. im [ 93 ]Hi nt Donot forgetthat theremaybeothe changestomaketo involvingsome anrl any forexample. Phrases,Clausesand Sentences CGrammarHelp> Innon-standardEnglish,thesechangesarenot alwaysmade,andtheremay thereforebemorethanonenegativewordinasentence: Ididn't donothing. 1I wouldn't do no goodlocomplain aboul il. We never saw nobody sleal no money Thesedoublenegatives arenot correctinStandardEnglish.InStandard English,only onenegativewordisallowedinsentenceslikethese: 1didn't doanything. 1I wouldn't doany goodlocomplainaboul il. We never saw anybody sleal any money -o l. Make thefollowingpositivesentencesnegativebyusing thewordgiveninbrackets. Hehasdiscussedthematter withme.(never) Icanseesomething.(-n't) Ican 'tseeanythi ng.Answer: Example Question: SenlenceTvpes eHandy thesentences, Wordsbeginningwiththenegativeprefixesun,in- anddis-, andanumber of other wordsthat arenot exactlynegativesbut whichhaveacertainamount of negativityintheir meaning, alsorequireany,etcrather thansorne,etc: 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Iknowhow todoit.(-n't) They'rebeingverysensible.(not) Somebodyknowssomething.(nobody) Wedohavesomefoodwithuso(-n't) Theysawsomeoneonthebeach.(-n't) Themanagement were unaware of any difficu!ties. Sheis incapable of (my ma!icetowardsal1yolte. I am disinclinedtogivethemmry more help. I have hardly an)/monev. Wescarcelyknow arryonchere. WeseldomgoU1}'whereinterestingnowadays. Withoutat1 ydoubtat a!l,heistheonewho did it. m 7. 8. 9. la. Insertsorne 01'anyas appropriateinto thegapsinthe followingsentences: Shemight bethere tomorrow.(not) Icouldcomenextweek.(-n't) Theconcerthasalreadystarted.(n't) Iwasawareof someanimositybetweenthem.(not) Transfen-edNegator; l. 2. Ihaven't __ chocolatetogiveyou. Idohave__ sweets,though. Withcertainverbs,suchasthil1k or suppose,thenegative wordnot/-n't isoftenattachedtothefirst verbinthe sentencealthoughit really appliestothesecond: 3. 4. 5. Weneverhave__ money tospare. No-oneroundherehas__ money tospare. Ican'tsee__onethere. I don'tthink he'scoming.(=Ido thinkheisn't coming) 6. 7. __ peoplehavealltheluckl Thereisnowhereof youcanhide. I don't suppose f'dbemuchhelp.(=Ido supposeIwouldn't bemuchhelp) 8. 9. __ Therehastobe__oneinchargeof theproject. Without __ doubt,that'sthebestdinner ,'vehadallyear. I don't expect she'l! come.(=I do expectshewon't come) /0. Noneof our friendshaveeverwon__ moneyintheNational Wedon't believe it'!!work.(=wedo believeitwon't work) Lottery. Thisisknownastransferrednegation thenegativewordis 'transferred'fromoneverbto theother. Em (.J ...l... [ 94 ]. .. .. Sen-lencEsand OUEst;n'n l' Aninterrogative sentence isasentencethatasksa question. Therearethreemaintypesof interrogativesentence:whquestions,yes/no questions andalternative questions. Wh--qu2stions are questions that ask for information by asking who?,whom?,whose?,what?,where?,when?,why?,which7 or how7 : Whowasthat at thedoor7 What haveyougot inyour hand7 Whendidyouarrive? How didhe dothat? Whichoneisyour car7 Wheredoyoucome{rom 7 IJYE.s/no arequestionsthatsuggestsomethingin theformof aquestionthatinvitesthepersonbeingspoken toanswerves or no: Haveyouever beentoltaly7 Yes,1have. No,1haven't. Willyoubeherenextweek7 Yes,1'11 behere. No,1won't behere. oid youbreak thatvase 7 Yes,1did. No,1didn't. 11Alterna tiveql.Jestionsgivetwo or morealternatives,from whichonemustbe,or may be,chosenfor theanswer: AreyouaBuddhist or aTaoist7 M:900youwanttostay here or comewithus7 '1 I15 Mary'sbrother called Samor Tim 7 I jWouldyouliketuna,scampi or salmon {ortea? ! bet'Neenlnt.errogative Senten-cesand Ne9a1:iveSenten-ces Aswith negative sentences,the first auxiliary verb (the operator) playsanimportant roleintheformatonof interrogative sentences. To formaninterrogativesentence,thefirst auxiliary usually movesto apositioninfront of thesubjectof thesentence: He is coming. Ishecoming 7 )ohnwill becoming. WiII )ohn becoming? 1should haveknownthat. Should 1haveknownthat7 If the subject of the sentence isawh-word,however, thewh-word comesfirst,not theoperator: Whois coming7 Whowill becoming7 If thereisnoauxiliary verb,weagainneedtobringinthe auxiliary verbdo toactasoperator: He arrived lastnight. Did hearrivelast night7 Sheknowswhattodo. Does sheknowwhattodo? Katy speaksFrenchverywell. Howwell does Katy speakFrench 7 If thereisanegative adverbnot or never intheinterrogative sentence,it followsthesubjectof thesentence: Areyounot comingwithus7 Willshe never come? Thenegativeparticle-n't,however,mustbeattachedto the operator: Aren'tyoucomingwithus 7 Won'tyoucomewithus? SenrenceTvpes ,/\,py' eV)!\i.

[ 95 ]Phrases,Clausesand Sentences Asinthecaseof negativesentences(seeUnit 24),the linkingverbbe doesnotneeddo toformquestions: Theyare inthe garden. Are they inthe garden? Theboyswere at schoolyesterday. Weretheboysat schoolyesterday? Thesome forms,ontheotherhand,haveamorepositive implication: Istheresomeone inthehouse7 impliesthat thespeaker thinksthat thereissomeonethere. Similarly: SentenceTypes Theverbshave,dareandneed canbetreatedboth auxiliary verbsandaslexicalverbs: Haveyouany money7ORDoyouhave any money?OR Haveyougot any money7 asHaveyoutakensome {oodwithyou? impliesthat thespeaker thinksyoushould takesomefoodwith you. Needyouleaveso soon 7 ORDoyouneed toleaveso soon? Dare 1say that7ORDo1daretosay that 7 Some andAny in Questions Sorneimportant ponts about [nterrogatives 1Thenegativequestionformof 1 am isaren't I?: Aren't 1sil/y? Ininterrogativesentences,boththesome formsof positive sentencesandtheany formsof negativesentences(see page187) arepossible: 2Thequestionformsforought to are: Oughtwetotel/him7 Ought wenot totel/him7OROughtn'tweto tel/him7 Haveyoutakenany {oodwithyou7 OR Haveyoutakensorne{oodwithyou73Thefollowinginterrogative formsof used to areallcorrect: Isthereanyone inthehouse?OR Istheresomeone inthehouse7 Did heuseto doit7 Did henot useto doir?ORDidn't heuseto doit? Isthereanywhereyoucould go{or arest7OR Isthere somewhereyoucould go{or arest 7 Haveyouany mane yinthebank7OR Haveyou somemane yinthebank7 Used heto doit7 Used heto doit7,used henot to doit7 (very formal),and usedn'r heto doit7 areallal socorrectbutaremuchless Isanythinp wrong 7 OR Issomethll1gwrong7 common. Didyouseeanyone actingsuspiciously7OR Didyouseesomeone actingsuspiciously? Queston Tags Isthere anyone who could helpyour mother withthehousework? OR Isthere someone who could help your mother with the housework7 Haveyousaid anythinp toher that might haveupset her7 OR Haveyousaid somethll1gtoher that might haveupset her? Aquestiontag,or tagquestion,isashortquestionform usedattheendof asentencetoaskfor confirmationthat thelistener agreeswithwhathasbeensaidor that whathas beensaidistrue. a.i!ii Insuchcases,theany formstendtoimply astraightforward ves/no question: Isthereanyone inthehouse7 Yesor n07 Haveyoutakenany {oodwithyou7 Yesor n07 Itwasagreatparty,wasn't ir? Wecan{inishthistomorrow,can't we7 That'snot real/y true,is it7 ~ ..J.l..[ 96 ]-'] I ases,Clausesand :entences SentenceTvpesThere'sno'f' in'cough',;sthere? I ::3 Theverbinthequestiontagmirrorstheverbinthemain Yourmum enjoys gardening,doesn't she? partof thesentence. After apositive statement, the question tag isusually negative: Youare comingwithus,aren't you? Youcan speak )apanese,can't you7 Weshould go and visityour aunt,snouJdn't we? After anegative statement, the question tag isusually positive: Youaren't comingwithus,areyou7 Youcan't speak )apanese,an1you7 Weshouldn't behere,shouhf we? ]1Anegativetagoftenexpectstheanswer 'Ves',andapositive tagoftenexpectstheanswer 'no'.Buttagquestionsarealso usedtoexpresssurprise,disapproval,shock,etc: Youaren't comingwithus,areyou7 (=Irealizeyou'recoming withusbutI amsurprisedthat youare.) Youcan't speak )apanese,can you7 (=Iamsurprisedthat you areabletospeak Japanese.) Apositive statementfollowedby apositive questiontagalso usuallyimpliessurpriseatsomethingor thediscovery of somefact: 50that'swhatthey'retryingtodo,js it7 50you'retheculprit,areyou7 Anegative question followedby anegative question tag again impliessurprise,disapproval,etc: 'Please,sir,I haven't donemy homework.' 'Oh,youhaven't, lwvenJ;you7 Wel/,what'syour excusethistime7' If thesubjectof asentenceisanounor nounphrase,itisreplacedby a pronouninthequestiontag: Louise isalovelvdancer,isn'she7 80thyour sisters likeBeethoven,don 'tthey? A pronounsuchaseveryone or someone isreplacedbythey. Everyone issoverv kind,aren'Ihey7 Well,somebody must haveseensomehing,mustn'tIhey7 Notethateveryone, someone,etcarefollowedby asingular verbbut they must befollowedby aplural verb: Evervoneis soverv nicerovou,aren't thev7 Somebodv hereknows something aboutthestolenmonev,don'tthev7 If themainpart of thesentencecontainsoneor moreauxiliary verbs,thenthequestion tagisformedwiththefirstor only auxiliary (i.e.theoperator): Weshould have gonetovisityour aunt,shouJdn'twe? Youcouldn't have looked more ridiculous ifyou'd tried,couJd you7 They'lI have goneby then,won't they? Yourfriendswon't haveforgottenabouttheparty,wilJ they7 Thethieves can't have gotvery far,cantheV7 If themainclauseof thesentencehasnoauxiliaryverbbut onlyalexicalverb,thenthequestiontagisformedwiththe auxiliary verbdo: 5heIikesBeethoven'smusic,cloesl1'tshe7 Youhit your littlesister,didn'tvou? Yourbrother sings inthe operaclub,aoesl1J!he7 They just laughed at me,afn't they7 Again,thelinking verbbe isanexception to theruleand does notrequiretheuseof theauxiliary verbdo: Yoursister isfondof Beethoven,;sn't she7 Thebookswere here,W2r2n'they? Hughwasn't at themeeting,washe7 Notetheformof thetagquestionfollowingam: I am sil/y,I? Tagquestionsfollowingthelexical verbhave may beformed withor withoutdo: Youhave twosisters,haven't you7 ORYouhavetwosisters, do:"!'!vou? They'venohopeof winning,havethey7ORThey'veno hopeof winning,dothey7 Withhave inthe sense of'perform anaction', the tag question isformedwithdo: 5hehad alongtalkwithhim,didnJshe 7

[ 97 ]Phrases,Clausesand Sentences Ought to formstagquestionswithought: 5heouqht to heherehy now,a.!"hClr'tshe7 Weouqht not to hehere at a/l,Of-tgl1twe? Usedto formstagquestionswithdid: Heused to livenearhy,tiin't:he? They didn't useto livenear here,id they? Scarcely,Se/dom,etc and TagQuestions Certainwordsthathaveanegativeimplication,suchas scarce/yandse/dom,arefollowedby positive questiontags eventhoughthemainverbisalsopositive.Compare: 5he often smiles,doesn'cshe7 5he seldom smiles,does she? 5hescarcely ever smiles,doesshe 7 5he hardly ever smiles,does she 7 Tr-2xsferTedr':ega tla,',2. r,cfTag.Qu esto leS: Transferrednegational soaffectstheformof tagquestions, causingapositive verbinasubordinateclausetobefollowed by apositive questiontag.Thisisbecause,althoughthe negativeword hasbeentransferredfromthesubordinate clausetothemainclause,thenegativemeaning stillreally appliestotheverbinthesubordinateclause(seepage182): I don't thinkshe is coming,is she7 (=Sheisn't coming,isshe7) I don'tsupposethey'lI heahletocome,will they7(=They won't beabletocome,willthey7) SentenceTypes_llm_ oChangethefollowingstatementsintoquestions: l.Mybrother wastherelastnight. 2.Yoursistermether oldmusicteacherintownyesterday. 3.He'salwaysrudetopeople. 4.They wereintendingtocomewithuso 5.Theyhaveenoughfoodwith them. 6.Theyhavesomefoodwiththem. 7.Theboyscouldhaveworkedharder. B.There'snosolutiontothatproblem. 9.I'mcomingtoo. 10.Youcannotseewhat they aredoing. m Addappropriate tagquestions to the following statements: ,.Shecan'twalkallthatway. 2.IwassureIcoulddoit. 3.Hewon'tbeatthemeeting. 4.Thedogwaswatchinguso 5.Thebookbelongstoyour dad. 6.Thattreehasalotof applesonit. 7.Ishan'tbeabletogo. B.Suerarelymanagestoget toher aerobicsclass. 9.Idon't supposeshedoesnowadays. 10.Yourparentsusedtoiveonthatfarm. { ~u]j} [ 98 ]l=GrammarHelp=:) 'Voice'isthe technical vordingrammar for thatpartof the -;rammaticalsystem "hatinvolves 'active' and'passive' verbs. A[t!ueanOPassiUESenlences Active andPassive Sentences ---- ---------- ---------_. If thesubjectof atransitive verbisthepersonor thingthat performstheactionof the verb,thenthe verbissaidtobe in the active voice. A sentencewithaverbintheactivevoiceisanactive sentence. Sam broke thevase. CharlesDickenswrote'ATaleof TwoCities'. Herenthusiasm greatly encouyaged me. Afaxkilled all my hens. If thesubject of atransitiveverbisthepersonor thingthat receivestheactionof theverb,thentheverbissaidtobe inthepassive voice. A sentencewithaverbinthepassivevoiceisapassive sentence. Thevasewasbroken by Sam. 'ATaleof TwoCities'waswritten by CharlesDickens. I was greatly encouraged by her enthusiasm. AIImy henswerekilled by afax. Formatjonof Passive Verbs Apassiveverbisformedwiththeauxiliary verbbe andthe pastparticiple of alexicalverb: Theyplanted thetreeinthegarden. Thetreewasplantea by theminthegarden. 1 I wrote theletter ingreat haste.ITheletter;Oh,:;"",