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Photonic Materials Context and Applications

Professor Mark P. AndrewsDepartment of Chemistry

McGill University

Photonic Context

Mapping how people use the WebBen Fry’s Organic Information Design

MIT

What is light ?

Hi t i l P tiHistorical Perspective

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INDIA

सांख्य (sāṃkhya)

वैशॆिषक (vaiśeṣika)

INDIA

Brihadeshvara TempleBrihadeshvara Temple, Thanjavur, India

Credit: A. Geva and A. Mukherji, Texas A&M, School of Architecture

Credit: A. Geva and A. Mukherji, Texas A&M, School of Architecture

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1.4 M

PlatoDemocritusEuclidAristotle

300

BCE

700

Nimrud lens

12000

Oil lamps

3000 424

Samkhya

Vaisheshika

600-500

Timelines

0

Pharos ofAlexandria

Mirrors

Shadow plays

ἈριστοφάνηςThe Clouds

(I.O.U.)earth

air

fire

water

Hero of AlexandriaChinese lensSenecaPliny: Nero

Empedocles

0

Timelines CE

140 180 525 750 1000

Ibn Sahl (curved lens)

0

Ptolemy

140

丁緩

180

zoetrope

Ting Huan AnicusBoethius

(light-headed)

525

Jabir ibnHayyan

750 1000

light as energy

particles

Yu Chao Lung Ibn al-Haytham

(Alhacen)

AgNO3records experimental data on optics

CE

Timelines

1305 1600s

WillibrordSnel van Roijen

1621(Snellius)

Johannes Kepler 1611 Isaac Newton

Corpuscular theory of light

Dietrich von Freiberg Christiaan

Huygens Wavefronts

Ibn Sahl

René Descartes 1637 rainbowsrefraction laws

Olaus RoemerSpeed of light

Francesco Maria

GrimaldiDiffraction

1665

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CE1600s 1700s

Isaac Newton

Corpuscular Theory of light

Benjamin FranklinJoseph PriestlyCharles CoulombLuigi Galvan

Timelines

Electricity

“I hate Hook!”

Claude ChappeOpto-mechanical

“telegraph”1790

Leonhard Euler Wave theory

of light1746

Timelines

1700sIsaac Newton

Corpuscular theory of light

1800s

François Jean Dominique

Arago

George Gabriel Stokes

Lord Rayleigh

Leon Foucault

Fresnel

David Brewster

Hippolyte Fizeau

John Kerr

Malus

Optics

1700sIsaac Newton 1800s

Jožef StefanHeinrich Hertz

Wilhelm RöntgenArnold Sommerfeld

Hans Christian ØrstedMichael Faraday

Heinrich LenzMichael Faraday

James ClerkMaxwell

Thomas Young Diffraction

Wave theory1801

Electricity andMagnetism

ThomasSuttonSLR

camera

Timelines 1900-1950

1800s 1900s

Philip LenardPhotoelectric

threshold

Albert EinsteinPhotons

Max Planck Quanta

Vesto SlipherGalaxy red shift

Niels BohrQuantized

energy

Edwin LandPolaroid

Pavel CerenkovElectron radiation

Louis de BroglieElectron wavesSatyendra BoseWave-particle

duality John BairdTelevision

Edward HubbleExpandinguniverse

Fritz ZernickePhase

contrast

Ernst RuskeElectron

lens

Polaroid

Quantum descriptionsof light and the atom dominate

1st part of 20th C

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Timelines1950-

1800s 1900s

Edwin LandPolaroid

Abraham Van HeelHarold Hopkins

Fiber optics

Theodore MaimanRuby laser

Kao, Hockam, WertsFiber optics

communications

CD

Maurer, Keck, SchultzFiber optics

Corning

Apple II

IBM PC

“Internet”coined 1986

WWWTim Berners-Lee

1991

Polaroid

Eckert and MauchlyENIAC

machine

Ralph BaerFirst video game

1967

Magnavox“Odyssey”

ARPANET1969

GTE fiber optic

Network 1977

Sony and Philips

Commodification of informationthrough communicationstechnologies: electrons and photons

2nd part of 20th C

Early ways of using materialsto Make Light Work

This is Lignin !

… towards an Optical Internet

Early Ways of Making Light Work

100 Cretans

Needs173 torch signs

“KD”Kleoxenos

and Demokleitos

Optical Telegraph

100 Cretanshave deserted!

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Aeneas Tacitus Hydraulic-telegraph 350 BCE

Secret codeon floating column

SenderorR i

spigot

Water cylinder

Receiver

light

Early Email

Claude Chappe

Optical Telegraph Opto-mechanical Telegraph (Tachygraph)

Code armson pulleys

indicators

regulator

Semaphorecode

Free space optical communication(low bandwidth)

Source: Koenig 1944, p. 435

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Early “Ring Architecture”

Paris

Ring architecture

LOTTO-Chappe

g

Alexander Graham Bell’sDiagram of “Photophone”

The first true Voice-by-Light over free space

"Can Imagination picture what the future of this invention is to be!.... We may talk by light to any visible distance without any conduction wire.... “

Bell’s Photophone 1886

Microphone Mirror

Photophone

Lenssystem

Bell’s Photophone 1880

Selenium detectorRefractive index increasing

Selenium crystal

electronphoton

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In Canada, the first optical telegraph line was set up in Nova Scotia in 1794 by Prince Edward.

The purpose of the system was to provide warnings of any danger that might arise from the new republic to the south.

Light followsoptical path created bystream of water

Light source

Column of water

Light enters hereFibre

Light followsfibre path

The Flow of Light

Jean-Daniel Colladon 1884

Light Fountain

Simulation of electric fieldpropagating in glass optical fibre

How does the material keep the light in the pipe ?

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glassvacuum vacuum

Refractive index = Velocity of light in vacuum

Velocity of light in material

Better Refractive Index through Molecular Chemistry

Amplitudes are out of phasebut remain the same in magnitude

ampl

itude

Refractive index outside = n2Sin c =

n2

n1

Critical Angle for total internal reflection c

How a Waveguide Worksn2

n1

Refractive index inside = n1

c

3 Layer slab waveguide TE0 mode

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Waveguide Coupling Configuration

M1

/2

P

H

TM

TE

rotation axis

laser

Si

M2M3

L

GT

123

Couplingprism

3

prism

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Interfaces: Flow cell chip for crystal growth

Real time evanescent waveguide Raman spectra of NaNO3

crystallization

Gratings:UV writingHot embossingCold embossingEtching

inout

grating coupling

1000 1050 1100 1150 cm -1

Andrews and Yan (2007)

NaNO3 crystals

Fundamental

Materials Vibrate !

Fundamental 2800 nm

First overtone 1400 nmO H

First overtone

OH absorbs infrared light at the fundamental and first overtone frequency

Si- OH

O H1 nm = 10-9 m

Fundamental 2800 nm

=2800 nm

Energy decreasing

/2 =1400 nm

First overtone 1400 nm

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Glass fibre contains some Si-OH

What happens to the wave amplitude ?

Incoming amplitude

Outgoing amplitude

Light is absorbed

Glass optical fibre for communicationmust not absorb infrared light

O H

Where glass fiber absorbs light

1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700

The World communicateshere

Wavelength (nanometres)

Abs

orpt

ion

“O” band

“C” and “L”bands

ultraviolet 400 nm

violet 450 nm

blue 490 nm

green 550 nm

yellow 580 nm

visible spectrum (see here)

Information Wavelengths of Light

yellow 580 nm

orange 620 nm

red 750 nm

infrared 800 nm

850 nm

1300 nm

1550 nm

You speak, hear and seewith these wavelengths

fibre optics works here

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Optical Fibre is Just a Pipe

Different wavelengths= different channels

1 fibre strand can carry50 billion voice conversationson a single laser beam

Monument to the water pipe in Mytishchi (Russia)

on a single laser beam

Fibre is manufactured worldwideat a rate of 3200 Km per hour

Optical fiber

Feeding Fiber: Bandwidth

MUX DEMUX

Optical chip

Source: The Billing College 2002

Electronic layer

MUX-DEMUX

To / fromfibTo / from many fibersTo / from

one fiber

“ In the beginning of the yeare 1666

. . . I procured me a Triangular glasse Prismeto try therewith the Celebrated Phaenomenaof Colours. “

Sir Isaac Newton (1672)

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Making Chips from Molecules

Paradigm

Sustainable Electronics Process Model

Make electronic chips

Make photonic chips

Sustainable Photonics Process Model ?

Source: Infinera

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Another Kind of Glass

Refractive index matches glass fiberC-F has no overtones in the C and L bands

F

Photogenerated Acid Reaction

Patterning Polymers

O

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

F

acid H+

Ultraviolet light

Iodonium salt

crosslink

O

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photosensitivePolymer (negative resist)

Image fromphotomask

photomask

Ultraviolet light

substrate

Polymer Lithography

dissolve

Over coat

Optical Chip

Waveguides

Glass Prism

RefractionPhase shifted waves

How it Works

In phase Out of phase

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Phased array grating

Filling the Pipe - MUX DEMUX

Waves in phase

Star coupler

Plastic Phasar Output

2.5 nm Bob and Alice

Video-on-demand

80,000 Telephone conversations

Data

Wavelength (nanometres)

Glass optical fiber from sea water

Venus Flower Basket

Photo by NEON ja 2008; insert courtesy of AAAS used with permissionhttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

Euplectella aspergillum

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Si

O

mer

sur

face

n-

Glass is mineralized at biopolymer interfaces

++++++

SiO

O

O

Ortho silicic acid anion

Amorphous silica (SiO2) glass

Bio

poly

m++++++

Sol gel silica is glass in a flask

O

O

O

Photo reactive

Si

O

O

CH3CH2O

OCH2CH3

Si

Si

O

O

O

O

n-

OCH2CH3

OCH2CH3

Reacts with acidor base SiOH

H+

OH

Glass from Water and Light

1

light

O

O

O

photolithography

2

Si

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Inscribed guideSol gel waveguide

1. Inscribe

Venus flower basket

Optical Fiber at Room Temperature

Cl

Laser beam in

Fiber-on-chip

2. Etch ~ 5 x 6 m x 5 cm long

Venus flower basket

Self written optical fiber

TiCl

Cl

photoinitiator

Waveguide Bragg Grating

Bragg Grating by PhaseInterference

Infrared Spectrum

0.51 mwavelengthSi Si

O

1090 cm-1

as(Si-O-Si)

Laseron

wavelength

O

Si Si

Laseroff

Si

Learning from Nature to Make Light Work

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Bragg Diffraction

In phase(see light)

Out of phase(no light)

Atomic lattice Atomic lattice

OPAL

Opal-EssenceMAC Cosmetics

Opal diffractsselected wavelengths

Credit: Mieralogical Society of America, American Mineralogist, E. Gaillou et al.,Volume 93, pages 1865–1873, 2008

Fire opalSlovakia

White opalHonduras

Milky opalMexico

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Eli Yablonovich

Co-inventors of the photonic crystal

Sageev John

PHOTONIC crystals are a lot like semiconductor crystals !!

TRO

N E

NER

GY

ElectronicS

Electronic band of energies

TON

EN

ERG

Y

PhotonicS

Photonic band of energies

This is wherephotons conduct

This is whereelectrons conduct

ELEC

T StopBand Gap

Electronic band of energies

PHO

T StopBand Gap

Photonic band of energies

Photons with these energiesare forbidden

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General property of harmonic modes

Consequence of orthogonality

Scale Invariance

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Electromagnetic energy and the variational principle

1D Example

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Vacuum 2D example

Insert dielectric (2D)

Visualizing the 2D structure

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Bloch theorem for electromagnetism

Bloch wave functions

Simple proof

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The Gap emerges from Bragg Scattering!

Perfect Waveguide Bends

OTO

N E

NER

GY

StopBand

A linear defect is created in the crystal which supports a mode that is in the band gap. This mode is forbidden from propagating in the bulk crystal because of the band gap. So, if one makes a bend, the wave follows with 100% transmission !!

PHO Band

Gap

Opal Photonic Crystal

Opal diffractsselected wavelengths

Credit: Mieralogical Society of America, American Mineralogist, E. Gaillou et al.,Volume 93, pages 1865–1873, 2008

Fire opalSlovakia

White opalHonduras

Milky opalMexico

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Frequency is in the transmission band = resonant transmission

Frequency is in the band gap = no transmission

Eigenmode with frequency of incident wave must exist inside crystal

Frequency in band gapbfields inside crystal decay

Making them . . .

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Uniform colours seenon visual inspection

Top surface tends to be<111>

Sometimes 2 colours observed2nd colour is <100> face

Examples of photonic crystals generated by means of holographic lithography

SEM image of a polymeric photonic crystal generated by exposure of a 10 micrometer film of photoresist to a four-beam laser interference pattern. The top surface is a (111) plane; the film has been fractured along a cleavage plan of the photonic crystal structure.

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Holographic Lithography

Close-up of (111) surface and cleavage planes

Simulation of the same crystal formed by cutting a constant-

intensity surface along narrrow 'bonds'

Photonic Butterfly

Credit: Daniel Cordie, asto.ensc.rennes.fr

Morpho rhetenor

How it worksLight in

Credit: Pete Vukusic, University of Exeter

Scales

Ultrastructureof scale

Coherentscattering

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Photonic DIATOMS

Credit: Mark Edlund

H+

OHOrganic phase is oriented

Photoinduced Pattern Formation in Organo-silica

Polarized light

O

O

OSi

Patterned Silica after Thermolysis

CO

“RSiO2”

A

B

1 mheat

500 nm

CO2

H2O

“SiO2”

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Photonic Crystal Beam Splitter

(a) A photonic-crystal waveguide splitter. The grey rectangular area is composed of millions of air holes that form a photonic crystal. The Y-shaped region is the so-called defect waveguide that is formed by removing rows of holes from the lattice. The thick parallel lines are isolated waveguides that transmit light to and from the photonic-crystal splitter device (b) A close-up view of the defect waveguide shows the lattice structure in detail. (c) Light enters the device from the bottom and is split into two beams that are perpendicular to the incoming beam.

Light enters here

Defect region

Slow Light

I B M

http://www.physorg.com/news7839.html

Photonic Crystal Fiber from Diatoms

CoscinodiscusWalesii valve

Fundamental modeat 1550 nm “C” bandin centre of the valve

Artificial photoniccrystal fiber

Credit: Superlattices and Microstructures, Vol. 46, July-August 2009, Pages 84-89 , De Stefano et al. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd

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• Guiding light: Conventional Optical Fibres

CladdingnCladding<nCore

Core

nCore>nCladding

nCore

Total Internal Refection

• Guiding light: Conventional Optical Fibres

• Bragg reflection– Very low losses

• But– Bandwidth ?

– Angle of incidence ?

– Index contrast ?

– Fabrication ?

Burak Temelkuran et alNature 420, 650-653, December 2002.

• Bragg fibres, “OmniGuide” fibres

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• “Generalized Bragg reflection”:

Photonic Crystals

• Periodicity in 2D (or 3D)

• Photonic Crystal Fibre PCFs

dHoles

Silica (or other)

Birks, Roberts, Russel, Atkin, Shepherd, Electron. Lett. 31, 1941-1942 (1995)

Silica (or other)

Core : - hollow- solid

Photonic Crystal

N.A. Mortensen, Opt. Express 10, pp. 341-348 (2002)B. Kuhlmey et al, Opt. Lett. 27, pp. 1684-1687 (2002)

• Intuitive interpretation : the “mode sieve”

|Ez|

Fundamental modeSecond mode

Simulations: CUDOS MOF Utilitieshttp://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/cudos/mofsoftware/

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• Fabrication: “stack and draw”

Crystal F

ibre A/Sto

nics

SO

FT

C, S

ydne

y

Bla

ze P

hot

Fabrication

1974 1996 1999 2004

Knight, Birks, Russell, Atkin, Photonic crystal

fiber

Cregan et al.

Photonic bandgap fiberKaiser et al.

Air-silica fibers

Mangan et al, OFC 2004(1.7dB/km Loss@1550nm)

• Hollow core and solid core PCFs

Mangan et al, OFC 2004(1.7dB/km Loss@1550nm)

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Cell Phone Cameras

Image Is Everything

Liquid Crystal Molecules Make Light Work

pitch

Flexible Electronics to Make Light Work

Bell Labs Liquid Lens (Cornea)

electrode

Lens region

Plastic film withtransparent electrode(10 m liquid crystal gap)

Aluminum foil electrode

McGill 3 micron thick plastic liquid crystal lenselectrode

Tunable cell phone camera lens ?

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Flexible Electronics to Make Light WorkFirst nanocrystalline

semiconductor transistor curvedPlastic LCD

Pixel

Nanocrystallinetransistor

Digital Video Poster

Everything printed: laser, ink jet, flexo, screenElectroluminescent : II-VI semiconductors

Emitted light

e-

plastic film

electrode

insulator

phosphor

plastic film

electrode

Flexible Digital Video Poster Prototype

pixels

Image courtesy of Plastic Knowledge

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printed and etched Al electrodes

Digital Video Poster

ITO electrodes

Architecture

QR Code

Video PosterTM embodies principles of flexible electronics and printabilityincluding R2R

single pixel