1

Photography–aJourneyinProgressEditedbyMartinR.Christensen

Part1:Light,shadowandchemicaldiscoveries

“FromLightShadowIsBorn...”

Shadoweffects,apicture’sbasicingredient,havealwaysenjoyedanindisputablesuccess:asourceoflight,somegesturesevokingshadowsonascreenoppositearousingtheimaginationofyoungandold–andit´sassimpleasthat!Variousobjectsshapedincertainwayswouldproducesurprisingsilhouettes,oncetheirshadowswereprojected.Cut-outsandlittleshadowtheatresenjoyedmomentsofpopularity,atradition,whichseemedtothriveinespeciallyAsia.i

EffectsofLightandShadowAwholerangeofarticlesandequipmenthavebeencreateddownthecenturiesinordertohighlightapictureandgiveitaparticularrenderingorevenmakeitmove.

Theideaofanimatingshadowswiththeaidofconnectedobjectsisoldandwasquicklyusedinportrayalsoftenofareligiouscharacterandthenofamorewidelypopularnature.ItprobablycamefromChinaorIndia.Marionettesmadeofleatherandembellishedwithbrightcolorsandopenworkmotifs,usedforentertainment,havebeenfoundinareassuchasChina,Java,Bali,orTurkey.

ThistheatreformwasprobablyimportedintoEuropeatthetimeofmorefrequentexchangeswiththeOrientduringtheseventeenthcentury.Inthenineteenthcentury,thefashionalsofavoredtoyshadowtheatres.Acardboardboxdecoratedwithlithographsbecamealittletheatreinwhichonecouldparadevariouscut-outdecorsandcharactersagainstanilluminatedbackground.ii

PrecursorsofPhotography:theinventors

Pierre-LouisGuinand:theprocessofguinandagePierre-LouisGuinand,borntoaSwissfamilyofwatchmakers,wasextremelyinterestedinthemanufactureofopticalglass,andfrom1784conductedresearchtoobtainthebestpossiblequalityof“flint”glass.Thisglasswasusedformicroscopes,telescopes,glassesandotherkindsofopticalinstruments,andlaterinthemanufactureoflenses.

Histechniqueofmixingrawmaterialsproducedexceptionalresults;subsequentlycalled“guinandage”,thisprocesswasgraduallyintroducedintoalltheglassfactoriesinthecountry,includingsupplierstoLereboursandSecretaninParisandVoigtländerinBraunschweig.

2

JohannHeinrichSchulze:lightandchemicalreactionsDuringtheMiddleAges,alchemistshadnoticedthedarkeningofsilversaltswhenexposedtothelightandusedthemtocolorvariousmaterialslikewoodandivory.However,itwasatthetimeoftheRenaissancethatalchemistsdiscoveredsilverchloride,when,in1566,itwasnoticedthatitturneddarkblueinthelight.

JohannHeinrichSchulze,aGermanprofessorofanatomyinterestedinchemistry,wasthefirsttopublishascientificstudyonthereactionsofcertainchemicalcompoundsofsilverin1727.Schulzewasalsothefirsttoestablishthatlightreactsonsilversalt.Thus,heopenedthewaytophotography.iii

JeanSénebier:spectralsensitivityJeanSénebier,atheologianandphysicsenthusiast,livinginGenevaintheeighteenthcentury,undertookalotofresearchintoafewverydifferentareas.Oneofthethingshewasinterestedinwasthesensitivityofnaturalsubstancestolight.

In1782,hewroteanimportantpaperonspectralsensitivity–inotherwordsaboutthecolors–ofsilverchloride.Henoticedthenthatitwasbluelight,whichblackenedthissilversaltmostquickly.

JacquesCharles:thesolarmegascopeAFrenchprofessorofexperimentalphysics,JacquesCharlesstudiedtheexpansionofgasesandmadethefirstaerostaticascensionwithhydrogenonAugust2,1783.Healsoinventedthesolarmegascope,whichwasamachineusedtoobtainaprojectionofimagesenlargedwithobjectsilluminatedbyasetofmirrors.iv

Charlesisthoughttohaveconductedsomephotochemicalexperimentsaround1789.Unfortunately,therearenocontemporaryrecords,oranywrittenbyhim,aboutthis,andtheaccountsthathavefiltereddownareincompleteandnotveryclear.

HumphryDavyHumphryDavy,anEnglishphysicianandchemist,istheauthorofseveraldiscoveries,suchaslaughinggas.Healsotaughtchemistryandpublishedvariousworks.HewasamemberoftheprestigiousRoyalSocietyofLondon,becomingitspresidentin1820.Throughouthiscareer,heobtainedanumberofdistinctionsforhisworks.Hewasalsotheinventoroftheminer’slamp,madeofmetalcloth,calledtheDavylamp.v

Around1800,heworkedwithThomasWedgwoodonthelightsensitivityofsilversalts,andpublishedtheirresults.

ThomasWedgwood:thesensitivityofsilversaltsTowards1800,ThomasWedgwood,thethirdsonofafamousEnglishporcelainmanufacturer,conductedanumberoftrialsonthesensitivityofsilversaltstolight.Usingsilvernitratetosensitizehispaper,hethenexposeditinaportablecameraobscura,aninstrumentwidelyusedbyhisfather’sfactoryforlandscapebackrounds.Hedidnotobtainanyconvincingresults,despitetheadviceofhisfriend,informedchemistHumphryDavy.Heisstillconsideredapioneerandperhapseven“thefirstphotographer”.vi

JosephNicéphoreNiépce:theinventionofPhotographyJosephNicéphoreNiépcesharedapassionforresearchwithhisbrotherClaude.Theykeptcorrespondingwitheachotherabouttheirexperiences.Thankstothisexchangeofletters,weknowaboutJosephswork.

From1816,Niépcebecameinterestedinlithographyandconductedmanytrials.HediscoveredthatJudeanpitchhasthepropertyofhardeninginthelight.In1825,whileexposingatranslucentdrawingonaplate

3

coatedinthissubstance,hesucceededinobtainingapicture.Hecalledthisprocess“heliography”(fromtheGreekword“helios”,whichmeans“Sun”).vii

Niépceexposedthesesameplatesinadarkenedcameraandtherebysucceededinobtainingthefirstphotograph.Theoldestphotographsknowntothisdaytookhimadaytoexpose.viii

1839:theInventionofDaguerreUnveiledtotheworldTheartistLouis-Jacques-MandéDaguerrearrivedinParisin1804andunderwentaneducationasatheatrestagedesigner.InJuly1822,togetherwithanotherartist,CharlesMarieBouton,hesetupthe“Diorama”inabuilding,wherethelargecanvassespaintedonbothsideswithdifferentsubjectschangedappearance,dependingonwhethertheywereilluminatedfromthefrontorbehind.TheDioramawasexhibitedinLondonayearlater.ix

Inhiswork,DaguerreusedthecameraobscuraalotandfrequentlywenttoChevaliertheopticians,whereheheardaboutNiépce,withwhomhestartedtowork.Daguerrediscoveredthatsilveriodidechangesquicklyinthelight.Heplacedaplatecoatedwithsilverinaboxcontainingiodinecrystals,whosevaporsformedsilveriodideontheplate’ssurface.Afteritsexposureinthecamera,thepicture,stillnotyetvisibleontheplate,wasrevealedbythevaporsgivenoffbythemercury,heatedtoacertaintemperature.OnAugust191839,FrançoisArago,afamousphysicist,astronomer,andelectedpolitician,presentedthisprocesstotheAcademiesofFineArtsandSciences.x

1834:thephotogenicdrawingsofTalbotBornin1800insouthernEngland,mathematicianWilliamHenryFoxTalbotwasinterestedinarchaeology.Hetravelledalotandneverleftwithouttakingadarkenedcameraforhistripsamples.Wantingtofindawayof“printingthesenaturalpicturesonpaper...”,hestartedconductingtrialsinthisdirectionin1834,byexposingsomeobjectsonsensitizedpaper,whichhecalled“photogenicdrawings”,thenexposingthesepapersinacameraobscura.

WiththeannouncementofDaguerre’sdiscoveryin1839,Talbotredoubledhisresearcheffortsandlaterdevelopedhisnegativeprocess,calledthecalotypeprocess,whosegreatinnovationwasthepossibilityofrunningoffasmanycopiesasonewanted.xi

HippolyteBayard:aforgottenInventorAsearlyas1839,whenFrancegottoknowoftheresultoftheresearchbyTalbot,HippolyteBayard,anemployeeattheMinistryofFinancewithoutanyspecialscientificeducation,butfamiliarwithartisticcircles,alsomanagedtoproducesome“photogenicdrawings”onpaper–butabovealldirectpositiveimages.Hecouldnotpublishhisprocess,duetopoliticalpressuresonthepartofthepromotersofthedaguerreotype,whoseofficialannouncementhadnotyetbeenmade.HisprocesswasfinallypublishedintheOfficialMonitoron13November1839,afteranencouragingreportbytheAcademyofFineArts.HetriedtohaveitrecognizedinFebruary1840.InMarchthesameyear,Talbot,whoclaimedthathehaddevelopedhisprocessbeforeBayard,wasinvitedbytheAcademyOfSciencetorevealit.ComparedtoBayard,hehadtheadvantageofthenegativeandthepossibilityofmultipleprinting.xii

AndreasFriedrichGerber:aSwissForerunnerAprofessorofveterinarymedicineattheUniversityofBern,AndreasFriedrichGerberwasinterestedinseveralfields,includingtheearliestphotographs.AtthesametimeasNiépceandDaguerre,heconductedvariousresearchandexperimentswhich,accordingtohisowndeclarationintheprefacetohisbooktitled

4

“Manualofthegeneralanatomyofmanandofdomesticanimals”,1840,wereconcludedby1836.Bythistime,hewasalreadyabletoachieveanimprintoflightpassingthroughamicroscopeonpapersensitizedwithsilverchloride,usingacamera.

JohannBaptistIsenring:thefirstExhibitionASwisspainter,JohannBaptistIsenring,fascinatedbythediscoveriesofNiépceandDaguerre,acquiredtheequipmentfor“daguerreotypy”inOctober1839.InAugust1840,heputonanexhibitioninhisworkshop,illustratedwithafour-pagecatalogue.Thiswasperhapsthefirstphotographexhibitionintheworld.xiii

Inthiscatalogue,IsenringstatedhehadmadesometrialsbeforetheannouncementoftheDaguerreinvention,andhadworkedaccordingthemethodsofWilliamFoxTalbot.

Isenringabandonedhispaintingforatimeandworkedasatravellingphotographerfortwoyears,inwhichheestablishedhimselfinMunich,Germany.Hemadeportraits,photographsofarchitecture,reproductionsofpaintingsanddevelopedacoloringmethodforhisproofs,whichhepatented.

TheDaguerreotypeCollectionOneoftheproblemswithdaguerreotypeswasthetimeneededforposing,amajorproblemwithcapturingthehumanfacecomfortably.Theearlieststudios,perchedhighupundertheroof,werereal“glasscages”.Thephotographicequipmentstoodinfrontofaspecificpieceoffurniture:anarmchairorchairequippedwithaheadrest,acolumn,acardboardbalustrade,curtains,rareplants,paintedobjectsandbackground.Thedaguerreotypeportraitenjoyedsuccessthroughoutthe1840s.xiv

TheParisianOpticians,theChevaliersVincentChevalier,hissonCharlesandlaterhisgrandsonArthur,afamilyofopticiansinParis,weresellingamongstotherthingsintheirboutiquedifferentvariationsofthecameraobscuraandcountedamongtheirregularcustomersLouis-Jacques-MandéDaguerre,ahugeuserofthisinstrumentforhisprofessionalneedsasapainterandtheatresetdesigner.

Onthe12thofJanuary1826,ColonelNiépce,thecousinofJosephNicéphore,wenttotheChevaliersandtoldthemabouthiscousin’swork.CharlesChevalierrelatedthestorytoDaguerrewhowastomeetNiépceinSeptember1827.Theyproducedatreatisetogetherin1829,whichculminatedintheofficialannouncementofthediscoveryofphotographyin1839.

From1840,theChevaliersstartedsellingcameras,opticsandvariousitemsrelatedtophotography.xv

TheCalotypesofJeanWaltherApartfromclothtrading,merchantJeanWalther(1806-1866)wasalsointerestedinphotography.Inhisprofessionalcapacity,hemettheFrenchprinter-photographerBlanquart-Evrard,whospecializedinthevolumereproductionoflandscapephotographsorotherworksofartworkingfrompapernegatives.

JeanWaltherproducedalargenumberofcalotypes(negativesonpaper)fromwhichheprintedsomeremarkablesaltedpapers.HispicturesdocumentedhistownandthemonumentsandlandscapesofthesurroundingLakeGenevaarea.

AsizeablecollectionoforiginalsaltedpapersandcalotypesispreservedinthehistoricMuseumatVevey,andunderwentrestorationin1995.Thisiconographictreasureofpreciousdocumentsalsoillustratetheextremelyassuredeyeofthisphotographerthroughouthiscareer.

5

Thefirstphotographers’equipmentFromthemomentFrançoisAragopresentedtheDaguerreprocessonthe19thofAugust1839,itseemedthatmanyopticianshopswerefloodedwithkeenamateurs,whohadjustseenadaguerreotypeinaction.Daguerreotypedemonstrationswerearrangedforthepublic,whowereablebuyafullsetofequipmentatvariousopticians.Thistypeofkitcostaround300to400Francs,100days’wagesfortheaverageworkingclassperson,ifnotmore.Makingdaguerreotypesorcalotypeswasapreserveofwell-to-do,sophisticatedamateurs.

Togetherwithotherpublications,the“LeMagasinpittoresque”ofNovember301839gaveadetaileddescriptionoftheprocess,anddaguerreotypingquicklybrokedownbarriers,alsoachievingnotablepopularityintheUnitedStates.xvi

Thesethreepiecesofequipmentforfullplate,half-plateandquarter-plateformatsexistedthankstoJules-GustaveSchiertz,acabinetmakerandphotographicequipmentspecialistbasedinParis.In1844,duringanexhibitionofFrench-madephotographicequipment,thismanufacturerreceivedabronzemedalforthequalityofhiscamerasandaccessories.

TheWorldinReliefAround1830-40,thosewhoenjoyedthepleasureofviewinginreliefusedtolookatrepresentationaldrawingsinperspectiveorgeometricconstructions.Reliefphotographyenthusiastsenjoyedtheforetasteofamorespontaneousphotography.Asthosepictureswereviewedthroughmagnifyingglasses,theirsizecouldbecomesmaller,thecamerawaslessbulkyandeasiertocarryandexposuretimeshorter,asasmallplaterequireslesslightforexposure.Stereoscopicphotographyplayedapartinpopularizingphotography.xvii

Atthebeginning,oneusedasinglecamerathatonemovedlaterallyalongastandbetweentwoviews.Soonitwasconsideredanimprovementtomovethelenstosavehavingtomovethecamera,withaninternaldividertoavoidtheviewsoverlapping.

Next,twocameraswerecombinedintoone,withtheadvantageofhavingthesimultaneousexposureofthetwopictures.JohnBenjaminDancer,aManchesteroptician,inventedthefirstdouble-lenscamerain1856.xviii

Thestereogramalsobecameanarticlethatonecouldbuyandcollect.In1851,Louis-JulesDuboscqproducedandmarketedthefirststereoscope,conceivedbyanEnglishman,DavidBrewster.Opaquepicturescouldbeseenbyopeningacoverfittedwithamirrortoilluminatethem,whiletransparencies,whichappearedfrom1855,couldbevieweddirectlyindaylightthroughafrostedglassplacedonthefront.In1861,anAmerican,OliverWendellHolmes,inventedtheopenstereoscope,lightandeasiertouse.

AbelNiépcedeSaint-VictorandtheFirstNegativesonGlassPlateClaudeFelixAbelNiépcedeSaint-Victor,acousinofNicéphore,andamilitarymanwithastronginterestinchemistry,madethedecisivesteptowardsthenegativeonglassplatein1848.Heusedalbumin(eggwhite)asthe“adhesive”inthesensitiveemulsionontheglass.

Theplatewascoatedwithalightlayerofliquidalbumincontainingalittlepotassiumiodide,which,oncedry,wasperfectlyhomogeneous.Itwasthensensitizedbyimmersioninabathofsilveriodide,exposedfor

6

anumberofminutesanddeveloped,thenfinallyfixedandwashed.Itwasnotnecessarytodevelopitimmediatelyafterbeingexposed.Thepositiveproofwasnormallyprintedfromthisnegativeplate.

Thisprocess–thoughveryslow,whichmadeitinconvenient–producednegativesofanexcellentquality,whichwerehardlydistinguishablefromwetcollodionnegatives.

ANewProcessin1850:wetcollodionTheinconvenienceofthenegativeonnotverytransparentpaper,gaverisequicklytothesearchforabetterbasis.Theuseofglasswasattractive,buthowwasonetomakethesensitiveemulsionsticktoit?

In1846,aFrenchchemist,LouisMénard,dissolvedsomecottonpowderorguncotton–discoveredthatsameyearbySwisschemistChristianFriedrichSchönbein–inamixtureofalcoholandether.Heobtainedaviscousliquid,whichhardenedandbecametransparentasitdried.Thisliquidwascollodion,whichisusedforvariouspurposes,includinginthemedicalfield.

AFrenchphotographer,GustaveLeGray,publishedin1850,evokedtheuseofcollodiononglassintheappendixofapage.Itsmethodwasnotveryeasy,butseemedtoproduceexcellentresults.

InMarch1851,Englishsculptorandcalotypist,FrederickScottArcher,perfectedtheso-calledwetcollodionmethod.Theplatehadtobepreparedjustbeforeexposition,attheriskoflosingitssensitivity,andthendevelopedstraightaftertakingthephotograph.Thephotographerhadtobeequippedwithaportablelaboratorywheneverhewentout.Thebeautifulqualityofthenegativesobtainedwiththisprocessassuredthegeneralintroductionofthismethodfromthe1860sattheexpenseofthedaguerreotypeandcalotypesystems.xix

FerrotypeandAmbrotypeBysensitizingapewterplatewithwetcollodion,previouslylacqueredinblackorbrown,oneobtainedadirectnegative,calledaferrotype.AFrenchphotographer,AdolpheMartin,madethisdiscoveryin1853.Theferrotypewascalleda“tintype”inEngland,whereitwasknownfrom1856.Itwasknownasthe“melanotype”intheUnitedStates.xx

Theambrotype,aprocesspatentedin1854byAmericaninventorJamesAmbroseCutting,wasanegativeimageonaglassplate;thiswasplacedinfrontofascreenwithablackrearside(madeofpaintorcloth),andthepictureappearedasapositive.xxi

Bothsystemsweremostlyusedforportraits,insmallformat–downtothesizeofabuttonorpostagestamp–andwerethenframedorpresentedinrichlydecoratedcases,oreveninjewels.Itwasoftentherovingphotographer,whousedtheseinexpensiveprocessesmuchinfashioninthe1860s.

1864:theDubroniCameraLaboratoryTheideaofprocessingtheexposedpicturedirectlyinsidethecameracamealongveryquickly:alreadyin1839,Talbothadconceivedofsuchapieceofequipment.OnDecember211864,EnglishmanJulesBourdinappliedforapatentforacamera,whichhechristenedtheDubroniPocketCamera(ananagramofhisname),whichwasproducedinseveraldifferentsizesandmodels.xxii

Thiswastheeraofwetcollodion,makingitnecessarytosensitizetheplatejustbeforetakingphotographsanddevelopingthemimmediatelyafterwards.Thebodyofthecameracontainedabottle,whoserearsidewasopen;aglassplatereplacedthegroundglass.Withtheaidofapipette,thecompositionforsensitizing

7

theplatewasinsertedintotheholesituatedontheouterframeandoneshookthecameratoensureanevenapplication.Afteranexposureofafewseconds–withthecameraonitsstandandcorkedup–onecouldproceedwiththedevelopment.Itwaspossibletocheckone’sprogressthroughayellowglassontherearpanel,protectedbyashutter.

Thisnumber2modelwaspartofapackcontainingalltheproductsneededtoprocesstheplates,inbottlesbearingthetrademarkDubroni,aswellasvariousaccessories,proofpapers,andauser’smanual.

RetouchingNegativesAnegativewasrarelyperfect,apartfromdustandother“mechanical”defects,whichneededretouching.Eventhesubjectinthepicturemayhavehadsomedetailsforcorrection,likesmootheningtheskintextureofthefaceinaportrait.

Theretoucherworkedatadesk,whichwasspeciallyequippedwithamirrordirectingthelightfromunderthenegative,whichwaspositionedonafrostedglass,withthesensitizedsurfaceupwards.Amagnifyingglass,retouchingknives,brushes,postercolors,rubbers,pencils,varnishandtherebentineconstitutedhismaintools.

Thebasicprinciplewastolimitthetouchinguptothestrictminimumnecessary,startingbyworkingwiththeretouchingknife,thencontinuingwithpencilorbrush,delicatelyapplyingcolorbygentlyhatching.

PositiveContactPrintingfrom1840Thenatureofthenegativeimpliedapositiveprint.ThisiswhatFrédéricDillayethoughtaboutitatthebeginningofthecentury:

“Theexposureofthesensitizedpaper,orifyouprefer,theprintingofthecollotypeonpaper,constitutesoneofthemostdelicateoperations,whichsomeamateursdonotunderstand.Eitherthroughignorance,orthroughlaziness,someevengosofarastoneglectthispartoftheirartandentrustalloftheirnegativestothefirstphotographicdevelopertheymeet(...)Hownaïve,really!(...)Theactualartististheonlyonewhocandofulljusticetowhatremains,ineffect,thepresentationofhiswork”.

ThePrintingFrameTheexposureofthesensitizedpapertookplaceinaprintingframe,anapparatuswhoseessentialfunctionwastoensureaperfectcontactbetweenthenegativeandthepositive.

Theexposureorinsolationwascarriedoutindaylight,withtheprintingframeplacedonaleaningstand,inordertoreceivethelightraysaswellaspossible;itcouldtaketenminutesinsunlight,orawholedayinovercastweather.Thedaylightpaperenabledacheckatanytimeoftheintensityofthepicture,byopeningoneoftheshuttersatthebackoftheframe.Oncecorrectlyexposed,theprintwastonedandfixed,thenwashedanddried.

ShootingoutdoorsduringthecollodionperiodTakingphotographsoflandscapesandmonumentsquicklyattractedphotographers,eventhoughitwasnotalwayseasytodo.

Althoughtheadventofthecollodionnegativebroughtagreatimprovementtothequalityofthepicture,acertaindisadvantagepersisted:theneedtoprepareandprocesstheplateatthetimeoftakingthepicture.

8

Fromthe1850s,aswellasthecumbersomepicture-takingequipment,itwasnecessarytotakealongone’slaboratory.

Manyphotographerscontinuedtouseitafterthearrivalofthedryplate,whentheywereworkingwithlargeformats,astheycouldnotalwaysfindmass-producedplatesinthesesizes,butalsoforreasonsofeconomy.

TheMegaletoscopeofCarloPontiSwiss-bornCarloPontisethimselfupinVeniceasanopticianandphotographer.From1860,heperfected“Aletoscopio”(fromGreek“true”,“exact”and“vision”),aviewingapparatusforlarge-sizedphotographs.xxiii

In1862,heputthefinaladditionstothe“Megaletoscopio”,anenlargedversionoftheAletoscopioandentrusteditsproductiontothecabinetmaker,DemetrioPuppolin.xxiv

IfCarloPontiwasactuallygivenproductionexclusivityin1862,theadministrativeconfusion,whichreignedafterVenetiareturnedtoItalyinOctober1866,annulledthisprivilege.Thus,otherVenetianphotographerswereabletoproduceandsellthiscamera.

TheMegaletoscopewasusedtoviewphotographsintwodifferentwayswithalight-darkeffect.Theobserverviewedheavilyenlargedpicturesthroughtheopticalsystem.

Withthe“daylight”view,thesideshuttersopenedtoallowdaylighttoilluminatethefaceofthephotograph,aprintonveryfinealbuminpapermountedwithotherelementsonawoodenframewithhandgrips.Thebodyofthecameracouldturnthrough90degreestoenabletheviewingofverticalpictures.

Withthe“night-time”view,afterre-closingthesideshuttersandopeningthethirdshuttersituatedbehindthecamerainfrontofalightsource,acolorednight-timesceneappearedbytransparency,withatotallydifferentatmosphere.

9

Part2:Mechanicalmarvelsandtheemergenceofphotography

TheCameraObscuraTheformationofthepictureofanexteriorlandscapethroughasmallholeinadarkenedroomisaphenomenon,whichwaswellknownbeforeourtime.Aristotle,thefamousGreekphilosopherofthefourthcenturyBC,noticeditwithoutbeingabletoexplainit.

ItwasinthefifteenthcenturythatLeonardodaVincifoundarationalexplanationforthephenomenon.Duringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,theideatoreplacethelittleholewithalenstoimprovetheimageemerged,andthentoinstallamirrortomakeituprightagain,andusethecameraobscuraasadrawinginstrument.

Thecameraobscurawasahighlyvaluedinstrumentintheeighteenthcenturyandatthebeginningofthenineteenth,somewereevenpermanentlyinstalledinhousesbuiltinparks,gardensandholidaylocationstothepleasureofmany.

Fromthesixteenthcentury,thecameraobscurawasconsideredastheidealinstrumentforrenderingperspectiveandbecamefromthattimeanartist’stool.Intheeighteenthcentury,travelwasthefashion,andpeoplebroughthomesketchesanddrawingsmadewiththeaidofacameraobscura.Variousmodels,foldingorcompact,wereavailabletoinformedenthusiasts.Manualsexplaininghowtouse,andevenhowtomakeacameraobscurawerepublished,whileattemptstoimprovetheopticalsystemcontinued.xxv

OpticalViewsOpticalviewsprobablyfirstemergedinthefifteenthcentury:theseetchings,oftencolored,depictinglandscapes,variousscenesandinteriorviewswithvastperspectives,whichcouldbeviewedwiththeaidofaboxequippedwithmagnifyingglasses,enjoyedgrowingpopularityandwereveryfashionablefromtheendoftheseventeenthcentury.Theimpressionofreliefexperiencedwhileobservingtheopticalviewswastofindadevelopmentwiththeappearanceofstereoscopicpictures.

Travellingpictureshowmenroamedthetownsandfairgroundstothegreatdelightofyoungandold,andmanypostagestampsdepictthematwork.EditorsweresellingthesepicturesinGermanyatfirst,theninFrance,EnglandandItaly.

Fromthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,themassproductionofthesepicturesloweredtheirqualitysomewhatandtheircoloringoftenremainedminimal.Soon,theywereovertookbythefashionforthemagiclantern.

Describedin1646byAthanasiusKircherinhis“Arsmagnalucisetumbrae”,themagiclanterncomprisesaboxwithanopticaltubeusedtoincreasethesizeoftheimageandformsandvariousothermaterials.Itprojectsontoawhitesurfaceimagespaintedonglassplatespositionedinfrontofthespotilluminatedbyacandleoranoilorparaffinlamp,sometimesfittedwithasilveredreflector.Achimneyevacuatessmoke.

Attheendoftheseventeenthcentury,thankstotheimpactofGermanresearchers,themagiclanternbecameeasiertohandleandwasusedforotherapplicationsthanforshowsaimingtoamuseorfrighten,andbegantoassumeapedagogicalandscientificvocation.xxvi

10

TheMagicLanternupHillanddownDaleThemagiclanternreallytookoffacrosstheworldaroundthistime.Duringtheeighteenthcentury,itwasessentiallyopticalqualityandthesourceoflight,whichweregoingtoimprove.Rovingshowmentravelledfromplacetoplaceandwerereceivedbythelocals;soundmixedwithpicturesandwasenhancedbyanarrative,themusic(barrelorgan)anddifferentsoundeffects.

Mysteryplays,trivialandsatiricalsubjectswereindemand.Manyopticiansweresellingplatesandlanternsfromthesecondhalfofthecentury,whenitevenbecame“theeveningpastime”attheroyalcourt.

From1800,themagiclanternoperatorwaslesscrucialandhisactivitywasseriouslycompromisedbytheindustrializationofthelanternandthegreatsuccessofthetoylanterns.Ifthepicturepedlarstendedtodisappearbetween1870and1880,theprofessionalexhibitorswereincreasinglyorganizingqualityshowsuptothearrivalofthecinema.

ToyMagicLanternsFromthe1850s,opticianswereproducingsmallmagiclanternsonacottageindustryscaleforusebychildren;thehugesuccessenjoyedbythistoysoonledtoitsindustrialization,asmuchinFrance,whereLapierrehadthemonopolyforit,asinGermany,atNuremberg,wherecompanieswereproducingplatesprintedwithscenes.Homeprojectionputtherovingshowmanoutofbusiness.

InFrance,AugusteLapierre,anironmonger-handymansetupinParisin1848,beganmakingpolychromemagiclanternspaintedinbrightcolorscoatedinalcohol-basedvarnishandoperatedwithaparaffinlamp.In1884,theLapierreCompanytookoveritscompetitorAubert,therealinventorofthistypeoflanterns.Fromtheendofthenineteenthcentury,theLapierrefactory,whichhadexpanded,manufacturedlargeprojectionlamps.Lapierrealsoproducedseriesofplates,recognizablebytheiredge-bindingtapeofgreenpaper.ItwasrecognizedasthespecialistintheTalesofPerrault,narratedonpanoramicplates,wheresmalltextsandimagestaketheirturns.xxvii

IlluminatedProjectionSessionsPublicconferencesusingprojectionsbecamefashionableduringthenineteenthcentury.Manycompaniesofareligiousorlaiccharacterofferedillustratedpresentations,andsuppliersspecializedintheproductionofimagesforsuchconferenceholders.TheBritishenjoyedthemostprestigiousvenueofthosetimes,theRoyalPolytechnicInstitutionfoundedin1838inLondon.Itservedasacenterforbothexhibitionsandforprojectionshows.xxviii

TheEnglishwereparticularlydistinguishedinthemanufactureofthelanternsenablingprojection.ItwasEnglishmen,whodevisedthesuperimpositionoftwoorthreeprojectorsforthefade-infade-outorthesimultaneousprojectionofseveralpictures.Theseprojectors,ingeneraluseforpublicmeetings,wereoxyhydrogengaslamps.Fromtheendofthenineteenthcentury,electricequipmentarrivedonthemarket,fittedwithanarclamporanincandescentbulb.In1878,ayearafterinventingthegramophone,Edisonsucceededinmanufacturinganelectricbulb,byenclosingacarbonfilamentinavacuuminabulb.

PhotographicProjectionThepopularityofthemagiclanterncontinuedtogrowduringthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturywiththeseriesproductionofillustratedplatesandthegrowingfashionforphotographicplates.

11

Towards1850,theGerman-bornLangenheimbrothers,establishedinPhiladelphia,perfectedphotographicpicturesdesignedforprojection.TheyalsoappearedinEuropefromtheendofthecentury.Thesubjectsofthephotographicplatesarevisiblymorerealisticthantheirpaintedcounterparts,withlandscapes,currenteventsandscientificthemes.xxix

InFrance,DuboscqandMolteniremainedmainmanufacturersofprojectionlampsandtheiraccessories,andofferedavastselectionofplates.However,Englandwasthemostsuccessfulmarket.

Projectorsofphotographicplatescouldbeusedincombinationwithaprojectionsystemofopaquedocuments,anditsdirectdescendant,theepidiascope,waswidelyuseduntilthe1960s.xxx

PhantasmagoricalShowsTheearliesttrueilluminatedprojectionshowsgobacktothesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcentury,aperiodoftorment,whichsawarevivalofinterestintheMiddleAgesandtheGothicperiod.Macabredécors,atmospheresimbuedwithmystery,melancholyandelementsofthesupernaturalseepedintoliteratureandintheshows,whichenjoyedahugesuccess.

Theseportrayals,knownasphantasmagorias,adeptlystageddiabolicalintriguesandphantomswiththeaidofretro-projection,amovinglampandtwosetsofsemi-transparentmirrorssurroundedbyamacabredécorandheightenedwithlugubrioussounds.Thecompèreandhisassistantstriedtoimpresstheaudiences–andtheysucceeded.xxxi

TheFantasmagoriasofBelgianStageMagicianÉtienne-GaspardRobert,usingthestagenameRobertson,wereshownattheConventoftheCapucinsatParisattheendofthenineteenthcentury,andremainthemostfamousexampleofphantasmagoricalshows.Robertsonpatentedforalantern,whichhecalledthe“fantoscope”,mountedonfeetslidingalongtworailsandequippedwithanopticaltubewithinterchangeablelenses.xxxii

PreparationofLanternPlatesThefirstglassplateswerehand-painted,thesubjectappliedbytransferfromapaperpattern.Oneplateincludedseveralsubjects,orapanoramicview.Later,thelinedrawingwasappliedmechanicallytotheplatethencoloredbyhand.Theartistsgenerallyremainedanonymous,withtheexceptionofDesch,establishedinParisattheendofthenineteenthcentury.

Fromtheendofthe1800s,platesbecamemass-produced,atfirstinGermany.Chromolithographsprintedintransparentcolorswereappliedtotheglassplateanditbecamepossibletobuysubjectsintransferkitform,whichonecouldapplytotheglassplatesoneself.

Subjectsvaried;landscapes,monuments,nature,mythologicalthemes,historicalorevenreligious,fairytalesandlegends,comicstrips,orchildren’sseries.Someplateswerefittedwithmechanismsenablingthemtobeanimated,suchasacrankorarod,whichturnedasecondconcentricplate,oracord,whichpulledanotherelementacrossinfrontofthebackgroundortransformedthesubject.

WilliamCharlesHughes,anEnglishoptician,manufacturedatriplelanternaround1895.Producinglanternsandvariousprojectionmaterials,Hughessubmittedawholeseriesofpatentsbetween1875and1893.HewasapioneeroftheearliestEnglishcinematographicequipment,producingacinematographicstreetviewer.Manufacturedoutofmahoganyandbrass,andusableasadoublelantern,itsoriginalsystemused

12

oxhydriclighting.Heldinspecialbags,andlaterinbottles,theoxygenandhydrogenunderpressurefueledthelanternviaasystemofrubbertubingconnectedtobrasstaps,enablingtheregulationoftheiroutflowontotheincandescentlimerod,ortherestrictionoftheirinflowtoreducethelight,inordertoproduceafade-outeffect.Asecondsetoflongerfocuslenseswasusedforlargeareas.Thelensesweremountedonamobilesystem,makingitpossibletoinclinethemslightlyinordertofullyblendthethreeimages.xxxiii

Suchalanternwas,forexample,idealfortheproductionofthe“windmillinthesnow”series,wherethesequenceofdaytime,night-timeandthensnowboundsceneswasachievedusingtwoprojectionelements,withthethirdbeingusedforthemoonlighteffect,thearrivaloftheswan(animatedplate),orperhapsfallingsnow.Duringtheshow,severalpeoplewereinvolvedaroundthelantern,eachwithaprecisefunction,aswellasthemusician(s)andthenarrator.

AroundtheAnimatedImageThefunctioningoftheequipmentdesignedtoanimatetheimageisbasedonthephenomenonofthepersistenceoftheretinalimage:whentheimagesthatmakeupamovementfolloweachotherrapidlyandwithabreakbetweeneachone,oureyedoesnotnoticethisandthemovementappearstoustobecontinuousasinreality.xxxiv

Thecinematographicmagiclanternfunctionsonthesameprincipleasthelanternforfixedimages,with,inaddition,abladedshutterinfrontofthelensandasystemoffilmadvancement,comprisingaperforated35mmtransparentcontinuousband.

TheMutoscopesweremarketedfrom1894bytheAmericanMutoscopeCompanyanddistributedinParisfrom1899.Byfeedingatencentimescoinintothemachine,onecouldturnahandleandwatchscenesfulloflifeandanimation.Thepictureswerelittlesheetsofpapermountedonawheel,whichcouldholdaboutathousand.Whenthisstartedup,anincandescentlampcameon.Thesubjectsofthesepaperswereveryvaried,thoughwithadecidedpreferenceforsaucyscenes.xxxv

SlideProjectionFromtheendofthe1920s,thefirstprojectionequipmentappearedonthemarketfor35mmfilmslides,butitwasnotuntilafterthewarthatcolorslidesemerged.

Slideprojectionreallytookoffafterthe1960s.Photographyonthisbasiswascheaperthancolorprintingfromafilmnegative,storingslidesinboxeswasquitepractical,andslideshowscouldberatherpleasantoccasions.

Anumberofslideprojectorsappearedonthemarketfordomesticuse,andtheprofessionalswerealsopartialtotheseaccessories,whichweremoreconvenientforprintingapplications.Somespecializedin“slideshows”anddevelopedtheirtechniques,workingwithfade-insandfade-outsusingseveralprojectors.

Withtheadventofvideoanddigitalequipment,slideprojectorsbegantolosegroundandcouldwellsoonbecomecollectors’items,albeitextremelyinterestingintheirdiversity,asalmosteverybrandhaditsprojector,oftenlinkedwithaveryspecificslide-viewer.

13

ThePlateEraInventionsattheendofthenineteenthcenturyledtomassmanufacturingofplates,whichhadbecomemuchmoresensitivetolight.Thisopenedthewaytothecreationofinstantaneousphotographs.Therecordedimagebroughtmovementtoastandstill,frozeagesture,laidbarewhatwaselusiveandinvisible.Thiscompletelynewvisualrepresentationofmovement,however,waspoorlyunderstood.

Advancesintechnologyaccelerated,andphotographybothwentwiththeflowandtookadvantageofit.Camerascouldbehand-held,andimprovementsweremade,whichsawsignificantincreasesinthequalityandluminosityoflenses.Electricitymadelightingthestudiosimpler,andofferedmuchmorestablelightsourcesforprojectionandforenlargement.

Inparalleltoadiversificationintheprofessionalphotographer’sactivities,thesimplifiedpracticeofphotographyarousedanever-growinginterestfromthepublic,withnewlyfoundedsocietiesattractingamateurskeentohonetheirtechniques.

Atthedawnofthetwentiethcentury,theinventionofhalftonephotographyallowedaphotographicimagetobeprintedstraightintobooks,magazines,anddailynewspapers.Thisopenedupanenormousmarket,nottheleastofwhichwaspressphotography.

Whilepeoplewerestillaskingquestionsaboutphotography’sstatusasanartform,theywerenolongerinanydoubtaboutitsrangeofapplications.Photographyquitesimplybecameindispensable.

GelatineBromidePlatesThecomplexityofthecollodionwet-plateprocesspushedresearcherstoexperimentwithnewsolutions.Adesiretoreduceexposuretimewhilecontinuingtousepermanentlysensitivenegativeplateswasadrivingforcebehindresearch.Thisledtotheinventionofthesilverbromideprocess–thedryplatewasborn.

In1855,FrenchchemistryprofessorJean-MarieTaupenotmixedcollodionalbumen,anddevisedaplate,whichcouldbeuseddry.TheEnglishmenB.J.SayceandW.B.Boltonimprovedtheprocesssomewhatwhentheymadesilvercollodionbromideplates-whichwentonsalefrom1867.Inspiteofthisprogress,andtheadvantageofhavingready-to-useplates,thesefilmbaseswerenotverysensitive.

In1871,theexperiencesoftheEnglishdoctorRichardLeachMaddoxbroughtthefirstsolution:hecoatedaglassplatewithagelatineemulsioncontainingsilverbromide,subsequentlydried;evenso,itstillwasnotsensitiveenough.Thenin1878,CharlesHarperBennettproposedheatingtheemulsionbeforeapplyingittotheglass.Anincreaseinsensitivitywasthenrecorded,whichpermittedexposuresof1/25thofasecond,thusopeningthewaytocapturingthemoment.

Mass-productionofthedrygelatinebromideplatesbegan,withvariousEuropeanandAmericancompaniesembarkingontheirmanufacture.SwitzerlandalsohadahandintheprocessviathebusinessofDr.J.H.Smith,whoinventedamachineforcoatingemulsionontoglassplates.

Thankstothereducedexposuretime,itbecamepossibletotakeaphotographwithoutatripod,andthiswouldhavearevolutionaryeffectoncameradesign.xxxvi

14

ThePhotographer’sNewToolsTheappearanceofRichardLeachMaddox’sdryplateandtheprogressitenabledgavebirthtoaflourishinthecreationofhand-heldcameras,equippedwithaviewfinder,shutterandplatemagazine.Afewfieldcameraaficionadoscarriedonusingthem,fittingthemwithashutter.

Thecameratooktheformofalargeboxwhichcouldcontainseveralplatesandbefittedwithmirrorfinderstosuittheformatinheightandwidth,andwhichwassimplyhand-heldtooperate.Thenovelandremarkablediscretenessofthistypeofcamerabroughtitthenicknamethe“detective”,andduringthe1890s,itenjoyedacertainsuccess.Itcouldholdadozen9x12cmor13x18cmplateswithgravity-assistedreloadingorviaaspring-loadingsystem.Thedetective’slifespanwouldbebriefhowever.Theintroductionofflexiblefilmmadeitpossibletoproducecameras,whichperformedevenbetter.xxxvii

From1890onwardscamefoldingbellowscameras,whosefrontlensmovedwiththebellowsintospringorcheek-stoppersontowhichtheviewfinderandshutterwereattached.xxxviii

Reflex-typecameras,whichmadevisibletheexactimage,whichwastobephotographed,hadbeenaroundsincethe1860s.Inthe1880stheyturnedintoamoreorlesscube-formatboxwithalensboardmountedatthefarendofabellows,afocalplaneshutter(locatedinfrontofthesurfaceofthesensitiveplate)andafocusingheadonthecamera.Thiscoveredthegroundglassreceivingtheimageofthesubjecttobephotographedviatheintermediaryofamirrorsetata45°anglebehindthetakinglens.

PointingtheCameraInstantphotographymeantchangestoworkingpractices.Thecameracouldleavethetripod,whichmeantapermanentfieldofviewwasnecessary,bothinordertoframethesubjectandtobringitintofocus.

Thesimplestsolutionwastoplacetwocamerasbothequippedwiththesamelensoneontopoftheother,oneforframing,theotherfortakingthepicture.Aslightdifferencebetweenthetwoimagespersisted.

Fromthenon,manufacturersdreamtupvariousviewfinders,fromsimpleframestomorecomplexopticalsystems,evenadoptingthesolutionofasecondlens,whichreflectedtheimagetoaplaneabovethecameraviaamirrorsetat45°.

Theculminationofthissystemwasthereflexviewfinder,ortheuseofaretractablemirrorplacedbehindthetakinglens,allowingthephotographertoseepreciselytheimagethatwouldbephotographedbeforeitwastaken,becausetheshutterwasreleasedtoallowlighttoexposethesensitiveplate.xxxix

MeasuringLightFromthemomentplatesstartedtobemass-produced,itbecameessentialtoquantifytheirsensitivity.Inordertomaketheoperator’slifeeasier,variouslightmeasurementsystemsweredeveloped.Notverypractical,andfrequentlyexperimental,thephotoelectriclightmeterwouldsupersedethem–togreateffect.

ExposuretablesorcalculatorsInaround1880,FerdinandHurter,borninSchaffhouse,Switzerland,andEnglishmanVeroCharlesDriffielddevelopedaprocedurebasedonsensitometrylinkedtotheintroductionofasensitivityindex,whichwouldremaininuseupuntiltoday.Varioustypesoftablesmadeitpossibletodeterminecorrectexposuretime

15

workingonthebasisofparameters,suchasthetypeofsubject,lightconditions,latitude,seasonandtimeofdayetc.

ActinometersThefoundingprincipleofthesedevicesworkedbymeasuringthetimetakenbyaphotosensitivepapertoreachaspecifieddensity.AlfredWatkinsaround1890wasthefirsttoreallyenablethissystemtoshowitsworth.

ExtinctionmetersAgraduatedfilteroropticalwedgewasadjustedonthecamera,pointingatthesubject,untilthemomentwhenthebrightestpointonthesubjectjustceasedtobevisible.Theluminosityindexobtainedwascalculatedusingascaleinordertoworkouttheexposuretime.Thismethodremaineduncertain.

PhotoelectriclightmetersInFebruary1873,WilloughbySmithheldaconferenceattheBritishSocietyofTelegraphEngineers,presentinginformationonthevariationofthephotoelectricconductivityofselenium,accordingtotheamountoflightreceived.Thisdiscoveryledtovariousmoreorlessunsuccessfulresearch,sincetheelectricaltechnologyoftheperiodwasstillinitsinfancy.Ittookuntilthe1930stoshowseriousresults.

MechanicstookitsPlaceinPhotographyLongexposuretimesdidnotrequireashuttermechanism–alenscapsufficed.However,inordertomakeanexposure,lastingafractionofasecond,theuseofamechanismbecameessential.Thefirstlens-mountedshuttersappearedaround1860.

Oneofthefirstsystemswastheforegroundshutter.Aspringactivatedoneortwovalves.“Inthecaseofinstantphotography”adropshutterwasrecommended:abladewithaholeinitslidintotheframewiththehelpofgravity.Adoubleguillotineperfectedthissystem,movedbysideways-actingsetsofsprings.

Earlyshutters,experimentalatbest,wereprogressivelyreplacedbyvariousmechanismsofferingachoiceofdifferentspeedsandshutteractions.Theroller-blindshutterlocatedinfrontofthelensfullymetthesecriteria,withtheadvantagethatitwaslightanddidnotcausevibrations:theshutterwasasortofsmallblindmadefromblackclothwhichwounditselfaroundaspring-loadedaxle,whosetensioncouldbeadjustedaccordingtothedesiredexposure.

Fromthe1900son,twotypesofshuttersbecamewidespread:thefocalroller-blindshutter,situatedinfrontofthesensitivesurface,andthecentralshutter,whichwasmadeupofleavesexposingthelensfromitscenteroutwardsandmountedinsideit.TheCompur,whichcameoutin1912,wasthemostpopularofthesemodels.xl

ThePhotosphèreInthe1880s,thegrowingdegreeofamateurinterestinphotographyencouragedcameramanufacturerstodesignequipment,whichwaseasiertouseandharderwearing.ItwasinthiscontextthatNapoleonContidevelopedthePhotosphère,ametalcameradesignedforexplorationintropicalcountries.

From1886,Contiundertooktobuildametalcamera,whichcouldresistanykindofweatherandhumidityintropicalcountries,thetropicalizedphotographicbody.Contididnotstopthere.Hewantedtodesignanewcamera,easiertouseandlighter.In1888,heappliedforapatentforthephotosphere.Thiswasthe

16

sameyearasGeorgeEastmanlaunchedtheKodak,thefirstcameradesignedtobeusedwithfilm.TheCompagnieFrançaisedePhotographiebegansellingthephotosphèrein1889.

Thephotosphère,anentirelymetalliccamera,wasequippedwithaflatback,whichcouldtakeadoublechassisoramagazine.Thehemisphere-shaped,spring-activatedshuttergavethiscameraitsuniqueshape.

Subsequently,Contididnotstopimprovinghiscamera,makingitmoreandmoreprecise,easiertouse,andequippingitwithvariousaccessories,includingaviewfinder,andevenamountenablingthecameratobefittedtoabicycle.Overthecourseofseveralyears,thephotosphèrewasmadeforfourdifferentformats,includingonemodelin1891fortakingstereoscopicexposures.

Thephotosphèrewasonsaleforroughlyadecade;some4,000unitsweremade,includingallthevariousformats.Apracticalpieceofkit,thephotosphere’scompactsizemadeitanimmediatehitamongbothamateursandexplorers.xli

TwoOne-ThousandthsofaSecondAttheendofthe19thcentury,GuidoSigriste,aSwisspainterwellknowninParis,triedtofixtheattitudesofagallopinghorseforthedemandsofhisart.Hespecializedinrepresentationsofhistoricscenesandbattles.Notabletofindacamerafastenough,hedecidedtobuildonehimself.

Sigristestartedtolearnaboutphotographicscience,anddesignedacameraequippedwithaslitshutter,forwhichheobtainedaSwisspatenton17November1898,andagoldmedalatthe1900ParisExpositionUniverselleWorldFair.Togetherwithtwoassociates,hethencreatedtheMaximumPerformanceCameraCompany(Sociétéanonymedesappareilsphotographiquesàrendementmaximum)andsetupafactoryatNeuilly.Thefirstcameraswentonsalein1902,manufacturedinvariousformats,evenincludingastereoversion.Alackofresources,however,meantthatthebusinessdidnotdowell.By1906,productionhadalreadycometoahalt.

TheshuttersystemdevelopedbySigristewastrulyrevolutionaryforitstime.Theslitfocalshutter“swept”theplate,andwasheldinamovingbellowsjoinedtothefrontofthecameratopreventroguelightfromgettingin.Thissystemworkedsimultaneouslybyadjustmentoftheslitwidthandtherateoftravel,offeringconsiderablelatitudeinexposuretime,accordingtodifferentsubjects,asindicatedonthetableunderneaththeshuttercontrolwheel.

TheTelephotoInventedbyAugusteVautier-Dufour,andpatentedin1901,theTelephotmadeitpossibletotakephotographsatalongdistancethankstoaningenioussystem,whichreducedthecamera’sbulkiness.

Anardentphotographerofthenightskiesandaloveroftelephotography,Vautier-Dufourhadbeenbusyexperimentingsincethe1890s.Afteraseriesofunsuccessfultrials,hefinallyhadsomegoodresults,someofwhichwerethankstoadvicefromEmileSchaer,associateastronomerattheGenevaObservatory.Thisallowedhimtoreducethebulkofacameraequippedwithaverylongfocal-lengthlens.

Twointernally-mountedmirrorslengthenedthedistancewhichlighthastotravelbymakingitrunthelengthofthecamerathreetimes,thusenablingittobemorecompactinsize.Itwaspossibletoretracttheupperpartintothebodyfortransporting.

17

ThepatentfortheTelephot,Vautier-DufourandSchaer’ssystemwasobtainedon14March1901.Tosellhiscamera,in1904Vautier-DufourcreatedtheVEGAPhotographyandOpticsCompany,togetherwithphotographerFredericBoissonnas,locatedintherueVersonnexinGeneva,whichproducedseveraldifferentmodelsincludingastereoscopicTelephot.

MagnesiumFlashPhotographyCapturingtheimagewasalsoaboutcapturingmovement.Inotherwords,therewasstillaneedtoaddressthequestionofmakingsomethingstandstill.Tofindasolutiontothisproblem,peopleveryquicklystartedthinkingaboutusingapowerfulandrapid-actinglightsource,likeamagnesiumflash.

In1808,SirHumphryDavy,inventorofthearclamp,discoveredhowtoisolatemagnesiuminitspuremetallicform.Nevertheless,ittookuntil1860tounderstanditslight-givingpropertiesandtodevelopaprocessforrefiningitefficiently.Thefirsttimemagnesiumwasusedinphotographywasin1864.

Numerouspatentswerelodgedforlamps,whichusedmagnesiuminribbonform,producingabrightlightwhosedurationwaslinkedtothelengthofribbonused;buttheseprocessesremainedexpensive,andstilldidnotmakeitpossibletotakeatrulyinstantaneousphotograph.

Thefollowingyearswerededicatedtofindingwaystoproduceatruemagnesiumflash,andfrom1880,powderflashwasdevelopedwiththeadditionofanoxidantforimprovedlighting,aswellasvariousmechanismsfacilitatingitsusage,suchasspirit-lampburners,ormorebasicdevicessuchaspowdertrays,theuseofwhichwasnotwithoutitsdangers.xlii

EadweardMuybridge–bringingMovementbacktoLifeAnEnglishphotographerbasedintheUnitedStates,EadweardMuybridgespecializedinlandscapes,monuments,ships,andhorses.Inordertophotographthelatterwhiletheyweremovingatagallop,hedevelopedasystem,whichmadeitpossibletosetoffaseriesofcamerasoneafteranother,andobtainedapatentforitin1878.

In1872,MuybridgemetLelanStanford,aformerGovernorofCalifornia,whohadapassionforhorses.InordertosatisfyStanford’swishfor“aseriesofpicturesshowingeverycomponentpartofthehorse’sgallop”,Muybridgesetup12cameras,whichahorsewouldsetoffonebyonewhileitwasgalloping,bybreakingthreadslinkedtoelectromagneticshuttersinthecameras.HesubmittedapatentforthissysteminJuly1878,andsoldhisphotographsaswellaszootropeandpraxinoscopeadaptors,whichhedevisedinhisSanFranciscoworkshop.

From1879,thephotographerextendedhisobservationsbothtootheranimalsandtohumans,thistimeusing24cameras.Theinternationalpresspublishedglowingaccountsofhiswork.

Fromthestartof1880,Muybridgebegantoemployprojectiontopresenthisimages.Hedidnotprojecthisphotographsdirectly,preferringtouseimages,whichhepaintedontoaglassdisc.Muybridgethenorganizedpublicprojectionmeetings,andfrom1881,embarkedonatourofEurope.

From1884,MuybridgeworkedattheUniversityofPennsylvania.There,heenjoyedmuch-neededsupport,andcoulddevotehimselfwholeheartedlytohislife’sgreatwork,“AnimalLocomotion,anelectro-photographicinvestigationofconsecutivesphasesofanimalmovements”,whichcameoutin1887.xliii

18

TheAnimatedImageandEmileReynaudInthenineteenthcentury,theanimatedimagefascinatedeveryone.Animationmachineswerebuiltonthephenomenonofpersistenceofvisiondemonstratedatthebeginningofthecentury–inotherwordstheeye’sabilitytoretainanideaofanimage,whichhadalreadybeenseen–andthentoassociateitwiththeimagethatwascurrentlybeingseen.

From1840onwards,peoplestartedtoprojectmovingimages.In1853,JulesDuboscq,aFrenchoptician,cameupwithamachine,whichcouldprojectstroboscopicdiscs.In1869,anEnglishman,ThomasRoss,submittedapatentfortheWheelofLife,projectingimagesfromaphenakistoscopewiththehelpofamagiclantern.xlivHowever,theperfectionofthesesystemsweowetoEmileReynaud.

In1864,Reynaud,aprecisionengineer,metCatholicpriestandphysicistAbbéMoigno,andthroughhim,hediscoveredmagiclanterns.Reynaudfellinlovewiththesedevices.Noticingthatthemovementoftheslitsdarkenedtheimagesandcolors,hedecidedtoimprovethismechanismbyreplacingtheslitswithaseriesofmirrorsarrangedinacrownatthecenterofthedevice.On30August1877,Reynaudsubmittedapatentforthepraxinoscope(fromGreek“praxis”,meaning“action”,and“skopein”,“toexamine”).xlv

Enthralledwiththeprocess,Reynauddidnotstopthere.In1879,hebuilthispraxinoscopeinsideaboxequippedwithaslit,whichmadeitpossibletoobservemovingimagesagainstabackgroundreflectedontoatwo-waymirror,thePraxinoscopeTheatre.Afterthisfollowedacombinationofthepraxinoscope,withamagiclantern,theProjectionPraxinoscope.In1888,theOpticalTheatre,alargermodeloftheProjectionPraxinoscope,wasborn.In1892,ReynaudsignedacontractwiththeMuséeGrevin.Hisilluminatedpantomimeswereverysuccessfulforanumberofyears.xlvi

ImageAnimationMachinesThroughoutthenineteenthcentury,peopleinventedallmannerofenchantingdevicesforanimatingtheimage,eachwithitspeculiarcharacteristics,whoseworkingswerebasedonthephenomenonofretinalpersistence.

ThePhenakistiscope(fromGreek“phenax”,“acheat”,andskopein,“toexamine”),inventedbyaBelgianphysician,JosephPlateau,in1832,wasadiscperforatedbyaspecificnumberofbladesspinningverticallyinfrontofamirror.Bylookingthroughthebladesatthemirror,thesubjectprintedontheinterchangeablediscappearedasamovingimage.xlvii

TheZootrope(fromGreek“zoe”,“life”,and“tropion”,“toturn”),devisedin1833byBritishmathematicianWilliamGeorgeHorner,onlywentonsalein1867.Whenthiscylinderperforatedbyverticalbladeswasrotatedandwatchedthroughtheseblades,theimagereelsprangintolife.Withhispraxinoscope,Reynaudimprovedtheprincipleofthezootrope,withmirrorsreducingtheshuttering.Ourperceptionofthemovingimagegotsignificantlybetter.xlviii

Theinterchangeablereelswereoftenprintedonbothsides.Thesubjectsdisplayedwereverydiverse,oftenplayful,themainideabeingtocreatethemostlifelikesequencepossible.

OttomarAnschütz:perfectingtheZootropeFromthe1880sonwards,OttomarAnschütz,aportraitpainterfromLissainPrussia(present-dayPoland),becameinterestedinanalyzingmovementlikeMuybridgeandMareybeforehim.Hedevelopedaseriesofshutters,whichenabledhimtotakeexposuresat1/1000thofasecond.Usingabatteryofcameras

19

equippedwiththeserapid-fireshutters,Anschützphotographedthelocomotionofhorses,andmilitarymaneuvers.

In1886,AnschützperfectedtheZootrope,anopticaltoy,whichhadbeenonsalesince1867.Inplaceofdrawings,whichbrokedownmovement,hesubstitutedhischronophotographicpictures,placingthebladesbetweentheimagesinsteadofontopofthem.Asaresult,successiveexposuresbecamevisible,printedhorizontallyorverticallyontocardboardstrips.xlix

Inparallel,Anschütztookanimportantsteptowardscinematographicprojection.In1887,hedevelopedtheElectrotachyscope,adisconwhichtransparenciesweremounted,eachrepresentingdifferentstagesinamovement.lAsthediscturned,thankstoanelectricalcontactmechanism,eachimagewasbrieflylitbyagastube(theGeisslertubeli)whichlitupwhenanelectriccurrentwasputthroughit,therebybringingthemovementbacktolife.Projectionthusdisappeared,astheone-ortwo-secondanimatedsequenceonthedisccouldbeseendirectly.Thismachine,whichlaterwentonsale,subsequentlymadeitpossibleforalimitednumberofpeopletoenjoythespectacle.

ReproductionandImpressionFromthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,progressintherealmsbothofphotographyandofprintingfinallyenableddirectreproductionofaphotographicimageinaprint.Thus,alargenumberofillustratedmagazineswereborn.

Fromthe1880s,thephototypeprocessmadeitpossibletoproducealargequantityofqualityprints.Theprinthadtobeaffixedintothepagesofthebookdesignedforthispurpose.Heliogravure,averybeautifulprocess,whichrequiredthattheimagebeprintedontospecialpaper,wasusedforartbooks.lii

From1890,processengraving(duotone)finallymeantthattheimageandtextcouldappearonasingledocument,openingthewaytolarge-scaleproductionofillustratedmagazinesandotherpublications.Theoriginalimagehadtobeintheformofanengravedimage,madeupofvariable-sizedengravingpointsaccordingtothedensityofthetone,whichwastobereproduced.Thiswascopiedontoametallicplatewhereeachpointwaspushedintoreliefinordertoreceivetheprintingink.Inthisway,photographyintegratedtext,andthepagecouldbeprintedinonego.liii

Reproductioncamerasdesignedforphotographiccopyingofdocumentsuptothelargestsizesweredeveloped,withadaptedlighting;thedocumentbeingreproducedneededahighqualityperfectlyuniformlight.Tobeginwith,naturallightwasadvocatedforthisoperation,whichwouldgivewayinduecoursetowidespreaduseofarclighting.

LegalPhotographyFromphotography’sverybeginnings,portraitsmadeindaguerreotypewereusedtoidentifyindividuals.Around1860,thewidespreaduseofreproductionproofsandtheinventionofthecallingcardintensifiedthepracticeoflegalphotography.Theseformatsmadeitpossibletodistributepicturesofwantedcriminals.

Followingtheeventsofthe1871ParisCommune,suspectswerephotographedinsurroundingprisons.In1872,thefirstpolicephotographyservicewascreated.AlphonseBertillondevelopedananthropometricsystem,bertillonage,in1882,whichconsistedofproducingsignalfiles,containingthemeasurementsandcharacteristicsignsofeverysubject.Bothafrontalandprofilephotoweretakenofthedetainee.Thesetwo

20

portraitscompletedthefile.In1888,BertillonwasnamedheadofthephotographicdepartmentoftheidentificationservicefortheParisPrefecturePolice.liv

Intheheartofthestudiowasachairsetagooddistanceawayfromthecamera,whichallowedfrontalandprofilephotostobetakenofthedetainees.Lightingandthepositioningofthesubjecthadtobestrictlyobserved.Afast-printingmachine,whichwasalsopresentinthestudio,couldproduce20,000smallformatphotographsinasinglenight,thusenablingwidedistributionofimageswhenlookingforacriminal.ThissystemsoonspreadalloverEurope.

In1909,RodolpheArchibaldReiss,aprofessorofphotographicsciencesatLausanneUniversityandeditoroftheSwissPhotographyReviewcreatedtheInstituteofPoliceScience,wheretheBertillonmethodwasputintopractice.

MultipleImageCamerasWiththegrowingappetiteforphotographicportraiture,theintroductionoftheportraitinthecallingcardformat,andimprovementstosensitiveemulsionsgavebirthtoanewtypeofcamera,one,whichgavemultipleimages,thatwouldmakesittingslessfastidious,andmorefun.

Numerousmodelswereproposedonthemarket,functioningaccordingtothethreefollowingprinciples:

Around1850,aphotographicbodycouldbefittedwithaslidingback,whichmovedtotakeseveralexposuresonasingleplate.Subsequently,thesemultiplierbacksenabledevenmoreimagestobetaken,asitbecamepossibletomovethemhorizontallyandvertically.

Oneoftheideaswasalsotomovethelensinfrontoftheplate,mountingitonaslidingorrotatingboard.

Thefinalsolutionwastofitaspecificnumberoflensestothecamera,whichwouldallexposetheplateindividually,asagroup,orsimultaneously.Thissystemwasdeemedtooexpensive,andthemultiplierbacktookover.Evenso,around1900,postagestampformatphotographywasverypopular,andthistypeofcameraenjoyedarenewedboutofinterestforthisspecificapplication.

TheCartedevisitePortraitThankstothedevelopmentofthewetcollodionprocessinthe1850s,itbecamepossibletoproducebetterproofs,andreduceexposuretimes.Inthiscontext,portraitphotographyenjoyedabigboostinpopularity.In1854,FrenchphotographerAndreAdolpheEugeneDisderisubmittedapatentforthecartedevisiteformatportrait.

Disderi’snewprocessconsistedintakingseveralexposures,measuringroughly6x9cm,onasingleplatewiththehelpofamultiplelensbodyoramonocularbodyfittedwithamultiplierback.Theproofswerenotallexposedatthesametime,makingitpossibletochangepose.Makingtheportraitsintoasmallerformatenabledcostreductions,andfromthismomenton,photographybecameaccessibletoevenmorepeople.

ThisinventionleadtoaconsiderableincreaseinphotographicstudiosinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Customershadvariousaccessoriesandbackgroundsattheirdisposalforthecreationoftheirportraitswhilehavingtheirphotographstaken.Thedevelopedproofwasmountedonacardwiththephotographer’snameontheback,givingthelatteragoodbitofpublicity.

21

Thecartedevisiteportraitwasagreatsuccess.Peoplecollectedminiaturesoftheirfamilies,theirfriends,orevencelebritiesoftheday.Theymadelavishlydecoratedalbumsinwhichtokeeptheseportraits.Duringtheseyears,formatsdiversified,notablyincludingtheoffice,bedroomoroutdoorwalkformats.lv

ThePhotographicPortraitThephotographicportraitwasalreadypopularinthedaguerreotypeera.In1854,theinventionofthecartedevisiteportraitimmediatelyexperiencedcolossalsuccess.Portraittakingbecameaflourishingactivity,whichwouldloseitspowerinthefaceofphotographictechniquesastheybecameavailabletoall.Itsaestheticwouldgaininstatureinaccordancewithfashionsoftheday.

Thephotographer’sstudiowasaworldinitself,eithersmallorlargedependingontheowner’smeans.Inthewaitingroom,customerswerefreetoperusealbumsplacedattheirdisposalandthinkaboutthesetting,whichwouldbestsuitthem.Thecustomerthenmovedonintotheportraitstudio,alargespacebathedinlight,thankstoanatriumwindow,whichwasalsothesourceofuncomfortablevariationsinatmosphericconditions,ifonebelievedthethingspeoplesaidaboutthem.

Oncethebackground(paintedcanvas),thefurnitureandtheaccessorieshadbeenchosen,themodelsstrucktheirpose,helpedbytheheadrestinordertostaystillduringthelongsecondsittookfortheexposuretohappen.Thephotographeradjustedthenaturallightwiththehelpofcurtainsaroundtheatriumandwhitereflectorscreens;itwasnotuntilthe1880sthatitbecamepossibletouseelectriclight.

Whenallwassetup,thephotographerjustneededtoreleasetheshutter.Thecamera,astudiobody,stoodonatripod;itwasfittedwithaspeciallensfortakingportraits,withaslightlylongfocallength,andaboveallabigaperture,whichallowedforreductioninexposuretimes.Thesensitiveplatesweretypically13x18cmor18x24cmformat.

PassportPhotoMachineFromtheendofthenineteenthcentury,proceduresofautomaticphotographycameintoexistence.Theinventionofthepassportphotoboothwasbasedonasystemofautomatedexposuresfollowedbythedevelopmentofthenegativeanditsimmediatesmallformatprinting.ARussianbornimmigranttotheUnitedStates,AnatolMarcoJosepho,submittedapatentin1924inNewYork.ThisfirstautomatedPhotoboothwasnamedthe"Photomaton".In1927,Josephowaspaidonemilliondollarsfortheinvention.lvi

In1889inParis,Théophile-ErnestEnjalbert,acamera-maker,presentedanautomaticphotographysystemduringtheExpositionUniverselleWorldFair,whichturnedoutnottoleadanywhereinparticular.lviiIn1893,GermanConradBernittshowedoffthe“BoscoAutomatic”,twocameras,whichweresetoffbyacoinbeingintroducedandproducedtintypes.Itwasonlyin1910thatphotographsstarttobeprintedonstripsofpaper.

Thefirstpublicautomaticphotoboothwasinstalledin1926inNewYork,andthePhotomatonCompanyfoundedin1927wasactivefromitsverybeginningsinEurope,butalsoinChinaandJapan.Atthattime,itproducedsixdifferentposes,whichweredeliveredwithineightminutes,withsomemodelsabletoprintoutportraitsinthepostcardformat.About1925,Siemens&Halskedevelopedaphotographicbooth.Funandfunctional(foridentityphotographs),thephotoboothsoonbecameabighitwithartiststoo.

22

SpyandDetectiveCamerasThespycamera,oracameradisguisedinanotherformtotakephotographsinsecret,cameintobeingatthesametimeasthegelatinebromidedryplate,althoughsomeearlyversionswererathermoreambitious.

Spycameras,whetheraseriousorplayfultool,tookeverypossibleshape:arevolver,adischiddenunderthewaistcoat,atie,binoculars,ahat,abook,evenahandbag.Itwasfittedwithplates,whichweresometimesinatinyformat,andingenioussystemsfortheirdevelopment.Theappearanceoffilmonaflexiblebasewouldenableotherfantasiessuchasthepen,thewatch,orthecane.

PhotographymeasurestheLandscapePhotogrammetryisthepracticeoftakingmeasurementsthroughthemediumofphotography,enablinganobjecttobefullyreconstructedbycomparingdifferentviews.In1851,FrenchcolonelAimeLaussedatcreatedthefirstphotographicbodydesignedformeasuring.Hemayberegardedasthefatherofphotogrammetry.

AfutureGeneral,Guillaume-HenriDufour,usedthismethodtomakeageometricrepresentationofSwissterritory.From1832,heworkedwithhisassistantsoncarryingoutareliefmapofofSwitzerlandusingtheprincipleoftriangulation.In1845,theypublishedthefirstofthe25pages,whichmadeupthe1:100.000scalenationalmap.Publicationwascompletedin1864.

In1878,theSwissFederalTopographicalOfficecarriedoutitsfirstphotogrammetricterrestrialreliefmapoftheRhoneglacier.Roundabout1890,GermanteacherCarlKoppe,whohadalreadybeencarryingouttriangulationworkontheSt.Gottardrailway,madeaseriesofreliefmapswithintheframeworkofaconstructionsurveyfortheJungfraurailway.

TheX-rayTherehadbeenmanyexperimentssincetheinventionofphotography.Anewdecisivestepwastakenin1895,whenphysicianWilhelmConradRöntgen,aprofessoratthePhysicsInstituteattheUniversityofWurzburginBavaria,discoveredtheX-ray.

In1842,theEnglishphysicistanddoctor,JohnWilliamDraper,obtainedabsorptionraysondaguerreotypeplatesofultravioletandinfrared.Insodoing,heprovedthatthesensitivephotographicplatecouldcarrytheimpressionofinvisibleluminousradiation.X-rayswereapartofthisinvisibleradiation.

On8November1895,whilehewasworkingonelectricalexperimentswithaCrooks(cathode)tube,Röntgendiscoveredthisradiation.Thetube,despitebeingcompletelydarkened,stillemittedaweaklight,whichenabledhimtodetecttheshadowofbonesinhishand,whichwereopaquetotheX-raysjustlikemetal,onapanelpaintedwithfluorescentmaterial.OnDecember221895,hephotographedtheskeletonofhiswife’shandexposedinthisway–animage,whichbecameemblematicofthebeginningsofradiography.

Fromthismomenton,radiographymaderapidprogress.Initialexposuretimesoffifteenminutestoanhourwerequicklyreduced.BigphotographicfirmslikeIlfordandEastmanalsomanufacturedspecialemulsions.

Röntgen’sdiscoveryallowedhimtoobtainthefirstNobelPrizeforPhysicsin1901.lviii

23

MicroscopicPhotographyPeoplehadbeenthinkingaboutthepossiblescientificapplicationsofphotographyeversinceitbegan,buttimewasinvestedintrulytakingonphotography.Thisturnedouttoberestrictivetothefreedomsofanartist,whocouldexploreasubject’sthreedimensions,whileproducinganimage,whichwasmorevivid,byblurringtheunimportantstructuresofhisorherdrawing.

Veryquickly,scientistswantedtotrytousephotographytorecordwhatthenakedeyecouldnotsee,butwhichtheyalreadyknewintimatelythankstothemicroscope,whichhadbeeninusesinceitsappearanceintheseventeenthcentury.Itwasonlyinthe1880sthattheuseofmicrophotographybecamewidespread.

Evenso,therewasamassofsubjects,whichneededrecording,whosesizewastoobigforamicroscope,yetwhichatthesametime,wasdifficulttophotographwithatraditionalcamera.Themacrophotographicpicturerequiredaparticularpieceofequipmenttobeabletogetsufficientlyclosetothesubject.Manufacturersofphotographicequipmentquicklymadethesekindsofaccessoriesavailabletobuy.

ThePhotographer’sLaboratorycirca1900Theincreaseinthesensitivityofphotographicpapersfromthemiddleofthe1880sassociatedtonewgasorelectricallightsources,particularlyofthoseofthe“Gaslight”type,finallymadethepracticeofnegativeenlargementavailableonamassscale.

FrenchopticianNoëlPaymalLerebourswassaidtobethefirsttohaveexperimentedwithenlargement,asearlyas1853.In1855,AugusteBertschmanagedtomakeenlargementsofaseriesoffourimages,“thewhitebarrier”fromnegativesaroundsevencm.longontheirside,inordertotestanewchemicalrecipe.Hewasthedesignerofthesmallmetalliccamera,whichhadtakenthesepictures,aswellasoftheaccompanyingenlarger,thesolar“Magnascope”.

Around1860,theBelgianphotographerDesirévanMonckhoven,whosecontributiontophotographywasconsiderable,designedasolarreflectorenlarger(amobilemirrorwhichmovedaccordingtothetrajectoryofthesun),animprovedversionoftheonewhichtheAmericanDavidWoodwardpatentedinBaltimorein1857,basedontheprincipleofamagiclanternwhoselightsourcewassunlight.Duringthe1860s,EdouardDelessert,aFrenchphotographerfromtheVaud,alsodevelopedhisimagesusingasolarenlarger.

TheAmateurPhotographerThesimplifiedpracticeofphotographyandtheappearanceofeasy-to-usecamerasmakingitpossibletoproducemorespontaneousimageswouldinterestanentirelynewpublicmadeupof“distinguishedamateurs”,whowantedtoperfecttheirknowledge.Itdidnotbecomeacraze,untilthepracticeofusingflexiblefilmbecamewidespread.

Fromthe1880son,numerousphotographicsocietiessprangintolife.Theywelcomedbothamateursandprofessionalsintotheranks,evenscientistsworkingcloselywithphotographiccircles.Everyphotographysocietyofferedregularmeetingstoitsmemberssothattheycouldsharetheirexperiences,takepartinconferencesanddemonstrationsaswellasinexcursions.Theyputtogetherexhibitions,organizedcompetitionswithprizesintheformofbothmedalsanddiplomas.Eachmemberhadaccesstoitssocietylaboratoryandtoalibrary,whichwassubscribedtovariouspublicationsincludingforeignones.

24

AccesstothemediumwasmadeeasierbythepublicitythatbrandslikeKodakputintooperationveryskillfully.Numerousworksandmanualsdealingwithtakingpicturesaswellasdevelopmentandprintingprocedureswereallaimedatamateurswhowantedtosharpentheireyesandperfecttheirtechniques.

ColorPhotographyFromthebeginningsofthedaguerreotype,scientistsandresearchersdreamtofthesilverplateretainingacolorimprint.Nevertheless,theyhadtowaitforanextensioninphotosensitivitytoincludeallvisiblecolorsinthespectrumforphotographytosatisfythisdesire.

From1859,LouisDucosduHauron,aFrenchpianistwithapassionforoptics,threwhimselfintothetask:“theexperienceofpainterstaughtmethatamix,insuitableproportions,ofred,yellowandbluecouldproducemoreorlesseverycolor”.Thus,hedemonstratedtheprincipleoftrichromy,andon7May1869,hepresentedhisresultstotheFrenchPhotographySociety.Forhispart,thepoetCharlesCrosbecameauthoratthesametimeofthework“Generalsolutiontotheproblemofcolorphotography”.

In1874,LouisDucosduHauronpatentedtheMelanochromoscope,acamerafittedwithasinglelensandsemi-transparentmirrors,enablingasimultaneousexposureofthreeseparateblack-and-whiteplatesthroughthreefilters,blue,greenandred.Itwaspossibletorestoreallthecolors(throughadditivesynthesis),bysuperposingthesethreepicturescoloredintheirrespectivetintsontopofoneanother.DucosduHauroncanthusbeconsideredthetruecreatorofcolorphotography,andmodernprocessesweretheproductofhisdiscovery.lix

Withthedevelopmentofcolorintherealmofpublishing,photographersfoundanewsphereofactivity:theydidnotjusttakepicturesusingtrichromebodies,withthehelpofprocesseslikepinatype,theyalsoworkedontheselectionofcolorsasafunctionofthefutureprinttheywouldmake,givingsubjectsatestprintinreference.

TheLumièreBrothers’AutochromeProcessTheLumièrebrothers,AugusteandLouis,bestknownastheinventorsofcinemain1895,developedacompletelyoriginalmethodofcolorphotography,whichtheywerethefirsttomass-produce.OnDecember171903,theyobtainedapatentforaprocessknownasAutochrome–color,whichderivesfromitself.

HavingcollaboratedinthedevelopmentofGabrielLippman’sinterferenceprocessin1891,startingin1892theLumièrebrothersdecidedtodedicatetheirresearchtoimprovingLouisDucosduHauron’s1869trichromeprocess.

ThemethoddevelopedbytheLumièrebrothersaimedtosimplifythetrichromeprocessbyusingasingleplatecontainingafinenetworkofpotatostarchparticlescoloredblue,greenandorange-red.Theypublishedtheirfirstresultsin1904,andstartedproductionin1907.Fromthe1930son,alongwiththeadventofthesmallformatandthearrivalonthemarketofnewcolorprocesses,thesuccessoftheautochromeplatebegantodecline.lx

UnderthemicroscopeLookingatafragmentofanautochromeplateitwaspossibletoseethenetworkoforange-red,greenandblue-violetmicroscopicpotatostarchgrains.Theyactedlikefilters,coloringeverypointoftheimageinitstruetintinrelationtotheblack-and-whiteimage,whichwasbehindit.

25

PhotographicOpticsThescienceofopticswasconsiderablymoreancientthanthatofphotography.Opticiansfrequentlybuiltlensesdestinedfortelescopes,microscopesandcameraeobscurae.Thebirthofphotographyledtonewdemandsforobtainingaluminousimage,cleanrightacrossitssurfaceandwithnodeformities.

Thefirstlenseswerebuiltusingasimplelens,knownasameniscuslens,whichrequiredtheuseofa“pupil”ordiaphragminordertorestrictlighttopassingthroughitscenter,therebylimitingerrors.DaguerrealreadyusedthecombinationdesignedbyCharlesChevalieroftwolensesmadefromdifferentglass,sothefaultsofonecompensatedthoseoftheother,improvingtheendresult.

In1840,CharlesChevalierintroduced“photographyusingcombinedglass”,whichworkedbothasalandscapelensandasaportraitlensbytheadditionofasupplementaryelement.Oneyearlater,theHungarianopticianJosephPetzval,whowasborninpresent-daySlovakia,designedalens,whoseluminositywouldremainunequalledforalongtime,frequentlyusedfortakingportraits.

StereoscopicPhotographyBritishphysicianCharlesWheatstoneestablishedtheprincipleofbinocularvisionforthefirsttimein1831.AfashionablephenomenoneversincetheLondonGreatExhibitionof1851,stereoscopicphotographylostitsappealafter1865.Fromthe1880sonwards,thisquiteparticularformofphotographyenjoyedareturntopopularitywiththeadventofthedryplateandofcameras,whichwereeasiertohandle.

In1891,theInternationalCongressofPhotographyadoptedastandardized8.5x17cmformatforstereogrammes.Those,whichwereavailabletobuyenjoyedconsistentsuccess,themoresosincetheeasy-to-use,opentypeor“American”stereoscopewaswidelydistributed.

Thefirststereoscopyclubswerefoundedinaround1900,butthearrivalofthepostcardandofcinematookstereoscopicphotographytotask,forcingitsadvocatestopulltogethertosaveit.

Between1900and1920,therangeofstereoscopiccameraswasbroad,withhighqualityversionslikethosefromtheJulesRichardfactoryinParisleadingthefield.Progressattheendofthecenturywasdowntohispatentforthe“Verascope”inJanuary1893,acamera,whichwaseasytouse,butemployedhighqualitytechnology,designedfortakingandlookingatimages.Theimmensesuccessofthiscamera,alongwiththerange,whichfollowedit,notcountingthenumerousviewers,whichRichardinventedliketheTaxiphote,astereotransparencyviewingcabinetforthehome,madeaconsiderablecontributiontorenewingenthusiasmforstereoscopycirca1900.

MilitaryCamerasArmiesrapidlyunderstoodhowtheycouldbenefitfromphotography,asameansofsurveillanceofenemylines.Theseobservationcampaignswereundertakenongroundlevelbyartilleryregimentsorfromfixedballoonsbyballoonunits,airforcetroopstookupthebatonfromthestartoftheFirstWorldWar.

Atthedawnofthetwentiethcentury,Zeissmadelong-rangetelephotographicbodiesinitsDutchbranch,theNedinscoCompany.Thehighestperformingbody,withathree-meterfocallength,constitutedaseriousstrategicadvantageduringthe1914-18war,asdidthe1m20and70cmversions,deliveredintothehandsofobserversinfixed-lineballoonswhophotographedenemylines,theballoonwaswelllashedontoitscableatthelimitoftheenemyartillery’srange.

26

ThefirstSwissmilitaryflightstookplaceinautumn1911.Thehighlyconclusiveresultsofthisexperienceprovidedtheimpetusforothermissionsofthistypein1913,butitwasnotuntilthedeclarationoftheFirstWorldWarinAugust1914thatSwissairforcesreallycameintolife.Thephotographstakenfromairplanesweredonesousingahand-heldbody,whichtheobservationsofficerheldfromonboardtheaircraft,pointingitasverticallyaspossibly,whilethepilotconcentratedcompletelyjustonflying.Reconnaissanceflightswerelatersystematizedfollowingseriousprogressbothintermsofaeronauticsandofphotographicequipment,renderingthepresenceofaphotographeronboardunnecessary.

ThephotographicJumelleThephotographicJumelletookoverfromtheDetectiveduringthe1890s.Directlyinspiredbycamerasusedforstereoscopicphotography,itwasslightlyconicalinform,morecompactandeasiertouse.AmateursrapidlyadoptedthephotographicJumelle,andmakersproposedvariousmodels,equippedwithnumerousperfectionsandallkindsofaccessories.

BodiesforphotographicJumelles,madeprimitivelyoutofwood,becamemetallicandwerecoveredwithaleathercasing.Thecamerawasequippedwithfoldablerangefinder,fixedlensesofvariousfocallengths,andalargelyfunctionalshutter.Ittookamagazineholding6,12,18or24plateswhoseformatsvariedfrom6x6.5cmto9x12cm.Therewasevenapanoramicformat,whichcameoutofthestereoscopicbinocular,withtheentirestereogrammeplatereceivingauniqueview.

LeonGimpel,aself-taughtFrenchphotographer,workedwiththeL’Illustrationnewspaperbetween1897and1936.HeproducedanumberofreportagesonParisianlife,inblack-and-whiteandincolor(hewasagreatexponentofautochrome)equippedwithaSpidophotographicJumellebyGaumont.Thankstothis,photographicJumelleswereconsideredthefirstrealtoolforreporting.lxi

TheErmanoxplayswiththeShadowsThiscamera,madebyErnemanninDresdenfrom1924,finallymadeitpossibletotakeinstantphotographsinlowlight,thankstotheexceptionalluminosityofitslens.Itsdesignwasrapidlyoutdated,andtheLeica,acontemporarymodeloftheErmanox,soonsupplantedit,beingmorecompactanddesignedfor35mmfilm.Itsproductionceasedaround1930.lxii

TheErnemannfactoryassignedthetaskofcomingupwithalenswithalargeraperturethanf3.5,whichwasthenconsideredsuperior,bytheengineerLudwigBertele.TheErnostarwastheresult,openingouttof2.0,andthentof1.8,producedinseveralfocallengths.lxiii

TheErmanox,inaluminum,witharangefinder,existedfora4.5x6cmplateformatandforalarger6.5x9cmformat.Afoldableversionwasproducedin1925,allowingasizeupto13x18cm.TheErmanox-Reflex,whichwentonsalein1926,wasdesignedfora4.5x6cmplateformat.Thesevariousmodelswerefittedwithafocalplaneshutter,whichworkeduptoathousandthofasecond,whilethelenswasmountedonatubewithaspiralfocusingsystem.

Thishighlysuccessful1920scamerawasusedamongothersbyGermanjournalistandphotographerErichSalomon,whoparticularlylikedtotakepictureswithouthissubjectsbeingaware,andasaresultwasabletotakefamousimagesofpoliticianstalkingamongthemselves,andofvariouscelebritiesaswell.These“stolen”photographswereextraordinaryatthetime.In1930,SalomonabandonedtheErmanoxhehadacquiredin1927,replacingitwithaLeica.In1944,hiscareerwasinterruptedbyhisarrestanddeportation.

27

TheCompass–madebyWatchmakersTheCompass,theoriginofwhosenameremainsunknown,oweditsexistencetoanEnglishmanwhowasobsessedwithtechniquebutwhohadnoparticularrelationshiptophotography-NoëlPemberton-Billing.Patentedon16May1936,thecamera,builtbyLeCoultre&CieinLeSentierintheValléedeJoux,broughtwithitanumberofrefinements,whichwereunheardofatthetime.

TheconstructionoftheCompasswasentrustedtoLeCoultre&Cie,acompanyhappytohavethechancetodosomethingdifferentinthemidstofacrisisinwatchmaking.TheCompassCameraCompanytookoverdistributiononceitreachedEngland.

Extremelycompact,thefullymetal(aluminum)cameraexistedinthreeversions,withtextsengravedonthehousinginFrench,GermanorEnglish.Itwasequippedwithanf3.5Kernlensandacoupledtelemeterforfocusing.Itcarriednegativesontheglassplateorsheetfilmmeasuring24x36mm;latercamea6-exposurerollfilmback.Italsohadbuilt-infilters,anopticalexposuremeter,twofindersincludingonewitharightangle,agroundglassfinder,aspiritlevel,apanoramicheadandastereoscopicsystem,allowingthecameratobemovedlaterallyfortakingtwosuccessiveviews.

LeCoultre&Cieproduced4,000unitsupuntil1939-40whenproductionoftheCompasswasforcedtocease,duetoitbeingimpossibletosourcefilmmadeforthecamera.ThefilmhadcomefromIlfordinEngland,butthefactorystoppedproductionbecauseofbombardmentsduringthewar.Fromthenon,thiscamerawasveryhighlysoughtafteramongcollectors.lxiv

TheshootingstudioThemodelcanadjusthis/herattireintheareaprovidedbehindthescreeninthecorneroftheposinglounge.Intheshootingstudioorposinglounge,bathedinlightthankstoaglasspanelfacingnorth,thewallsaretreatedinbluetosoftenthedazzlingeffectsofthelight.

Thestudiocamerarestsononestablefootwithadevicethatenablesitsheightandangleofinclinationtobeadjusted;itisequippedwithaspeciallensforportraits:aslightlylongfocallengthandwideaperturetoreducetheposingtime.Thesensitiveglassplatesaregenerallyin18x24cmor24x30cmformats,orthankstoreductionframes,evensmaller.

Theplatesensitizationanddevelopmentlaboratory(ordarkroom)Inthelaboratoryordarkroom,litbyafilteredyelloworredlight,theglassplatesaresensitizedjustbeforetheshooting,andsubsequentdevelopment.Usuallythephotographer’sassistantensuresthathehasallthenecessaryproductswithineasyreach.lxv

ThestoreroomforglassplatesIntheglassplatestoreroom,anadequatequantityofglassesintheircorrectsizesneedstobeselectedfortheday’swork.Theseplateswillbecleanedwiththegreatestofcareandthenpolished.Theplacecanalsoserveastheworkshopforvariousrepairs.

ThenegativeretouchingstudioAtgroundfloorlevelinthenegativeretouchingstudio,infrontofacurtainedwindow,toreducetheglare,thenegativeretoucherisatwork;hesitsataspeciallyequippeddeskwhereamirrordirectsthelightunderthenegative,whichliesonafrostedglass,withitssensitivesurfaceupwards.Amagnifyingglass,scrapers,brushesandpostercolors,rubbersandpencils,varnishandturpentinearethemaintools.

28

ThelaboratoryforthepreparationofsensitizedpaperItisinthelaboratoryforthepreparationofsensitizedpaper,wherethesheetsofpaperwithpastehavetobeprepared,withasmoothsurface.Thesesheetsaresubmergedforafewminutesinsaltwater,driedandfinallysensitizedinasilverbath.Donotproceedtothisprocesstoosoon,toavoidyellowingofthepaper.

TheexposureglasspaneloftheprintingframeTheexposureorinsolationhappensinnaturallightintheglassdisplaypaneloftheprintingframe,placedonanincliningsupportinordertoreceivetheraysoflightmosteffectively.Alaboratoryassistantplacesthenegativeplateinaprintingframe,incontactwithasheetofsensitizedpaperinasilverbath.

Theinsolationofthisframecanlasttenminutesinstronglight,oronedayinovercastconditions.Printing-outpaperallowsapermanentcontroloftheintensityoftheimage,byopeningoneoftheslidesatthebackoftheframeinsubduedlight.

TheprintinglaboratoryAfterhavingcorrectlyexposedhisimage,thelaboratoryassistantmovesonintotheprintinglaboratory.Theprintisgenerouslywashed,thenimmersedaroundtentimesinatoningbathtoreinforcethesepiatintandtoprolongitsconservation.Washedagainfor6to8hours,itisfixedinthiosulphate,rinsedonelasttime,andhungtodryinasuitabledryer.

ThefinishingstudioThepositivesretoucherisbusyretouchingimagesorembellishingthemwithcoloringhighlights,whilehiscolleagueinchargeoffinishingproceedstoplacethemunderthepresstoflattentheprints,andthentotrimthemandmountthemonastiffcardorinaframe.Adevelopedprintisusuallymountedonacardboard,bearingthenameofthephotographeronthereverseside,providinghimwithgoodpublicity.

Theopen-airportraitAsourstudioenjoystheprivilegeofagarden,takingportraitphotographsoutsideisquitepossibleaswellastakingadvantageofthegoodafternoonlight.Inordertoimmortalizehismodel,thephotographerusesamoremaneuverablecamera,thefieldcamera,andadarkroomtent,whichenableshimtoprepareandtreathisplatejustbeforeshooting.

Thephotographer’stripsForhistrips,thephotographerhasacaravanandahorse,inordertotransportallhismaterial,withoutforgettingaladder,onwhichhecanfixhisshootingcamera,enablinghimtobeattherightheightforarchitecturalphotographs.Onceemptiedofthecartonsofmaterials,theinteriorofhiscaravanservesaslaboratory,wherehecaninstallalltheequipmentheneedstoprepareanddevelophisnegativeplates.

29

Part3:ThePictureasaShowpieceandphotographyastruemassmedia

TheCenturyoftheFilmTheappearanceoffilmonaflexiblebaseinthe1880swastoradicallytransformphotography.Thecameraunderwentaveritablemetamorphosis,becomingsmallerandmechanical.Theprovisionofasuccessionofviews,withafacilitythatcouldnothavebeenimaginedwithnegativesonglassplates,filmsimplifiedphotographysocomprehensivelythatitintroducedarealrevolutioninourwayofobservingandcommunicatingandopenedthewaytothehugeactivityofphotographersinthetwentiethcentury.

Theuseofthefilmenabledtheemergenceofthecinemaand35mmcinemafilm,developedbyEdison,ledtoanotherinnovation,thefamousLeicaofOskarBarnack.Withthisinstrument,theactualconceptofthemoderncameracameintoitsown.WiththeappearanceofRolleiflexfromtheendofthe1920s,itbecamethetoolparexcellenceofphotographicreportersandplayedanimportantroleinthegoldenageoftheillustratedpress.

After1945,therapideconomicrecovery,togetherwitheasieraccesstoleisureactivities,gaveanewleaseoflifetothephotographyindustry.Filmlentitselfideallytointensiveindustrialization,andphotographyenteredtherealmsofmassconsumption.Withthegeneralintroductionoftherapiduseofcolorinthe1960s,filmanditsprocessingbecameasupermarketproduct.

Althoughfilmfirstappearedonlyjustbeforethetwentiethcentury,itistodayalreadyintheprocessofdisappearinginthefaceofrapidemergenceofthedigitalimage–andyetneverhavemanufacturersofferedsucheffectiveemulsions,asthosecomingfromthelatestresearchinthefield.

FilmFilm,orratherphotographicfilm,ismadeofagelatineemulsioncontainingsilvergrains,whicharelight-sensitive,appliedtoaflexiblebase.Inblackandwhite,ithasonlyonelayerofemulsionandthreeincolor,respectivelysensitivetoblue,greenandred.

From1908,aso-called“safety”film,madeofcelluloseacetate,graduallyreplacedthefirsttransparentbasesmadeofhighlyinflammablenitratecellulose.

Thisfilmdoesnot“see”allthecolorsofthespectrum,andisinsensitivetheredlight,whichappearsblackinthepicture.ThisspectralsensitivitywasdevelopedduringthephotographiccolorresearchconductedparticularlybyAdolfMietheandArthurTraube.Inthe1920s,thisgavebirthtothepanchromaticfilm,whichwassensitivetothewholevisiblespectrum.

Thesilvergrainsizedeterminedthesensitivityofthefilmtolight.Thebiggerthegrains,themoresensitivethefilm,orthelessitneedslighttobeexposed,andmorethephotographywillbegranular.Sensitivitymeasurementscalesappearedaroundtheendofthenineteenthcentury,andbecamestandardizedinthe1930swiththeDINandASAnorms.Towards1950,evengreatersensitivitylevelswereproposed,suchasthe1250ASA,(todayISO)oftheRoyalXpanofKodak,whichwasintroducedin1959.

The“natural”reproductionofcolorshasalwayshadtocomeupagainstthehighlysubjectivewaytheseareperceivedbyeveryone.Numeroussurveysandstudieshavebeenconductedbymanufacturersinthehopeofbeingabletooffermoresuitableemulsionstoeveryone’staste–eventakingintoaccountculturalandgeographicaspects.lxvi

30

TheFirstFilmWellbeforetheappearanceofthefirstGeorgeEastmanfilm,afirstexampleofafilmemergedduringtheFranco-Germanwarof1870.Onthisoccasion,importantdocumentswerereducedphotographicallyontoapieceofcollodionandthenflownbypigeontothebesiegedParisians.

PrudentRené-PatriceDagron,achemistandphotographer,inventedacameratowards1860thatcouldproducephotographicviewslessthan2mmsquare.Amovingglassplatecarrying9lensreproducedthepictureasmanytimesasrequiredtofillthesensitiveplate.

Cutoutstraightfromtheplate,thesetinyphotographscouldbeaffixedtovariousarticles,suchasjewels,penholdersorothertouristitems.Theywereappliedbymeansofgluingwithaconeactingasamagnifyingglass,theStanhopelens.

Airmail,setupafterameetingwithwell-knownphotographerandcaricaturistGaspard-FélixTournachon,knownbythepseudonymNadar,provedveryusefulduringthewarof1870.Dispatchesandmailwerereducedontoacollodionfilm.Thislightandflexiblematerialwastakenaftertreatmentfromtheglassplate,whichactedasitsmedium,thenrolledintoafeathertube,whichwasfinallyfixedtoahomingpigeon’stail.Theanimalcouldthuscarryupto18filmsthesizeofaquarterofaplayingcard,eachcontainingtheequivalentof16foliopages.Allweighinglessthanagram.Thefirstfilmwasborn.lxvii

FromoneSpooltotheotherAttemptsweremadetoreplacetheglassplatebyaflexiblepaperstrip,culminatinginthemiddleofthe1880swiththesuccessoftherollerchassisofGeorgeEastmanandWilliamWalker,andtheAmericanFilm.

Theglassplate,usedsincethemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyasthebaseforphotographicemulsion,provedtohaveanumberofdisadvantages:itsfragility,bulkandweight.Areturntotheuseofasensitivepaper,whichproducedinlongstripsfeedingfromonebobbintotheother,wasquicklydeveloped.

Althoughthefirstknownfilmtobedrawnbyarollermechanismalreadydatesbackto1854,itwasnotuntiltheeffortsofGeorgeEastmanthatsuchamechanismbecamepopularwiththepublic.FounderofwhatwastobecometheKodakbrand,Eastmanwantedtoputphotographywithineverybody’sreach.In1884-85,helaunchedthenegativeinrollformwithabobbinchassis.

Asthegrainofthebasepapercouldstillbeseenonthephotograph,EastmansoonafterproducedtheAmericanFilm,anadvancedfilmthatmadeitpossibletoseparatethebasepaperfromthesensitivelayerafterdevelopment.Whenprinting,thesensitivesurfacetransferredontoaglassplate,guaranteeingabetterpicturedefinitionduetoitstransparency.lxviii

“YoupresstheButton,wedotheRest”Followingthefavorablereceptionthebobbinchassisreceivedfromthepublic,Eastmandecidedtointegrateitinsideacamera.Hepursuedhisresearchinthisdirectionandin1888createdtheKodakOriginal–acamerathatwastoreallypopularizephotography.

Forthislaunch,EastmandevisedthenameofKodak,easytopronounceinalllanguages.Thiscamera,soeasytouse,broughtphotographywithineverybody’sreach,despiteapriceof25dollars,whichwashighforthetimes.ThemostrevolutionaryitemproposedbyEastmanwasadevelopmentandprintingserviceprocess.Oncethefilmwasexposed,theusersenthiscameratothefactoryandgotitbackafewdayslater

31

fullyreloaded.Itcamebackwiththedevelopedfilmandthenegativesmountedoncardboard.Thus,theuserdidnothavetoworryaboutthesedelicateprocessesanymore.Eastmanadaptedtheslogan:“Youpressthebutton,wedotherest”.

From1889,Eastmanreplacedhisfilm’sbasepaperwithcelluloid,atransparentmaterial.Althoughhewasthefirsttocommercializeit,Eastmanwashowevernotthefirsttoinventcelluloidfilm:aminister,HannibalGoodwin,hadtakenoutapatentforthistwoyearsearlier,butithadtakenalongtimetobedelivered.

Eastman’sworkmadeadecisiveimpactonthehistoryofphotography,anticipatingthepopularsuccessitwastoencountertoday.lxix

TheEscopette(literally“Blunderbuss”)ThesuccessoftheKodakOriginalencouragedothercameramakerstodesigncamerascapableofusingEastman’sfilm.ThiswasthecasefortheEscopette,madebyAlbertDarier,andpatentedinNovember1888.

TheEscopette’snamestemsfromthegunbearingthesamename,becauseofitsshape:thecamerawasmountedonapistolgrip,andatriggerservedastheshutterrelease.Itwaseasilyhand-heldbutcouldalsobestoodupusingthetwomovablelegslocatedonthefrontofthecamera.LiketheKodakOriginal,thecameradidnothaveaviewfinder,buthadlinesofsightdrawnontothebodyinstead.lxx

In1889,SwissphotographerFrédéricBoissonnastookaseriesofphotographsoftheVeveyWinemakers’FairusingtheEscopette.Theseweregatheredtogetherasaphotographalbum,whichwasprobablypublishedasalimitededition.

BringingtheImagetoLifeFamousAmericaninventorThomasAlvaEdisonplayedacrucialroleinthebirthofthecinematographicindustry.Instrumentalincreatingtheperforated35mmfilm,whichthenbecamethestandardformatforcinemaandphotography,Edisoninventedthefirstcommercializedfilmviewer,theKinetoscope,patentedin1891.

Havingdesignedthephonograph,adevice,whichrecordedandreproducedsounds,Edisonwaslookingforawayto“dofortheeyewhatthephonographdidfortheear”.In1891,heinventedtheKinetoscope,adevice,whichmadeitpossibleforasinglespectatortoviewshortfilmslastingabout30secondseach.

Atthesametime,hedevelopedtheKinetograph,acinematographiccamera.Inordertoshoothisfilms,Edisonordered35mmformatfilmfromEastmanandBlair,halfthewidthofthefilmusedfortheKodakOriginal.Hedecidedtoperforatethefilmsoacogwheelcouldturnit.Theperforated35mmfilmbecamethestandardformatforcinema,andthenlaterthestandardformatforphotography.lxxi

TheBirthofCinemaIntheracefortheinventionofcinema,brothersAugusteandLouisLumièreweretheofficialcreatorsoftheprocess.In1895,theypatentedadevice,whichcouldtakepictures,printpositivesandprojectthemontoascreen.

Inventorsofseveraldevicesinthefieldofphotography,theFrenchLumièrebrothersalsoinventedtheCinematograph.ThepatentwasregisteredinFebruary1895,butitwasonlyinDecemberthatyearthattheCinematographbecametrulyoperational.

32

Marey’schronophotographicshotswerealreadyveryclosetocinematographicphotograms,butonlyveryshortserieswerepossible.Edison’sinventionsolvedthatproblem,usinglongreelsoffilm,butitwasnotcapableofprojection.WiththeCinematograph,theLumièrebrotherswereabletoputtogether“long”sequencesoffilmandprojectthemforseveralspectators.

AugusteandLouisLumièregavethecinematographicindustryitstruebeginnings.Theyorganizedpayingpublicprojectionsand,asearlyas1896,trainedoperators,whoweresentalloverFrancetoshootfilms.lxxii

KodaksforEveryoneOneofthemaindrivingprinciplesbehindtheworld-famousKodakbrandwasfounderGeorgeEastman’sdesiretosimplifyandpopularizephotography.Afterthelaunchofitsfirstcamerain1888,thecompanyreleasedalargenumberandwidevarietyofproducts.

Consciousoftheeconomicbenefitstobederivedfromthegrowthintheamateurphotographymarket,Eastmansetupagenuinemarketingprojectaheadofhistime.Throughthediversityofcamerassoldandintensiveadvertisingcampaigns,heattemptedtoreachallpotentialusers,anddidnothesitatetotargetnewaudiences,suchaswomenandchildren.

Inthespaceofafewyears,Kodakproduceddozensofdifferentmodelsinordertomeetalltheamateurs’needs.Aspartofitsdrivetopopularizephotography,thecompanymadeitsproductsmoreandmoreaffordable,eventuallysellingonecamera,theBrownie,forjust1dollar.

Kodak’ssuccessenabledthecompanytoretainapositionofvirtualmonopolyformanyyears.OthergiantsofthephotographyindustrysuchasZeissonlybegantogrowmuchlater,duringthe1920s.Theword“Kodak”wasevenusedinthevernacularforawhile,asatermreferringtoanycamera.lxxiii

SpyCamerasMadepossiblebytheappearanceofgelatino-bromideplates,spycamerasbecameveryfashionableinthe1880s.Hiddenwithineverydayobjects,theymadeitpossibletotakephotographsunnoticed.Emergenceoffilm,whichusedamoreflexible,morecompactformat,furtherstimulatedthecreativityofinventors.

Thefilmreelwasadaptedtoallkindsofeverydayobjects.Cameraswerehiddenwithingentleman’sattire,awatch,acane,ahatetc.,orinsomecaseshandbags,whichwereusedbytheSovietUnion’sintelligenceservice,theKGB.

Sinceitwasimportantfordiscretion’ssakenottotakeobviousaimatthesubject,themainproblemintermsoftakingphotographswiththosekindsofcameraswastheframingoftheshot.

VestPocket:theSoldier’sCamera?Asitsnamesuggests,theVestPocketwasacamerasmallenoughtofitinavest(orjacket)pocket.Thisfoldablecamera’sreducedsizewasalsoduetotheuseof127-formatfilm,whichwasmorecompactthanitspredecessors.Itssize,thesimplicityofitsuseanditsaffordablecostmadeitagreatsuccessafteritsreleasein1912.

DuringtheFirstWorldWar,KodaklaunchedanadvertisingcampaignintheUnitedStatesencouragingrecruitstobuythiscamera.ItwasdepictedasawaytorelievetheboredominthetrainingcampswheresoldierswerestationedbeforebeingsenttoEurope,andawaytosharetheireverydaylifewithlovedones.InFrance,advertisementsfortheVestPocketappearedinthePhoto-Plaitcatalogues,describingthe

33

cameraas“thesoldier’sKodak”.ThiswouldappeartosuggestthateveryonehadtheirownVestPocketatthetime.Infact,itseemstohavebeenownedmainlybyofficersandahandfulofsoldiersfromwell-to-dobackgrounds.

Despiteanofficialbanontakingphotographsatthefrontline,toprotectthesecrecyofmilitaryoperations,countlessphotographsweretaken.Someillustratednewspaperseventookadvantageoftheabundanceofimagesandorganizedcontestsrewardingthebestamateurwarphotography.lxxiv

SheetFilmandFilmPackFilmcamenotonlyinrolled-upform,butalsoasindividualsheets–sheetfilm.Thelatterappearedonthemarketin1884toreplacetheglassplate,anddevelopedatthesametimeasthefilmreel.Insertedwithinaframeatfirst,itlateralsobecameavailableinsideacartridge,theFilmPack.

Sheetfilmsweremadeofasheetofcelluloidslightlythickerandmorerigidthanrolled-upfilm.Theywereeithersetwithinaframe,whichusuallycontainedtwosheetfilmsback-to-back,thewayglassplateswereset,orwithinacartridge,whichhadagreatercapacity.Inthelattercase,thesheetfilmswerethinner.

In1884,EnglishmanJohnCarbuttwasthefirsttoselltheseflatsheetsofcelluloid.Sheetfilmswereseenasanexcellentsubstituteforglassplates,whichwereheavyandfragile,andtheymadeitpossibletocontinuetouseplate-basedcameras,suchasfieldcameras,whilststillenjoyingtheadvantagesoffilm.lxxv

BreakingdownMovementFollowingEadweardMuybridge’sworkontherepresentationofmovement,FrenchphysiologistEtienne-JulesMareyrealizedhowmuchhecouldbenefithisownstudiesviatheuseofphotography.Hedesignedaphotographicchamberusingglassplates,whichhethenadaptedtotheuseoffilmrolls.

Inthecourseofhisresearch,Mareyfirsttookaninterestinmovementinsidethebody,suchasbloodcirculationandbreathing.Hethenwidenedthescopeofhisstudiestoallformsoflocomotion,betheyhumanoranimal.lxxvi

TheimagescapturedbyMuybridgepromptedMareytoturntochronophotography,aseriesofsuccessiveframes,whichbrokedownmovement.Havingobtainedhisfirstresultsusingaphotographicrifle,Mareyequippedaphotographicchamberwitharotatingshutterwithadjustableaperture,capturing10imagespersecond.Everytimetheaperturepassesinfrontofthelens,thesubjecthasmovedveryslightly,andoneobtainsasuccessionofmovementsonthesamesensitiveplate.Thedrawbackisthatimagesaresuperimposedifthesubjectisnotmovingfastenough.Thisproblemwassolvedin1888byEastman’spaperfilmroll,andthenbycelluloidfilmin1890.Apressframedevicemadeitpossibletomovethefilmforward,andthentostopitforeachshot.Theprincipleofthecinematographiccamerawasborn.lxxvii

Leica:“smallNegatives,largePhotographs”Thecamera,whichtrulylaunchedtheuseof35mmfilminphotography,wastheLeica,whichappearedonthemarketin1925.Itsetthesizeofthesmallformatwitha24x36mmnegative.

Itsinventor,GermanOskarBarnack,washeadoftheResearchandDevelopmentdepartmentattheErnstLeitzOpticalInstituteinWetzlar.Aphotographyenthusiastwhosehealthwasfragile,hehadlongwantedtodesignalight,handyphotographiccamerahecouldtakewithhimonhiswalks.Healsodesignedasmalldevicethatwascapableoftestingtheexposureofcinematographicimages.Noticingthatcinemanegatives

34

producedenlargementsofanexcellentquality,hedecidedtoturnwhatwasatfirstonlyacinematographicaccessoryintothepocketcamerahewantedtodesign.Prototypesweremadeasearlyas1913,buttheFirstWorldWarinterruptedBarnack’sresearch,anditwasnotuntil1925thatLeitzlauncheditsfirstseriesofcamerasonthemarket.

TheLeica,acontractionofLeitzCamera,definedwhatstilltodayrepresentsthesmallformat.Barnack,takingupanideathathadalreadybeenappliedtocertaindevicespriortotheLeica,doubledthestandardsizeofthecinemanegative.Hethusobtaineda24x36mmformat,whichproducedimagesthatwereofanevenhigherquality.Barnackfeltthatthetwo-thirdsratiobetweenthesideswasmoreharmonious.lxxviii

RolleiflexReleasedin1929byGermancompanyFranke&Heidecke,theRolleiflexquicklybecamethereportingtoolofchoiceforthosewhodidnotwishtoswitchtothesmallerformat.

Thiscamerahadtwolenses,oneforviewingandoneforframing.Theimagewasreflectedbyamirrorontoagroundglassfoundonthetopofthecamera.Thissystem,whichmadeclearviewingpossible,hadalreadybeenknownforabout50yearsatthetime.Franke&Heideckewerethefirsttoapplythisdevicetoacamerausingfilm.

Madeentirelyoutofmetal,theRolleiflexwasverypopularamongstreporters,wholikedhowitoperatedsilentlyandthecontinuityoftheviewing,whilethephotographwastaken,thankstothe2-lenssystem,aswellasitsrobustness.Theviewingglassonthetopofthecamerawasalsoanencouragementtotakephotographsfromotherpointsofview,ratherthanalwaysateyelevel.Lastly,Rolleiflex’s6x6cmimageformatgaveenlargementsbetterdefinitionthanthe24x36mmformat.

Rolleiflex,theLeicaandtheSpeedGraphicbecamethethreemaincamerasusedbyphotojournalists,witheachcameraofferingdifferentpossibilitiesintermsofworkingmethods,butalsointermsofresults.

ColorColortookoffinthemiddleofthe1930swiththeemergenceofnewemulsionsdesignedinitiallyforcinemaandadaptedafterwardsforuseinphotography.

SeveralyearsaftertheLumièreautochromeplates,filmsbegantoappearusingthesamebasicprinciple:anetworkofmicroscopicelementscoloredinthethreeprimarycolors,blue,greenandred,filteredthelight.Amongsttheseso-calledgeometricalscreenfilmscanbefoundforinstancetheDufaycolorandtheFinlay.AgfaputanAgfacolorfilmonthemarketin1932,whichusedthesameprocess.Thedifferencewasthatitusedafiltermadeofthreestripsofglasstintedinblue,redandgreenplacedinfrontofthelensinsteadofageometricalscreenonthesurfaceofthefilm.Thissurface,however,wascoveredinaframeworkofmicrolenses.

TheappearanceofKodachromein1935markedtheemergenceofanewprocessbasedonthesubtractionofcolorsratherthantheiraddition.Itmadeitpossibletohaveanimagewithoutageometricalscreen,whichthereforehadamuchfinergrain.ItwasfollowedayearlaterbyAgfacolorNeu.Thecomplexdevelopmentprocessforthesetwofilmsmeantthatuserswereforcedtosendthefilmsbacktoalaboncetheywereexposed.Thesetwofilms,whichtooktheformofslidesonceprocessed,pavedthewayforthedemocratizationofcolor.

35

PhotographerPigeonsThefirstknownaerialphotographsweretakenbyNadarin1858duringahot-airballoonflight.Anovelideaintermsoftakingphotographsfromtheskyappearedabout40yearslater:asmallcameraspecificallydesignedtobecarriedbyapigeon,inconspicuouslycapturingsatelliteimages.

WilhelmNeubronner,apharmacistfromKronberginGermany,hadcarrierpigeonsthatbroughthimurgentprescriptions.HissonJuliuscontinuedthispractice.Inordertoverifytheroutetakenbyoneofhispigeons,hedesignedasmalldevice,whichcouldbefittedtothebird’schestusingelasticstraps.Patentedin1903,thiscameratookseveralsnapshotsonfilmthatis4cmalongeachsideusingadelayed-actionautomatictrigger.lxxix

Around1910,JuliusNeubronnerdesignedasecondcamera:theDoppel-Sport.Ittookasinglepanoramicimageonacurved3x8cmnegativewitharotatinglens,activatedbyadelayed-actiontrigger.lxxx

Inthe1930s,ChristianAdrianMichel,theSwissownerofawatchmakingpartsfactoryinAargau,designedacameraadaptingtheDoppel-Sporttouse16mmmoviefilm.Thecamera,whichwasneveracommercialsuccess,wasequippedwithatimingmechanism,whichensuredthedelayoftheshotbeingtaken,themovingofthefilmandtheintervalbetweenphotographs.

CamerasinespionageBeforethespycamerabusinessgrew,crimesceneswererecordedbydaguerreotypephotography.Thesecamerascouldcapturescenes,butnothingwassmallenoughtobecarriedaroundinthepocketoradvancedenoughtocapturestillimagesofmotion.ThiswasuntilthefamousMinoxsubminiaturecamera,firstdevisedin1922.Nearlyacenturyafterthephotographwasinvented,thespycamerawasconceived.SomeofthefirstsecretcamerasweredesignedbyWalterZappinGermanybetween1937and1943.DuringWorldWarII,agencieswereinterestedbythesmallsizeandmacrofocusingcapacityofthespycamerasforinconspicuoususeinsurveillanceanddocumentcopying.SpycamerasbecamealuxuryitemandwerecommonlyusedasanespionagetoolintheColdWar,whilstproductionwasdevelopingtechnologically,alsocreatinganumberofaccessories.SpyCameraaccessoriessuchastripodmountsandflashgunsalloweduserstobranchoutintomorecomplexformsofphotography.EastmanKodak,aleaderinthestandardphotographyindustry,producedacameratofitperfectlyinsideofamatchbox,whichtheU.S.OfficeofStrategicServicesusedduringWorldWarII.Inthe1940s,theSteinbeckABCWristWatchCamerawasreleased,whichsoonbecameahighlysoughtafteritem.However,thefaceofthewatchquiteclearlycontainedalensifyoulookedclosely.By1960,F21alsoknownasAJAX(partofAnalogMuseumcollection)cameraswereinusebyKGBagents.Thelightweightcamerawasconcealedinacoatbutton.Alltheagenthadtodowaspressabuttonfromareleaseshutterinhispocket,andthefrontofthecamerawouldquicklyopenasthecameratookaphoto.GermanStasiagentsalsousedthefamousbriefcasecamerasinthe1970sand80s,whichallowedthemtoshootimagesininfraredtoexposelowlightcondition

36

TrickingthemassesAsthepopularityofspycamerasgrew,companiesbeganmakingproductstolookasthoughtheycontainedspycameras(forinstancetheminiaturemodelcameraasalighter-partofAnalogMuseumcollection).TheKievJohnPlayerwasapackoffakecigarettesfittedwithtinycameras,createdastrickgiftsforgullibletourists,passedoffasusedbytheKGBagents.Itdid,however,work,ifyouknewhowtouseit.Today,secretcameratechnologyhasprogressedsignificantlyfromitsroots,butsomevintagemodelsarestillavailabletocollectors,suchastheMinoxB,EC,MX,TLX,Litelightercamera,ExpowatchcameraandDSC.Withtheadventofdigitalphotographyinthe20stcenturyspycamerashaveevolvedtobeabletodigitallyrecordstillandmovingimages,aswellassound.Recentlyspycamerashavedevelopedtouse3Gspycameratechnologiestoallowuserstorecordfromanywhereintheworld.Morepeopleareusingspycameraseverydayastheybecomeincreasinglytechnologicallyadvanced.Now,hiddencamerasaretotallyunnoticeableandabletoperformavarietyoftaskstoallowuserstofindoutanythingtheyneed.TheUKtodaycurrentlyisusing4.2millionCCTVcamerasacrossthecountry.Covertcamerascanbehiddeninobjectsfromglassesandpenstoclocks,andareavailableforusebyemployers,employees,membersofthepoliceforceandthegeneralpublic.

1939-1945:photographyinthewaryearsTheSecondWorldWarsloweddownboththeproductionofphotographyequipmentinEuropeanditsimportfromtheUnitedStates.Themanufactureofcamerasformilitaryuse,ontheotherhand,grew.Photographerswereonthefrontlinesandtookpictures,whichtheillustratedpresseagerlypublished.Theseweresometimesalsousedforpropaganda.

DuringtheFirstWorldWarin1914-1918,theworkofthefirstwarphotojournalistswascloselymonitored,evencensoredattimes.Itwasonlylaterthattheprofessiongrewinstature,andthatthemajormagazinesbeganpublishingtheirworkregularly.ThesecommittedphotographersmadeRobertCapa’sphrasetheirown:“Ifyourpicturesaren’tgoodenough,you’renotcloseenough”.

Theproductionofcamerasformilitaryuse,whichalreadyexisted,grewinscaleandinrefinement.Somecompanieshadalreadybecomespecializedinthatareaofproduction,andlargemanufacturersproducedmilitaryversionsoftheircamerasinordertomeetdemand.Thehandcamerasusedforaerialphotographyweregraduallyreplacedbymotorizedcamerasusingfilm,whichwereoperateddirectlybythepilot,liketheweapons.

Somecompaniescontinuedtheirproduction,albeitonareducedscale,andfounditdifficulttoobtainsupplies,liketheLeitzcompanyforinstance,whichranoutoffocalplaneshuttercurtain,andusedredmaterialprovidedbytheNagelfactoryinStuttgartwhichKodakhadtakenoverintheearly1930s.

PolaroidAmericanphysicistEdwinLandinventedthefirstsatisfactoryprocessmakingitpossibletodevelopsnapshotsinstantaneously.Madeavailabletothepublicin1947,thePolaroidcameinawidevarietyofmodelsuntilthecompanyceasedtooperatein2008.

37

ThemethodusedbyLandwastotransferthenegative’ssilvergrainsthatwerenotexposed,whichwerenormallyeliminatedduringdevelopment,toanotherlayerwheretheywerereducedtometallicsilver,creatingthepositiveimage.

ThefirstPolaroidcamera,theModel95,usedaspecialrolloffilmmadebyKodak.Itproducedblackandwhiteproofs,whichtookexactlyoneminutetodevelop.Land’sprocesswaslaterimprovedseveraltimes.Colorappearedin1963.Thesameyear,therolloffilmwasreplacedbytheFilmPack,whichmeantthatonecouldcontinuetotakepictures,whiletheimagewasdevelopingoutsidethecamera.lxxxi

ThePolaroidsystem,whichwasarapidsuccesswiththegeneralpublic,alsoattractedotherusersduetoitsimmediacy.Itwasthususedforidentitydocuments,medicalphotographyoratcrimescenes,andbecameaverypopularartisticformat.lxxxii

Since2010,ahandfulofformerPolaroidemployeeshavebeentryingtoreviveproductionoffilms.

TheToolsoftheProfessionalPhotographerAftertheWar,theprofessionalphotographerhadawholerangeofmoderndevicesathisdisposal,whichmethisvariousneedsverywell:reporting,architecture,advertisementimages,fashion,portraitsetc.

Asearlyasthe1930s,thephotographerhadanewandveryusefulsourceoflightathisdisposal:themagnesiumbulbflash.Thebulbcontainingmagnesiuminwireformwassometimescoloredbluetoemulatebetterthehueofdaylight;itwassingle-useonly,asitburnedwhenactivatedandhadtobereplacedbeforetakinganotherphotograph.

Photojournalists’favoritetoolswerebeingmodernized:theyhadawidevarietyofinterchangeableoptics,camerasthatweregettinglighterandlighter,andwhichwereeasytouseinallconditions.Theimprovingsmallformatreflexwasrapidlybecomingmorepopularthankstoitsviewingsystem,whichwouldsoonreplacethetelemetricviewingcamera.

Forstudiophotographsorarchitecturalshots,thephotographerusedanopticalbenchchamber,adevice,whichhasforwardandbackbodiesmountedonabaralongwhichtheyslide.Thissystem,whichuseslargeformatsheetfilm,allowsforgreatflexibilityintermsofopticalcorrectionmovements(tilt,swingandshift),andmakesitpossibletocombineseveralcomponentseasily.

Anothercamera,whichwasverypopularduetoitsversatility,wastheHasselblad,amedium-formatreflexmadeinSwedenfrom1948andderivedfromanaerialphotographydevicedesignedformilitaryuse.Itisamodularsystem,inwhichcomponentssuchasthelens,thefilmhousing,theviewfinderandeventhewindingknobareinterchangeable.

ArtificialLightThefirstinstancesoftheuseofelectriclightinginphotographydatebacktotheendofthenineteenthcentury.Theincandescentlampwouldbecomeacommonsightinphotographers’workshops,onlytobereplacedbythestudioelectronicflashfromthe1960s.

In1925,brothersLaurentandAugustinSeguinfirstpresentedthetrueinventionoftheelectronicflash:theStroborama,whichapparentlyimmobilizesamovingbodythroughaseriesofbriefflashesoflightrepeatedatagivenfrequency.Theflashiscausedbytheinstantaneousdischargeofanelectricalsparkwithinatube

38

filledbyararegas,krypton.Animportantbreakthroughwasmade,whenacapacitorwasdevelopedthatcouldstoretheelectricalenergyneededforthedischarge.

In1936,FrenchmanPaulLaportehadtheideaofusingxenon,whichhasahueclosetothatofdaylightwhenitismadeaconductorofelectricalcurrent.AmericanphysicistHaroldEdgertondesignedthefirststudioelectronicflashin1939.RussianengineerDimitriRebikoffbeganworkingonthesubjectin1943inParis,andinSwitzerlandafterthat,wherehewasrepresentedbyPierreBron,whodecidedtoundertakethemanufacturingandproducedthefirstBroncolorflashin1953.

Thefirstportableflasheswereratherunwieldy:thegenerator,housedinacaseorsatchel,includedrechargeableaccumulators.Technicalprogressgraduallyenabledthisequipmenttobemademorecompact.

TheReflexCameraTheprincipleofthereflexcameramadeviewingpossiblethroughthelens,inotherwordstheexactviewofwhatoneisgoingtophotograph.Thefirstreflexcamerasappearedaround1890.Thesmallformatreflexappearedtowardstheendofthe1930s,andbecamemoreandmoresuccessful.

Themainadvantagesofreflexviewfinding,intermsoffocusinginmacrophotographyforinstance,promptedmanufacturerstointegrateitwithinsmallandmediumformatcamerasofthe1930s.TheСпорт(Sport),madeinRussiaaround1935,wasallegedlythefirstsmallformatreflexcameraonthemarket.Thisnewreflexgenerationstillhadamajordrawback:theviewingwasobscured,whenthediaphragmwasshuttotakethephotograph.lxxxiii

Around1935aSwissprecursor,JacquesBoolsky,designedasmallformatreflexcamera,andentrustedPignonsS.A.ofBallaiguesintheVaudJuraregionwithitsresearchandmanufacturing.Combiningreflexviewfindingandatelemetricviewfinder,thiscamerawasreleasedindifferentversionsfrom1939,andthefinalversionwaseventuallypresentedattheBaselSampleFairin1944,andmarketedastheAlpaReflexI.

TheLeicaofRobertFrankandtheAmericansBornin1924,RobertFrankspenthisyouthinSwitzerlandandbeinginterestedinphotographyfromaveryearlyage,madeithisprofession.AfteravisittoPeruin1948,hespentseveralyearstravellingextensivelythroughoutbothEuropeandtheUnitedStates,whereheestablishedhimselfasanobserverofAmericansociety.In1953,hereceivedagrantfromtheGuggenheimFoundationtoundertakeavisualdocumentationoftheAmericancivilization,equippedhimselfwithaLeicaandwentallaroundtheUnitedStatesfromApril1955untilJune1956.Theresultantbookentitled“TheAmericans”waspublishedbyRobertDelpirein1958andwasfollowedbyanAmericaneditionin1959,withaprefacebyfamednovelistandpoetJackKerouac.lxxxiv

JapaneseCamerasCameraproductioninJapanbeganinthe1930s,andgrewaftertheSecondWorldWaruntiliteventuallydominatedthephotographymarketfromthemid-1960sonwards.In1930inTokyo,threemendecidedtobuildacamerasimilartotheLeica,butwhichwouldbeaffordableforJapanesepeople.GoroYoshida,SaburoUchidaandTakeoMaedacreatedthecompany,whichwouldlaterbecomeCanon,andsoldtheirfirstcamerain1936.

39

Afterthewar,occupiedJapanwasforcedtoconvertitsindustrytocivilianpurposes.Oneoftheactivitiesitchosewastheproductionofphotographiccameras.OneofthesecorporationswasNipponKogaku,whichwouldlaterbecomeNikon,andwhichreleaseditsfirstcamerain1948.Alonglineof35mmcamerasfollowed,whosereputationspeaksforitself.

WesternphotographersfirstsawthesecamerasinthehandsoftheirJapanesecounterpartsduringtheKoreanWar.Japanesecameras,whichwereinnovative,ofexcellentqualityandsoldatincrediblylowprices,soonexplodedontotheglobalphotographyequipmentmarket.

TheLifeofanImagePhotographersreturnedfromtheirexpeditionswithrollsofexposedfilm,whichhadtobetreatedproperlyforimagestoberecovered.Fromeveryfilm,acontactsheetwasobtaineduponwhichimagesappearedinthenegative’sformat.Thephotographer’sworkfedtheillustratedpress,whichwasincrediblysuccessfulduringthetwentiethcentury.

Itwasfromthecontactsheetthatthephotographerselectedimagesforenlargement.For6x6cm,inordertoavoidwaste,photographersusedscissorstomakeafirstselectionofnegativesbeforeplacingcontactsheetstogetheronacardboardpanel.For35mmhowever,thefilmwaslesseasytohandleandthewholerolloffilmwascontactprintedontoasinglesheetofphotographicpaper.

Thesquare6x6cmformatallowedthephotographertocontinuetheframingprocessinthelabbyselectingaheightorwidthformat,oftentomeetthepagesettingrequirementsofanewspaper,andrefiningtheframingmarkedonthecontactsheet.

The24x36mmnegative’ssmallsizemadethisunfeasible,andprogressinthequalityofviewfindersfavoredtakingphotographsthatwereframedonthespot;keepingtheoriginalframingactuallybecameagoldenruleforsomephotographers.

Accesstothisrawmaterialwasarichlearningexperience,showingforinstancejusthowmanypicturesphotographershadtotakeinordertogettheonethatworked,whetherintermsofframingorlightingorthemomentthephotographerchosetocapture.

SnapshotsofRealLifeThephotographicimagebecameaccessibletoall,whetheractororspectator:inbooksandmonographs,richly-illustratedmanualsofalltypes,attractivealbums,whichonecouldfillwithone’sownpictures,andlastbutnotleast,asanewcomerabouttoenteritsheyday,thepostcard.

Asearlyastheinterwarperiod,photographyenjoyedrapidgrowthandbecameanexcellentvehicleforphotographerstomakethemselvesknownandtospreadtheirwork,somewhatlessephemeralthanappearingintheillustratedpress.

Thenewpracticeofinstantaneousphotographybecamethesubjectofinstructionmanuals,whichenabledtheamateurtomastertheessentialaspectssuchasframing,seizingtherightmoment,notforgettingtheassessmentoftheproperposingtimedependingonthelighting.Allstillfarfromeasywhenusingthecamerasofthetime.

40

Photographyassumeditsplacewithinalbumsthatfamiliesputtogethercarefully,mindfuloftheimageitwasprojecting.Onesawnotonlyfamilymemberscarryingouteverydayactivities,buttheycouldalsobeposingalongsidetheirprizedpossessions,suchastheircars.

Thepostcard,printedfirstinblackandwhiteandthenincolor,wasafantasticvectorforthespreadofthephotographicimageofavarietyofsubjects,andbegantoexperienceconsiderablegrowthfromthelatterpartofthe1890s.Printedinextensiveseriesonphotographicpaperbyphotographersorspecializedpublishers,itcouldalsobea“home”print,sometimesevenunique,printedonpaperoftheappropriateformat,withspacesforthemessageandtheaddressontheback.

PhotographyforAllBy1950,almosteveryonehadaccesstoawidevarietyofphotographicequipmentandservices,dependingonwhatonewanted.Photographyshopssoldcamerasandaccessories,labequipment,filmsandpapers.Developingfilmsandprintingenlargementsforcustomers,theirownerswereoftenactivephotographersoutsideofbusinesshours.

Theeasewithwhichnewmodelsofcameraswithlittlereelsoffilmcouldbeusedattractedawiderangeofusers,whichthephotographyindustrysoonlearnedtotargetusingadvertisingcampaigns:women,youths,so-calledenlightenedamateurs,whohadaccesstoawholearrayofmanualsandclubs.Ofcourse,therewerealsorichcustomers,whocouldfindthegemtofulfiltheireverydesireinthenearestshop.

ThesuccessoftheLeicaandthentheContaxpromptedmanufacturerstooffertheirconsiderablepotentialmarketothermodelsthatweremorecompactandlessexpensive.Kodakmarketedadisposable35mmfilmcartridgefortheRetina,manufacturedbyitsGermanbranchfrom1934,whichwascompatiblewithallexistingcameras,andcontributedtothesuccessofthesmallformat.

Alongwithacameratosuitone’sbudget,ataphotographyshopanyonecouldfindpersonalizedadviceorevenlessons,allsortsofpublications,andanafter-salesservice,whichensuredthatfilmsweredevelopedandphotographswereprinted.Thosewhowishedtoprocesstheimagesthemselvescouldacquireanenlargeradaptedtotheirneeds,labmaterial,vatsfordevelopingnegativesandallsortsofpaperfortheprints.

RetrofocusandZoomAFrenchengineerandopticiannamedPierreAngénieuxbroughtaboutrevolutionaryadvancesinopticsforphotography,cinemaandtelevision:thewide-angleretrofocusin1950,lenseswithverywideaperture(f:0.95)from1953,andtheconstantaperturezoomlensforcinemain1956.

Theimageofawide-anglelensformssoclosetothelastcomponent,thattherewasnotenoughspaceleftforthereflexviewfinder’smirror.Inordertosolvethisproblem,in1950FrenchopticianPierreAngénieuxhadthebrilliantideaofdesigningaretrofocuslenswhich“pushedback”theimageinopticalterms,freeingupthespaceneededforthereflexmirror.lxxxv

PierreAngénieux(1907-98)createdtheEtablissementsAngénieuxin1935inParis,andthensettledinhisbirthplaceofSaint-HéandintheLoireregion.Heproducedhighqualitylensesforbothphotographyandcinema.HesuppliedmajorbrandssuchasAlpa,whichdidnotproduceoptics.TheAngénieuxCompanyisnowpartoftheThalesgroup.lxxxvi

41

RogerCuvillier,aFrenchopticalengineerworkingfortheSOM-Berthiot,in1949,inventedthezoomorvariablefocuslensforcinema.In1956,Angénieuxdesignedaconstantaperturezoomlens,usingaveryprecisecammechanism,whichmadegreaterfocalvariationspossible.ThefirstzoomforsmallformatreflexcameraswastheresultofajointeffortbyVoigtländerandZoomarinNewYork,andfirstappearedontheBessamaticin1959.

InstamaticKodakonceagainlaunchedahugelysuccessfulmarketingcampaign,whenitcreatedtheInstamaticseriesin1963.Withitssimplifiedfilm-loadingsystem,theInstamaticrangesoldaround70millionunits,anall-timerecord.

Duringtheperiodofprosperityandconsumption,whichfollowedtheSecondWorldWar,camerasbecameaccessibletoanever-wideraudience.However,thetiresomeneedtoreadtheinstructionmanual,andtheerrorscausedbyfaultyloadingofthefilminthecameraremainedanobstacleforanumberofusers.KodakdealtwiththeproblembyreleasingtheInstamatic,acamera,whichwasextremelyeasytouseandwasloadedwiththeKodapak,35mmfilmcontainedwithinaplasticcartridge.Alloneneededtodowasslideitintothecamera,anditwasreadytotakepictures.Oncethefilmwasexposed,thecartridgeitselfcouldbesenttothelabfordevelopment.Nomorefearoffailingtoloadthefilmproperly.Thisgrantedthegeneralpublicever-greatereaseofaccesstophotography.TheInstamaticalsobroughtaboutahugegrowthinindustrialdevelopmentlabs,whichproducedenormousamountsofcolorprintstomeetthedemand.lxxxvii

In1972,almostadecadeaftertheInstamaticfilm,Kodakintroducedanotherfilmsystem,thePocketFilm.ItofferedthesamebenefitsastheInstamaticsystem,exceptthatthecassettewasmuchsmaller,whichenabledthedesignofanevenmorecompactcamera.

WhiletheInstamaticcassettewasequippedwitha35mm-widefilm,thePocketcassettewasbasedona16mm-widefilm,whosenegativesat13x17mmwereonlyaquarterofthesizeofasmallformatnegative.Filmcassetteswiththedesignationof110weremostlycolornegativefilms,butalsoforblackandwhite,andasslidefilms,withasensibilityintherangeof100to400ISO.

Abouteverydecade,anewfilmsystemcameontothemarket,andnonewasmorepopularthanthesmallformatfilm–includingtheDisc-system,whichwasintroducedintheautumnof1982.

ItwasthesameKodakengineers,whohadalreadybuiltthePocket-system,whosettheirsightsonfurtherdevelopingthisminiaturization.Thenowonly8x10.5mm-sizednegativewasnottobeproducedanymoreasarollfilm.Instead,the15smallnegativesweregroupedontoafilmdisc.

Thesmallformathadtheadvantage,thatitenabledthedevelopmentofevenmorecompactcameras.Qualitatively,theDisc-systemwasnotaltogetherconvincing,sothatfilmproductionhadtowaitsevenyears,beforeitwasreadytostart.lxxxviii

ActionThefirstattemptsmadetoautomatetheforwardmovementoffilmandtheresettingoftheshuttersoastoimprovethespeedoftheshootingdatebacktothebeginningofthetwentiethCentury.Duringthe1960s,manufacturers,Japaneseincluded,offeredmotorizedcameras.

42

TheveryfirstmotorizedcamerawasthePascal,inventedbyFrenchmanFrançoisPascal,patentedin1899.Thisclockworkcameramadeitpossibletotakeadozenconsecutiveshots,3to4shotspersecond.Thereleaseopenedtheshutterandmadethefilmmoveforward.Variousattemptstoautomatetheforwardmovementofthefilmweremadeafterthat.lxxxix

In1934,GermancompanyOttoBerning&CoproducedtheRobot,whichwasacompactcamerafollowinganewdesignwithaclockworkmotor,whichcouldbewoundusingaknurledknob.In1936,Leicadesignedafirstdevice,beforemakingaclockworkmotor,whichwasmadeelectricfrom1939.

Duringthe1960s,manufacturersmadeelectricmotors,whichcouldbefittedunderneaththereflexcameras,makingitpossibletotakeseriesofburst-shots,theuseofwhichbecamemoreandmorewidespread.

Thusequipped,thephotographercouldnowtriggerquickersuccessiveseriesofshotsinordertocapturethemostevocativemomentofagivenevent.Whereasahandfulofimagesofthesamesubjecthadbeenthenormbefore,itbecamequitecommontouseanentirerolloffilm.

Hasselblad:destinationtheMoonPutonthemarketaftertheSecondWorldWar,theHasselbladmodularcamerawasassociatedwiththeAmericanconquestofspacefrom1962,likeitscompetitorNikonwouldbelateron.

In1940,theSwedishgovernmentaskedVictorHasselblad,aphotographerwhohadworkedforKodak,todesignanaerialreconnaissancecameraforitsairforce.Oncethewarwasover,Hasselbladfocusedondesigningacamerabasedonhisaerialmodel.Allitscomponents,fromthelenstothefilmcartridgeandincludingtheviewfindingsystem,wereinterchangeable.Thefirstmodelcameoutin1948.

InOctober1962,astronautWalterSchirratookaHasselbladcamerawithhim,whichNASAhadmodifiedslightly,notablytomakeitaslightaspossible.Thiswasthebeginningofalong-standingcollaboration,stillactivetoday,betweentheagencyandtheSwedishmanufacturer.Sincethattime,HasselbladhasbeendesigningspecialmodelsaccordingtoNASA’sguidelinestoequipmannedflights.TheHasselbladwasnotablypartoftheApollo11expedition,whichtookthefirstpicturesofmanontheMoon.xc

PanoramicPhotographyThefirstpanoramiccamerasappearedonlyafewyearsaftertheofficialinventionofphotography,in1839.Theadventofflexibleformatfilmmadetheiruseconsiderablyeasier.

Panoramicimageshaveawidefieldofview,closertothehumaneye’sviewthanstandardimages.Thedesiretowidenthefieldofviewemergedveryearlyoninthehistoryofphotography.Thefirstpanoramicimages,landscapesmostofthetime,weremadeupofseveralimagesplacedsidebyside.Specifically-designedcamerassoonappeared.Twotypescanbedistinguishedforfilm.

Theycanberotating,whichmeansthatthecameraturnsonitself.Therateatwhichthefilmfeedsfromonereeltotheotherissynchronizedwiththerateofmovementofthecamera.Thissystemgives360-degreeviews,orevenmoreifthecameramakesseveralrotations.

Theycanalsohaveaswivelinglens.Itsweepsthephotosensitivefilmlayer,whichissetinasemi-circleinthehousing,ashapetowhichfilm,unlikeotherformats,easilyadapts.Thesecamerascantakepictureswithamaximumangleof180degrees.xci

43

TheIndustrialLaboratory

Betweenthe1970sandtheturnofthecentury,industriallaboratoriesdevelopingandprintingimagesexperiencedtheirtruegoldenage.

AftertheappearanceoftheInstamaticin1963,colorprintingonpaperbecamethestandardinamateurphotography.Inordertocopewiththemassivesalesofcolorfilmandtheever-growingnumbersofusers,industriallaboratoriesunderwentsignificantgrowth.Inthebeginning,photographyshopownersactedasintermediaries,sendingthefilmstobedevelopedandreceivingtheprints.Lateron,somelaboratoriesofferedtheirservicestocustomersdirectlybymail.Byremovingthephotographyshopintermediary,theworkcouldbedeliveredveryquicklyandatmuchlowerprices.

Theadventofthedigitalcameradealtafatalblowtothisentiremarket.OnlyonesuchlaboratoryremainstodayinEurope.

TheAPSFormatInanattempttobreathenewlifeintothephotographymarket,fiveleadingmanufacturersunitedtheireffortstolaunchanewfilmformatin1996,theAdvancedPhotographicSystem.

Atthebeginningofthe1990s,Kodak,Fuji,Canon,NikonandMinoltadecidedtofacethechallengeposedbyamarket,whichwassteadilylosingmomentum.

In1996,theyputtheAPSonthemarket,anewfilmformat.Itsmainnewfeaturewastheadditionofamagnetictape,whichrecordeddatarelatingtotheimage.Itnowbecamepossibletoindicatevariousparameters,suchasthetimeatwhichtheshotwastakenorexposuredata,aswellastheformatinwhichthephotographsshouldbeprinted.Itwasalsopossibletoaddtextorsound.Housedwithinacartridge,the24mmwidefilmjustneededtobeplacedinsidethecamera.Itwasthenautomaticallyloaded,preventinganyerrorsduetomanipulation.

Marketedasthenewstandardformatforsilver-basedphotography,theAPSwasamoderatesuccessatbest.Theabsenceofanydecisiveadvantageover35mmfilm,andthegradualappearanceofdigitalcamerasaimedatthegeneralpublic,didnotworkinitsfavor.xcii

FullyAutomaticDuringthefinaldecadesofthetwentiethcentury,themainchangesmadetophotographiccameraswererelatedtotheintroductionofelectronics.

Thevariousfunctionsofcameras,whichuntilthenhadbeenmechanical,nowbecameautomated.Thebeginningsofthisautomationdatebacktothe1960s,withtheinventionofan“electriceye”,whichcouldmeasurelight.Soonafter,theaccuracyofexposuretimeimprovedfurtherwhenlightcouldbemeasureddirectlythroughthelens.Alittlelater,filmcouldbeloadedautomatically.Then,around1980,autofocusappeared,measuringthedistancetothesubjectbeingphotographedandadjustingfocus.Finally,imagestabilizationarrived,makingitpossibletoavoidblurscausedbymovement.

Theseeasy-to-usecamerasremovedthefinaltechnicaldifficulties,whichamateurphotographersfaced,drasticallyreducingthenumberof“failed”photographs.Intheprofessionalsphere,thecomputerhandledallfunctionsrelatedtotheimage.

44

Alltheseimprovementsresultedinmachines,whicharecompletelydependentuponanenergysource.Oncethebatteriesareoutofcharge,itisoftenimpossibletocontinuetousethem.

PinholeCameraPhotographyPinholecameraphotographyrepresentsthereturntothesimplestexpressionoftheexposurecamera.

Thepinholecameraoperatesontheprincipleofthecameraobscura.Bypiercingalittleholeinthedarkchamber,thisonly“selects”asinglereflectedrayperpointofthesubject.Alltheraysthatcrosseachotheratthisprecisespottogetherprojecttheinvertedimageoftheexternalviewontothesurfaceplacedacrosstheirpath–whetherthisbeafilmoradigitalsensor.

Thealmostinfinitedepthofthefieldduetotheabsenceofalens,combinedwiththelongexposuretime,enablethetakingofastonishingexposures.Thisparticularvision,resultingfromacleanimagefromendtoend,producedbythepinholecamera.Itsverysimpleusagequicklygavephotographerstheurgetousecameras,whoselenswasreplacedbythisfamouslittlehole.xciii

ThepinholecamerafascinatedPeterOlpe,aSwissdesigner,teacherandgraphicartist.Hedesignedandproducednumerouscameras,whichwereintotalharmonywiththeimages,theyproduced.Theseboxes,realminiaturearchitecturalmodels,sometimesequippedwithseveralpinholecameraslikeabuildingwithmultiplewindowsretainingthetraceoflightwithinthespacesthuscreated.HedonatedhiscollectiontotheSwissCameraMuseumin2012.

TheDigitalRevolutionDigitalphotography,sorecent,alreadyhasahistoryasreadilyforgotten,asitsdevelopmentwasmeteoric.Isitactuallyjustifiabletotalkaboutadigitalrevolution?

Inordertoproduceapicturedigitally,youhavetobeabletoreplacethephotochemicalimprintleftbythelightinthephotographicemulsionbyanelectricalsignalofproportionateintensity,whichcanbecodedinnumbers.Afterthischange,thepicturereceivesadigitalcodelikeanyotherkindofinformationwithwhichitisgoingtobeassociated,mixedoreventransformed.

Inthecomputer,manydifferentkindsofinformationcanbehandledsimultaneously.Thewishtoincludethepicturewiththemarosequitenaturally,whencetheneedtobeabletonotonlydigitizepictures,butespeciallytocaptureanddigitallyrecord“theimprintoftheflowoflight”tousetheterminologyofNicéphoreNiépce.

However,themostprofoundupheavalsduetothearrivalofdigitalphotographyconcernedthediffusionofpicturesandtheirremoteconsultation.Thephotographernolongerhasexclusivecontroloverhispictures,becausehesharesthemwiththewholeworld,perhapsnotalwayswillingly.

1965:aPictureinNumbersOn28November1964,NASAplaceditsprobe,Mariner4,inorbitaroundMars.Itsvideocamerawasprogrammedtotakearoundtwentypictureson15July1965.TheEarthbeingatadistanceof216millionkilometers,thescientistsoptedforadigitalizedtransmissionofthesephotographs.Thecamera’svideosignalrecordedonamagnetictapewasconvertedintobinarycode,generatingafileof40,000dots.

TheradiotransmissionofthefirstpagefromMarslastedovereighthours,anditwascomposedof200columns,eachwith200points,codedon64shadesofgrey.Duringthearrivalofthedata,asengineers

45

wereimpatienttoseetheresult,theystucksmallpiecesofpaperontoaboard,coloredaccordingtothenumericalvaluereceivedforeachdotofthepicture.Confrontedwiththeapparitionofthisexceptionalphotography,weretheyawaretheyweredrawinghistory’sfirst“pixels”?

1973:Space–anexperimentalgroundforDigitalPhotographyIn1973,theFairchildImagingCompanylaunchedthefirstcamerawithCCDcaptors(“ChargedCoupledDevice”–atransfercharginginstrument)fittedwithacaptorof100x100dots,whichtransformedthedatatransmittedbylightintoanelectricsignal.AphotographoftheMoonwastakenwiththiscameracoupledtoatelescopein1974.

Fromtheendofthe1970s,cameraswithCCDcaptorsappearedintheworldofastronomytobeusedfreelywithtelescopes,enablingamuchfinerobservationinamuchshorterspaceoftime.

TheHubblespacetelescopewaslaunchedin1990.ItwasequippedwithtwocamerascontainingTexasInstrumentscaptorsmadeupof800x800photosensitiveelements.ThefourCCDmatricesofthissystem,thesizeofapostagestamp,areextremelysensitivetoweakluminousindicatorsofdistantgalaxies,andcanperceiveobjectsinvisibletothenakedhumaneye.Eachelementconvertsthelightitreceivesintoelectricalcurrent,whichisthendigitallycoded,thusformingapixel.Thewholeofthesedataisthentransformedintoapicturewiththeaidofacomputer.

1975:theInventionofanewkindofphotographyBornin1950,StevenJ.Sasson,electricalengineerbytraining,atthattimeayoungresearcherwithKodakApparatusDivisionResearchLaboratory,wasaskedbyhissuperior:“Canoneconceiveacamera,whichcombinesthetechnologyoftheCCDcaptorwithdigitalpicturetreatment?”

Fromthebeginningofthe1970s,TexasInstrumentsandFairchildwereeachdevelopingcameras,wherethefilmwasreplacedbyaCCDcaptorandimageobtainedtreatedanalogically.

From1975,Sassondevisedasystemintegratingseveraltechnologiesalreadyexisting.HeusedaKodakcameraequippedwithaFairchildCCDcaptor,connectedtoaMotorolaanalogue-digitalimageconverter.HetookhisfirstphotographinDecember,ablackandwhiteportraitof100x100pixels.Itsrecordingontoamagnetictape,aminicassette,wasmadein23seconds,thesametimerequiredtoreadandtransmitthispictureontoatelevisionscreen.In1977,Sassonpresentedareportofaboutfortypagestohisemployer,whoseconclusiondraftedthepathtofollowforthisnewphotographytobecometrulyfunctional.Thepatentwasdated26December1978.

1977:electronicPhotographyIn1976,SamKendes,47yearsold,andhissonKenneth,24yearsold,wereinNewYorkCityonBroadway.Theycameacrossacrowdofpeoplequeuingtohavetheircomputerportraitmadefor£3.

In1977,afteraconcertedeffortculminatingatChristmas1976,SamandKencreatedtheCASIComputerPortraitSystem.Astillvideocameratookapicturethatcouldbeviewedonatelevisionscreenandthen“coded”intoaframeoftypographicalcharacters.Itwastheonlywayofprintingfromacomputeratthatpointintime.TheyofferedtheirComputerPortraitSystemforfamilycelebrationsandeventsandwereimmediatelyhighlysuccessful.Afterwards,CASIwastospecializeintheproductionofT-shirtsandotherobjectsdecoratedwithphotographs.

46

ThiswasthetechniqueadoptedfortheComputerPortraitsChristmasor“electronicphotography”offeredtoclientsbyaLondonsupermarketatChristmas1977.Thisdocumentrepresentedanimportantlandmarkinpre-computerexperimentation.Itsonly“digital”aspectwasitsrendering,sincethefilmingandfilingofthepictureswerestillanalogue.

1981:aPhotographin“StillVideo”InSeptember1981,Sonylaunchedthefirstcamerawheretherecordingontoamagneticdiscofastillanaloguevideoimagereplacedthefilm.Thesameyear,Sonyintroducedthefamous3.5-inchfloppydisc.

Computer-assistedpublicationdevelopedwiththearrivalofpersonalcomputersandtheuseofhomevideobecamegenerallyaccepted.

Anewrelationshipbetweenphotographyandvideoemerged,withequipmentenablingtheconversionofphotographstovideoforviewingonatelevisionscreen,andeventheproductionslideshowsonvideocassettes.

1982:EikonixandtheBeginningofDigitalCameraWorkIn1982,EikonixCorporationmarketedthefirstdigitalfilminginstrumentthatwasabletorecordapicturescannedbyamodulewith3000CCDphotoreceptors,whichmovedover4000linesacrossasurfaceof24x36mminsidethecameraitself.

Eachsensorprovidedasignalequivalenttothelightintensityatthatparticularpoint.Thissignalwasthenconvertedintoadigitalvalueandthismatrixorcollectionofvaluesbecameapicture.Atthebeginning,thepicturewasinblackandwhite,thenbyaddingthreefilters,red,greenandblue,andbycombiningallthreepictures,thefirstdigitalcolorfilmswereobtained.

Thisparticularlyheavyequipmentwasmostfrequentlyusedinscientificlaboratories.IndustrialLightandMagic,anAmericanspecialcinemaeffectscompany,foundedbythecreatorof“StarWars”,GeorgeLucas,wastousethisapparatustodigitalize,framebyframe,hisfirstfilms.

In1985,EikonixCororationwastakenoverbyEastmanKodakfor56.5milliondollars.

1986:theFirstStillVideoMachinesIn1986,thefirststillvideomachinesappearedonthemarketaimedatprofessionals,suchastheCanonRC701,ortheprototypeofthereflexNikonSCV,fittedwithaCCDsensorwithacapacityof300,000pixels,oranewMavicafromSony.

These“stillvideopictures”wererecordedonamagnetictapeorlittlediscs.Theywereanaloguejustliketheequipmentreceivingthem.Theycouldbeviewedonatelevisionscreenthankstoavideoplayer,printedviathehelpofavideoprinter,orrecordedonavideorecorderandtransmittedinthesamewayastelevisionpictureswithaproventechnique.

1984:digitalTransmissionattheOlympicGamesTheideaofusingelectricityforthereproductionandtransmissionofapicturewasalreadyintheairfromthemiddleofthenineteenthcentury.Atthebeginningofthe1890s,theelectro-signatureofAmstutzwaslaunched.TheFrenchjournal,L’Illustration,of9February1907,reportedaconferenceheldbyProfessorKornonthetransmissionofphotographsbytelephoneontheParis-Lyon-Pariscircuit(1024km).Basedon

47

thisprocedure,FrenchmanEdouardBelindevisedthebelinograph,aphotographictransmitterusingthetelephoneandtelegraphnetworks.xciv

In1984,varioustransmissiontrialsofdigitalpictureswereconductedduringtheOlympicGames,amongothersbyHasselblad,whosetupaneffectivesystemforthisevent,whichcreatedquiteastirinmediacircles.In1988,thissystemculminatedwiththeDixel2000incollaborationwithAFP(“AgenceFrancePresse”).

TheinventionoftheWorldWideWeb(internet)in1990byTimBerners-Lee,acomputeranalystatCERNnearGeneva,revolutionizeddatatransmissionmethods,ofallkinds,andcompletelytransformedtheworkinghabitsofthepressagencies.

1986:SinarandtheDigitalPictureSinar,aninternationallyrenowned,largeformatchambermanufacturer,basedintheSwissCantonofSchaffhausen,wasinterestedataveryearlystageintheimpactthatdigitaltechnologieswereboundtohaveonthedevelopmentofphotography.In1978,Hans-CarlKoch,sonofthefounder,wroteaninternalmemoonthissubject.

In1986,SinarinvestedinMinneapolisandcreatedacompany,Interscan,wheretwoemployeeswenttowork,whobuiltthefirstbackscanner.This4x5”laboratoryprototypewasfittedwithaKodak3-RVBlinebar(onelineofsensorsforred,oneforgreen,oneforblue)andproducedadigitalimageof2000x3000pixels,so6millionpixelstowards1987.

In1998,Sinarbecameanimportantproducerofdigitalbacksforprofessionalequipmentandgeneratedaseriesofinnovationsandperformanceswithadefinitionof6millionpixelsin2000,then16millionin2001,andover22millionpixelsoneyearlater.

Thissuccesswassignificant.Theyear2000wasthebestyeareverforthecompany,butwhileHans-CarlKochhadthefeelingthathisobjectivewasachievedandthefuturesecured,herealizedthatresearchanddevelopmentcostsweregettingfartoohigh,andheapproachedtheGermangroupJenoptik,whoboughthimout.Today,SinarisonceagainanindependentSwisscompany.

PhotoshopPhotoshop,asoftwareforprocessingdigitalimages,emergedfromtheworkoftheAmericans,ThomasandJohnKnollwho,from1987,wereperfectingaprogrammedestinedoriginallytoimagesinvariousshadesofgreyonamonochromescreen.Thescannermanufacturer,Barneyscan,agreedtodistributethisveryfirstversionofthe“ImagePro”calledafterwards“Photoshop”.

TheKnollbrothersalsometAppleandtheartisticdirectorofAdobe,RusselBrown,whoimmediatelyappearedinterested.Adobeboughtthelicensein1988andPhotoshop1.0becameoperationalontheMacintoshFebruaryof1992.Digitalphotographywasstillinitsinfancyatthismoment,andthissoftwarewasintendedforprocessingscannedphotographs.

Thearrivalofthisnewtoolonthemarketcausedquiteastirandspecialistsclaimeditwasascandalinthefaceofphotographicobjectivitymaltreatedinthisway.Theyweresimplyforgettinghowandhowmuchretouchingandphotomontagewerepracticedbyphotographerssincethebeginningofthismedium.One

48

onlyhastoconsiderthetoolsusedwithPhotoshop:pencils,paintbrushes,buffersandothergumsandcolorranges,whicharealldirectreferencestothetoolbagoftheperfectretoucher.

1990:theTimeoftheScannersThelimitedcapacityofthefirstdigitalsensorsdidnotproducepicturesofashighaqualityastraditionalphotography.Ontheotherhand,ifarowofphotosensorswereplacedonamodulesweepingtheimagefromonesidetotheother,thisconsiderablyincreasesthenumberofrecordeddotsandthedefinitionofthepicturebecamecompletelyacceptable.

ThisistheprincipleofthescannerinventedbyRusselA.Kirschin1957,whichusedphotoelectriccells.Thefirstscannerswereusedinprinting,screeningandtheselectionofphotographcolors.In1987,BarneyScancameoutwithascannerfor35mmslidescompatiblewithMacintosh.xcv

Theearliestdigitalcamerasinuseforprofessionalphotographywereclassiclargeformatchambers,suchasSinar,whereoneinserted,beforeshooting,abackscannerconnectedtoacomputer.Othermanufacturersofferedmachineswithintegratedscanners,whichmetwithlittlesuccess.

However,thesweepofthescannerbartookquiteatime,makinginstantphotographyimpossible.Themachineswerealsocumbersomeandcouldnotbetakenoutofthestudio.Tomeettheexpectationsoftheircustomers,askingformoreandmoredigitalphotos,photographersusedahybridmethod,photographingonfilm,whichtheylaterscannedandprocesseddigitally.

1990:theFirstDigitalMachinesThebeginningofthelastdecadeofthetwentiethcenturywasmarkedbyaseriesoffundamentalinnovations,perceivedassuchbycomputerenthusiasts,butnothavingquitethesameimpactinphotographiccircles.

1990sawtheappearanceofthefirstentirelydigitalcamera,theFotoMan,launchedbyLogitech,aSwisscompany.Thisrevolutionarymachinenolongerusedanintermediaryfacilitytostorethepictures,whichwereviewedandtreatedinthecomputerbymeansoftheFototouchsoftware.In1991,KodaklauncheditsDCS(“DigitalCameraSystem”)system:anelementconstructedonaNikonF3,connectedtoaseparatestorageunitcontainingbatteries,andfittedwithasmallscreenonwhichtoviewthepictures(withacapacityof200megabytes).

Thefirstdigitalcamerabackallowinginstantblackandwhite,butnotcolor,wasofferedbyLeaf.ItwasdesignedforprofessionalequipmentsuchastheHasselbladmediumformatandtheSinarlargeformatchambers.

Theyear1990sawthebirthofPhotoshop,apictureprocessingsoftware,initiallyconceivedforprinting.TheClassicMacwithcolorscreencameoutin1993,afterwhichitbecameeasiertoprocessphotographsonthecomputer,buttheirprintinghadnotyetachievedthesamedegreeofsimplicity.Digitalphotographycouldnotyetdowithoutfilmorphotographicpaper.Thepicturesweremostoften“flashed”ontofilmwithanimagerecordersuchasthePolaroidPalettefor35mmfilmorPolaroidfilmorwithmuchheaviermachinesforgraphicartapplications.

49

1992:thePhotoCDIn1979,PhilipsandSony,withthecollaborationofHitachi,perfectedthesound-CD(“CompactDisc”),whosecommercialproductionbeganinAugust1982.

Thecompactdischasareflectivesurfacewithmanycavities.Theseare“read”byalaserbeamandproducebinaryvariations,andsodigital,whicharetransmittedtoasensor.In1985,theCD-ROM,designedtobereadbyacomputer,cameontothemarket.

In1992,KodaklaunchedthephotoCDforstoringdigitizedphotographs.Thissystemwasaccessibletoeverybody,privateindividualsandprofessionals,anditcanbeconsideredthefirst“bridge”betweenanalogueanddigital,enabledthestoringofaroundahundredanaloguepicturesscannedwithhighresolution.Itwasthereafterpossibletointroducethesephotosintoacomputertoprocessthem(Photoshopcameoutin1990),viewthemandstorethem.

Mostofthebiglaboratoriesofferedthisservicetotheircustomers.TheywereequippedwithaKODAKPCDImagingWorkstation(PIW)system,comprisingafilmscanner,dataprocessor,colormonitor,CD-recorder,athermicprinterfortheindicesandsuitablesoftware.Thecommercialprintingof“familyphoto”filmsbecamedigitalwithouttheusernecessarilyknowing.xcvi

TheInkJetThefirstinkjetprintingbeganduringthe1980s.Introducedin1987,theIrisprinterwasintendedforprintingdesignlayoutsorpreliminarytrialrunsinthefieldofgraphicartsortoproduceexhibitionpanels.Rapidly,artistsweretocommandeeratoolthatenabledtheprintingoflargedimensionedphotographs,whetheronpaperorcanvasorothermaterials.

Towards1994,somecolorinkjetprintersappeared.Thesewereaimedatpersonalcomputers,withadefinitionenablingagoodqualityphotographprintrun,butwhichdidnotlastlong,astheinkswerestillnotveryresistantagainstthelightorvariousexterioragentsespeciallytheozone.Printerssubsequentlyofferedincreasinglyrefineddefinitions,inassociationwiththeproliferationofinkcolorsandpigments,whosebrilliancewasadaptedtothatofthepapers.

Amongthemanyevolutions–orperhapsevenrevolutions–generatedbythedigitalimage,inkjetprintingmightbetheonethatcontributedmosttothedevelopmentofphotographers’freedom.These,confrontedwithalimitedchoicebetweenconventionalpaperofrelativelysimilarcolors,couldnowdoastheypleased,andusepaperdesignedforphotographicprintingoradaptothers,increasetheirnumberofthroughputs,ormanagetheirownpersonalcolorcontents.xcvii

Accesstodigitaldata,storedonmagnetictapesoronlaser-burneddiscsnecessitatestheuseofaspecificCD-player,whichwillcertainlynolongerexistinadecadeortwo.Furthermore,theriskthatthesematerialswilldegradeishighandrequiresconstantattention.Inordertoavoidthisrisk,ProfessorRudolfGschwind,oftheImagingandMediaLabattheUniversityofBasel,devisedalaserdigitaldatarecordingsystemonconventionalmicrofilms,wheretheinformationcanbeviewedpermanently,withoutanyspecialequipment.

Inordertoguaranteethebestpossibleconservation,ProfessorGwschwindchoseaphotographicprocess,whichwasknownforitslongevity,Ilfochrome.Contrarytochromogenousphotographicprocesses,wherethecoloringsareassembledduringdevelopment,Ilfochrome,launchedunderthenameofCibachrome,

50

reducesaquantityofstablecoloringcontainedinthesensitivelayerstoconstitutetheimage,whichensuresitexceptionallongevity.

DigitalPhotographytotheAidofLostColorsTheresultsoftheworkconductedin1994byRudolfGschwind,showeddaybydaythattheworkhadanenormousrelevance.Thecolorsofourphotographsweredisappearingirrevocably.

Thankstodigitizationinthreedistinctimages,oneforyellow,oneformagentaandtheotherforcyan,thisprogrammemeasuredthedensitycurvesofthesecolors,and,throughdigitalprocessing,calculatedthecurvesoftheoriginalcolorsandreconstitutedthem.

1995:digitalforeverybodyFromthebeginningsofdigitalphotography,manufacturerswerethinkingaboutgeneralpublicapplications.However,agoodnumberofyearswentby,beforethiswishcouldberealizedinthefaceofconventionalphotography,whichalsocontinuedtoevolve,offeringareproductionqualitybetterthaneverbefore.

From1995,cameraswitha“futuristic”designappearedwhichhadmoreofamass-marketappealandtheyappealedtoenthusiastsofnewtechnologies.Picturedefinitionwasstillweakandtheywerestillexpensive.Likethecompactconventionalcamerasofthesameperiod,theywereslowtorelease,but,unlikefilmcameras,theywereimmediatelyviewableonscreen.Towards1997-98,themarketbecamesaturatedwithcamerasthatwereincreasinglyefficientandofferedabetterquality-priceratio.

Therealrevolutionforshootingwastheimmediatevisibilityofthepicturetaken.Beingabletochecktheresultimmediatelyenabledretakeswithoutanyextracostandofferedthephotographertheopportunityforself-tuition,sothathekeptimproving.

From2003-04,atechnologyreversalprocessbegan.Themultiplefunctionsofdigitalphotography,itscomputerapplicationsofferedatanevermoreaccessibleprice,aswellasthenewstoringtoolsandsharingpicturesonthewebattractedeventheleastconvinced.Thephotographicworldwaveredandthendigitalphotographytooktheupperhand.

ProfessionalDigitalEquipmentWiththenewmillennium,digitalreflexcamerasofferedadequatedefinitionforthephotographicpress.Theimagecouldbeimmediatelytransmittedwithoutneedingtodevelopthefilmandthenscanthephotographs.Photographersremainedprudentthoughandensuredtheirworkbyalsousingconventionalequipment.Oncebackinthelaboratory,pushedfortime,theytransmittedtheirdigitalpicturesdirectly,andlittlebylittle,theygaveupdevelopingtheirfilms.Soonconventionalcameraswerenolongerbeingused.

Itwasnotuntil2004thatthefirstdigitalreflexcamerasappearedwitha24x36mmsensorsimilartotheirshapeatthetimeoffilmuse.However,thesmallersensorsofferedadvantages,whichappealedtocertainprofessionals,suchasthereductioninthesizeofthetelephotolens.

Digitalbackssoonreplacedthescanningsystemsandenabledinstantphotography,equippingtheopticalbenchchambersandmediumformatcameras.Theprogressionoftheirdefinitionwastoprovestaggering,passinginlessthantenyearsfrom6millionpixelstomorethan50millionforthemostimpressive.Thiswasmuchmorethanrequiredtomeetthedemandsofadvertisingphotography,forexample.

51

Measuringabout6cmacross,thesensorofadigitalbackenablesthereductionoftheopticalbenchchambersizeanditslens.

TheCamphoneorPhotophoneInthe1980s,varioustelephonesfittedwithacameraandscreenappeared,suchastheLumaphonefromthecompanyAtari.

PhilippeKahn,aFrenchcomputeranalyst,builtthefirstcameraphonein1997,andthenin1999,theJapaneseJ-phonenetworkreceivedthefirstcamphonesorphotophonesmarketedbySharp.

Fromthebeginningofthenewmillennium,allmobiletelephonemanufacturerscameintothispromisingmarket,evenofferingminicameras,whichwereunfortunatelybasedonoldermodels.Theirefficiencyprogressedveryrapidly,movingfromafewpixelstodefinitionlevelsthateventhemostadvanceddigitalcamerashadnotreachedafewyearsearlier.Panoramicfunction,nightshooting,nothingwasleftout.

In2008,4.8millioncamerasand19millioncamphonesorphotophones,ifyoustillwanttocallthembythisname,weresoldinFrance.

Amongtheequipmentbornofthedigitalrevolution,thephotophoneswerethosethatmostoverturnedhabitsinphotography,whichbeyonditsprimaryroleofprovidingmemories,becameasimplemeansofcommunication,destinedtoshowandexchangepictures,whicharenowsoshort-lived.

TheDigitalRetinaAdigitalimageformsthankstothecapacityofthesiliconsensortoproduceanelectriccurrentwhenitreceiveslight.Itisnotyetanimage,inthesamewaythatthedatasentbytheretinaofoureyetoourbraincannotyetbeseen.

Eachdotofthis“potential”photographhastobecodedinnumbers,accordingtothebinarysystemacceptabletothecomputer,inordertobecomeapixel,orthedigitalrepresentationofadotinthepicture.Together,themanypixelsstillhavetoundergoanumberofmathematicaloperationsbeforebecomingadigitalphotograph.

Atthebeginningofdigitalimagery,thesecalculationsenabledtheequalizingoffilmperformance,butthedigitalrevolutionhasonlyjustbegun.Inthenearfuture,digitalimageprocessingandthenewopticsandnewsensorswillcertainlygenerateadvances,whichareunimaginabletoday.

Locatedattheheartofthecamera,thesensorhasreplacedfilm.Itismadeupofmanymicrostructuresdepositedonamaterialwithaparticularelectricbehavior,calledasemi-conductor,inthiscase,silicon.Theobjectmanufacturediscalleda“wafer”,likethethinbiscuit.

Thetwenty-firstcentury:aslongasthereareFilmsThedigitalrevolutionhasbroughtaboutthedisappearanceofsomehugecompanies,producersofworld-famousfilms,whosebrandsaresinkinggraduallyintooblivion.

Theconversiontodigitalprojectioninthecinemasandtheprogressiveabandonmentoftheuseoffilminthemedicalx-rayfieldhavefurtheraccentuatedthefallinfilmconsumption,whosebreak-evenpointhasoftenbeenthreatened,causingnumerousclosures,suchasthatofthefamousKodachrome.

52

Theattachmentofcertainphotographerstotheveryparticularperformanceofthelargeformatmachinesremainsverystrong.Forothers,thisapproachleadsthemnotonlytouseverylargeformatmachines,upto50x60cm,butalsotoproducetheirownnegativeplatesonglass,ortheirownpapernegatives,justlikeinthenineteenthcentury.

Contrarytothissearchfor“hyperquality”,manyphotographersdonotseethemselvesaspartofakindof“over-syntheticperfection”ofthedigitalimage,andsocontinueusingbasiccamerasthatareevenknownfortheirbadquality.

ManyapplicationsforsmartphonesandiPhonesarecreating“oldphotos”orevenreproducingimagesinthestyleofthePolaroidandotherInstamatics.Photographersaretakingoverthesenewtools,creatingsomeremarkableimages,likethereporterDamondWinter,voted“PhotographeroftheYear”in2010forhisworkinAfghanistan.

Thanksto“MissionImpossible”,filmsareonceagainavailableforourgoodoldPolaroidcameras,buttheoutputofthesenewfilmscanprovetobeunreliableanddifficulttomaster.

Footnotes

ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_playiihttps://wepa.unima.org/en/shadow-theatre/iiihttp://www.historiccamera.com/history1/photo_history1727.htmlivhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Jacques-Charlesvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphry_Davyandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davy_lampvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Wedgwood_(photographer)viihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliographyviiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pceixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioramaxhttps://www.wired.com/2010/08/0819daguerre-publicizes-photo-process/xihttps://www.britannica.com/technology/calotypexiihttps://monovisions.com/hippolyte-bayard-biography-19th-century-inventor-of-photography/xiiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Baptist_Isenringxivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daguerreotypexvhttp://camerapedia.wikia.com/wiki/Charles_Louis_Chevalierxvihttp://denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Fotografi/Fotografiske_processer_og_begreber,_historisk/daguerreotypiandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daguerreotypexviihttps://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoskopbilledexviiihttp://www.historiccamera.com/cgi-bin/librarium2/pm.cgi?action=app_display&app=datasheet&app_id=2301&xixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_platexxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintypexxihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrotypexxiihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Appareil_Dubronixxiiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alethoscopexxivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalethoscopexxvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscuraxxvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_lanternxxviihttp://users.telenet.be/thomasweynants/toy.magic.lantern.htmlxxviiihttps://www.londonremembers.com/subjects/royal-polytechnic-institution

53

xxixhttp://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/1249/langenheim-brothers-frederick-and-william-langenheim-american-born-germany-18411842-1874/xxxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opaque_projectorxxxihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantasmagoriaxxxiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gaspard_Robert#Fantoscopexxxiiihttps://www.luikerwaal.com/newframe_uk.htm?/merk_hughes1_uk.htmxxxivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_of_visionxxxvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutoscopexxxvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelatin_silver_processxxxviihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Express_D%C3%A9tectivexxxviiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folding_cameraxxxixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_finderxlhttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Compurxlihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Photosph%C3%A8rexliihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_(photography)xliiihttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Eadweard-Muybridgeandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadweard_Muybridgexlivhttps://www.luikerwaal.com/newframe_uk.htm?/bijzeffecten1_uk.htmxlvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praxinoscopexlvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2tre_Optiquexlviihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenakistiscopexlviiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoetropexlixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomar_Ansch%C3%BCtzlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrotachyscopelihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geissler_tubeliihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogravureliiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duotonelivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Bertillonlvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carte_de_visitelvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatol_Josepholviihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Enjalbertlviiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgenlixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Arthur_Ducos_du_Hauronandhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Ducos-du-Hauronlxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8relxihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Jumellelxiihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Ermanoxlxiiihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Ernostarlxivhttps://www.hodinkee.com/articles/jaeger-lecoultre-compass-cameralxvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darkroomlxvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_filmlxviihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadarlxviiihttps://www.britannica.com/art/history-of-the-motion-picture#ref507900lxixhttp://www.kodaksefke.nl/kodak-original-1888.htmllxxhttp://historiccamera.com/cgi-bin/librarium2/pm.cgi?action=app_display&app=datasheet&app_id=2335&lxxihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetoscopelxxiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_and_Louis_Lumi%C3%A8relxxiiihttps://www.catawiki.com/stories/4497-how-george-eastman-s-kodak-made-photography-available-to-everyonelxxivhttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Vest_Pocket_Kodakandhttp://camerapedia.wikia.com/wiki/Vest_Pocket_Kodaklxxvhttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Film_Packandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheet_filmlxxvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jules_Mareylxxviihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronophotographylxxviiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leica_Camera

54

lxxixhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon_photographyandhttps://www.newyorker.com/culture/photo-booth/the-turn-of-the-century-pigeons-that-photographed-earth-from-abovelxxxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppel-Sport_Panoramic_Cameralxxxihttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Polaroid_Land_Model_95lxxxiihttps://www.polaroid.com/historylxxxiiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflex_cameralxxxivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Americans_(photography)andhttps://www.lensculture.com/articles/robert-frank-the-americanslxxxvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang%C3%A9nieux_retrofocuslxxxvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Ang%C3%A9nieuxlxxxviihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instamaticandhttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Instamaticlxxxviiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_filmlxxxixhttp://camera-wiki.org/wiki/Pascalxchttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasselbladxcihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panoramic_photographyxciihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Photo_Systemxciiihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinhole_cameraxcivhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirephotoxcvhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_A._Kirschxcvihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photo_CDxcviihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inkjet_printing