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  • 8/10/2019 Photography Techniques (Elementary)

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    Contents

    Articles

    Camera 1

    Exposure (photography) 13

    Aperture 20

    Shutter speed 26

    Film speed 31

    Metering mode 49

    Focus (optics) 52

    Depth of field 53

    Color balance 79

    References

    Article Sources and Contributors 84

    Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 86

    Article Licenses

    License 88

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    Camera 1

    Camera

    A rangefinder camera.

    Cin-Kodak Special II - 16mm movie camera (ca. 1948)

    A camera is an optical instrument that

    records images that can be stored directly,

    transmitted to another location, or both.

    These images may be still photographs or

    moving images such as videos or movies.

    The term camera comes from the word

    camera obscura (Latin for "dark chamber"),

    an early mechanism for projecting images.

    The modern camera evolved from the

    camera obscura.

    Functional description

    Cameras may work with the light of the

    visible spectrum or with other portions of

    the electromagnetic spectrum. A camera

    generally consists of an enclosed hollow

    with an opening (aperture) at one end for

    light to enter, and a recording or viewing

    surface for capturing the light at the other

    end. A majority of cameras have a lens

    positioned in front of the camera's opening

    to gather the incoming light and focus all or

    part of the image on the recording surface.

    The diameter of the aperture is often

    controlled by a diaphragm mechanism, but

    some cameras have a fixed-size aperture.

    Most cameras use an electronic image

    sensor to store photographs on flash

    memory. Other cameras, particularly the

    majority of cameras from the 20th century,

    use photographic film.

    A typical still camera takes one photo each

    time the user presses the shutter button (except in continuous-fire mode). A typical movie camera continuously takes

    24 film frames per second as long as the user holds down the shutter button, or until the shutter button is pressed a

    second time.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangefinder_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electromagnetic_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diaphragm_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_buttonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movie_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_framehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_framehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movie_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_buttonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diaphragm_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electromagnetic_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visible_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Videohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AFilmkamera.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATaron_vl_18_1_gd.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangefinder_camera
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    Camera 2

    History

    Camera obscura

    The forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera

    obscura.[1] In the fifth century B.C., the Chinese philosopher

    Mo Ti noted that a pinhole can form an inverted and focused

    image, when light passes through the hole and into a dark

    area.[2] Mo Ti is the first recorded person to have exploited this

    phenomenon to trace the inverted image to create a picture. [3]

    Writing in the fourth century B.C., Aristotle also mentioned this

    principle.[4] He described observing a partial solar eclipse in 330

    B.C. by seeing the image of the Sun projected through the small

    spaces between the leaves of a tree.[5] In the tenth century, the

    Arabic scholar Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) also wrote about

    observing a solar eclipse through a pinhole,[6] and he described

    how a sharper image could be produced by making the opening

    of the pinhole smaller.[5] English philosopher Roger Bacon

    wrote about these optical principles in his 1267 treatise

    Perspectiva.[5] By the fifteenth century, artists and scientists

    were using this phenomenon to make observations. Originally,

    an observer had to enter an actual room, in a which a pinhole

    was made on one wall. On the opposite wall, the observer would

    view the inverted image of the outside.[7] The name camera

    obscura, Latin for "dark room", derives from this early

    implementation of the optical phenomenon.[8]

    The actual name of camera obscura was applied by mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler in his Ad

    Vitellionem paralipomena of 1604. He later added a lens and made the apparatus transportable, in the form of atent.[9][10] British scientist Robert Boyle and his assistant Robert Hooke developed a portable camera obscura in the

    1660s.[11]

    The first camera obscura that was small enough for practical use as a portable drawing aid was built by Johann Zahn

    in 1685.[12] At that time there was no way to preserve the images produced by such cameras except by manually

    tracing them. However, it had long been known that various substances were bleached or darkened or otherwise

    changed by exposure to light. Seeing the magical miniature pictures that light temporarily "painted" on the screen of

    a small camera obscura inspired several experimenters to search for some way of automatically making highly

    detailed permanent copies of them by means of some such substance.

    Early photographic cameras were usually in the form of a pair of nested boxes, the end of one carrying the lens andthe end of the other carrying a removable ground glass focusing screen. By sliding them closer together or farther

    apart, objects at various distances could be brought to the sharpest focus as desired. After a satisfactory image had

    been focused on the screen, the lens was covered and the screen was replaced with the light-sensitive material. The

    lens was then uncovered and the exposure continued for the required time, which for early experimental materials

    could be several hours or even days. The first permanent photograph of a camera image was made in 1826 by Joseph

    Nicphore Nipce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles and Vincent Chevalier in Paris.[13]

    Similar cameras were used for exposing the silver-surfaced copper Daguerreotype plates, commercially introduced in

    1839, which were the first practical photographic medium. The collodion wet plate process that gradually replaced

    the Daguerreotype during the 1850s required photographers to coat and sensitize thin glass or iron plates shortly

    before use and expose them in the camera while still wet. Early wet plate cameras were very simple and littledifferent from Daguerreotype cameras, but more sophisticated designs eventually appeared. The Dubroni of 1864

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinhole_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hookehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Zahnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daguerreotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collodion_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collodion_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Daguerreotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johann_Zahnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Hookehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinhole_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ACamera_obscura.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camera_obscura
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    Camera 3

    allowed the sensitizing and developing of the plates to be carried out inside the camera itself rather than in a separate

    darkroom. Other cameras were fitted with multiple lenses for photographing several small portraits on a single larger

    plate, useful when making cartes de visite. It was during the wet plate era that the use of bellows for focusing

    became widespread, making the bulkier and less easily adjusted nested box design obsolete.

    For many years, exposure times were long enough that the photographer simply removed the lens cap, counted off

    the number of seconds (or minutes) estimated to be required by the lighting conditions, then replaced the cap. Asmore sensitive photographic materials became available, cameras began to incorporate mechanical shutter

    mechanisms that allowed very short and accurately timed exposures to be made.

    The electronic video camera tube was invented in the 1920s, starting a line of development that eventually resulted

    in digital cameras, which largely supplanted film cameras around the start of the 21st century.

    Mechanics

    Image capture

    19th century studio camera, with bellows for

    focusing

    Traditional cameras capture light onto photographic film orphotographic plate. Video and digital cameras use an electronic image

    sensor, usually a charge coupled device (CCD) or a CMOS sensor to

    capture images which can be transferred or stored in a memory card or

    other storage inside the camera for later playback or processing.

    Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie

    cameras or as cin cameras in Europe; those designed for single images

    are still cameras.

    However these categories overlap as still cameras are often used to

    capture moving images in special effects work and many modern

    cameras can quickly switch between still and motion recording modes.

    A video camera is a category of movie camera that captures images electronically (either using analog or digital

    technology).

    Lens

    Leica M9 with a Summicron-M 28/2 ASPH Lens

    The lens of a camera captures the light from the subject and brings it to

    a focus on the film or detector. The design and manufacture of the lens

    is critical to the quality of the photograph being taken. The

    technological revolution in camera design in the 19th century

    revolutionized optical glass manufacture and lens design with great

    benefits for modern lens manufacture in a wide range of optical

    instruments from reading glasses to microscopes. Pioneers included

    Zeiss and Leitz.

    Camera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths. They range

    from extreme wide angle, wide angle, standard, medium telephoto and

    telephoto. Each lens is best suited a certain type of photography. The extreme wide angle may be preferred for

    architecture because it has the capacity to capture a wide view of a building. The normal lens, because it often has a

    wide aperture, is often used for street and documentary photography. The telephoto lens is useful for sports and

    wildlife but it is more susceptible to camera shake.[14]

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Darkroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carte_de_visitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellows_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lens_caphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_camera_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charge_coupled_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movie_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movie_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Still_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leica_M9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Zeisshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leica_Camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wide-angle_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telephoto_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Documentary_photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Documentary_photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telephoto_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wide-angle_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leica_Camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Zeisshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALeica_M9.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leica_M9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special_effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Still_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movie_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Movie_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memory_cardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CMOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charge_coupled_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AStudijskifotoaparat.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Video_camera_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lens_caphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bellows_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carte_de_visitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Darkroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_processing
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    Camera 4

    Focus

    The distance range in which objects appear clear

    and sharp, called depth of field, can be adjusted

    by many cameras. This allows for a photographer

    to control which objects appear in focus, and

    which do not.

    Due to the optical properties of photographic lenses, only objects

    within a limited range of distances from the camera will be reproduced

    clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the

    camera's focus. There are various ways of focusing a camera

    accurately. The simplest cameras have fixed focus and use a smallaperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain

    range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 metres (10 ft) to

    infinity, is in reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually

    inexpensive types, such as single-use cameras. The camera can also

    have a limited focusing range or scale-focus that is indicated on the

    camera body. The user will guess or calculate the distance to the

    subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras this is

    indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing

    upright; one tree; mountains).

    Rangefinder cameras allow the distance to objects to be measured by means of a coupled parallax unit on top of the

    camera, allowing the focus to be set with accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine

    the focus and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the image onto a ground

    glass or plastic micro-prism screen. Twin-lens reflex cameras use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually

    identical to the objective lens.) in a parallel body for composition and focusing. View cameras use a ground glass

    screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable holder containing sheet film

    before exposure. Modern cameras often offer autofocus systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of

    methods.[15]

    Some experimental cameras, for example the planar Fourier capture array (PFCA), do not require focusing to allow

    them to take pictures. In conventional digital photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a

    single point of an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an independent piece of

    information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an

    idiosyncratic pair of diffraction gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of

    information (specifically, one component of the 2D Fourier transform) about the far-away scene. Together, complete

    scene information is captured and images can be reconstructed by computation.

    Some cameras have post focusing. Post focusing means take the pictures first and then focusing later at the personal

    computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on the sensor to capture light from every camera angle of a scene and is

    called plenoptics technology. A current plenoptic camera design has 40,000 lenses working together to grab the

    optimal picture.[16][17]

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    Camera 5

    Exposure control

    The size of the aperture and the brightness of the scene controls the amount of light that enters the camera during a

    period of time, and the shutter controls the length of time that the light hits the recording surface. Equivalent

    exposures can be made with a larger aperture and a faster shutter speed or a corresponding smaller aperture and with

    the shutter speed slowed down.

    Shutters

    Although a range of different shutter devices have been used during the development of the camera only two types

    have been widely used and remain in use today.

    The Leaf shutter or more precisely the in-lens shutter is a shutter contained within the lens structure, often close to

    the diaphragm consisting of a number of metal leaves which are maintained under spring tension and which are

    opened and then closed when the shutter is released. The exposure time is determined by the interval between

    opening and closing. In this shutter design, the whole film frame is exposed at one time. This makes flash

    synchronisation much simpler as the flash only needs to fire once the shutter is fully open. Disadvantages of such

    shutters are their inability to reliably produce very fast shutter speeds ( faster than 1/500th second or so) and the

    additional cost and weight of having to include a shutter mechanism for every lens.

    The focal-plane shutter operates as close to the film plane as possible and consists of cloth curtains that are pulled

    across the film plane with a carefully determined gap between the two curtains (typically running horizontally) or

    consisting of a series of metal plates (typically moving vertically) just in front of the film plane. The focal-plane

    shutter is primarily associated with the single lens reflex type of cameras, since covering the film rather than

    blocking light passing through the lens allows the photographer to view through the lens at all times except during

    the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates removing the lens from a loaded camera (many SLRs have

    interchangeable lenses).

    Complexities

    Professional medium format SLR (single-lens-reflex) cameras (typically using 120/220 roll film) use a hybrid

    solution, since such a large focal-plane shutter would be difficult to make and/or may run slowly. A manually

    inserted blade known as a dark slide allows the film to be covered when changing lenses or film backs. A blind

    inside the camera covers the film prior to and after the exposure (but is not designed to be able to give accurately

    controlled exposure times) and a leaf shutter that is normally open is installed in the lens. To take a picture, the leaf

    shutter closes, the blind opens, the leaf shutter opens then closes again, and finally the blind closes and the leaf

    shutter re-opens (the last step may only occur when the shutter is re-cocked).

    Using a focal-plane shutter, exposing the whole film plane can take much longer than the exposure time. The

    exposure time does not depend on the time taken to make the exposure over all, only on the difference between the

    time a specific point on the film is uncovered and then covered up again. For example an exposure of 1/1000 secondmay be achieved by the shutter curtains moving across the film plane in 1/50th of a second but with the two curtains

    only separated by 1/20th of the frame width. In fact in practice the curtains do not run at a constant speed as they

    would in an ideal design, obtaining an even exposure time depends mainly on being able to make the two curtains

    accelerate in a similar manner.

    When photographing rapidly moving objects, the use of a focal-plane shutter can produce some unexpected effects,

    since the film closest to the start position of the curtains is exposed earlier than the film closest to the end position.

    Typically this can result in a moving object leaving a slanting image. The direction of the slant depends on the

    direction the shutter curtains run in (noting also that as in all cameras the image is inverted and reversed by the lens,

    i.e. "top-left" is at the bottom right of the sensor as seen by a photographer behind the camera).

    Focal-plane shutters are also difficult to synchronise with flash bulbs and electronic flash and it is often only possible

    to use flash at shutter speeds where the curtain that opens to reveal the film completes its run and the film is fully

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leaf_shutterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal-plane_shutterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medium_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=120_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flash_bulbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electronic_flashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electronic_flashhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flash_bulbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=120_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medium_formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Focal-plane_shutterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leaf_shutterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_%28photography%29
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    Camera 7

    Tripod, microscope adapter, cable release, electric wire release.

    Camera designs

    Plate camera

    Graflex early SLR plate camera for 4x5" glass

    plates (1924)

    The earliest cameras produced in significant numbers used sensitisedglass plates and are now termed plate cameras. Light entered a lens

    mounted on a lens board which was separated from the plate by an

    extendible bellows.

    There were simple box cameras for glass plates but also single-lens

    reflex cameras with interchangeable lenses and even for color

    photography (Autochrome Lumire).

    Many of these cameras had controls to raise or lower the lens and to tilt

    it forwards or backwards to control perspective.

    Focussing of these plate cameras was by the use of a ground glassscreen at the point of focus. Because lens design only allowed rather

    small aperture lenses, the image on the ground glass screen was faint

    and most photographers had a dark cloth to cover their heads to allow

    focussing and composition to be carried out more easily. When focus

    and composition were satisfactory, the ground glass screen was

    removed and a sensitised plate put in its place protected by a dark

    slide. To make the exposure, the dark slide was carefully slid out and

    the shutter opened and then closed and the dark slide replaced.

    Glass plates were later replaced by sheet film in a dark slide for sheet film; adaptor sleeves were made to allow sheet

    film to be used in plate holders. In addition to the ground glass, a simple optical viewfinder was often fitted. [20]

    Cameras which take single exposures on sheet film and are functionally identical to plate cameras are still used for

    static, high-image-quality work; see Large-format camera, below.

    Large-format camera

    Linhof Technika III 5x7" large format camera

    (1948)

    The large-format camera, taking sheet film, is a direct successor of the

    early plate cameras and remain in use for high quality photography and

    for technical, architectural and industrial photography. There are three

    common types, the view camera with its monorail and field camera

    variants, and the press camera. They have an extensible bellows with

    the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. Backs taking

    rollfilm, and digital backs are available in addition to the standard dark

    slideback. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing

    very close control of focus and perspective. Composition and focussing

    is done on view cameras by viewing a ground-glass screen which is

    replaced by the film to make the exposure; they are suitable for static subjects only, and are slow to use.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tripod_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulb_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8rehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_lens_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_slide_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_slide_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheet_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=View_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monorail_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Press_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rollfilmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_backhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground-glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground-glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_backhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rollfilmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Press_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Monorail_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=View_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheet_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALinhof_Technika_III_%285x7in_-_13x18cm%29.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_slide_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_slide_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_lens_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ground_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8rehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AR.B._Graflex_Series_B.JPEGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulb_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tripod_%28photography%29
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    Camera 8

    Medium-format camera

    Medium-format cameras have a film size between the large-format cameras and smaller 35mm cameras. Typically

    these systems use 120 or 220 rollfilm. The most common image sizes are 64.5 cm, 66 cm and 67 cm; the older

    69 cm is rarely used. The designs of this kind of camera show greater variation than their larger brethren, ranging

    from monorail systems through the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras.

    There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.

    Folding camera

    The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the

    base-plate to be hinged so that it could be folded up compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and

    small models were dubbed vest pocket cameras. Folding rollfilm cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras,

    more compact than other designs.[20]

    Box camera

    Box cameras were introduced as a budget level camera and had few if any controls. The original box Brownie

    models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focusing controls and

    just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with

    a curved film path to reduce the impact of deficiencies in the lens.

    Rangefinder camera

    Leica Rangefinder camera circa 1936

    As camera and lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses

    became more common, rangefinder cameras were introduced to make

    focussing more precise. Early rangefinders had two separate

    viewfinder windows, one of which is linked to the focusing

    mechanisms and moved right or left as the focusing ring is turned. Thetwo separate images are brought together on a ground glass viewing

    screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed meet

    exactly in the combined image, the object is in focus. A normal

    composition viewfinder is also provided. Later the viewfinder and

    rangefinder were combined. Many rangefinder cameras had

    interchangeable lenses, each lens requiring its own range- and viewfinder linkages.

    Rangefinder cameras were produced in half-and full-frame 35 mm and rollfim (medium format).

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=120_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hasselbladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brownie_%28camera%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Half-framehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Half-framehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Interchangeable_lenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALeica_IIIa_Rangefinder.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brownie_%28camera%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rangefinderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hasselbladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=120_film
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    Camera 9

    Single-lens reflex

    Olympus E-420Four Thirds entry-level DSLR

    with a 25mm pancake lens.

    In the single-lens reflex camera the photographer sees the scene

    through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of parallax which

    occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the

    taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several

    formats including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking8,10, 12 or 16 photographs on a 120 roll and twice that number of a

    220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6 and 6x4.5 respectively (all

    dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film

    SLR cameras include Bronica, Graflex, Hasselblad, Mamiya, and

    Pentax. However the most common format of SLR cameras has been

    35 mm and subsequently the migration to digital SLR cameras,using

    almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens

    systems.

    Almost all SLR cameras used a front surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewingscreen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure the mirror flipped up out of the light path before the

    shutter opened. Some early cameras experimented other methods of providing through the lens viewing including the

    use of a semi transparent pellicle as in the CanonPellix[21] and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield

    Periflex series.[22]

    Twin-lens reflex

    Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses, one to form the image and one as a viewfinder. The

    lenses were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image

    onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex

    head to attach to the viewing screen to allow the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR

    was that it could be easily focussed using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen in the

    viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances however, parallax errors were encountered

    and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.

    Some TLR had interchangeable lenses but as these had to be paired lenses they were relatively heavy and did not

    provide the range of focal lengths that the SLR could support. Most TLRs used 120 or 220 film; some used the

    smaller 127 film.

    Subminiature camera

    Cameras taking film significantly smaller than 35 mm were made. Subminiature cameras were first produced in thenineteenth century. The expensive 811 mm Minox, the only type of camera produced by the company from 1937 to

    1976, became very widely known and was often used for espionage(the Minox company later also produced larger

    cameras). Later inexpensive subminiatures were made for general use, some using rewound 16 mm cine film. Image

    quality with these small film sizes was limited.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympus_E-420http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Four_Thirdshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DSLRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympus_Zuiko_Digital_25mm_f/2.8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parallaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bronicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Graflexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hasselbladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_SLRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentaprismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pellicle_mirrorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_%28company%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._G._Corfield_Ltdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espionagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Espionagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minoxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=K._G._Corfield_Ltdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_%28company%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pellicle_mirrorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentaprismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_SLRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamiyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hasselbladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Graflexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bronicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parallaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AOlympus_E-420.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympus_Zuiko_Digital_25mm_f/2.8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DSLRhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Four_Thirdshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Olympus_E-420
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    Camera 10

    Instant picture camera

    Polaroid SX-70 Polasonic autofocus instant

    picture SLR camera

    After exposure every photograph is taken through pinch rollers inside

    of the instant camera. Thereby the developer paste contained in the

    paper 'sandwich' distributes on the image. After a minute, the cover

    sheet just needs to be removed and one gets a single original positive

    image with a fixed format. With some systems it was also possible tocreate an instant image negative, from which then could be made

    copies in the photo lab. The ultimate development was the SX-70

    system of Polaroid, in which a row of ten shots - engine driven - could

    be made without having to remove any cover sheets from the picture.

    There were instant cameras for a variety of formats, as well as

    cartridges with instant film for normal system cameras.

    Cin camera

    A cin camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera,

    which captures a single snapshot at a time, the cin camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame" through

    the use of an intermittent mechanism.

    Cin-Kodak Special II - 16mm movie camera (ca.

    1948)

    The frames are later played back in a cin projector at a specific speed,

    called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing,

    a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures to create the

    illusion of motion. The first cin camera was built around 1888 and by

    1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size

    for cin cameras was quickly established as 35mm film and this

    remains in use to this day. Other professional standard formats include70 mm film and 16mm film whilst amateurs film makers used 9.5 mm

    film, 8mm film or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital

    format.

    The size and complexity of cin cameras varies greatly depending on

    the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be hand held whilst

    some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation. In the last quarter of the

    20th century digitalcamcorders supplanted film motion cameras for amateurs. Professional video cameras did the

    same for professional users around the start of the 20th century.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polaroid_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frame_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persistence_of_visionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=35mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=70_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=16mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9.5_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9.5_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=8mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Super_8_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camcorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Professional_video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Professional_video_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camcorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Super_8_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=8mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9.5_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9.5_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=16mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=70_mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=35mm_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persistence_of_visionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frame_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AFilmmagazin.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polaroid_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3APolaSonic_SX-70.png
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    Camera 11

    Image gallery

    1922 Kodak Opened up Cine Kodak, used

    16mm movie film

    Silvestri Flexicam Voigtlnder Brillant

    twin-lens reflex camera.

    Contax S of 1949 the

    world's first pentaprismSLR

    1952 Voigtlander Vito II Asahiflex IIa of 1955 Kodak Retina IIIC of 1957

    Nikon F of 1959 the first

    35mm system camera

    Voigtlnder Vitoret

    of 1962

    1988 A Soviet-era LOMO LC-A

    camera

    2003 Canon EOS

    300D, a model that

    sparked the popularity of

    consumer-level DSLRs

    Nikon Coolpix 5200 One in a

    line of small cameras by Nikon

    A phone camera

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ANo1-A_Autographic_Kodak_Jr.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentaprismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Single-lens_reflex_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AVoigtlander_camera.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asahiflexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kodak_Retinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikon_Fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=System_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3APhone_Camera.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_EOS_300Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_EOS_300Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_single-lens_reflex_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikon_Coolpix_5200http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3APhone_Camera.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ANikon_Coolpix_5200_-_1.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikon_Coolpix_5200http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEos_300d_v_sst.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_single-lens_reflex_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_EOS_300Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Canon_EOS_300Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ALOMOLCA.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AVoigtlander_camera.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ANikonf.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=System_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikon_Fhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ARetina-IIIC-600.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kodak_Retinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AAsahiflex600.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asahiflexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AVoigtlander_Vito_II_Camera_Digon3.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AContax-s.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Single-lens_reflex_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pentaprismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AVoigtlaender_Brillant.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AFlexicamnew.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ACine_kodak.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ANo1-A_Autographic_Kodak_Jr.jpg
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    Camera 12

    References

    [2][2] Hirsch, pp. 3-4

    [3][3] Gustavson, p. 4

    [4][4] Johnson, Rice, and Williams, p. 36

    [5][5] Hirsch, p. 4

    [6][6] Gernsheim, pp. 3-4

    [7][7] Frizot, p. 18[8][8] Gernsheim, p. 3

    [11] Explanatory Notes (section) of David Constantine's 1994 translation of Goethe'sElective Affinities, Oxford University Press.

    [12][12] Gersheim, p. 5

    [13][13] Gersheim, pp. 9-11

    [15] Auto focus (http://travel. howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htm) - How Stuff Works

    [18] Accessories to Photography (http://www.virtualvillage.com/photography)

    [19][19] Oxford Dictionary

    [20] Picture of [[Goerz (company)|Goerz (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P. Goerz. jpg)] Taro-Tenax, a folding 9x12 cm plate camera

    with some lens movements and optical viewfinder]

    [21] Canon Pellix QL / FT QL Cameras (retrieved 19 April 2009) (http://www.mir.com. my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/

    pellix/)

    [22] The Periflex series (retrieved 19 April 2009) (http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3. htm)

    Bibliography

    Frizot, Michel. "Light machines: On the threshold of invention". In Michel Frizot.A New History of Photography.

    Koln, Germany: Konemann. ISBN3-8290-1328-0.

    Gernsheim, Helmut (1986).A Concise History of Photography (3 ed.). Mineola, New York: Dover Publications,

    Inc. ISBN0-486-25128-4.

    Gustavson, Todd (2009). Camera: a history of photography from daguerreotype to digital. New York, New York:

    Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. ISBN978-1-4027-5656-6.

    Hirsch, Robert (2000). Seizing the Light: A History of Photography. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill

    Companies, Inc. ISBN0-697-14361-9. Johnson, William S.; Rice, Mark; Williams, Carla (2005). Therese Mulligan and David Wooters, ed.A History of

    Photography. Los Angeles, California: Taschen America. ISBN978-3-8228-4777-0.

    External links

    How camera works at How stuff works. (http://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htm)

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elective_Affinitieshttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxford_Dictionary_of_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/3-8290-1328-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-486-25128-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-5656-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-697-14361-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-3-8228-4777-0http://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://science.howstuffworks.com/camera.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-3-8228-4777-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-697-14361-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-5656-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-486-25128-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/3-8290-1328-0http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htmhttp://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C.P.Goerz.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oxford_Dictionary_of_Englishhttp://www.virtualvillage.com/photographyhttp://travel.howstuffworks.com/autofocus.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elective_Affinities
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    Exposure (photography) 13

    Exposure (photography)

    A long exposure showing stars rotating around

    the southern and northern celestial poles. Credit:

    European Southern Observatory

    A photograph of the sea after sunset with an

    exposure time of 15 seconds. The swell from the

    waves appears as fog.

    In photography, exposure is the amount of light allowed to fall on each

    area unit of a photographic medium (photographic film or image

    sensor) during the process of taking a photograph. Exposure is

    measured in lux seconds, and can be computed from exposure value

    (EV) and scene luminance in a specified region.

    In photographic jargon, an exposure generally refers to a single shutter

    cycle. For example: a long exposure refers to a single, protracted

    shutter cycle to capture enough low-intensity light, whereas a multiple

    exposure involves a series of relatively brief shutter cycles; effectively

    layering a series of photographs in one image. For the same film speed,

    the accumulated photometric exposure (Hv) should be similar in both

    cases.

    Photometric and radiometric exposure

    Photometric or luminous exposure[1]Hv

    is the accumulated physical

    quantity of visible light energy (weighted by the luminosity function)

    applied to a surface during a given exposure time. It is defined as:[]

    where

    Hv

    is the luminous exposure (usually in lux seconds)

    Ev

    is the image-plane illuminance (usually in lux)

    t is the exposure time (in seconds)

    The radiometric quantity radiant exposure[2]He

    is sometimes used instead; it is the product of image-plane

    irradianceEe

    and time, the accumulated amount of incident "light" energy per area:[3]

    where

    He

    is the radiant exposure (usually injoules per square metre (J/m2))

    Ee

    is the irradiance (usually in watts per square metre (W/m2))

    t is the exposure time (in seconds)

    If the measurement is adjusted to account only for light that reacts with the photo-sensitive surface, that is, weightedby the appropriate spectral sensitivity, the exposure is still measured in radiometric units (joules per square meter),

    rather than photometric units (weighted by the nominal sensitivity of the human eye). [4] Only in this appropriately

    weighted case does theH measure the effective amount of light falling on the film, such that the characteristic curve

    will be correct independent of the spectrum of the light.

    Many photographic materials are also sensitive to "invisible" light, which can be a nuisance (see UV filter and IR

    filter), or a benefit (see infrared photography and full-spectrum photography). The use of radiometric units is

    appropriate to characterize such sensitivity to invisible light.

    In sensitometric data, such as characteristic curves, the log exposure[] is conventionally expressed as log10

    (H).

    Photographers more familiar with base-2 logarithmic scales (such as exposure values) can convert using log2(H)

    3.32 log10(H).

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Southern_Observatoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiple_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiple_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photometry_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visible_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminosity_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lux_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_sensitivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hurter%E2%80%93Driffield_curvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UV_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IR_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IR_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrared_photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Full-spectrum_photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Full-spectrum_photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Infrared_photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IR_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IR_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=UV_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hurter%E2%80%93Driffield_curvehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_sensitivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lux_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminosity_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visible_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photometry_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiple_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiple_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographic_filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AClifton_Beach_5.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ATrailing_stars_above_Paranal.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_Southern_Observatory
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    Exposure (photography) 14

    Quantity Unit Dimension Notes

    NameSymbol

    [5] Name Symbol Symbol

    Luminous energy Qv[6] lumen second lms TJ

    [7] units are sometimes called talbots

    Luminous flux v

    [6] lumen(= cdsr) lm J

    [7] also called luminous power

    Luminous intensity Iv

    candela(= lm/sr) cd J[7] an SI base unit, luminous flux per unit solid angle

    Luminance Lv

    candela per square metre cd/m2 L2J units are sometimes called nits

    Illuminance Ev lux(= lm/m2) lx L2J used for light incident on a surface

    Luminous emittance Mv lux (= lm/m2) lx L2J used for light emitted from a surface

    Luminous exposure Hv

    lux second lxs L2TJ

    Luminous energy density v lumen second per metre3 lmsm3 L3TJ

    Luminous efficacy

    [6] lumen per watt lm/WM

    1

    L2

    T3

    Jratio of luminous flux to radiant flux

    Luminous efficiency V 1 also called luminous coefficient

    See also: SIPhotometryRadiometry (Compare)

    Quantity Unit Dimension Notes

    NameSymbol

    [8] Name Symbol Symbol

    Radiant energy Qe

    [9] joule J ML2T2 energy

    Radiant flux

    e

    [9] watt W

    ML2

    T3 radiant energy per unit time, also called radiantpower.

    Spectral power

    e

    [9][10] watt per metre Wm1 MLT3 radiant power per wavelength.

    Radiant intensity Ie

    watt per steradian Wsr1 ML2T3 power per unit solid angle.

    Spectral intensity Ie

    [10] watt per steradian per

    metreWsr1m1 MLT3 radiant intensity per wavelength.

    Radiance Le

    watt per steradian per

    square metreWsr1m2 MT3 power per unit solid angle per unitprojected source area.

    confusingly called "intensity" in some other fields of

    study.

    Spectral radianceL

    e

    [10]

    orL

    e

    [11]

    watt per steradian per

    metre3

    or

    watt per steradian per

    square

    metre per hertz

    Wsr1m3

    orWsr1m2Hz1

    ML1T3

    orMT2

    commonly measured in Wsr1m2nm1 with surface

    area and either wavelength or frequency.

    Irradiance Ee

    [9] watt per square metre Wm2 MT3 power incident on a surface, also called radiant flux

    density.

    sometimes confusingly called "intensity" as well.

    Spectral

    irradianceE

    e

    [10]

    or

    Ee

    [11]

    watt per metre3

    or

    watt per square metre

    per hertz

    Wm3

    or

    Wm2Hz1

    ML1T3

    or

    MT2

    commonly measured in Wm2nm1

    or 1022Wm2Hz1, known as solar flux unit.[12]

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumen_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumen_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steradianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumen_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SI_base_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candela_per_square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_emittancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lux_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photometry_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_%28physics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steradianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steradianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid%C2%A0anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square%C2%A0metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_radiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intensity_%28physics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanometrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanometrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Intensity_%28physics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irradiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wavelengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_radiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Square%C2%A0metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solid%C2%A0anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steradianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steradianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_%28physics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photometry_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_efficiencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_efficacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lux_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_emittancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illuminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candela_per_square_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SI_base_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_intensityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumen_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steradianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumen_%28unit%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminosity_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_fluxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lumen_secondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luminous_energy
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    Exposure (photography) 15

    Radiant exitance/

    Radiant

    emittance

    Me

    [9] watt per square metre Wm2 MT3 power emitted from a surface.

    Spectral radiant

    exitance/

    Spectral radiant

    emittance

    Me

    [10]

    or

    Me

    [11]

    watt per metre3

    or

    watt per square

    metre per hertz

    Wm3

    or

    Wm2Hz1

    ML1T3

    or

    MT2

    power emitted from a surface per wavelength or

    frequency.

    Radiosity Je

    or

    Je

    [10]

    watt per square metre Wm2 MT3 emitted plus reflected power leaving a surface.

    Radiant exposure He

    joule per square metre Jm2 MT2 also referred to as fluence

    Radiant energy

    density

    e joule per metre3 Jm3 ML1T2

    See also: SIRadiometryPhotometry (Compare)

    Optimum exposure"Correct" exposure may be defined as an exposure that achieves the effect the photographer intended.[13]

    A more technical approach recognises that a photographic film (or sensor) has a physically limited useful exposure

    range,[14] sometimes called its dynamic range.[15] If, for any part of the photograph, the actual exposure is outside

    this range, the film cannot record it accurately. In a very simple model, for example, out-of-range values would be

    recorded as "black" (underexposed) or "white" (overexposed) rather than the precisely graduated shades of colour

    and tone required to describe "detail". Therefore, the purpose of exposure adjustment (and/or lighting adjustment) is

    to control the physical amount of light from the subject that is allowed to fall on the film, so that 'significant' areas of

    shadow and highlight detail do not exceed the film's useful exposure range. This ensures that no 'significant'

    information is lost during capture.

    It is worth noting that the photographer may carefully overexpose or underexpose the photograph to eliminate

    "insignificant" or "unwanted" detail; to make, for example, a white altar cloth appear immaculately clean, or to

    emulate the heavy, pitiless shadows of film noir. However, it is technically much easier to discard recorded

    information during post processing than to try to 're-create' unrecorded information.

    In a scene with strong or harsh lighting, the ratio between highlight and shadow luminance values may well be larger

    than the ratio between the film's maximum and minimum useful exposure values. In this case, adjusting the camera's

    exposure settings (which only applies changes to the whole image, not selectively to parts of the image) only allows

    the photographer to choose between underexposed shadows or overexposed highlights; it cannot bring both into the

    useful exposure range at the same time. Methods for dealing with this situation include: using some kind of fill

    lighting to gently increase the illumination in shadow areas; using a graduated ND filter or gobo to reduce theamount of light coming from the highlight areas; or varying the exposure between multiple, otherwise identical,

    photographs (exposure bracketing) and then combining them afterwards in some kind of HDRI process.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_exitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_radiant_exitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_radiant_exitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiosity_%28heat_transfer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photometry_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynamic_rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_noirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fill_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fill_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Graduated_ND_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gobo_%28lighting%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_bracketinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HDRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HDRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_bracketinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gobo_%28lighting%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Graduated_ND_filterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fill_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fill_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Image_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Film_noirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynamic_rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sensitometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photometry_%28optics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_energy_densityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_exposurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiosity_%28heat_transfer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_radiant_exitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spectral_radiant_exitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radiant_exitance
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    Exposure (photography) 16

    Overexposure and underexposure

    White chair: Deliberate use of overexposure for

    aesthetic purposes.

    A photograph may be described as overexposed when it has a loss of

    highlight detail, that is, when important bright parts of an image are

    "washed out" or effectively all white, known as "blown out highlights"

    or "clipped whites".[16] A photograph may be described as

    underexposed when it has a loss of shadow detail, that is, whenimportant dark areas are "muddy" or indistinguishable from black,[17]

    known as "blocked up shadows" (or sometimes "crushed shadows,"

    "crushed blacks," or "clipped blacks," especially in video).[18][19][20]

    As the image to the right shows, these terms are technical ones rather

    than artistic judgments; an overexposed or underexposed image may be

    "correct", in that it provides the effect that the photographer intended.

    Intentionally over- or under- exposing (relative to a standard or the camera's automatic exposure) is casually referred

    to as "shooting to the right" or "shooting to the left", respectively, as these shift the histogram of the image to the

    right or left.

    Exposure settings

    Manual exposure

    In manual mode, the photographer adjusts the lens aperture and/or shutter speed to achieve the desired exposure.

    Many photographers choose to control aperture and shutter independently because opening up the aperture increases

    exposure, but also decreases the depth of field, and a slower shutter increases exposure but also increases the

    opportunity for motion blur.

    "Manual" exposure calculations may be based on some method of light metering with a working knowledge of

    exposure values, the APEX system and/or the Zone System.

    Automatic exposure

    A camera in automatic exposure (abbreviation: AE) mode automatically calculates and adjusts exposure settings to

    match (as closely as possible) the subject's mid-tone to the mid-tone of the photograph. For most cameras this means

    using an on-board TTLexposure meter.

    Aperture priority mode (commonly abbreviated to Av) gives the photographer manual control of the aperture, whilst

    the camera automatically adjusts the shutter speed to achieve the exposure specified by the TTL meter. Shutter

    priority mode (commonly abbreviated to TV) gives manual shutter control, with automatic aperture compensation. In

    each case, the actual exposure level is still determined by the camera's exposure meter.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clipping_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lens_aperturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motion_blurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=APEX_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographers%27_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Through-the-lens_meteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aperture_priorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographers%27_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_priorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_priorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographers%27_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographers%27_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_priorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shutter_priorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographers%27_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aperture_priorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Through-the-lens_meteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographers%27_abbreviationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zone_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=APEX_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exposure_valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_meterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motion_blurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lens_aperturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clipping_%28photography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ASt%C3%BChle_Froschperspektive.jpg
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    Exposure (photography) 17

    Exposure compensation

    A street view of Taka-Tl, Helsinki, Finland,

    during a very sunny winter day. The image has

    been deliberately overexposed by +1 EV to

    compensate for the bright sunlight and the

    exposure time calculated by the camera's program

    automatic metering is still 1/320 s.

    The purpose of an exposure meter is to estimate the subject's mid-tone

    luminance and indicate the camera exposure settings required to record

    this as a mid-tone. In order to do this it has to make a number of

    assumptions which, under certain circumstances, will be wrong. If the

    exposure setting indicated by an exposure meter is taken as the"reference" exposure, the photographer may wish to deliberately

    overexpose or underexpose in order to compensate for known or

    anticipated metering inaccuracies.

    Cameras with any kind of internal exposure meter usually feature an

    exposure compensation setting which is intended to allow the

    photographer to simply offset the exposure level from the internal

    meter's estimate of appropriate exposure. Frequently calibrated in

    stops,[21] also known as EV units,[22] a "+1" exposure compensation

    setting indicates one stop more (twice as much) exposure and "1"

    means one stop less (half as much) exposure.[23][24]

    Exposure compensation is particularly useful in combination with auto-exposure mode, as it allows the photographer

    to bias the exposure level without resorting to full manual exposure and losing the flexibility of auto exposure. On

    low-end video camcorders, exposure compensation may be the only manual exposure control available.

    Exposure control

    A 1/30s exposure showing motion blur on

    fountain at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

    A 1/320s exposure showing individual drops on

    fountain at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

    An appropriate exposure for a photograph is determined by the

    sensitivity of the medium used. For photographic film, sensitivity is

    referred to as film speed and is measured on a scale published by theInternational Organization for Standardization (ISO). Faster film, that

    is, film with a higher ISO rating, requires less exposure to make a good

    image. Digital cameras usually have variable ISO settings t