photographic possibilities

Photographic Possibilities

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Photographic Possibilities:The Expressive Use of Ideas, Materials, and ProcessesSECOND EDITION

Robert Hirsch

and

John Valentino

Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi

Front Cover© Robert ParkeHarrison. da Vinci’s Wings, 1998. Gelatin silver print with mixed media onpanel. 45 ¥ 36 inches. Courtesy of Bonni Benrubi Gallery, New York.

Back Cover© Maggie Taylor. Poets House, 1999. Iris inkjet print. 15 ¥ 15 inches.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Hirsch, Robert.Photographic possibilities : the expressive use of ideas, materials, and processes / by

Robert Hirsch and John Valentino.—2nd ed.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-240-80362-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)1. Photography. I. Valentino, John. II. Title.

TR145.H54 2001771—dc21

00-069505

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

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Printed in the United States of America

To our parents and everyone who helped us get to where we are now.

“Life for a photographer cannot be a matter of indifference and it is important to see what is invisible to others.”

—Robert Frank

Contents

Preface xi

1. Why We Make Photographs: Ideas and History That Affect Photographic Printmaking 1

The Language of Photography 2Early Printmaking Modifications 3Modern Approaches in Printmaking 5Having a Sense of History 9Roles Photography Can Play 10Questions 11Additional Information 20

2. Safety 22Basic Safety Procedures 22Contact Allergies and Chemical Sensitivities 23Disposing of Chemistry 23Protecting Yourself and Your Computer 25Additional Information 25

3. Special-Use Films and Processing 27Film and the Photographer 27General Working Procedures for Film Processing 28Kodak High Speed Infrared Film 2481 and 4143 30Extended Red Sensitivity Film: Ilford SFX 200 32Kodak Recording Film 33Additional Methods to Heighten Grain

and Contrast 34Kodak Technical Pan Roll Films 35Ilford PAN F PLUS Ultra-Fine Grain B/W Film 37Kodak Professional B/W Duplicating Film SO-132 37High-Contrast Litho Films 40Other Graphic Arts Films 43High-Speed Films: Kodak T-MAX P3200 and Ilford

Delta 3200 Professional 43Paper Negatives and Positives 47Reversing Black-and-White Film 49

viii PHOTOGRAPHIC POSSIBILITIES

Film for Classic Cameras 50Processing Black-and-White Film for Permanence 51Polaroid Instant Films 51Additional Information 52

4. Formulas of Your Own 54Prepared Formulas versus Mixing Your Own 54Basic Equipment 54Chemicals 56Preparing Formulas 57Additional Information 59

5. Black-and-White Film Developers 60What Happens to Silver-Based Films during

Exposure and Processing? 60Image Characteristics of Film 61Components and Characteristics of Black-and-White

Developers 62Liquid versus Powder Chemistry 65Basic Developer Types 66Postdevelopment Processes 68Film Developer Formulas and Their Applications 71Why Bother? 80Additional Information 80

6. Analog Printmaking: Equipment, Materials, and Processes 83

The Analog Printmaking Process 83Printing Equipment 84Standard Printing Materials 92Special Printing Materials 99Processing Prints for Permanence 102Additional Information 102

7. Black-and-White Paper Developers 103Paper versus Film Developers 103Components of Black-and-White Silver

Print Developers 103Other Processing Factors 106Controlling Contrast during Development 108Matching Developer and Paper 109Developer Applications and Characteristics 109Other Paper Developer Formulas 115Additional Information 119

8. Toning for Visual Effects 120Processing Controls 120Basic Types of Toners 120Processing Prints to Be Toned 121General Working Procedures for Toners 123Brown Toners 123Blue Toners 130Red Toners 131Green Toners 131Toning Variations 132Additional Information 136

CONTENTS ix

9. Special Cameras and Equipment 137What Is a Camera? 137Toy Cameras: The Diana and the Holga 138The Pinhole Camera 140Disposable Cameras 143Expanding the Angle of View 143Panoramic Cameras 145Sequence Cameras 147Special-Use Cameras 149Stereoscopic Photography 150Stroboscopic Photography 153Underwater Equipment and Protection 154

10. An Introduction to Some Widely Used Alternative Processes 157

About Paper 158Cyanotype Process 159Kallitype and Vandyke Brownprint Processes 163Platinum and Palladium Processes 166Gum Bichromate Process 172Electrostatic Processes: Copy Machines 176Additional Information 178

11. Altering Photographic Concepts: Expansion of the Lexicon 180

Hand-Altered Work 180Photograms 182Cliché-Verre 184Extended Camera Exposures 186Postcamera Techniques: In Search of Lost Time 189Multiple-Exposure Methods 190Fabrication: Making Things Happen for the Camera 194Composite Variations 196Processing Manipulation: Reticulation 199Hand-Coloring 201Airbrushing 202Transfers and Stencils 206

12. Photography and Computers 213What Is a Digital Computer? 213What Is a Digital Image? 213A Brief History of Digital Images: 1960 to 1998 214Why the Computer? 217Digital Ethics and Copyright 221Creating Digital Images 222Color Conversion/Color Matching 225Memory 227Software 227Major File Types 229Storage Media 231Digital Possibilities: Computer as

Multimedia Platform 232Hypertext and the World Wide Web 233The End of the Wet Darkroom? 234Additional Information 235

x PHOTOGRAPHIC POSSIBILITIES

13. Digital Input and Output 236What Is Digital Imaging? 236Input and Output 236Output Devices: Presenting the Digital Image 241Combining Digital and Traditional Techniques 247The Future of Digital Imagemaking and the

Expressive Imagemaker 252Additional Information 252

Index 253

Preface

placed an even greater emphasis on the conceptual thinking that makes up goodanalog and digital images, and did a majorrevision of the art program with expandedcaptions that give each artist a voice in theproceeding.

The book presents a variety of ways ofworking with analog and digital photogra-phy in a concise, straightforward manner.This is significant because people rarelygrow when the only example they have tomodel on is themselves. We selected thediverse subjects and themes covered basedon our experiences in teaching photography.We have found that these areas constantlyprovoke interest and questions from peoplein our classes.

The book begins with a brief history of themajor concepts that have affected how pho-tographers make their images and a discus-sion about why we make photographs.Safety is stressed in Chapter 2. The bookthen follows the sequence of traditionalblack-and-white working processes used inthe making of analog silver-based pho-tographs. It starts with different types of filmand their processing methods, and proceedswith a variety of printmaking options. Con-ventional silver-based color materials havebeen intentionally omitted, but they can beused in place of black-and-white materials inmany instances. Next, unusual cameras andspecialized equipment are discussed. A dis-cussion of nonsilver and hand-alteredprocesses and techniques follows. Finally,the last chapters look at the expanded role

In any act, the primary intention of him who actsis to reveal his own image.

—Dante

This book is designed for the person who has rudimentary knowledge of photographichistory and has successfully mastered thebasic technical processes of black-and-whitephotography: film developing, printmaking,and image presentation. It is for the indi-vidual who has acquired a keen interest inphotography and desires to learn a variety ofprocesses as a means of reaching new visual goals.

It has been ten years since I wrote theabove paragraph. Although Focal Press hadbeen requesting a revised edition for sometime, other commitments have kept me fromit. To keep this book relevant I brought on aco-author, John Valentino, with whom I havepreviously collaborated on photographicand book projects. Together we mapped out a new table of contents, and then Johndid the basic research of updating all thematerials and processes. I then edited andrewrote his new draft. The most apparentchanges from the first edition are the col-lapsing of Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 into anew single chapter. A new feature in thisedition is a series of questions and answers,based on my teaching experiences, aboutwhy people make photographs. We broad-ened our coverage of digital imaging fromone chapter to two chapters and elim-inated the Polaroid chapter, although somePolaroid materials are still covered. We

xii PHOTOGRAPHIC POSSIBILITIES

that the computer has been playing with thecreation, circulation, and understanding ofphoto-based images.

Electronic imaging is the fastest growingand one of the least understood areas in pho-tography. It has revolutionized the aesthetic,ethical, and technical working methods usedsince the beginning of photography. We feltthat it was necessary to address these issues.John Valentino’s expertise and teachingexperience at SUNY Buffalo, Rochester Institute of Technology, and The Center forExploratory and Perceptual Art (CEPAGallery) enable him to deliver the hands-onblend of concepts and techniques for whichthis book has become known.

Knowledge of materials is necessary if oneis to achieve the self-confidence and satis-faction that can come with the ability tocreate. Technique is not offered merely forthe sake of technique. Importance is placedon having something concrete to expresswith each application of the methods dis-cussed. The photographs that accompanythe text demonstrate how thinking artistscan apply different approaches with insightand aesthetic concern. The satisfaction ofartists hinges on their ability to create andshare their work. Understanding of materialsis needed to accomplish fine craftsmanship,which goes hand in hand with the creationof meaningful photographs.

My basic philosophy is to open differentpaths for readers to travel so they can suc-cessfully solve their visual quests. This bookis a point of departure and should not betaken as the final authority on photography.

The text provides brief historical back-ground for some of the major processescovered. Terms that may be unfamiliar are defined on their first appearance. Addi-tional sources of information and suppliesare provided at the end of each majorsection. Telephone numbers and Websiteaddresses have been omitted because theychange frequently and are easy to locatethrough directory assistance and Web searchengines.

An important part of being a good photo-grapher is taking the time to wonder. Wonderallows one to consider possibilities, whichcan lead to new ideas and new courses of action. Discovering the possibilities ofwonder means being curious about theworld. In the process of becoming adults,

we tend to forget how to learn and the mar-velous feeling that learning can convey to us.As children we will consider almost any-thing, but as we age, fear and worry oftendispel this process. By reclaiming our child-hood curiosity, we can embark on a con-tinuous process of discovery that can lead tothe creation of images that astound andarouse viewers to take notice.

A note of caution: Many of the techniquescovered in this book require the use of awide variety of chemicals. All chemicalspose a possible threat to your health and tothe environment. By using common senseand following some standard working pro-cedures, health and environmental problemscan be avoided. Read Chapter 2 on healthand safety before attempting any of theprocesses described in this book.

The art program has been put togetherwith the intent of providing the reader withvisually stimulating images that illuminateconcepts and techniques discussed in thebook. We have steered away from the tradi-tional photographic textbook illustrationsthat show what equipment looks like or howto agitate film because we believe the readers of this book are already familiar with thebasics. Instead, we stress the concerns ofcontemporary photographers from acrossNorth America. We acquired these images bydoing a national call for work and also bycontacting specific artists. We have made aneffort to present works from professionalsand students that have not been widely pub-lished in other photographic texts. We com-municated with the imagemakers about howthey used materials and processes to realizetheir visual ideas. We have distilled this dialogue into caption material that allowsthe imagemakers to speak directly to ourreaders.

We would like to acknowledge the assis-tance we have received in revising this bookfrom the following people: Karen Speerstra,at Butterworth–Heinemann, for her con-tinued confidence and support; Marie Lee,publisher, for helping us through the roughspots; Jennifer Plumley, assistant editor atFocal Press, for her ideas and patience;Kevin Sullivan, production editor, whohelped us realize our vision into ink; AdeleHenderson, Professor of Art at SUNYBuffalo, for her assistance in updating thetransfer section in Chapter 11; Ellen

PREFACE xiii

Steigman for her tireless proofreading; andthe members of numerous Internet photolistserves who have answered questions andhelped us keep current with changes in tra-ditional and electronic imagemaking.

We wish to thank all the photographerswho submitted their work and formulas forthis project and engaged us in a running dialogue about the relationship between their ideas and technique. Without their co-operation this book would not exist. Weregret that we could not use all the excellentcontributions due to budget and page constraints.

Finally, we want to pay tribute to all ourteachers, students, and past authors whohave provided us with the knowledge thatwe hope to continue to convey.

Readers are invited to send us their com-ments and suggestions. The learning processis cyclical, with good students instructingand surpassing their teachers. We hope thisbook encourages readers to make pho-tographs and to enjoy themselves in theprocess.

Robert Hirsch and John ValentinoBuffalo, New York

1 Why We MakePhotographs: Ideas andHistory That AffectPhotographic Printmaking

People make photographs for a multitude of reasons. One fundamental motive is torecord a specific moment that representssomeone or something of importance. Formost people the standard, automatic type ofphotographic record keeping is enough, butfor others it is not. This small group finds it necessary to control, interact with, andmanipulate the photographic process and to interpret and actively interject theirresponses to the subject. It is for theseexpressive imagemakers that this book hasbeen written. People make photographsbecause words often fail to adequatelydescribe and express their relationship to theworld. Pictures are an essential componentof how humans observe, communicate, cel-ebrate, and remember.

It is often assumed that all pictures aresigns that stand for something and possessan innate semiotic (pertaining to signs)structure and value. But it is also possiblethat pictures are simply pictures which represent circumstances that cannot beexpressed in any other way. The Frenchwriter and thinker Albert Camus said, “If weunderstood the enigmas of life, there wouldbe no art.” Pictures possess their own nativestructure that may defy explanation regard-less of how many words are wrapped aroundthem and thus remain a purely visual phe-nomenon. Those of us who are compelled tokeep making pictures understand this.

Reactions to a photograph are uniquelypersonal experiences. Although people are

conditioned to believe that the purpose of aphotograph is to provide commentary abouta subject, it is possible that a photograph maynot make a concrete statement or answer aspecific question. A photograph is not nec-essarily about something; rather it is some-thing in and of itself. A photograph may beenigmatic or it may allow a viewer access tosomething remarkable that could not be per-ceived or understood in another medium. Itis analogous to dancer Isadora Duncan’sstatement: “If I could explain to you what Imeant there would be no reason to dance.”

Some people think of a photograph as aconversation between the photographer, thesubject, and the viewer. During a conversa-tion the participants not only exchangewords but formulate meaning based on howthe words are spoken, who they are spokento, the body language of the participants, andthe environment in which the conversationtakes place. When the participants thinkabout a particular subject or image, a distil-lation of meaning becomes possible. Think-ing involves the creative interaction amongthe participants in the visual conversationand can lead to definition. Definition allowspeople to acknowledge and take responsibil-ity for solving a problem or reaching a con-clusion about what an imagemaker deemedsignificant.

During the early part of the twentiethcentury Albert Einstein’s concept of relativ-ity, the idea that discards the Newtonianconcept of absolute reference, began to

inform how people depicted and interpretedtheir world. This fluid interaction betweenthe observer and the observed offers differ-ent frames of reference to create meaning.This can occur through symbolic manipula-tion (mathematical, verbal, and visual) and areliance on analogy, insight, and myths todraw attention to the significant elements inan otherwise chaotic flow of sensory input.Such a process involves the artist, the object,and the viewer in an ongoing venture of re-ciprocal creation and interpretation. As theartist/photographer Man Ray once said,“Perhaps the final goal desired by the artistis a confusion of merging of all the arts, asthings merge in real life.”

THE LANGUAGE OF PHOTOGRAPHY

A Derivative Process

Photography is a derivative process. Whenknowledgeable viewers look at a photograph

they can usually trace it back to its technicalorigins. The final image is the culmination of the properties of the original subject, thespecific materials used in the creation, themethod of production, the artistic vision of the photographer, and the presentationmethod.

Photography does not imitate nature, butpermits the manifestation of personal reali-ties through the action of light. There is nosecurity in nature. Two photographers canphotograph the same subject and produceentirely different results. Photography canprovide people with the physical means tocreate or invent ideas from their imagina-tions. By gaining an understanding of a widerange of photographic processes, readers canexpand their visual vocabulary and placethemselves in a better position to control theoutcome.

Learning to control a process is the firststep an imagemaker must master to trans-form an abstract idea into a physical reality.This text introduces a variety of photo-graphic methods, gives examples of how andwhy other photographers have applied them,provides basic working procedures, andencourages readers to experiment and makemodifications to the process to achieve theirown results. Once a basic understanding ofa process is obtained, control over it canbegin. To acquire the maximum benefit fromthis book, the reader should begin thinkingabout how photography can be used to fab-ricate a meaningful destination. This putsprocess in service of concept to create mean-ingful content. This can occur when theheart and the mind combine an idea from theimagination and find the most suitable tech-nical means of bringing it into existence.

Ideas Affecting PhotographicPrintmaking

Ever since Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerremade his daguerreotype process public in1839, people have been discovering newphotographic materials and methods topresent the way they see the world. Photog-raphy provided an automatic mechanicalmethod for transferring what was seen innature into a two-dimensional form withRenaissance perspective. Within a shortperiod of time, photographs were confused

2 PHOTOGRAPHIC POSSIBILITIES

Figure 1.1 Nagatani and Tracey combine theirindividual skills and strengths as artists indifferent media to translate scenes of bitingpolitical and social satire from their imagina-tions to physical reality.

© Patrick Nagatani and Andrée Tracey. SiouxCity, Iowa, from Radioactive Inactive Portraits,1988. Chromogenic color print. 20 ¥ 16 inches.Original in color.

with and substituted for reality. Photographyproved so able at reality substitution thatmany people came to think that this was pho-tography’s sole purpose. The photographerwas supposed to act as a neutral observer, anoperator of a piece of machinery, while thecamera performed and did the work of prop-erly recording the subject.

But there are no neutral photographs. Alldepictions have an inherent bias. Photogra-phy has three distinct kinds of bias. The first bias comes from the people who createand manufacture the commonly used photo-graphic systems, which include the cameras,lenses, films, papers, chemicals, and dark-room equipment relied on by most people tophysically produce a photographic image.These companies set up the physical bound-aries and the general framework withinwhich most photographers operate. Thesecond bias comes from the prejudices of thephotographer, who uses these systems tocreate specific images. Every photographreveals the photographer’s point of view—acombination of the subject, the photogra-pher, and the process. The third bias is in thelife references that viewers bring to deter-mine what a photograph means to them.

EARLY PRINTMAKINGMODIFICATIONS

Even at the dawn of photography, methodsthat could alter the photographic realitywere widely practiced and accepted. Practi-tioners of photography had no qualms aboutmodifying a process to fit their aesthetic andtechnical requirements. Miniature painterspainted directly on daguerreotypes andpaper prints to meet the demand to repro-duce color, setting the precedent of hand-applied synthetic color. In the 1840s WilliamHenry Fox Talbot sometimes chose to waxhis paper calotypes (the first negative/posi-tive process) after development to makethem more transparent. This increased theirvisual detail, made them more contrasty, andmade them easier and faster to print. In 1848 Gustave Le Gray introduced a waxedpaper process in which the wax was incorporated into the paper fibers before thepaper was sensitized. This chemically and physically altered the speed and tonalrange of the paper negatives and produced a

result different from the waxed calotype.Photographers like Charles Nègre and DavidOctavius Hill and Robert Adamson used apencil on calotype negatives to alter tonalrelationships, increase separation of a figurefrom the background, accent highlights, adddetails or objects not included in the origi-nal exposure, and remove unwanted items.

Combination Printing

Combination printing from multiple nega-tives became fairly common in the mid tolate 1800s. The collodion, or wet-plate,process, which became the major commer-cial photographic method of the 1850s, pos-sessed a low sensitivity to light that madegroup portrait making difficult. The wetplate’s limited sensitivity to blue and ultra-violet light made it impossible to make nat-uralistic, full tonal range landscapes. If theexposure for the subject or landscape wascorrect, the sky would be grossly overex-posed, and when printed would appear, atbest, as a mottled white. Combination print-ing was developed to overcome these inher-ent technical problems. Separate exposures

WHY WE MAKE PHOTOGRAPHS 3

Figure 1.2 Painters such as LeClear utilized photography’s ability todeliver an immediate, two-dimensional substitute for reality. Both full-length portraits in this painting were posthumous, executed from adaguerreotype. It is believed that the artist included himself as thephotographer, seen at right from the rear, bending over a collodion wet-plate camera.

© Thomas LeClear. Interior with Portraits, circa 1865. Oil on canvas. 261/4¥ 401/2 inches. Courtesy of Hirschl & Adler Galleries, New York. Originalin color.

were made for the subject and the sky andwere then, through the use of masking,printed on a single piece of paper. This tech-nique received a great deal of attention withthe unveiling of Oscar Gustave Rejlander’sTwo Ways of Life (1857), an image made from30 negatives. Through the photographs andwriting of Henry Peach Robinson in Pictor-ial Effect in Photography (1869), combina-tion printing became the method of choicefor serious photographers of artistic intent.

Beginnings of Straight Photography

Major objections to these working methodswere raised in Peter Henry Emerson’s Natu-ralistic Photography (1889), which attackedthe concepts of combination printing.Emerson called for simplified working pro-cedures and “selective naturalistic focus-ing.” This visual approach was supposed toallow the photograph to more closely repli-cate human vision, in which not everythingis seen clearly and sharply.

Emerson thought it was the obligation ofthe photographer to discover the camera’sown codex. He saw photography as a blend-ing of art and science. He stated that throughone’s selection of framing, lighting, andselective focusing, good images could bemade. Emerson emphasized photographingsubjects in their natural surroundingswithout any of the artificial manipulations ofthe combination printers. He came underheavy attack for these ideas and recantedwith The Death of Naturalistic Photography(1890), but the seeds of what would becomethe movement known as “straight” photog-raphy had already been sown.

The Pictorialists

The 1890s were the heyday of many manip-ulative methods, such as gum printing. Thistype of printing was favored by the Pictori-alists and championed through the work andwriting of Alfred Maskell and RobertDemachy in Photo Aquatint, or The GumBichromate Process (1897). The Pictorialistsstressed the atmospheric and formal effectsof the image over those of the subject matter.Composition and tonal values were of para-mount concern. Soft-focus lenses were usedto emphasize surface pattern rather thandetail. Pictorialists did not want to be boundby the tyranny of exactitude. These expres-sive printmakers favored elaborate processesto show that photography was not a meremechanical process, but could be controlledby the hand of the maker and therefore be alegitimate visual art form. The Pictorialists’attitudes and procedures dominated muchcommercial portrait and illustrative workthroughout the first part of the twentiethcentury, with an emphasis on constructingbeauty as opposed to finding it in nature.


Figure 1.3 In the pre-digital 1960s, Uelsmann revived the manualprocess of combination printing. With magician-like craftsmanship, hecreates surreal juxtapositions that the viewer knows cannot reflect reality.Yet these pictures remain believable because of the general belief in thetruth of the photographic image. Uelsmann writes: “For me the darkroom(containing eight enlargers) functions as a visual research laboratory. . . . Ibelieve that almost anything you can think of is worth trying. It isdifficult to make a qualitative judgment in the initial stages of the creativeprocess.”

© Jerry N. Uelsmann. Untitled, 1982. Gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches.

The Photo-Secessionists

In the United States, the Pictorialists werefollowed by the Photo-Secessionists, underthe leadership of Alfred Stieglitz. The activegroup included Joseph Keiley, GertrudeKäsebier, Frank Eugene, Edward Steichen,Alvin Langdon Coburn, and Clarence White.In their quest to have photography recog-nized as an art form, they experimented witha wide variety of printmaking methods.

The Photo-Secessionists’ ideals culmi-nated in the International Exhibition of Pic-torial Photography (1910), at the AlbrightArt Gallery in Buffalo, New York. But by thistime, a number of the group’s members,including Stieglitz, had abandoned the ideasand working concepts of the manipulatedimage. The Pictorialists did not update theirworking concepts, and faded as an innova-tive art movement by the mid-1920s.

The Arrival of Straight Photography

Influenced by avant-garde artists such asPicasso, whom Stieglitz showed for the firsttime in the United States at his 291 Gallery,Stieglitz began to promote a straight photo-graphic aesthetic in the final issues of hispublication, Camera Work, as exemplified inPaul Strand’s photographs made around1916.

Strand had successfully incorporated theconcepts of painterly abstraction directlyinto the idea of straight, sharp-focus, non-manipulative photography. Strand believedthat photography’s raison d’être was its“absolute unqualified objectivity,” and thatthis could be found by investigating photog-raphy’s own inherent characteristics. Theemphasis of the art of photography switchedfrom postexposure methods to creating theimage in the camera at the moment of expo-sure and maintaining a much narrower rangeof simplified printmaking techniques.

MODERN APPROACHES INPRINTMAKING

Straight Photography andPrevisualization

Edward Weston’s work, from the 1930s on,represents the idea of straight photographythrough the use of what has been referred to

as previsualization or visualization. By thisconcept, Weston meant that he knew whatthe final print would look like before hereleased the camera’s shutter. The idea ofseeing the final image ahead of time wouldbring serious printmaking full circle, back tothe straightforward approach of the 1850s,when work was directly contact printed ontoglossy albumen paper. Weston simplified thephotographer’s working approach by gener-ally using natural light and a view camera


Figure 1.4 Schramm enlarged a 35mmnegative onto 11 ¥ 14 inch ortho litho film tomake a positive. Kodak Dektol at 1 : 8 was usedto produce a continuous-tone positive. Thispositive was then contact printed onto 11 ¥ 14inch ortho litho film, to make the negative,using a contact print frame, and developed inDektol 1 : 5 for additional contrast. Theatmospheric effect was created using brushdevelopment for this gum print (see Chapter10). Schramm states that “after exposure theprint is soaked in warm water for about 5minutes and then placed face up on a sheet ofplate glass. A soft #12 brush is wetted andbrushed across the surface to gently removepigment while water is poured across thesurface. This technique creates ‘brush strokes’and allows me to be in control of how muchpigment is removed and from what part of theimage.”

© Robert W. Schramm. A Rainy Night on Rue Ste, Opportune, 1998. 14 ¥ 11 inches. Gum print.

with its lens set at a small aperture. He pro-duced a large-format negative that wascontact printed (no enlarging) with a barelight bulb. Photographic detail and extendedtonal range were celebrated in a preciseblack-and-white translation of the originalsubject on glossy, commercially preparedpaper. By eliminating all that he consideredunnecessary, Weston wanted to get beyondthe subject and its form and uncover theessence or life force of “the thing itself.”

Group F/64 and the Zone SystemIn 1932, a band of California-based photog-raphers, including Weston, Ansel Adams,Imogen Cunningham, Sonya Noskowiak,and Willard Van Dyke, founded Group f/64. Their primary goal was to create photographs of precise realism without anysigns of pictorial handwork. The name of thegroup reflects the fact that the membersfavored a small lens aperture that enabledthem to achieve images with maximum


Figure 1.5 Dawson’s work comes out of the ideas put forth in Peter Henry Emerson’s Naturalistic Photography.Photographers such as Alfred Stieglitz and Paul Strand later expanded these ideas into straight, sharp-focus, nonmanipulativephotography. In straight photography, the work is created (previsualized) at the time of exposure rather than through variouspostvisualization techniques.

© Robert Dawson. Flooded Salt Air Pavilion, Great Salt Lake, Utah, from Water in the West Project, 1985. Gelatin silver print.16 ¥ 20 inches.

detail, sharpness, and depth of field. Theyconcentrated on natural forms and foundobjects that were representative of the natu-ralistic West Coast style.

The ideas from Group f/64 were refinedand expanded by Ansel Adams in his Zone System method. The Zone System is a scientifically based technique for control-ling exposure, development, and printing

to give an incisive translation of detail, scale,texture, and tone in the final photograph.Adam’s codification of sensitometry con-tinues to set the standards for pristinewilderness landscape photography. TheZone System, as taught by Minor White andothers, was so popular and successful that itdominated serious photographic printmak-ing throughout the 1960s and 1970s.


Figure 1.6 Tice’s imagery is based on the idea of previsualization, knowing what the final print will look like before thecamera’s shutter is released. He used a wide-angle lens on his 8 ¥ 10 inch Deardorff camera to give the diner moreangularity. The 30-second exposure was sufficient to provide shadow detail in the milk crates piled up at the back of thediner. The photographer anticipated the pattern of lights produced by the cars rounding the curve of the highway, and madeit an important compositional element.

© George Tice. White Castle, Route #1, Rahway, New Jersey, 1973. Gelatin silver print. 8 ¥ 10 inches.

The antithesis of Group f/64 can be foundin the images and writings of WilliamMortensen, as in his essay “Fallacies of ‘Pure Photography’” (1934), which rejectedthe doctrine of the straight print and the sin-gular aperture as being mechanistic. Amaster craftsman, Mortensen taught image-makers that they have the right to manipu-late their negatives and prints in any mannerto achieve their vision goals. However,despite his expressive ideas on photography,Mortensen’s work has been in eclipse fordecades because it often featured nakedwomen in sadomasochistic situations beingdominated by men.

Postvisualization

The mid-1960s sparked a renewal of interestin numerous forgotten photographic print-making processes. This was a time of exper-imentation in many aspects of Westernsociety: questioning how and why thingswere done, trying new procedures, and eliciting fresh outcomes. A rising interest in countercultural ideas sent many photog-raphers back into photographic history to rediscover alternative techniques andencouraged new directions in imagemaking.A revival of historical methods surfacedwith the national recognition Jerry Uels-mann received for his use of combinationprinting, and this spread to nonsilverapproaches like cyanotypes and gum print-ing. The concept of postvisualization, inwhich the photographer could continue tointeract with the image at any stage of theprocess, was reintroduced into the repertoireof acceptable practices. Photographers suchas Robert Heinecken, Ray Metzker, BeaNettles, and John Wood began to reject thenotion of a single fixed perspective andactively sought alternative viewpoints.

Electronic Imaging: New Ways of Thinking

Digital imaging started to surface in the sci-entific community during the mid-1950s,when Russell A. Kirsch made one of the firstdigital images. Along with other scientistsworking at the National Bureau of Standards,Kirsch created one of the first digital scan-ners. By the 1960s, the National Aeronautics

and Space Administration (NASA) wasusing digitized images produced from itsSurveyor landing craft in 1966 and 1968 toformulate never-before-seen composite pho-tographs of the moon’s surface, which wereof great interest to artists and the public. Yetit was not until the late 1980s, with theadvent of affordable home computer graph-ics workstations, that digital image manipu-lation became a viable means for creatingphotographs. Digital image manipulation


Figure 1.7 In his essay, “Fallacies of ‘PurePhotography,’ ” Mortensen challenged theassumptions of Group f/64 by stating, “Puristsand puritans alike have been marked by a crusading devotion to self-definedfundamentals, by a tendency to sweepingcondemnation of all who over-step theboundaries they have set up, and by grimdisapproval of the more pleasing and gracefulthings in life” (Camera Craft 1934;41:260–261).Mortensen etched the original negative toremove unwanted detail. He elongated theimage during the enlargement process and madethe projection through a texture screen. Fordetails about his printmaking methods,including the Abrasion-Tone Process that heused to make this image, see WilliamMortensen, Print Finishing, San Francisco:Camera Craft Publishing, 1938.

© William Mortensen. Human Relations, fromMonsters and Madonnas, 1932. Abrasion-Tonegelatin silver print. 101/2 ¥ 81/4 inches. Collectionof Robert Hirsch.

has removed the burden of absolute truthfrom photography. By doing so it has revo-lutionized how images are created andcaused a conceptual shift from photographyas a medium that records reality to one thatcan transform it. In the late 1960s, SoniaLandy Sheridan incubated the notion of aGenerative Systems Department at theSchool of the Art Institute of Chicago. It wasconceived as a way to provide artists and scientists the opportunity to investigate newmeans of image production which includedelectrostatic photocopy machines, video,and computer-generated images, and itoffered its first course in 1970. What fol-lowed has been an explosive new set of tech-nical possibilities that have enabled a vastextension of new and diverse voices likeDinh Q. Lê to be seen.


Figure 1.8 Wood says, “I started working with photo collages at the Institute of Design in Chicagoin the early 1950s. My work in the 1960s was process oriented. I used images from newspapers,magazines, television, and my own resources. Generally, the collages were carefully dry mounted toarchival board and invariably had a political commentary. This activity continues up to the presenttime.”

© John Wood. Nixon and Agnew (Pop Goes the Weasel), circa 1960s. Gelatin silver print withmixed media. 73/4 ¥ 93/4 inches.

HAVING A SENSE OF HISTORY

Some people have no sense of the history ofphotography and no interest in studying pastmodels. These people may act the part of thephotographer, but they seldom appreciatehow they are using photography intellectu-ally. Part of the creative process involvesresearch and comprehending how one mindcan revise another. A grounding in photo-graphic history allows an imagemaker to seewhat has already been done. Look at thework of other imagemakers who havecovered similar ground and ask what theydid that allows you to connect to their work,what you would do similarly, and what youwould do differently.

There is much to be learned from extraor-dinary photographers of the past. They pos-

sessed powerful hearts and minds. They uti-lized the range of materials that the mediumhad to offer. The possibilities of photographyexcited them, and the complexity of theprocess fired their imaginations. The carethat remarkable work reveals suggests themastery of tasks needed to perform visualfeats. Accomplished practitioners are notafraid to work. Their images are producedout of knowledge and commitment. Thisenables them to create complex works withthe power to endure because the photogra-phers do not hold anything back. Goingforward from a foundation of knowledge, theimagemaker is in a position to carry out theIrish writer Oscar Wilde’s aphorism: “Theduty we owe to history is to rewrite it,” or inthe photographic sense, to re-image history.

ROLES PHOTOGRAPHY CAN PLAY

The equipment, materials, and processescovered in this book take the reader awayfrom the widely accepted notion that pho-tography’s major purpose is to recreate a recognizable version of outer reality. Most ofthe material presented in this book isdesigned to let readers discover for them-selves the possibilities within the medium ofphotography. This information can helpbring into existence that which never was. Itstarts to supply answers to the question“Why not?” It raises the question “How canI do more than record the reflections of thesurface?” This type of thinking disruptsmany traditional assumptions and conven-tions. If the work is unfamiliar, it can make


Figure 1.9 Born in Vietnam, where the Khmer Rouge invaded his own village, Lê now divides histime between Vietnam and the United States. Lê, who learned grassmat weaving from his aunt, actsas a meditative observer who creates dichotomies by combining images of stone carvings from theCambodian temples of Angkor Wat with stark frontal portraits of men, women, and childrenmurdered by the Khmer Rouge. The source of these images is a photographic archive compiled bythe perpetrators who killed two million of Cambodia’s seven million people. Just as erosionthreatens the Angkor temple carving, Lê’s beautiful images reflect on the instability of memory andthe contractions of history in the hope that photo-based imagery will help people remember thebarbaric fate of these nameless lost individuals.

© Dinh Q. Lê. Untitled, #11, from the series Cambodia: Splendor and Darkness, 1999. Wovenchromogenic color prints and linen tape. 401/4 ¥ 581/4 inches. Courtesy of the Shoshana WayneGallery, Santa Monica, CA. Original in color.

some people uncomfortable because thereare no prescribed guidelines on which theycan base their responses. Be prepared forchallenges when presenting unconventionalwork.

Imagemakers can meet such challenges anduse them to their advantage by engaging withcritical thinking, by making images they trulybelieve in, and by learning to control theirtechnique, both analog and digital, so that itbecomes a vital, yet not predominant part ofthe visual statement. If the situation permits,consider taking on the role of a teacher. Seekways that encourage people to set aside theirfear of the unknown and allow them room toreconsider their former thought patterns.Nobody learns more about the subject than awell-prepared teacher does. It is also possiblethat response to questions will help viewersto see a subject differently and open newdoors of perception.

This book offers numerous alternativephotographic approaches. This informationallows an expressive printmaker to under-stand how photography has evolved and tobe ready to explore future possibilities inimagemaking. The text makes no particulardistinction between work that has beencreated through analog or digital means. Oneexciting development has been in the waythat photographers have been integratingnumerous processes that zigzag through tra-ditional media boundaries to achieve theirvisual ends.

The following questions and answers aredesigned to encourage readers to gain alarger overview of fundamental concepts,images, and issues that can inform creativework. By thinking through these questions,readers can expand and deepen visionpotential and latent interests rather than following a current style or trend. Theresponses provided do not preclude otheranswers. They offer an initial pathway toform the basis of a discussion, to provoke,and in turn to help readers formulatethoughtful solutions.

QUESTIONS

1. Who is a photographer?A photographer is a person who has de-cided to become and pursue the life of a photographer.

2. What can one do to become a photo-grapher?

Looking at photographs can be a primaryactivity. Photographs are made from otherphotographs, as well as drawings, paintings,and prints. Look at what drives your curios-ity. Look at the classics. They have been pre-served because the patterns recorded inthem have proved to be invariably usefulover time. Look at contemporary work thatis wrestling with new and different ways ofexpressing ideas. Read, study, and practicedifferent methods of photography, not for the


Figure 1.10 According to Mike Starn, the sun controls this species ofbutterflies. When it shines they fly and when there are clouds they fall tothe ground. “Up and down all day long, they seem to create an idioticpoetry of puppets, creating an embarrassing metaphor for ourselves.Enlarging our perspective, we see the dominance of the sun over the earthand humanity, revealing that we are nothing more than a meaninglesssilhouette, a shadow, and shadows have no control.” The butterfly wasilluminated with a ring flash and photographed with extension tubes toget sufficient enlargement onto Polaroid Positive/Negative film, printedonto a hand-coated Luminous silver emulsion, and toned in Kodak BrownToner.

© Mike and Doug Starn. Attracted to Light, 1997–1999. Silver emulsionon Thai mulberry paper. 16 ¥ 16 inches.

sake of technique, but to discover the meansto articulate your ideas. Step back from thefamiliar to better understand it. One big perilfacing photographers is lack of commitment,which translates into indifference in theirwork. Talking, thinking, and writing aboutphotography are vital components of under-standing the process, but these activities donot make one a photographer. Ultimately, tobe a photographer one must fully engage inthe process and make photographs (usuallylots of them).

3. What does a photographer do?A photographer contemplates the nature ofmaking photographs, the cerebral and emo-tional drive of working with a subject andprocess. Once this is accomplished, the pho-tographer can then act to provide a physicalform in which time can be manipulated orsuspended to allow a subject to be thought-fully examined.

Good photographers also take the time towonder about their world and ponder howthey can best analyze and express theirthoughts and feeling to others. Wondering ispart of the thinking process that lets one


Figure 1.12 Snapshots provide blocks ofpersonal memories that can help us to expressand understand the world around us. A slightsmile on my face hints that I am quite contentwith our attachment, but Karen seems morepensive and less certain. Within a few years myfriend moved away and I have never seen heragain. What has happened in my playmate’slife? What would happen if we met today? If itwere not for this snapshot, I doubt I would bethinking about these possibilities. I also wonderif I would even be able to consciously recallthese memories without the power of this smallphotograph. In any case, I am grateful that myfather commemorated us on the winter day inKew Garden Hills, Queens, for it gives me thepower to remember.

© Edwin Hirsch. Bobby and Karen, Kew GardenHills, Queens, NY, 1953. 3 ¥ 3 inches. Gelatinsilver print.

Figure 1.11 The addition of color to meetaesthetic requirements is one of photography’soldest modifications. Here Roberts cut thephotograph and attached it to a gessoed canvas.After allowing it to dry, she painted it with oils.

© Holly Roberts. Man Listening to Himself,1988. Oil on gelatin silver print on canvas. 20 ¥181/2 inches. Original in color.

meditate on the possibilities. Wondering is aform of questioning old ways of knowingand can result in new ideas and differentdirections. Wondering encourages image-makers to summon the courage to takeuntested courses of action. Without wonderthere is no speculation, which makes art andlife boring and static.

4. Why is photography important to us asindividuals and collectively as a society?

Recently a reporter asked a group of tornadosurvivors what their most irreplaceableobject had been. One after another said thesame thing. The one thing that they wanted

to recover from their ruined homes was theirsnapshots. Their other material possessionseventually could be replaced. This revealsthe crux of why people photograph: to saveand commemorate a subject of personalimportance. The image may be a memory jogor an attempt to stop the ravages of natureand time. Regardless of motive, this act ofcommemoration and remembrance is thecritical essence of both amateur and profes-sional photographic practice.

What does this mean in terms of artistic practice at the beginning of a newcentury? There are more options than ever to pursue. Whether the images are found in the natural world, in a book, or on ascreen, part of an imagemaker’s job is to be actively engaged in the condition of“looking for something.” How this act oflooking is organized, its particular routines,uncertainties, astonishments, and quixoticcomplexities, is what makes photographersunique.

5. Why is it important to find an audiencefor your work?

Part of a photographer’s job is to interactwith and stimulate thinking within the com-munity of artists and their world at large.Without an audience to open a dialogue theimages remain incomplete and the artistunsatisfied.

6. What can images do that language cannotdo?

An accomplished photographer can commu-nicate visual experiences that remainadamantly defiant to words. The writerAlbert Camus stated, “If we understood theenigmas of life, there would be no need forart.” We know that words have the power toname the unnamable, but words also holdwithin them the disclosure of a conscious-ness beyond language. Photographs may alsoconvey the sensation and emotional weightof the subject without being bound by itsphysical content. By controlling time andspace the photo-based images allow viewersto examine that which attracts us for oftenindescribable reasons. They may remind us how the quickly glimpsed, the half-remembered, and the partially understoodimages of our culture can tap into ourmemory and emotions and become part of apersonal psychic landscape that makes up

an integral component of identity and socialorder.

7. What makes a photograph interesting?A significant ingredient that makes a photo-graph interesting is empathy, for it givesviewers an initial path for cognitive and emo-tional comprehension of the subject. Yet thevalue of a photograph is not limited to itsdepiction of people, places, things, and feel-ings akin to those in our life. An engagingimage contains within it the capacity to sen-sitize and stimulate our latent exploratorysenses. Such a photograph asserts ideas andperceptions that we recognize as our own butcould not have given concrete form towithout having first seen that image.

8. How is the meaning of a photographdetermined?

Meaning is not intrinsic. Meaning is estab-lished through a fluid cogitative and emo-tional relationship among the maker, thephotograph, and the viewer. The structure ofa photograph can communicate before it isunderstood. A good image teaches us how toread it by provoking responses from theviewers’ inventory of life experiences.Meaning is not always found in things, butsometimes between them. An exceptionalphotograph creates viewer focus, which pro-duces attention, which can lead to defini-tion. As one meditates on what is possible,multiple meanings may begin to presentthemselves.

9. Are the issues surrounding truth andbeauty still relevant to photographers ofthe twenty-first century?

During the past 25 years, issues of gender,identity, race, and sexuality have been pre-dominant because they had been previouslyneglected. In terms of practice, the artisticramifications of digital imaging have been anoverriding concern. But whether an image-maker uses analog silver-based methods torecord reality or pixels to transform it, thetwo greatest issues that have concernedimagemakers for thousands of years—truthand beauty—have been conspicuously ab-sent from the discussion. In the postmodernera irony has been the major form of artisticexpression.

Although elusive, there are certain pat-terns that can be observed that define a


personal truth. When we recognize an indi-vidual truth it may grab hold and bring us toa complete stop—a total mental and physi-cal halt from what we were doing—whilesimultaneously experiencing a sense ofclarity and certainty that eliminates the needfor future questioning.

Beauty is the satisfaction of knowing theimprimatur of this moment. Although truthand beauty are based in time and may existonly for an instant, photographers cancapture a trace of this interaction for viewersto contemplate. Such photographs canauthenticate the experience and allow us toreflect on it and gain deeper meaning.

Beauty is not a myth, in the sense of beingsimply a cultural construct or creation ofmanipulative advertisers, but is a basic hard-wired part of human nature. Our passionatepursuit of beauty has been observed for cen-turies. The history of ideas can be repre-sented in terms of visual pleasure. Inpre-Christian times Plato stated: “The threewishes of every man: to be healthy, to be rich

by honest means, and to be beautiful.” Morerecently American philosopher George San-tayana postulated that there must be “in ourvery nature a very radical and widespreadtendency to observe beauty, and to value it.”

10. How has digitalization affected photog-raphy?

Digitalization has shifted the authority of thephotograph from the subject to the photog-raphers by allowing them to extend time andincorporate space and sound. Photography isno longer just about making illusionisticwindows on the material world or collaps-ing events into single moments. The con-straints on how a photograph should lookhave broken down; they no longer have to betwo-dimensional objects that we look at ona wall. This elimination of former artificialbarriers is also good for those who wish topractice the art and craft of photographybecause it encourages makers to open thedoors of perception to new ideas andmethods for making photographs.

11. What are the advantages of digitalimaging over silver-basedimagemaking?

As in silver-based photography, digitalimaging allows truth to be made up by whatever people deem to be important andwhatever they choose to subvert. Whileanalog silver-based photographers beginwith “everything” and often rely on subtrac-tive composition to accomplish these goals,digitalization permits artists to start with ablank slate. This allows imagemakers toconvey the sensation and emotional weightof a subject without being bound by its phys-ical conventions, giving picturemakers anew context and venues to express thecontent of their subject.

12. What are the disadvantages of digitalimaging?

The vast majority of digital images con-tinue to be reworkings of past strategies that do not articulate any new ideas. Manufacturers promote the fantasy that all it takes to be an artist is just a few clicks of a mouse or applying a preprogrammedfilter. The challenge remains open: to find anative syntax for digital imaging. At themoment, this appears to be one that encour-ages the hybridization and commingling ofmediums.


Figure 1.13 Computers have opened newpaths of exploration in imagemaking. Burson’scomposite human is made up of Caucasian,Negroid, and Oriental features. The result,having no original body but only a digitalrepresentation, is representative of our media-saturated society in which the image (theperception of reality) can be more importantthan reality itself. Like a conjurer, Burson showsus that appearances are nothing.

© Nancy Burson with Richard Carling andDavid Kramlich. Mankind, 1983–1985. Gelatinsilver print. 73/4 ¥ 71/2 inches.

On the practical side, having a tangiblenegative allows one to revisit the originalvision without worrying about changingtechnology. One could still take a negativethat William Henry Fox Talbot made toproduce his first photographic book, ThePencil of Nature (1843–1846), and make aprint from it today. In 150 years will there bea convenient way for people to view imagessaved only as digital files? Or will they betechnically obsolete and share the fate of the8-track audio tape or the Beta video systemwhich most people can no longer access?


Figure 1.14 Abeles’s artists’ book, Encyclo-pedia Persona A–Z (1993), demonstrates theartist’s dedication to the physical aspect ofcreation. Camera Desiros is an exact replica ofAbeles’s 35mm camera and is an ancillary pieceto the series, Mountain Wedge, a 14-monthattempt to photograph a clear view of the SanGabriel Mountains located 16 miles north of LosAngeles. The piece is made of welded steel rodcovered with sheer mosquito netting and filledwith pigeon features. Abeles says, “As its titleand presence suggest, it speaks of a photo-graph’s ethereal desire to capture images.”

© Kim Abeles. Camera Desiros, 1987. Pigeonfeatures, metal, and netting. 33/4 ¥ 51/2 ¥ 41/4inches. Courtesy of Art Resources Transfer, New York.

One does not have to be a Luddite to con-tinue making analog prints. One reason tokeep working in a variety of analog processesis that digital imaging tends to physicallyremove the maker from the photographicprocess. This is not a romantic notion or anostalgic longing for the ways of the past.What often is lost is the pure joy of theatmospheric experience of being alone in aspecial darkroom with an orange glowinglight, the exhilaration of being physicallycreative as your body and mind worktogether to produce a tangible image. Themaking of an analog photograph is a hapticexperience that does not occur while one isseated in a task chair, but involves the smellof chemicals, the sensory experience ofrunning water as an image emerges in thedeveloping tray from a white nothingness. Asilver-based photograph never looks betterthan when it is glistening wet from its finalwash. And regardless of how long one hasbeen making prints in the darkroom, there isstill that small thrill that your photograph“has come out” and now can have a life ofits own.

13. Some beginning photographers com-plain that there is no artistic subjectmatter in their locale.

Today a central characteristic of imagemak-ing is not only to create objects (pho-tographs), but also to escape the restrictiveparameters of their “objectness” throughcontent. However, it is a common miscon-ception to link content solely with thesubject matter being represented. Pho-tographs that affect people may have nothingto do with the apparent subject matter itself,and everything to do with the subsequenttreatment of that subject. This realizationcreates limitless potential for subject matter.

Light and shadow are vital components ofevery photograph. This was recognized earlyin the medium’s history by William HenryFox Talbot’s image The Open Door (1843),which demonstrated his belief that subjectmatter was “subordinate to the explorationof space and light.” The quality of light strik-ing a subject can reveal or conceal its characteristics, which will make or break a photograph. Light may be natural or artificial, but without the appropriate type oflight even the most fascinating subjectsbecome inconsequential. Ultimately, light is

a principal subject of every photograph thatimagemakers must strive to control anddepict. As Talbot stated: “A painter’s eyewill often be arrested where ordinary peoplesee nothing remarkable. A casual gleam ofsunshine, or a shadow thrown across hispath, a time-withered oak, or a moss-coveredstone may awaken a train of thoughts andfeeling, and picturesque imaginings.” This isthe realization that the subject in front of thelens is not always the only subject of thephotograph.

14. It’s already been done before.To accept the notion that it has all been donebefore is to embrace clichés. The problemwith clichés is not that they are erroneous,but that they are oversimplified and superfi-cial articulations of complex concepts.Clichés are detrimental because they encour-age photographers to believe that they havedone a sufficient job of recording a situationwhen in fact they have merely gazed at itssurface. The simple act of taking a photo-graph of Niagara Falls or a pepper is no guar-antee that one has communicated anythingessential about that subject. Good photogra-phers provide visual clues and informationabout their subject for the viewer to contem-plate. They have learned how to distill andcommunicate what is essential to them abouttheir subject. By deeply exploring a themeand challenging clichés, photographers can reconstruct their sight of distorted,neglected, or other aspects of a situation andgain a fresh awareness and understanding.

15. I’m not in the right mood to make photographs.

Responding to life with joy and sorrow ispart of the human condition. At times whenpain and suffering are inescapable, it isimportant to remember that this is part of theprocess by which we acquire knowledge.This does not mean that one must be in dis-comfort to make art, but stress can be chan-neled into a creative force if it produces asense of inquisitiveness and an incentive forchange. Thinking through making picturescan allow us to place our pain in context.The images we make can help us understandits source, catalog its scope, adapt ourselvesto its presence, and devise ways to controlit. There are things in life, once calledwisdom, which we have to discover for our-

selves by making our own private journeys.Stress can open up possibilities for intelli-gent and imaginative inquiries and solutionsthat may have otherwise been ignored, over-looked, or refuted.

16. I have no idea how I am going to makea photograph of this subject.

When you get stuck and cannot find a solu-tion to your problem, try changing yourthinking patterns. Instead of forcing theissue, go lie down in a quiet and comfortabledark room, close or even cover your eyes,


Figure 1.15 Sherman established herself asthe only subject in the Film Still Series. Thework points out that photographic truth is amyth and that media-generated imagery is asstaged as her own. Through self-portraiture, it ispossible to be actor, director, and producer,living out your personal fantasies and fears.Sherman uses it to unmask sexual stereotypesand to examine her own identity. By sayinglittle about her work, Sherman encouragesviewers to interpret her work based on theirown life experiences.

© Cindy Sherman. Untitled Film Still, 1979.Gelatin silver print. 10 ¥ 8 inches. Courtesy ofMetro Pictures, New York.

and allow your unconscious mind a chanceto surface. Other people may take a bath orgo for a walk. The important thing is to findsomething that will change your brainwaves.Anecdotal history indicates that this can bean excellent problem-solving method. Turnoff the cognitive noise and allow your inter-nal “hidden observer” to scan the circum-stances, then return to your normal statewith a possible solution. Keep paper andpencil handy.

17. Why is it important to understand andbe proficient in the skills of yourmedium?

Understanding the structure of the photo-graphic medium allows one the freedom toinvestigate new directions. When first seen,an image may be exciting and magical.However, the photograph needs to be objec-tively evaluated. To do this one must havethe expertise of craft to understand thepotential for that photograph. Mastery ofcraft allows one the control to be flexible, to sharpen the main focus, and to discardextraneous material. This evaluation pro-cess permits imagemakers to reexamine andrethink their initial impulse and jettisoninarticulate and unadorned fragments, andto enrich and refine their work by incorpo-rating new and/or overlooked points of view. An artist who invests the extra time toincubate fresh ideas, learn new technicalskills, try different materials, and experi-ment with additional approaches canachieve a fuller aesthetic form and a richercritical depth. These qualities are oftenattained by reaching into another part of our-selves than the one we display in our dailydemeanor, in our community, or in ourimperfections.

18. How can a photographer make a differ-ence in the world?

The desire to “see” implies that our sense offocus and beauty is not immobile and can besensitized by an appreciation of previouslyneglected aesthetic qualities. The history of artistic photography is a succession ofimagemakers who have used their intellec-tual and intuitive skills to convey whatamounts to: “Isn’t this fascinating!” Photog-raphers who make a difference are those who are able to open our eyes and make usmore aware.

19. Why is it important to make your ownphotographs?

The physical act of making a photographforces you into the moment and makes youlook and think more than once, increasingyour capacity for appreciation and under-standing. This not only allows you to see things in new ways, but can also be physically and psychologically exhilarating.It reminds us that life is not mediocre, even if our daily conception of it is. Makingyour own images allows you to forge your own connections between the struc-ture of the universe, the organization of your imagination, and the nature of themedium.

20. How much visual information do I needto provide a viewer with in order tosustain meaning?

There are two basic stylistic approaches for transmitting photographic information.One is the straight, open frame approach in which much visual data is presented. It allows viewers to then select and respondto those portions that relate to their ex-periences. The second method is the expressionistic or closed form. Here the photographer presents only selected por-tions of a subject with the idea of directinga viewer toward a more specific response.Photographers should select which tech-nique is most suitable for a particular subjectand their specific project goals. Consciouslyselecting an approach also provides a basictemplate for organizing your thoughts andproducing work with a tighter focus of concentration.

21. How much of a photographer’s output islikely to be “good”?

In an apt metaphor for artistic inspiration,the American poet and writer Randall Jarrell wrote: “A good poet is someone whomanages, in a lifetime of standing out inthunderstorms, to be struck by lightning fiveor six times, a dozen or two dozen times andhe is great.” When Ansel Adams was pho-tographing on a regular basis he said he wassatisfied if he made one “good” image amonth. Much of any artistic practice isworking through the process. Good artiststake risks but also recognize that not every-thing they do needs to be shared with thepublic. Skillful artists learn to edit their own


because we probably have not found pic-tures that satisfy us. In the end, to be a pho-tographer, you must cast aside even thefinest pictures and rely on your internal nav-igational devices.

25. Can too much knowledge interfere withmaking photographs?

Beware of those who do not think in-dependently, but rely upon established aes-thetic pedigrees as a guide to eminence. You do not have to know all the answersbefore you begin. Asking questions forwhich you have no immediate answers can be the gateway for a new dynamic bodyof work. Do not get overwhelmed by what you do not yet know. There is alwaysmore to know, and learning should be a lifelong process. Use your picturemaking asa discovery process, but do not allow thequest for data to become the central concernor a deterrent to making pictures. Knowledgeof a subject can offer points of entry for visual explorations. Learn what you need to begin your project and then allowthe path of knowledge to steer you to newdestinations.

26. Is it necessary to explain my photo-graphs?

Yes, it is vital to give viewers a toehold to your work with an artist’s statement. This process also allows a photographer tolearn if the audience agrees with the statedintentions of the work. However, whileuseful, an artist’s intention offers only asingle perspective for understanding thework. By remaining open to different interpretations, imagemakers may discovermeanings that were not in their own con-scious mind.

Enigma also remains an essential qualityof making art. English painter Francis Bacon,whose work was strongly influenced by pho-tography, believed that the power of a worklay in its ability to be alluring yet elusive.Bacon thought that once an image could be explained, sufficiently approximated inwords, it became an illustration. He believedthat if one could explain it, why would onego to the trouble of painting it? According toBacon, a successful image was by definitionindefinable, and one sure way of defining it was by introducing a narrative element.


work (or get assistance) and present onlytheir most thought-out solutions for publicconsideration.

22. How can a photographer explore thecomplex relationships of time, space,and scale?

Work with photographs and the process ofmaking pictures. Explore single and serialconstructions, narrative and non-narrativeformats, and in-camera juxtapositions. Ex-amine how one image may modify themeaning of the next. Seek the most effectiveform of presentation: the gallery, a visualbook, the screen, the Web, or a combinationof approaches. Regardless of what anyonesays, people make photographs because ofthe way something looks.

23. Why study the history of photography?Encountering new photographs presents theopportunity to see something in yourself thatpreviously you had been unable to articu-late, and/or raise by assembling visual expe-riences that may never have been more thansemiconscious. This process symbolizeswhat all images can do for viewers: to resur-rect, from the deadness of routine and lackof concentration, valuable yet overlookedaspects of experience.

24. What are the limitations in studying theimages of others?

The French novelist Marcel Proust stated:“There is no better way of coming to beaware of what one feels than by trying torecreate in oneself what a master has felt.”While viewing the work of others can helpus learn what we feel, it is our own thoughtswe need to develop, even if it is someoneelse’s picture that aids us through thisprocess. Regardless of how much any imageopens our eyes, sensitizes us to our sur-roundings, or enhances our awareness ofsocial issues, ultimately the work cannotmake us aware enough of the significance ofour predilections because the imagemakerwas not us. Looking at work can place youat the threshold of awareness, but it does notconstitute cognizance of it. Looking mayopen deep dwelling places that we wouldnot have known how to enter on our own,but it can be dangerous if the work is seenas material that we can passively grab andcall our own. We become photographers

For centuries, storytelling was the back-bone of Western art. Yet the bourgeois cozi-ness and shallow academic conventions ofnineteenth-century narrative painting made storytelling an anathema to the aestheticvocabulary of modern art. Bacon took theexistential position that his pictures meantnothing, said nothing, and he himself hadnothing to say. Bacon believed that paintingwas the pattern of one’s nervous system pro-jected on the canvas. He claimed he wishedto “paint like Diego Velázquez but with thetexture of a hippopotamus skin,” achievingthe tonal subtlety inspired by the Spanishmaster whose paintings encompassed therough, grainy immediacy of a news photo.Bacon sought to exalt the immediacy of

camera vision in oil, like a portrait in thegrand European manner.

27. What is the role of critics and critique?“Unless you are one critic in a hundred thou-sand,” wrote the critic and teacher RandallJarrell, “the future will quote you only as anexample of the normal error of the past.” Thereal importance of criticism is for the sake ofthe work that it criticizes. Good critics do notset up rigid agendas and templates or try toimpose their own prescriptive notions, butallow the work and the experience of it to setthe general expectations to which the criti-cism conforms. The only thing we knowabout the future is that it is not what wethink it will be.


Figure 1.16 Addressing the issue of enigma and meaning, Jeffrey Hoone, Director of Light Work,said that this “series would be difficult to classify using conventional criteria in regard to subjectmatter; yet they all appear to be ambiguously related from the heroic to the prosaic. Whenpresented in their original form each image measures a mere 13/4 ¥ 23/4 inch floating in a blackbackground on a 20 ¥ 16 inches sheet of paper. The edges of the image are blurred and irregular,and combined with the scale and dark background each image appears as if it were being viewed ina darkened theater from way back in the aisle. In a gallery setting the images must be viewed at avery close distance, establishing an intimate relationship between viewer and photograph thatheightens the sense of memory and emotion that each image conveys. Hirsch gives the viewer avariety of issues, concerns, and techniques to think about and digest. He massages meaning out ofevery nuance in the series from the choice of subject to the scale of the images, and each decisionthat he has made seems to open up opportunities for further investigation.”

© Robert Hirsch. Untitled (detail), from the series The Architecture of Landscape, 1999. Tonedgelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 16 inches. Courtesy of Light Work, Syracuse, New York.

28. What is the role of theory in relation tocontemporary photography?

It is a matter of perspective and priority. Doyou want to be concerned with the object ofstudy or with constructing a cohesive con-ceptual system? At its best, Postmodernism’sagenda of inclusion creates a permissive atti-tude toward a wide range of interpretive pos-sibilities. At its worst, it encourages anihilistic solipsism where all expressionresides in an undecidable haze of indeter-minate value. As a student, one does notexpect to learn and unlearn photography allat once, but regardless of one’s personalinclinations, one should become informedabout past and present artistic theory, fromJohn Ruskin to Jacques Derrida.

29. What are the qualities of a goodteacher?

A good teacher provides guidance and lead-ership that prepare individuals to tap intotheir own creativity. Good teachers are wellorganized, care about the subject and theirstudents, and work to create an atmosphereof give and take. This openness and trust canproduce a dynamic that encourages a two-way dialogue between the instructor and the class. Good teachers are enthusiastic,patient, and well prepared with good learn-ing materials, and establish clear long-termgoals. They are accountable and honest intheir responses to student work. They do nottear students down just to be provocative,but have students present and defend theirideas to understand the intention of thework. Good teachers focus on everydayassumptions and encourage experimenta-tion, and they realize that taking chancesand stepping into unknown territory mayresult in temporary failure that can oftenprepare one to go on to the next level. Goodteachers are resourceful people who mayteach by example but continue to advocatethat students find their own voice and notjust imitate that of the teacher or a populartrend. They ask adroit questions and listencarefully in order to steer students towardinformation that will generate further devel-opment of aesthetic and critical thinking.Most importantly, good teachers build confi-dence in the student’s mind by instilling thebelief that if they focus on the task at hand,think critically, and act specifically they cansucceed.

30. What are the qualities of a goodstudent?

Good students have the will to learn. Theyare self-motivated and work for themselves,not to please others. They are alert, curious,and enthusiastic, pay attention, keep an openmind to new ideas, and enjoy the learningprocess. They set personal goals, maintain anorganized work schedule, and manage theirtime properly. They assume responsibilityfor their actions and accept the challenge tothink critically about the material. Theyprepare their minds by completing theirreading and writing assignments so that theycan ask questions and actively participate ingroup discussions in order improve theirbase of knowledge. At the conclusion of theirstudy they are able to demonstrate theirknowledge and integrate it into their lives.With good fortune this can lead to a realiza-tion of where they are at the moment, wherethey would like to be in their future, and howto adjust their lives to make it happen.

31. How do photographers earn a living?Living as an artist depends on what youwant to do and how much money yourequire. Less than one percent of artists canlive on what they earn from their artwork.Do not expect to get a full-time teaching jobin higher education even if you are willingto work for years as an adjunct facultymember at numerous institutions. However,there are career opportunities in arts and cul-tural organizations as well as in primary andsecondary education. Take advantage ofbeing a student—do an internship that willgive you first-hand experience in an area youwould like to work within. Successfulinternships can lead to entry-level jobs. Thevisual arts community is still a relativelysmall field. Hard work and networking skillscan benefit you and the organization that youserve in terms of letters of reference andbridges to your future that are at presentunimaginable.

32. Now it is your turn. Add a question andanswer to this list.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Adams, Ansel. The New Ansel Adams Pho-tography Series. Boston: Little, Brown,1981.


Adams, Robert. Why We Photograph:Selected Essays and Reviews. New York:Aperture, 1994.

Beckley, Bill (Ed.), with David Shapiro.Uncontrollable Beauty: Toward a New Aes-thetic. New York: Allworth Press, 1998.

Crawford, William. The Keepers of Light: AHistory & Working Guide to Early Photo-graphic Processes. Dobbs Ferry, NY:Morgan and Morgan, 1979.

Davis, Keith. An American Century of Photography: From Dry-Plate to Digital.The Hallmark Photographic Collection.Second Ed., Revised and Enlarged. KansasCity, MO: Hallmark Cards in Associationwith Harry N. Abrams, 1999.

Frizot, Michel (Ed.). A New History of Photography (English version). Cologne:Könemann, 1998.

Gardner, Howard. The Disciplined Mind:What All Students Should Understand.NY: Simon and Schuster, 1999.

Goldberg, Vicki (Ed.). Photography in Print:

Writing from 1816 to the Present (reprint).Albuquerque: University of New MexicoPress, 1988.

Green Jonathan. American Photography: ACritical History 1945 to the Present. NewYork: Harry N. Abrams, 1984.

Hirsch, Robert. Seizing the Light: A Historyof Photography. New York: McGraw-Hill,2000.

Newhall, Beaumont. The History of Photog-raphy. Revised Ed. New York: TheMuseum of Modern Art, 1982.

Rosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Pho-tography. Third Ed. New York: AbbevillePress, 1997.

Stiles, Kristine, and Peter Selz (Eds). Theo-ries and Documents of Contemporary Art:A Sourcebook of Artists’ Writings. Berke-ley and Los Angeles: University of Cali-fornia Press, 1996.

Taft, Robert. Photography and the AmericanScene: A Social History, 1839–1889. NewYork: Dover Publications, 1964.


2Safety

Photographers must be aware of certainhealth and environmental concerns to ensure a safe and creative working atmos-phere. Before beginning to work with any of the processes mentioned in this text, it is essential to follow the basic precautionsand procedures outlined in the next section.

BASIC SAFETY PROCEDURES

1. Read and follow all instructions andsafety recommendations provided by the manufacturer before undertaking anyprocess. This includes handling, mixing,storage, and disposal.

2. Become familiar with all the inherenthazards associated with any chemicalsbeing used. When acquiring chemicals,ask about proper handling and safetyprocedures.

3. Know the antidotes for the chemicalsyou are using. Prominently display the telephone numbers for poisoncontrol and emergency treatment cen-ters near the telephone in your workingarea.

4. Many chemicals can be flammable. Keepthem away from any source of heat oropen flame to avoid a possible explosionor fire. Keep a fire extinguisher that can

be used for both chemical and electricalfires in the work area.

5. Work in a well-ventilated space. Haz-ardous chemicals should be mixedunder a vented hood or outside.

6. Protect yourself. Wear thin, disposableplastic gloves that are suitable for han-dling the chemicals you are workingwith, along with safety glasses and aplastic apron. Use a disposable facemask or respirator when mixing chemi-cals, especially if you have had a previ-ous allergic reaction. If you have anytype of reaction, immediately consult aphysician and suspend work with allphotographic processes.

7. Precisely follow mixing instructions.

8. Keep all chemicals off your skin, out ofyour mouth, and away from your eyes. Ifyou get any chemicals on your skin,immediately flush the area with coolrunning water.

9. Do not eat, drink, or smoke while han-dling chemicals.

10. Always pour acids slowly into water;never pour water into acids. Do not mixor pour any chemical at eye level, as asplash could easily hit your eyes. Wearprotective eye wear when mixing acids.

11. Avoid touching any electrical equip-ment with wet hands. Install shockproofoutlets in your darkroom.

SAFETY 23

12. Follow instructions for proper disposalof all chemicals. Wash yourself and anyequipment that has come into contactwith any chemicals. Launder darkroomtowels after each session. Dispose ofgloves and masks to avoid future conta-mination. Keep your work space cleanand uncontaminated.

13. Store all chemicals properly. Use safetycaps or lock up chemicals to preventother people, children, and pets frombeing exposed to their potential dangers.Store chemicals in a cool, dry area awayfrom direct sunlight.

14. If you are pregnant or have any preexisting health problems, read thepertinent materials under “AdditionalInformation” at the end of this chapterbefore carrying out any process de-scribed in this book.

15. People have varying sensitivities tochemicals. If you have had allergic reac-tions to any chemicals, you should payclose attention to the effects that dark-room chemicals have on you, and beardently careful about following allsafety procedures (see following sectionon chemical sensitivities).

Specific safety measures and reminders areprovided in the chapters on each process.These guidelines are not designed to produceparanoia but to ensure that you have a longand safe adventure in uncovering the manypossibilities of photography. Remember thatyour eyes, lungs, and skin are porous mem-branes and can absorb chemical vapors. It isyour job to protect yourself.

CONTACT ALLERGIES ANDCHEMICAL SENSITIVITIES

Although most people work with photo-graphic chemicals and materials with noadverse effects, a small number of peoplehave an abnormally high sensitivity tocertain substances. This group of people mayhave a reaction to substances like householdcleaners, latex, matches, paints, rubber,wool, and even some types of jewelry. Allchemicals used in photography shouldalways be treated with care.

The symptoms of chemical sensitivityvary from one person to another. Thesesymptoms can include redness, itching, orswelling when skin comes in contact with a chemical. The skin may form blisters that later break. A chemical sensitivity reac-tion does not require contact with the sub-stance. Inhalation or skin contact with fumesmay be enough to trigger the reaction. Notethat an individual chemical may not be par-ticularly toxic in liquid form but may behighly toxic if inhaled while in powderform.

Chemical sensitivities are not allergies butthey often cause many of the same symp-toms, such as light-headedness, fatigue,headaches, and recurrent illnesses that seem to have no explanation. Reactions mayvary widely, but the treatment is the same:avoidance of the substance causing the reaction.

Chemicals used in photography that mostoften cause chemical sensitivity reactionsinclude: Metol, para-phenylene diamine,potassium aluminum sulfate, gold and platinum salts, selenium salts, potassiumpersulfate, potassium dichromate, andpotassium chlorochromate.

This is only a partial list. Generally, all ofthe chemical formulations listed in this book can be safely used with only a few pre-cautions such as a pair of gloves and goodventilation.

DISPOSING OF CHEMISTRY

As environmental regulations are madestronger, what may have been disposable bypouring down the drain ten years ago mayrequire careful disposal today. As the bene-ficiaries of cleaner air and water, photo-graphers are responsible for following localregulations.

Municipal waste treatment plants canhandle most photochemical solutions undera certain volume and concentration. Localsewer authorities regulate the concentrationsand the volume of chemicals released perday into sewer systems. Most individualhome photographic processing will not ex-ceed these regulations. Before setting up adarkroom, contact the local sewer authorityfor information about disposing of your photographic solutions.

Disposing of Fixer

Fixing baths can contain high concentrationsof silver thiocyanate. It is usually acceptableto pour small amounts of fixer down thedrain with running water. The U.S. CleanWater Act allows no more than five parts permillion (ppm) of silver ion to be depositedin municipal wastewater treatment plants.This concentration can easily be achieved ina good printing session. Large amounts ofused fixer (more than a few gallons per day)should therefore be treated with a silver

recovery system. These systems come in avariety of styles and sizes. The precipitatedsilver must be sent to a company that willrecover the silver.

Septic Systems

Because household septic systems use bacte-ria to break down waste they can be damagedeasily by photographic chemistry disposal.Most septic systems can handle a few pintsof chemistry at any one time. Some munici-


Figure 2.1 Danielson is representative of artists who interchangeably work with analog anddigital methods. Regardless of working techniques, artists need to follow safety instructions toprotect themselves, those around them, and our environment. Here Danielson’s studio still lifeplays the antique look of platinum printing off her postmodern fascination with femininestereotyping. She uses the subtle tonalities of platinum, a quality associated with early twentieth-century pictorialism, to lure viewers into her allegorical compositions. Yet on closer inspectionviewers realize that her subject matter, popular decorative objects from the 1940s and 1950s, evokesand draws into question feminine stereotypes from more recent times.

© Deborah Danielson. Rearranging the Furniture, 1990. 33/4 ¥ 43/4 inches. Platinum/palladium print.

The top of the monitor should be at eye level.

Surge Protection

Power surges, called spikes, occur when thepower to your home or studio is restoredafter an interruption. These surges candamage the sensitive circuitry in your computer. Surge suppression devices aredesigned to protect a computer and periph-erals from spikes.


Books

McCann, Michael. Artist Beware. Second Ed.New York: The Lyons Press, 1993.

Rempel, Siegfried, and Wolfgang Rempel.Health Hazards for Photographers. NewYork: The Lyons Press, 1993.

Rossol, Monona. The Artist’s CompleteHealth & Safety Guide. Second Ed. NewYork: Allworth Press, 1994.

Shaw, Susan, and Monona Rossol. Overex-posure: Health Hazards in Photography.Second Ed. San Francisco: The Friends ofPhotography, 1991.

Spandorfer, Merle, Jack Snyder, and DeborahCurtiss. Making Art Safely: AlternativeMethods and Materials in Drawing, Paint-ing, Printmaking, Graphic Design, andPhotography. New York: John Wiley &Sons, 1995.

Tell, Judy. Making Darkrooms Saferooms,1989. Available from National Press Photo-graphers Association, 3200 CroqsdaileDrive, Suite 306, Durham, NC 27705.

Other Sources

Center for Occupational Hazards, 5 Beekman Street, New York, NY 10038;(212) 227-6220.

Ilford, North America, 24-hour hotline, (914)478-3131.

Kodak, Australia/Asia/Western Pacific, 24-hour hotline, 03-350-1222. Kodak, NorthAmerica, 24-hour hot line, (716) 722-5151.

Kodak, United Kingdom/Europe/Africa, 24-hour hotline, 01-427-4380.

SAFETY 25

palities now require a permit to dump pho-tographic wastes into septic systems.

PROTECTING YOURSELF AND YOUR COMPUTER

The computer does not expose the user topossibly hazardous chemicals or fumes, butan artist working at a computer should beaware of the possible health effects.

ELF/VLF

Extremely low frequency (ELF) and very low frequency (VLF) emissions are types ofelectromagnetic radiation created by moni-tors. Some research studies have linked theseemissions to an increased risk of cancer or miscarriage. Keep your eyes at least 18 inches away from the screen and avoidprolonged exposure. Low-emissions moni-tors are available as well as filters for thescreen.

Eye Strain

Working in a well-lit room, keeping thescreen free of dust and clear of reflectionscan reduce eyestrain.

Taking Breaks

Taking a 15-minute break every one or twohours will help keep you sane and preventfatigue. Try mixing non–computer-relatedactivities into your digital routine.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

Carpal tunnel syndrome, caused by repeti-tive movements and improper keyboard and mouse use, is characterized by numb-ness and tingling in the wrists and hands. Inadvanced stages, the syndrome can causepermanent nerve damage. Keeping yourwrists flat, straight, and at a height equal toyour elbows will help prevent injury.

Lower Back Problem

Make sure you are comfortable, with your feet on a footrest or flat on the floor.

Emergency Numbers

Numbers for the local poison control hotlineare usually listed in the first few pages of your telephone directory. Keep thisnumber along with the following phonenumbers close to the telephone in case of anemergency.

Local Poison Control: __________________Kodak Emergency Number: (716)

722-5151Ilford Medical Emergency Number: (800)

842-9660


3 Special-Use Films andProcessing

FILM AND THE PHOTOGRAPHER

Being a photographer requires more thanmaking a decision to use a camera. Itinvolves learning how to make the cameraand photographic materials function tofulfill your purposes and learning to see inthe way the lens sees. Traditionally, thecamera has used a light-sensitive substanceon a support base called film to accomplishthis task. In the 1980s, cameras that werecapable of recording an image electronically,without silver-based film, became availablefor commercial use. Computers and digitalcameras can perform most of the functionsof traditional cameras. But because theyrecord images differently than film does, the effect and overall character of the imagemay differ. Although electronic imaging is arevolutionary breakthrough in imagemakingand is gaining in popularity daily, film continues to be the method and mea-suring stick that the vast majority of photog-raphers rely on to record their subjects.(Electronic imaging is covered in Chapters12 and 13).

Readers should feel confident in camerahandling, exposure, and in processing awide variety of general-purpose black-and-white films before proceeding. If you haveany problems in these areas, a review ofworking procedures is in order. (Thischapter will not cover color films. For infor-mation on this subject consult the latestedition of Exploring Color Photography by

Robert Hirsch, McGraw-Hill Publishers,1997; new edition is being planned).

Film Selection

Film is the agent that records an image, andits basic characteristics are crucial in deter-mining the look of the final image. Brandsand types of film differ in contrast, grainstructure, sensitivity, sharpness, and speed.These characteristics are manufactured intofilm and are difficult to alter to any largedegree. For these reasons, it is important forphotographers to base their selection of filmon the aesthetic and technical requirementsof the situation.

Manufacturers regularly alter existingfilms, discontinue old favorites, and intro-duce new films at a rapid rate. It is difficultfor any photographer to keep up with allthese changes. The life span of technicalinformation has been greatly reduced. It canbecome obsolete almost as soon as it isprinted. The Internet now makes it easier toget up-to-date information, but manufactur-ers are often slow to publish informationeven online. As there is no way to gauge thetruth of any information obtained on theInternet from nonmanufacturers’ sites, suchdata may be a treasure trove or just fool’sgold—untested and inaccurate blather. Todeal with this problem, a photographerneeds a sound conceptual understanding ofa wide array of photographic processes. A

process or product may change, but theunderlying principles remain the same.Many photographers find that refining theirworking methods with one film-developercombination can be effective for mostgeneral situations. But a photographer mustbe willing to test new films in noncritical situations and make a judgment based onpersonal experience.

Selecting a film is an individualisticmatter in that many subjective concerns take precedence over technical matters. Asyou will learn by reading this book, filmimage quality is also affected by the methodof development. The same roll of film canproduce a wide range of characteristicsbased on how it is treated before, during, andafter exposure and processing. It can behelpful to talk with other photographers andread widely. Remember, you can discuss andread about photography all night, but this isnot photography. Being a photographermeans being involved in making images. Theonly way to know what is going to work inphotography is to do it yourself. The multi-plicity of human experience shows thatreality is not an inert and simple matter. Letyour selection of film reflect what actuallyworks for you.

Compiling Sources of Information

The information provided in this chapter isdesigned to offer aesthetic and technical pos-sibilities that cannot be achieved through theuse of conventional films. The informationhas been compiled through the personalworking experiences of professionals, teach-ers, and students. The technical informationwas up-to-date at the time of writing, but youshould check it against the manufacturer’sdata sheet before beginning to work with thefilm.

These methods have been successful for others. If the results you obtain with them are not satisfactory, do not hesitate toalter them. Make these working proceduresyour own by changing them to suit your personal requirements. Keep a detailed notebook of procedures, ideas, and sources.Record keeping can save time and act as a springboard for new directions in your work.

GENERAL WORKING PROCEDURESFOR FILM PROCESSING

Certain general working procedures can befollowed in all film processing to ensure con-sistent high-quality results. These includethe following:

• Read, understand, and follow all technicaland safety data before processing the film.

• Be certain that all your equipment andyour general working area are clean, dry,and in proper working order.

• Make sure there are no light leaks in film-loading and film-processing areas.

• Lay out all the equipment you will needin a location where you can find it withoutthe aid of a light.

• Plastic funnels, graduates, mixing pails,stirring rods, and bottles should bedurable, easy to clean, inexpensive, andapplicable to almost any process. To avoidpossible contamination, use separate grad-uates and containers for developer andfixer. Rinse all mixing equipment beforeand after each use.

• Once a developer is mixed into a workingsolution, store it in a clean brown plasticcontainer, with as much air as possibleremoved from the container, to ensuremaximum life.

• Do not exceed the working capacities (theamount of film that may be processed) ofany of the solutions.

• Mix the developer with distilled water toensure consistency, especially in areaswith problematic water.

• Use an accurate thermometer for process-ing consistency. This is necessary toensure that all solutions are at their properoperating temperatures.

• Presoaking film removes the wetting agentincorporated into the emulsion, increas-ing the potential for streaking. Because thedeveloper has to displace the waterabsorbed by the emulsion during thepresoak, you may have to extend thedeveloping time. Many people feel thatpresoaking your film for one to twominutes before beginning to process pre-pares the film for developer and elimi-nates air bubbles, thus helping deliver


superior quality. Try it and see for yourself.

• Follow recommended agitation patternsfor each step of processing.

• Stop bath rapidly changes the pH of film,causing the action of the developer tocease. Recent manufacturers’ testing hasfound that this rapid change in pH cancause the formation of tiny pinholes in theemulsion. This damage will be apparentin the final print. Therefore, using stopbath in film processing is no longer rec-ommended. Instead, rinse the film twicein the processing tank, with water. If youdecide to use stop bath, mix it from a 28percent stock solution to avoid the prob-lems that can occur when working withthe highly concentrated 99 percent glacialacetic acid. Dilute the 28 percent stocksolution to its working strength. Use it onetime (one shot) and dispose of it. If youwant to reuse the stop bath, get one thatcontains an indicator dye that changescolor to inform you when the solution isbecoming exhausted. Discard the indica-tor stop after its orange color disappears.If you wait for it to turn purple, it mayalready be exhausted. Indicator stop bathmay be used to make all film and paperstop baths.

• Fixer or hypo comes in two forms: regular,which consists mainly of sodium thiosul-fate powder, and rapid, which is usuallyammonium thiosulfate in a liquid form.Either may be used for most processes.Check to make sure the dilution is correctfor the process being carried out. Bothtypes may be reused. Keep a record of thenumber of rolls processed or use a hypotest solution that will indicate when thefixer has become exhausted due to silversaturation. Hypo test will not test accu-rately for exhaustion through age (oxida-tion) or other contamination. This testsolution can be purchased commerciallyor made following this formula: 100 mil-liliters distilled water to 2 grams potas-sium iodide. This solution can be storedin a dropper bottle, available at most drug-stores. It should keep indefinitely. To usethis solution, put one or two drops intothe used fixer. Wait a few seconds. If anycloudiness is visible within about tenseconds, replace the print fixer.

• Film may be washed in the processingtank. Make certain that the water ischanged often, at least 12 completechanges of water, or get a film washer thatdoes this automatically.

• Use a hypo clearing agent to help removefixer residue and reduce washing time.

• Place the film in a wetting agent for abouttwo minutes with light agitation beforehanging it to dry in a dust-free area.Always mix the wetting agent with dis-tilled water. Dispose of the used solutionafter each use.

• If there are problems with particles dryingon the film, try this procedure: On remov-ing the film from the wetting agent, shakeoff excess solution in the sink. Hang filmup and clip it on the bottom. If yourfingers are clean and smooth, put yourindex and middle fingers in the wettingsolution and shake them off. Now usethese two fingers to gently squeegee bothsides of the film. With a lint-free dispos-able towel, such as a Photo-Wipe, care-fully wipe the nonemulsion (shiny) side ofthe film from top to bottom. Do not wipethe emulsion side, as it is still soft and canbe damaged easily. Hold the film at a slightangle with one hand. Using the otherhand, slowly bring the disposable toweldown the full length of the film. Keep youreye on the film just behind where thetowel has passed to check for any spots,streaks, or particles. If any are visible, goback and remove them. A rainbow effecton the film surface indicates that you arecarrying out the procedure correctly. Donot use any heat or forced air to speed filmdrying.

• After the film is dry, place it in archivalplastic sleeves or acid-free paper enve-lopes. Store it in a cool, dry place. Do notuse glassine, kraft paper, or polyvinylchloride materials for storage, becausethey contain substances that can beharmful to film over time.

• Keep a notebook of all the procedures. Listthe date, type of film, developer, time, andtemperature; any procedures that are dif-ferent from normal; the outcome; and thechanges to be made in working methods ifa similar situation is encountered in thefuture.

SPECIAL-USE FILMS AND PROCESSING 29

• Refrigerate or freeze the film before andafter exposure for maximum quality. Letthe film reach its operating temperaturebefore loading, exposing, or processing it.

KODAK HIGH SPEED INFRAREDFILM 2481 AND 4143

Black-and-white infrared (IR) film is sensi-tive to all wavelengths of the visible spec-trum of light but also extends into the IRregion. IR film is sensitive to radiation thatthe human eye cannot detect. Conventionalpanchromatic film, sensitive to the visiblespectrum, is designed to record a subject intones that approximate those of human per-ception. IR film sees and records beyondhuman parameters but also has a reducedsensitivity to green wavelengths of light.These two factors combine to render objects

differently than panchromatic film does andcan cause dramatic shifts in tone, producingimages that appear unreal, and sometimesalmost hallucinatory.

To understand this film, it is necessary toexperiment with and test it. This will makeyou familiar with the changes it can producein the sense of pictorial space by altering the tonal relationships of a scene. This distinct set of tonal relationships can distortthe normal sense of photographic time and space. All the information discussed inthis section refers to Kodak High SpeedInfrared Film 2481 and 4143, which are themost readily available IR films. They comein 35mm cassettes, 150-foot rolls, and 4 ¥5 inch sheets.

Handling

IR film is sensitive to IR radiation, so shouldbe handled in total darkness when loadingor unloading either the camera or the devel-oping tank. The felt strips of the film cassettecan permit IR radiation leaks. Check thedarkroom to make certain it is light-tight.When a darkroom is not available, use ahigh-quality changing bag. Keep the bag inan area shaded from direct sunlight. Beaware that changing bags can leak IR radia-tion; check the bag with a test roll. IR filmcan also be fogged by heat. Whenever possi-ble, keep it refrigerated before and afterexposure.

Focusing

IR radiation has longer wavelengths thanthose of the visible spectrum. Regularcamera lenses are not designed to focus IRwavelengths. To correct this problem, mostlenses have an IR focusing index markerengraved on the lens barrel. It is often a reddot or the letter R located close to the nor-mal focusing mark on the lens. Check thecamera manual to ascertain the location ofthe marking.

When using IR film, focus the camera inthe normal manner. Note the distance indi-cated by the regular focusing index mark,then manually rotate the focusing ring toplace that distance opposite the IR focusingindex mark. The image may be fuzzy in the


Figure 3.1 Ginsburgh Hofkin used Konica black-and-white infrared 120film to accentuate the lonely cactus standing against a dramaticallyclouded sky. The photographer says, “Experience has taught me to lookfor those objects reflecting significant concentrations of infrared energy in order to selectively register greater density on the negative, therebycausing those respective counterparts in the print to appear lighter ormore ethereal. The resulting shift enables me to emphasize those dream-like and surrealistic feelings I seek to express in my images.” Sheprocessed the film in Ilford Microphen 1 :1 and printed using an AristoCold Light on Kodak Elite Glossy #3. The image was toned in KodakRapid Selenium Toner (6 ounces per gallon for 10 minutes).

© Ann Ginsburgh Hofkin. Arizona–94-2, 1994. Toned gelatin silver print.18 ¥ 23 inches.

viewfinder, but the IR film will record itsharply. It is not necessary to make thisadjustment when using a wide-angle lens ora small lens aperture, as the increase indepth of field will compensate. It is neces-sary to do this at distances of five feet or lessand with all telephoto lenses. View cameracorrections can be made by adding 25percent of the focal length to the lens-filmdistance.

Filters

Because IR film is sensitive to visible and IRspectra, filters can be used to alter andcontrol the amount of spectrum that the filmrecords. The following sections describesome of the filters commonly used with IR film.

Wratten No. 87The Wratten No. 87 filter absorbs all visiblelight, allowing only IR radiation to passthrough and be recorded. With a single lensreflex (SLR) camera, it is necessary to removethis filter to focus, as it appears opaque to thehuman eye. Subjects will be recorded intones proportional to the amount of IR radi-ation they reflect. Those reflecting the mostIR radiation will appear in the lightest tones.Objects that appear to be the brightest to thehuman eye are not necessarily those thatreflect the most IR radiation. For this reason,the tonal arrangement of the scene recordedby the IR film will often seem unreal whencompared with the same scene recorded ona panchromatic film that is sensitive to thevisible spectrum. Other filters that block UVand most or all visible radiation are WrattenNo. 89B, 88A, and 87C. Each of these filtersremoves different wavelengths of light, creating different effects.

Red FiltersThe Wratten No. 25 filter (red) is the mostcommonly used filter with IR film. It pre-vents blue and green light from passingthrough but transmits red and IR radiation.It enables the photographer to focus throughthe SLR viewfinder. This filter can producebold visual effects. The sky may appearblack, with clouds seeming to pop out intothe third dimension. Caucasian skin can losedetail and take on an unworldly glow.

Surface veins in the skin can becomeextremely noticeable. The Wratten No. 29(deep red) filter can produce an even greatereffect, but requires one f-stop more exposurethan the Wratten No. 25.

PolarizerIR film is excellent for use in penetratinghaze when using a polarizer in conjunctionwith a No. 87 or No. 25 filter.

Other FiltersAlmost any colored filter will block certainwavelengths of visible light and permit IRradiation to pass through. A polarizer andthe Wratten No. 12 (yellow), Wratten No. 58(green), and Wratten No. 15 (orange) filtersoffer varying effects by removing part of theblue wavelengths of light. Try different filtersand see what happens. Keep notes so thatyou can replicate the results.

No FiltersWithout filtration, IR film reacts morestrongly to the visible spectrum. This pro-duces less dramatic images than those pro-duced with filters and results in a noticeableincrease in graininess.

Exposure

Determining the correct exposure for IR filmrequires experience. It is impossible to deter-mine the precise film speed needed to set theexposure meter. This is because the ratio ofIR to visible light is variable and most meter-ing systems do not respond to IR radiation.Table 3.1 lists starting points that are usefulin determining the exposure under averageconditions with Kodak High Speed InfraredFilm. If possible, use a hand-held meter orremove the filters from in front of through-the-lens (TTL) metering systems, as the spec-tral sensitivity of the meter can be affectedby the filters.


Table 3.1 Meter Settings for Kodak High Speed Infrared Film

Wratten Filters Type of Illumination ISO for Tungsten*ISO for Daylight*

No filter 80 200No. 25, 29, 70, and 89B 50** 125No. 87 and 88A 25 64No. 87C 10 25

*Film processed in Kodak D-76.**When in doubt, use this ISO rating as a starting place.

Changes in exposure cause noticeable dif-ferences in how IR film records the image. Acorrect exposure delivers a scene with awide contrast range that is easy to print.Underexposure causes the scene to losedepth and appear flat. Details in the shadowareas are lost. Overexposure produces a soft,grainy image often possessing a sense ofvisual weightlessness when compared to theoriginal scene.

The amount of IR radiation will varydepending on the time of day, season, alti-tude, latitude, and distance of the camerafrom the subject. As a general rule, the lowerthe sun is on the horizon, the greater theamount of IR light. Faraway scenes such asa landscape often require less exposure thana close-up such as a portrait. This is due tothe increased amount of IR radiation that isreflected and scattered by the atmosphereover greater distances. Since variations arelikely and unpredictable, it is initially advis-able to bracket exposures by at least two f-stops in each direction to ensure the desiredaesthetic and technical results with IR film.

Processing

Handle IR film with care, as it seems to bemore prone to damage from handling thanconventional film. Handle IR film only by itsedges when loading it onto a processing reel,as it has a remarkable ability to capture andincorporate fingerprints into the processedimage.

Process the film in closed stainless steeltanks with stainless steel lids. Some plastictanks can leak IR radiation and fog the film.Test them to be safe.

Table 3.2 lists suggested beginning pro-cessing times for the most commonly useddevelopers with Kodak IR film. D-76 pro-

duces a tonal range similar to that of apanchromatic film. D-19 greatly increasescontrast and graininess. After develop-ment, follow standard processing pro-cedures. Do not hesitate to modify these recommendations.

Flash

IR film can be used with an electronic flashin a variety of ways, including the following:

• Use a Wratten No. 25 filter and normalflash methods.

• Cover the flash tube with Wratten No. 87gel. This will make the flash almost invis-ible to the human eye, enabling the pho-tographer to use a flash without peoplebeing aware of it.

• Get a special IR flash unit designed to emitlight at the wavelengths to which IR filmis most sensitive. Some flash units havedetachable heads that can be replacedwith the infrared type.

Getting Experience

Obtain three rolls of IR film. Try pho-tographing a number of different subjects—people, buildings, plant life, and land-scapes—at different distances and at differ-ent times of the day. Bracket your exposures.Process one roll in D-76 and another roll inD-19. Keep a record of what you do. Makecontact sheets of each roll. Now take thethird roll and apply what you have learned.

EXTENDED RED SENSITIVITY FILM:ILFORD SFX 200

Ilford’s SFX 200 is not a true black-and-white infrared film, but can give similareffects. The emulsion of this panchromaticblack-and-white film is sensitive beyond thevisible spectrum into the infrared (about 740nm) as opposed to a true IR film, which goesfarther (about 900nm). SFX has a usefulspeed rating of 200 ISO and is available in35mm and 120mm formats and can beprocessed in a wide range of conventionaldevelopers.


Table 3.2 Development Times for Kodak High Speed Infrared Film

Developer 65°F 68°F 70°F 72°F 75°F(18°C) (20°C) (21°C) (22°C) (24°C)

D-76 (for pictorial 13 11 10 91/2 8effect)

HC-110 (Dilution B) 7 6 6 51/2 5D-19 (for high-contrast 7 6 5 5 4

effect)

Development time in minutes for small tanks. Initial constant 30-second agitation; 5-second agitation every 30 seconds thereafter.

Filters

With a Wratten 25 (red) or 89B (very deepred) filter you can get image effects similarto IR film. The extended red sensitizationallows the film to record the infrared fluo-rescence of chlorophyll, the effect that turnsfoliage bright white and darkens skies. Withthese filters the film relies on the extendedred sensitivity for exposure, so testing andexperience are helpful.

Focusing

No focusing correction is needed as the film is not sensitive much beyond the visible spectrum and therefore does notrecord the wavelengths that are out of the designed operating range of the lens. Asa result, Ilford SFX generally producessharper images, with less flare, than IR film.The film also does not need to be loaded in complete darkness, although it is still recommended.

Additional Information

IR film is also available in color stock. Forfurther information on IR film, see AppliedInfrared Photography, Kodak PublicationNo. M-28. Konica also makes an IR film in120-roll size that is slower than Kodak IRfilm. You may have to order the Konica filmfrom a large photographic supplier.

KODAK RECORDING FILM

Kodak Recording Film is a very fast panchro-matic stock with extended red sensitivity. Itwas designed for low-level light situationssuch as indoor sports, press work, police andsurveillance photography, or any time whena flash cannot be used. Until recently, thisfilm was one of the fastest black-and-whitefilm stocks available. Today there are filmsthat are faster, produce less grain, anddeliver a wider tonal range. Why would aphotographer still want to try RecordingFilm? If the aesthetic interpretation of thesubject calls for visibly heightened grain,this film can produce this effect in either aclose-to-normal or high-contrast tonal range.

The film is available in 36-exposure cassettesand 125-foot rolls.

Handling and Storage

Due to Recording Film’s sensitivity to light,it is advisable to load it in total darkness orin very subdued light. A changing bag can beused for fieldwork. Keep this film refriger-ated before and after exposure.

Exposure

Kodak Recording Film should be testedunder typical working conditions. It has a


Table 3.3 Development Times for Ilford SFX Film (Meter Setting ISO/200)

Developer 65°F 68°F 70°F 72°F 75°F(18°C) (20°C) (21°C) (22°C) (24°C)

D-76 or ID-11 111/2 10 9 8 7T-MAX 1 :4 9 81/2 73/4 7 6ILFOTEC HC (1 :15) 51/2 5 41/2 4 31/4HC-110 (Dil. B) 10 9 8 71/4 61/4

Figure 3.2 Kodak Recording Film is useful for producing much largerthan normal grain size. While doing an album cover, McJunkin observedband members playing with their shadows cast by his lighting equipment.He quickly made this shot, which was used for the back cover of thealbum.

© James McJunkin. Shadow Play, 1985. Gelatin silver print. 11 ¥ 14inches.

useful speed rating of 1,000 to 4,000 ISO.The film’s rating will determine its develop-ment time. For general pictorial work, beginwith a speed of 1,000 and bracket, in one-half f-stops, two full f-stops in the minusdirection (underexpose). This will provideexposures at 1,000; 1,500; 2,000; 3,000; and4,000. Based on this visual test, select theexposure that best represents the subject.Exposures need to be calculated with care,as this film does not have much leeway forerror. Continue to bracket and analyze theresults until confidence and experience aregained.

To use Recording Film in conventionallighting situations, it is helpful to have acamera with high-speed shutter capabilities.The shutter speed should at least be able toequal the film’s speed rating. If it is not pos-sible to use such a camera, neutral density(ND) filters can be used to reduce the amountof light reaching the film.

Processing

Table 3.4 suggests film speeds, developertypes, and development times for KodakRecording Film. You will probably have tomodify these for individual situations. Useonly fresh developer and an acid stop bath to reduce the chance of dichroic fog that is produced when excess silver isdeposited on an already developed portionof the image. It causes interference betweenthe wavelengths of transmitted and reflectedlight. While this deposit is still wet, you can try to wipe it off the negative with a lint-free tissue like Photo-Wipe. Once dry itcan be difficult to remove. A very brief treat-ment with Farmer’s Reducer also mightremove the fog (see Farmer’s Reducer inChapter 4).

Recording Film can be processed in ahigh-contrast developer such as D-19 toyield a much grainier image with a markedincrease in contrast. D-19 does not give thefilm as much speed as DK-50. The film speedtends to be about one f-stop less than yourestablished norm. Dektol is a paper devel-oper, but can be used to produce a muchcoarser grain than normal and an increase incontrast, though not as much as D-19. Table3.5 provides a starting point for these proce-

dures. After development is complete,follow standard film-processing procedures.


See Recording Film 2475 (ESTAR-MI Base),Kodak Publication No. G-160.

ADDITIONAL METHODS TOHEIGHTEN GRAIN AND CONTRAST

Kodak TRI-X in Dektol

Generally, the faster the film, the more grainit will produce. Using a conventional, moderately fast film such as Kodak TRI-X,you can increase the amount of grain byaltering the standard processing method.Developing TRI-X in Dektol produces muchcoarser grain than normal, with an increasein contrast. This combination works well in both flat and average contrast situations,but there is a noticeable reduction in thetonal range.

ExposureRate TRI-X at 1,600 for daylight and 800 fortungsten. Bracket your exposures—one f-stop under and two f-stops over. DevelopingTRI-X in Dektol reduces the film’s exposurelatitude, but this method allows a widermargin for exposure error than developingKodak Recording Film in DK-50.


Table 3.4 Developing Kodak Recording Film for Pictorial Results

Speed Developer Time (Minutes)*

1,000 DK-50 71,000 T-MAX (1 :5) 121,500 DK-50 71/22,000 DK-50 83,000 DK-50 81/24,000 DK-50 9

*Time based on a temperature of 68°F (20°C).

Table 3.5 High-Contrast Processing of Kodak Recording Film

ISO Developer* Time (Minutes)**

500 DK-19 81,000 Dektol (1 :1)*** 5

*Follow standard agitation patterns.**Time based on a temperature of 68°F (20°C).***Dektol must be fresh.

DevelopmentTable 3.6 gives a starting point for develop-ment. After development is completed, con-tinue to process normally.

Kodak TRI-X and Sodium Carbonate

Another way to increase the grain pattern infilms like TRI-X is to use sodium carbonate.Expose the film normally, then soak the filmin a 10 percent solution of sodium carbonatefor two to five minutes before putting it in itsnormal development. The amount of soakingtime determines the increase in the grainpattern. The sodium carbonate is a moderatealkali that increases the pH of the film,causing the action of the developer to accel-erate. If the film carbonic absorbs too muchsodium carbonate, gas bubbles can form inthe emulsion when an acid stop bath is used.These gas bubbles will create pinholes in theemulsion; for this reason it is advisable to avoid using an acid stop bath with thisprocedure.

KODAK TECHNICAL PAN ROLL FILMS

When you need a film to deliver extremelyfine grain and high resolution, Kodak Tech-nical Pan Films (2415 and 6415) are theanswer. Technical Pan is a high-contrast scientific film with applications in photomi-crography, astrophotography, laser record-ing, slide making, and copying procedures.By using a low-contrast compensating devel-oper, you can produce incredibly sharpnormal-contrast pictorial images. An 8 ¥ 10inch enlargement from a 35mm TechnicalPan (2415) negative is difficult to distinguishfrom the same scene photographed on a tra-ditional 4 ¥ 5 inch negative.

Pictorial Procedures

Kodak Technical Pan Film is a high-contrastline film that can be used for continuoustone imaging. It is necessary to choose thecorrect combination of film and developer toproduce pictorial results.

Exposure

For pictorial photography, begin with an ISOof 25 and bracket, in either one-third or one-half f-stops, one f-stop in each direction todetermine which film speed works best inyour situation. Normal seems to be betweenISO 25 and 32. Determining the proper expo-sure is important because Technical Pan filmdoes not have much exposure latitude. Keepaccurate exposure notes so that you will not


Table 3.6 Development Times for Kodak TRI-X in Fresh Dektol*

Temperature Time (Minutes)

68°F (20°C) 472°F (22°C) 3

*Use continuous agitation for the first 15 seconds andthen agitate for 5 seconds every 15 seconds to avoidpotential streaking, which may be caused by the highactivity and strength of the developer.

Figure 3.3 “The act of remembering combines fact and fiction. Thesepictures utilize diverse materials to simulate how the mind interminglesand blurs the boundaries of reality. They fabricate depictions that reflectthe authenticity of the original memory. This visual strategy allows events and thoughts to be rearranged out of their original context andprogression.” To achieve these ends, the original scene was photographedwith TRI-X and a red filter and developed in Dektol for four minutes toheighten the contrast. With the enlarger light on and a red filter in placeunder the enlarging lens, square masks were overlaid on a grade #4photographic paper. The enlarger light was then turned off, the red filterremoved, and the exposure was made. During the enlarging exposure theimage was painted with light using fiber optics and small flashlights.Light painting also continued while the print was in the developer toachieve different tonal effects (see Chapter 11).

© Robert Hirsch. Untitled, from the series Remembering and Forgetting,1983. Toned gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Courtesy of the StefanStux Gallery, New York, NY.

have to bracket under similar conditions inthe future.

Development

Technidol Liquid must be used within oneweek after it is prepared. It may be reusedone time by increasing the suggested devel-opment time by one minute. Carefully followthe mixing and storage instructions thatcome with each developer. The use of distilled water for mixing this developer isrecommended.

Processing

Table 3.7 lists suggested development timesfor 35mm Technical Pan Film using Tech-nidol. The big problem in working withTechnical Pan Film is the failure to followthe special agitation pattern that the devel-oper requires. Technical Pan is subject tononuniform processing effects that includestreaking and variations in density, espe-cially near the film edges, when proper agitation procedures are not carried out. Dif-ficulties can be avoided by following thesesteps:

1. Pour the mixed solution of TechnidolLiquid into the empty processing tank.

2. In total darkness, quickly and smoothlydrop the loaded reel of Technical PanFilm directly into the tank. Do not pourthe developer onto dry film through thelight trap in the top of the tank. Do notuse a presoak. Both of these proceduresmay result in nonuniform processingeffects.

3. Secure the tank lid and gently tap the bottom of the tank on the work surfaceto dislodge any air bubbles from the film.

4. Immediately agitate the tank by vigor-ously shaking it with an up-and-downmotion about 10 to 12 times for about 2seconds. Do not rotate the tank.

5. Let the tank sit for the remainder of thefirst 30 seconds.

6. Repeat this agitation pattern every 30seconds for the rest of the developmentcycle.

After development is complete, process thefilm as usual, keeping the temperature of theremaining steps within 3°F of the develop-ment temperature and the temperature of the wash within 5°F.

Technical Pan Film and Landscapes

This film can be very useful in landscapephotography. It allows the photographer towork with a smaller format camera, ratherthan a view camera, under a variety ofworking situations. The extended red sensi-tivity has a haze-cutting effect that makesdistant objects appear sharper.

Technical Pan Film and Portraits

Due to Technical Pan Film’s sharpness, somepeople may find it unsuitable for portraitwork, as defects in the sitter’s face arerecorded in great detail. Others say thatTechnical Pan Film’s extended red sensitiv-ity, which allows flesh tones and areas of red to appear lighter than they would withconventional black-and-white film, makesup for this characteristic. Shooting Techni-cal Pan Film in sunlight (where red light isin abundance) will sometimes conceal slightblemishes and add a luminous quality to the skin.

If accurate conventional panchromatictones are required, the red sensitivity of thefilm may be corrected by using color com-


Table 3.7 Development Times for 35mm and 120 Film Rated at ISO 25 in Technidol Liquid*

Temperature Time (Minutes)

68°F (20°C) 977°F (25°C) 71/286°F (30°C) 61/2*Special agitation techniques are required for Technidol

Liquid. This developer may be reused one time byincreasing the development time by one minuteduring the second processing procedure. Store useddeveloper in an airtight opaque container and usewithin one week.

pensating (CC) filters. Begin correction witheither a CC40 cyan or CC50 cyan and remem-ber that the filter factor of these (CC) filtersrequires an increase in exposure of one totwo f-stops. Technical Pan Film can alsoreveal minor faults such as camera move-ment, slight errors in focusing, and lens dis-tortion that may not be visible withtraditional black-and-white films.

Differences in Printing

Properly exposed and processed TechnicalPan Film may appear to be thinner than whatyou are accustomed to seeing. Technical PanFilm has a neutral density base that is one-third to one-half thinner than those of conventional 35mm films. Take this intoconsideration when evaluating your nega-tives. Make certain the film is properlyseated and flat in the negative carrier, as thethinness of the film’s base results in a ten-dency to curl.

Due to its extremely fine grain, you mayhave trouble focusing the negative with agrain focuser. If so, switch to a focusing mag-nifier that simply magnifies the image.

Expose Technical Pan to a variety of dif-ferent subjects to see what it will deliver. Trydeveloping it in different types of developerand compare the results.


For detailed information on all the applica-tions of Technical Pan Film, read KodakTechnical Pan Films, Kodak Publication No.P-255.

ILFORD PAN F PLUS ULTRA-FINEGRAIN B/W FILM

Ilford PAN F PLUS is an extremely fine-grainfilm that can be used to produce mural sizeenlargements with minimal grain. With aneffective ISO of 50, the film is available in 35mm and 120-roll sizes and can be developedusing standard film-processing techniques.The film has a relatively good exposure lati-tude but does not have the exposure latitudeof higher-speed films.

Processing

Ilford PAN F PLUS is a moderate-contrastfilm and can be processed with a variety ofdifferent developers to achieve pictorialresults. Different developers can be used toadjust the film to produce finer grain ormaximum sharpness (greater contrast).

KODAK PROFESSIONAL B/WDUPLICATING FILM SO-132

When you need to make black-and-whitecopy negatives or positives, Kodak Profes-sional B/W Duplicating Film SO-132 (DupeFilm) is a simple solution. Dupe Film is adirect positive orthochromatic (not sensitiveto red light) film designed for this purpose.It provides for one-step duplication fromblack-and-white continuous-tone negativesor positives by contact printing or enlarging.It can deliver duplicates, also known asdupes or second originals, with a quality andsharpness comparable to those of the origi-nal. The dupes are formed with a singleexposure and with conventional develop-ment. Dupe Film is available in 4 ¥ 5 inchand 8 ¥ 10 inch sheets.


Table 3.8 Developing Technical Pan Film for Continuous Tone in Differ-ent Developers

Contrast Developer ISO Time (Minutes)

High D-76 or ID-11 50 6High D-76 or ID-11 125 12 High HC-110 (Dil. B) 100 6Normal HC-110 (Dil. F) 50 9Normal Rodinal (1 + 150) 25–64 7

Table 3.9 Effects of Different Ilford Developers Used with PAN F PLUS Rated at 25

Time (Minutes)

Results Developer 65°F (18°C) 68°F (20°C) 70°F (21°C)

Normal ID 11 (stock) 71/2 61/2 6Fine grain Perceptol 101/2 9 8

(stock)Maximum ID-11 (1 :3) 16 14 121/2sharpness

Applications

Dupe Film allows you to make duplicates ofany size from a small-format camera, such asa 35mm, up to 8 ¥ 10 inch. These dupes canbe used to make contact prints or enlarge-ments in a number of the printing processesdiscussed later in this book. Other applica-tions include copying negatives from glassplates or from nonsafety stock, such as anitrate base, in order to preserve them. DupeFilm enables you to recycle or give newpurpose and meaning to old negatives byincorporating them into your presentworking scheme. Dupes also allow you towork within any process or to alter the neg-ative without the worry of damaging theoriginal.

Handling

This orthochromatic film can be handledunder a 1A safelight filter with a 15-wattbulb at a distance of at least four feet fromthe film. This allows you to develop DupeFilm by visual inspection.

Speed

Dupe Film does not conform to the ISOtesting procedures and has no assigned filmspeed rating. Exposure must be determinedby testing.

Exposure

Dupe Film can be exposed with any con-ventional tungsten, fluorescent, or tungsten-halogen light source. An enlarger is an idealsource of exposure. This film’s lack of an ISOrating makes visual testing a necessity. DupeFilm behaves differently than conventionalnegative films when exposed. It is pre-exposed in manufacturing, so the density ofthe final image is inversely proportional tothe length of exposure. This means itbehaves like transparency film in that thelonger the film is exposed, the lighter the resulting image will be. To produce moredensity with Dupe Film, give it less exposure. To make it lighter, give it moreexposure.

Thinking in Reverse

Remember to think in reverse from yournormal working procedures. A 10-secondexposure will produce more density than a20-second exposure. On a test strip, the lightest area has received the greatest amount of exposure and the darkest area the least amount of exposure. Burning will produce less density, and dodging will produce greater density. The other prin-ciples of development remain the same: thelonger the development, the greater thedensity and contrast. A reduction in devel-opment time will decrease the contrast anddensity.

Determining the Emulsion Side of the Film

Many people who do not work regularlywith sheet film have a problem determiningthe emulsion side. To make this determina-tion, hold the film vertically with the codednotches at the top right or bottom left. Ineither position, the emulsion will be facingtoward you.

Basic Procedures to Make an EnlargedContinuous-Tone Negative

1. Set up the darkroom for normal tray processing under proper safelight con-ditions. Use a tray that is at least slightly larger than the film beingprocessed.

2. Place a clean negative in the enlarger. Ifyou plan to use the dupe negative with itsemulsion side against the surface of thepaper—for example, to make a nonsilverprint—reverse the original negative in thecarrier, or the final print will be reversedfrom right to left.

3. Open the enlarging lens aperture tomaximum and focus the image on theeasel. If the easel has not been paintedblack, tape a piece of black matte paperon it to reduce halation from the lightreflected off the easel. Use a piece ofwhite paper the same thickness as thefilm as a focusing target. After focusing,remove the white paper.


4. If you have a foot-candle meter, place theprobe on the easel under the projectedimage and adjust the lens aperture to givea reading of three foot-candles. Make atrial test strip at that lens opening at 10,20, 30, 40, and 50 seconds. If you do nothave a foot-candle meter, stop the lensdown to f-8 or f-11 and make a test stripat 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 seconds.

You can copy an original positive the sameway you produce a dupe positive.

Basic Procedures to Make a ContactContinuous-Tone Negative

You can produce contact negatives or posi-tives using a contact frame or a clean pieceof clear glass and a piece of opaque paper.Remember, the image that has been exposedemulsion to emulsion will come outreversed unless you reverse the negativebefore exposure.

1. Thoroughly clean all materials.

2. With a contact frame, place the negative,emulsion side down, on the glass. Coverit with a sheet of Dupe Film, emulsionside facing the nonemulsion side of theoriginal. Attach the back of the contactframe and expose the film in the samemanner as is recommended for enlargingfrom a negative.

3. Without a contact frame, place a piece ofopaque paper, larger than the film sizebeing used, directly under the lightsource. Put the Dupe Film emulsion sideup on top of the paper. Put the originalover the Dupe Film, with its emulsionside facing up. Place the glass over theentire sandwich and expose.

Processing

The suggested starting point for processingDupe Film is in Dektol (diluted 1 :1) at 70°F(21°C) for two minutes with continuous agitation. Development time can be ex-tended to up to eight minutes, and the devel-oper can be diluted up to 1 :5 or even usedstraight. A presoak can be effective in pre-venting uneven development patterns atshort times.

Controlling Contrast

Dupe Film has wide exposure latitude thatallows you to vary the processing time tocontrol the contrast of the dupe. The contrastof Dupe Film can be also be manipulated toa limited extent through the use of differentdevelopers.

Enhancing Image Stability

After completing the normal processingsteps, you can treat Dupe Film with RapidSelenium Toner to increase its image-keeping properties. This treatment willprotect the silver image from oxidizinggases, high temperatures, humidity, andhigh-intensity illumination. This processmay be carried out as a direct extension ofthe normal processing methods or at a latertime. This treatment can be carried out asfollows:

1. If film is dry, presoak it in distilled waterfor several minutes to resoften the emul-sion before beginning the treatment.

2. Put the Dupe Film in a solution of RapidSelenium Toner diluted 1 :29 (1 part tonerto 29 parts water) at 70°F (21°C) for threeminutes with occasional agitation. Youcan reuse this solution, which has acapacity of about fifteen 4 ¥ 5 inch sheetsper quart.

3. Rewash the film in running water at 65°Fto 75°F (18°C to 24°C) for 20 to 30 minutes.

4. Dry and store the film.

The Rapid Selenium Toner should be usedafter the hypo clearing solution. The use ofdrying aids such as Photo-Flo is not recom-mended after the toning treatment. Thesecan reduce the image stability of the toner.The toning treatment should be the last stepbefore drying the film.


Table 3.10 Developing Kodak Professional B/W Duplicating Film at 68°F

Contrast Developer Time (Minutes)

High DK-50 4–6High Dektol (1 :1) 4–6Normal D-76 (1 :1) 10Normal XTOL 5Normal ILFOTEC HC 6


For more detailed information, see KodakProfessional B/W Duplicating Film SO-132,Kodak Publication F-11.

HIGH-CONTRAST LITHO FILMS

High-contrast litho films are orthochromatic(not sensitive to red) and can be handledunder a red safelight. They are designed primarily for the production of halftones(they create a dot pattern, based on tonalgraduations, that allows a photograph to bereproduced using printer’s inks) and line

negatives and positives for use in photome-chanical reproduction. They can be used fordramatic pictorial effects because of theirability to drop out most of the midrangetonal gradations of a subject. This creates acomposition that relies on graphic black-and-white shapes for visual impact.

High contrast can be produced in twogeneral ways. First, the effect can beachieved by exposing Kodak Ektagraphic HCSlide Film directly in a 35mm camera.Second, it may be produced later from a continuous-tone negative in the darkroomthrough the use of a graphic arts litho film such as Kodalith Ortho Film Type 3 in conjunction with high-contrast litho


Figure 3.4 To fashion this image Seeley used an office copier as a camera. A drawing template, aneye chart, and assorted military patches were placed directly on the copier glass. The paste-up wasthen exposed to a large sheet of ortho litho film, which in turn was exposed to an aluminumwaterless lithographic plate. After processing, the plate was rolled up in adhesive rather than ink.Carbon powder was brushed into the tacky areas, and then blown off the dry areas of the print.Seeley says that he likes “this method of printing because it creates the densest, flattest blackpossible. The construction of the image from copies is inexpensive and allows for a looseness ofform that is not always possible in other forms of printing. I like the crude effect of the copyprocess and often make copies of copies to exaggerate the effect. I retouch the paper positive withfine and broad-tipped marking pens and the litho film with liquid opaque.”

© J. Seeley. Chart, a 21 Steps Edition, 1994. Carbon dusted photographic litho. 30 ¥ 22 inches.

developers like Kodalith Super RT. Mostcommonly used by the offset and screenprinting industry, litho films are manufac-tured by a number of firms and are availablein rolls and sheets. A variety of sizes andbrands of litho films can be found at offsetprinting suppliers and through photographydealers.

Applications

Litho films offer an extensive visual array ofeffects that cannot be achieved with con-ventional films. Litho films also offer a quickand convenient method for producing manygenerations, in different forms, from animage on a negative or transparency. Anormal negative can be used to make a high-contrast positive that can be used to form anew high-contrast negative, which in turncan be reversed back to a positive. This film

can be drawn or painted on, sandwichedtogether with other film images, scraped,scratched, cut up, collaged, or used directlyas a final image itself. Litho film can also bepresented in a light box. Small-formatimages can be enlarged to be contact printedin a variety of other processes.

Images from other sources also can beincorporated into the process. For instance,a magazine picture can be contact printed,ink side down, on litho film. Both sides ofthe image will be visible. If this is not accept-able, try one of the transfer methods dis-cussed in Chapter 11. Litho films may beexposed directly in a 35mm, view, orpinhole camera. Photograms can be createdby placing objects on top of the film andexposing it. A bas-relief print can be made by combining a contact-size positive,slightly out of register, with the original continuous-tone negative. For instance, a high-contrast bas-relief can be produced if a


Figure 3.5 For this large-scale installation Valentino tiled his images using 20 ¥ 24 inch lithofilm. “The piece examines how memory and thought combine and change one another. I printed ona transparent material so that the image in front of the viewer is altered by images on successivepanels and by the passing of the audience through the installation.” Using computer-generatednegatives, Valentino produced continuous-tone positives by overexposing the litho film during theenlarging process and then underdeveloping in Dektol diluted at 1 : 6 to for two minutes.

© John Valentino. In-visible Portraits (installation detail), 1998. Litho film, wood, and wire. 4 ¥ 15feet.

litho negative and positive of the same size are sandwiched slightly out of regis-tration. A high-contrast black-and-white positive can be used to make a high-contrastpositive print. The original negative and thecontact litho positive and negative can all besandwiched together and printed. Posteriza-tions are possible by making a series of positives and negatives to be combined and printed.

Unfortunately, some people have abusedlitho films’ ability to transform a subject. Forexample, someone might try to make aboring and trite image magically daring andstrong by converting it to a high-contrastprint. An image that is dull to begin withwill not become new and exciting by trans-ferring it to a litho film.

Do not force the process on an image. Useonly an image that will be enhanced by theprocess. Do feel free to experiment with thistype of film, however, for it offers the think-ing photographer an abundant source of possibilities.

Litho Production and Materials

One can make litho negatives and positivesby contact or projection methods startingwith a negative or a positive (transparency).You need these basic materials:

• An original continuous-tone negative orslide (black-and-white or color)

• A contact printing frame or clear glass

• Litho film, such as Kodalith Ortho FilmType 3

• Litho film developer, such as KodalithSuper RT

• An orthochromatic safelight filter, such asKodak’s IA (red)

The darkroom setup, with the exception ofthe litho developer and IA safelight, is thesame as for processing a regular black-and-white print. Follow the manufacturer’sinstructions for mixing the litho developer.Mix all chemicals in advance and allowthem to reach a processing temperature of68°F to 72°F (20°C to 22°C). Due to its rapidoxidation, a working solution of litho devel-oper is generally prepared by combiningequal amounts of mixed stock solutions atthe time of processing. Use trays that are

slightly larger than the size of the film beingprocessed. Have enough solution to coverthe film completely during each step. Onequart of working litho developer solutionwill process about fifteen 8 ¥ 10 inch sheetsbefore exhaustion.

Making an Enlarged Litho Positive

1. Place a clean original continuous-tonenegative in the enlarger.

2. Project the image onto a clean opaquesurface like a paper easel that has beenpainted with a black matte finish. Blackpaper may be attached to the easelinstead. Adjust for the desired enlarge-ment size. Focus on a piece of whitepaper.

3. Place the litho film on the opaque surface,emulsion side up. The emulsion side islighter colored and more reflective thanthe base side. Cover it with a clean pieceof glass.

4. Litho film, like any type of film, willattract dust more than photographicpaper. Use air or a soft brush to clean offany dust that may be clinging to thesurface of the film. The use of a staticbrush on unexposed litho film is not rec-ommended as it may cause fogging.

5. Set the lens to about f-11 and make a teststrip at 3-second intervals. The timesshould be similar to those used formaking test strips with black-and-whitepaper of the same size.

6. Develop the film by sliding it, emulsionside up, into the developer solution.Agitate by lifting one corner of the trayslightly and setting it down. Repeat bylifting the opposite corner. Standarddevelopment time is between 21/4 and 23/4minutes. Development time can bealtered to change the contrast and tone.Development can be carried out by visualinspection. To duplicate the results, usethe same developing time. Normal devel-opment is complete when the dark areasare completely opaque. Not enoughdevelopment time can produce pinholesand streaks. If the image appears tooquickly, reduce the exposure time. If itlooks too light after two minutes, increasethe time. You can reduce the contrast of


litho film by developing in Dektol 1 :2instead of litho developer.

7. After development is complete, follownormal processing procedures. Fixingtime should be twice the time required forthe film to clear.

8. Based on the test, determine the correctexposure and make a new high-contrastpositive.

This process can be carried out by contactprinting the original negative, emulsion toemulsion, with the litho film, following theprocedures outlined in the section on DupeFilm.

Making a Litho Negative

To make a litho negative, take the dried pos-itive and contact print it, emulsion to emul-sion, with an unexposed piece of litho film.Follow the same processing procedures as inmaking a litho positive. Starting with a pos-itive (transparency film) will enable you tomake a direct litho negative, thus eliminat-ing the need to make a litho positive. Bear inmind that litho film is orthochromatic andmay not properly record the reds andoranges from the transparency.

Continuous Tones from Litho Film

You can produce a usable continuous-tonenegative or positive by overexposing lithofilm and underdeveloping it in Dektoldiluted from 1 :6 to 1 :15 at 68°F (20°C) for11/2 to 3 minutes. You can create an interest-ing visual mix by developing the positive inlitho developer and the negative in Dektol.Combine the two slightly out of register foran unusual bas-relief effect.

Retouching

Litho film is highly susceptible to pinholes,which can be blocked out by opaquing thebase side of the film. Opaque also concealsscratches or unwanted details. Place thelitho film, emulsion side down, on a cleanlight table. Apply the opaque with a small,pointed sable brush (size 0 to 000). Opaqueis water soluble, so mistakes can be cor-rected with a damp Photo-Wipe.

OTHER GRAPHIC ARTS FILMS

Ilford Ortho +

Orthochromatic films were once widely usedto produce dramatic portraits. By eliminat-ing the red sensitivity of the film, flesh tones take on a rich gray hue and lipsbecome very dark. Once a number of con-tinuous-tone orthochromatic films were onthe market; today only Ilford Ortho +remains. An effect similar to Ilford Ortho +can be achieved by using panchromatic filmwith an 80A filter.

Kodak Ektagraphic HC Slide Film

This film has the same base and emulsion asKodak Ortho Film 6556 Type 3, but comes in36-exposure 135 magazines. Its applicationsand processing methods are the same asthose for Kodalith Ortho Film Type 3. Thisfilm has a suggested ISO of only 8, so addi-tional lights may be needed to make an expo-sure. Shoot a test roll and bracket todetermine your proper film speed. Startingdevelopment time is 23/4 minutes at 68°F(20°C) in Kodalith Developer. Slight changesin exposure and developing time will greatlyaffect contrast. This film may be inspectedduring development with a Kodak IA safe-light filter. Ektagraphic HC can also be devel-oped in Kodak D-11 with a starting ISO of 25for 21/2 minutes at 68°F (20°C). Bracketing isalso highly recommended.


Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Color Photogra-phy. Third Ed. New York: McGraw-HillPublishers, 1997.

Stone, Jim. Darkroom Dynamics: A Guide toCreative Darkroom Techniques. Boston,MA: Focal Press, 1985.

HIGH-SPEED FILMS: KODAK T-MAXP3200 AND ILFORD DELTA 3200PROFESSIONAL

When extremely fast film speeds arerequired without sacrificing image qualityand tonality, Kodak T-MAX P3200 and IlfordDelta 3200 are films to consider. Both 3200 films are multispeed black-and-white


panchromatic negative films available in 35mm cassettes and in sheet sizes up to 11 ¥14 inches. Kodak T-MAX P3200 is capable ofdelivering high to ultrahigh film speeds witha fine grain and broad tonal range, goodshadow detail, and open highlights. It is thefastest of any of the films in the T-MAXgroup. Ilford’s Delta 3200’s grain structure isslightly different than Kodak’s T-MAXP3200, with the grains being slightly smallerbut with a greater overall surface area. Theresult is a film that shows more grain but isboth faster and slightly sharper than T-MAXP3200.

The fast speeds of T-MAX P3200 are pos-sible through the T-grain technology, whichimproves the silver halide sensitivity by theuse of tabular (T) silver grains. These grainsprovide a larger surface, enabling the emul-sion to capture more light than was possibleusing the conventional pebble-shaped silvercrystals. Delta 3200 Professional is based on Ilford’s proprietary core-shell crystaltechnology, a complex four-part emulsionpackage. This emulsion gives the filmheightened tonal rendition and wide expo-sure flexibility. The technology of these twofilms allows exposure at very high ISOratings while still retaining a fine grain struc-ture and a great amount of sharpness thatpermits the retention of detail in large-scaleenlargements. The larger grain size doescause higher contrast but offers good tonalseparation, wide exposure latitude, andminimal reciprocity failure.

Applications

Both Kodak’s T-MAX P3200 and Ilford Delta3200 are designed for:

• Low-light situations in which it is not pos-sible to use a flash or additional sources ofillumination

• When subjects require a high shutterspeed while retaining good depth of field

• When holding long telephoto lenses

• For nighttime and indoor events

• For surveillance applications requiringultrahigh-speed films

These remarkable films enable the photogra-pher to make images in previously impossi-

ble situations without the disadvantages ofpush processing conventional film.

Handling and Storage

The high-speed emulsions of these filmsmake them extremely sensitive to environ-mental radiation which can fog and degradethe latent photographic images. This in-creased sensitivity gives the films a shorterlife span than conventional film, and con-sequently they should be exposed andprocessed promptly. Both Kodak’s T-MAXP3200 and Ilford Delta 3200 should alwaysbe hand-inspected rather than X-rayed atairport security stations. To ensure quality,refrigerate the films when the temperature isabove 75°F (24°C).

Exposure

As T-MAX P3200 and Delta 3200 are multi-speed films, their rating depends on theirapplication. T-MAX P3200 has a nominalspeed of 1,000 when processed in Kodak T-MAX Developer and 800 with other black-and-white developers. Its amazing latitudepermits exposure at 1,600, which results inhigh-quality negatives with no apparentchange in grain size and only a slight loss ofdetail in the shadow areas. P3200 film caneasily be exposed at speeds of 3,200 or 6,400by increasing the development time. Thiswill produce a slight increase in contrast andgrain size, as well as a loss of detail inshadow areas. Testing is necessary to deter-mine the correct speed for your equipmentand circumstances. For general high-speedapplications, begin rating the film at 3,200and bracket two f-stops over (1,600 and 800)and four f-stops under (6,400; 12,500;25,000; and 50,000). There is a big increasein contrast and graininess, with a distinctloss of shadow detail at speeds above 6,400,but image sharpness remains surprisinglygood.

Some older cameras have ISO settings thatgo up to only 1,600. If your camera does nothave ISO settings above 1,600 but has anexposure compensation dial, set it at minus1 to get a speed of 3,200 or minus 2 toachieve an ISO of 6,400. With both long andshort exposures, T-MAX F3200 requires less


compensation than traditional films. Thereis no correction at speeds between 1 and1/10,000 second. At 10 seconds, the lensaperture needs to be opened an additionaltwo-thirds f-stop, or the time must beincreased by 5 seconds to provide a totalexposure of 15 seconds.

Darkroom Handling

T-MAX P3200 and Delta 3200 must behandled in absolute darkness and cannot be developed by inspection. Timers andwatches with fluorescent faces should beturned away from the unprocessed film.Even the afterglow of certain white lights(incandescent bulbs) can fog these films.Double-check to be sure the darkroom istotally dark before handling unprocessedfilm.

T-MAX P3200 Development

T-MAX P3200 was designed to be processedin T-MAX Developer or T-MAX RS Devel-oper and Replenisher to provide improvedshadow detail in both normally and push-processed T-MAX films. Both T-MAX devel-opers are all-liquid formulas that can be usedto process and push process other black-and-white films that are not in the T-MAX group.T-MAX films also may be processed in otherdevelopers.

Processing

Table 3.11 lists starting points for develop-ing T-MAX P3200 to produce a normal contrast negative for use in printing with a diffusion enlarger. With a condenserenlarger, a lower contrast negative may bedesirable. This is done by using a develop-ment time for a film speed rating of one f-stop lower than the speed used to expose thefilm. For instance, if the film was exposed at6,400, develop it at the time indicated for3,200. Drop the loaded reel of T-MAX P3200directly into the developer and put the lidon the tank. Tap the tank on a flat surface ata 30-degree angle to dislodge any airbubbles. Give an initial agitation of five toseven inversions within five seconds byextending your arm and twisting your wrist

180 degrees to the right and then to the left.Repeat this procedure at 30-second intervalsfor the remaining development time.

Additional Processing Differences

After development is complete, process T-MAX P3200 in the normal fashion with theexception of the fixing step. P3200 requirescareful fixing using a rapid fixer for three tofive minutes with vigorous agitation. Thisfilm will exhaust the fixer more quickly thanconventional films. If the film shows apinkish magenta stain or is blotched orstreaked with an intense purple, the fixingtime is too short or the fix is nearing exhaus-tion. These problems can be corrected by


Table 3.11 Development Times* for T-MAX P3200 Film

Developer Film 70°F 75°F 80°F 85°FSpeed (21°C) (24°C) (27°C) (29°C)

T-MAX 400 7 6 5 4800 71/2 61/2 51/2 41/2

1,600 8 7 6 53,200 11 91/2 8 61/26,400 13 11 91/2 8

12,500 151/2 121/2 101/2 925,000 171/2 14 12 1050,000 20 NR NR NR

T-MAX RS 400 7 6 51/2 5800 81/2 61/2 6 51/2

1,600 91/2 71/2 7 63,200 12 10 9 86,400 14 11 10 9

12,000 16 12 11 1025,000 NR 14 13 11

D-76 400 91/2 71/2 6 41/2800 10 8 61/2 5

1,600 101/2 81/2 7 51/23,200 131/2 11 81/2 71/26,400 16 121/2 101/2 9

HC-110 (Dilution B) 400 61/2 5 41/2 31/2800 7 51/2 43/4 4

1,600 71/2 6 5 41/23,200 10 71/2 7 53/46,400 12 91/2 8 63/4

XTOL 400 71/2 63/4 6 51/4800 81/4 71/2 63/4 53/4

1,600 91/4 81/4 71/2 63/43,200 11 10 9 71/26,400 121/2 111/4 10 83/4

12,500 151/4 133/4 121/2 101/225,000 181/2 163/4 15 123/4

*All development times are in minutes.NR = not recommended.

refixing the film in fresh fixer. If the stain isstill present after proper fixing, it is ofteneliminated through the use of a hypo clear-ing agent. A slight stain, caused by theincreased amount of residual sensitizingdyes used to make the film panchromatic,should not affect the film or its printing char-acteristics even with variable-contrast paper.This slight stain tends to fade with time andexposure to light.

Ilford Delta 3200 Development

Delta 3200 Professional does not require anyspecial development steps. The film can beprocessed in all types of processing equip-ment including spiral tanks, rotary proces-sors, dishes or trays, deep tanks, andautomatic processors. Standard capacityfigures and replenishment rates can be main-tained. Like P3200, Delta 3200 requirescareful fixing using a rapid fixer (1 :4)without a hardener for three to five minutesat 68°F/20°C with vigorous agitation. Thisfilm will also exhaust the fixer more quicklythan conventional films. Ilford recommendsa hardener only when processing at hightemperatures (above 86°F/30°C).

Some General Characteristics of T-MAX P3200 and Ilford Delta 3200Films Rated at Different Speeds

400: This produces an extremely solid, notquite bulletproof (opaque) negative thatresults in a mushy print lacking in sharpnessand having blocked highlights. It is not rec-ommended for general pictorial use.

800: One f-stop faster delivers much betterresults but still lacks good tonal range and sharpness.

1,600: This speed produces gorgeous quality.Shadows are fully separated and highlightsare open and unblocked. Tonal range isexcellent, with grain and sharpness compat-ible with conventional 400 films. A slightincrease in contrast results in a snappy print and is useful with low-contrast subjects.

3,200: The negative has a full tonal rangewith a tiny loss of detail in the shadow areas.Grain and sharpness are outstanding. Theresults at this speed were unattainable untilrecently. The two 3,200-speed films dispensewith the technique of “cooking” film inexotic developers, which often produceschalky and extremely grainy images at thisspeed.

6,400: This speed still produces a highlyacceptable negative, but the loss of shadowdetail is more apparent. Contrast and grain


Table 3.12 Development Times* for Ilford Delta 3200 Film

Developer Film 68°F 70°F 75°F 80°FSpeed (21°C) (24°C) (27°C) (29°C)

ILFOTEC DD-X (1 :4) 400 6 51/2 4800 7

1,600 83,200 91/26,400 121/2

12,500 17

T-MAX (1 :4) 400 51/2 5 31/2 NR800 61/2 6 41/2 31/2

1,600 71/2 63/4 51/4 43,200 81/2 73/4 6 43/46,400 11 10 71/2 6

12,500 14 121/2 93/4 73/4

T-MAX RS 400 NR 51/2 4 NR800 NR 6 41/2 NR

1,600 NR 61/2 5 33/43,200 NR 81/2 61/2 51/46,400 NR 10 81/2 63/4

12,500 NR 131/2 101/2 8

D-76/ID 11 400 7 61/2 5 33/4800 8 71/4 51/2 41/4

1,600 91/2 81/2 61/2 51/43,200 101/2 91/2 71/4 53/46,400 13 113/4 9 7

12,500 17 151/4 113/4 9

HC-110 (Dilution A) 400 NR NR NR NR800 NR NR NR NR

1,600 5 41/2 NR NR3,200 8 71/4 51/2 41/46,400 13 113/4 9 7

HC-110 (Dilution B) 400 6 51/2 4 NR800 71/2 63/4 51/4 4

1,600 9 8 61/4 53,200 141/2 13 10 73/46,400 NR NR NR NR

XTOL 400 5 41/2 NR NR800 6 51/2 4 NR

1,600 61/2 6 41/2 31/23,200 71/2 63/4 51/4 46,400 10 9 7 51/2

12,500 121/2 111/4 83/4 7

*All development times are in minutes.NR = not recommended.

size start to pick up, but highlight retentionand tonal range remain good.

12,500: Tonal range is compressed, contraststarts to become excessive, and granularity isworse. Pictorial print quality begins todegrade, but good press prints can be made.

25,000: This is about the outer limit for aprintable negative. Highlights begin tobecome chalky, and shadows lack detail.Subtleties disappear as the tonal rangebecomes greatly compressed. Image qualityremains sharp but grainy. Prints are stillreproducible for newspapers and some mag-azines.

50,000: This astronomical speed pushes thefilm’s capability to the edge. Try it when apicture is a “must” and traditional printquality is not a major factor. Contrast andgrain are way up, but the image is still sharp.Shadow detail is almost nonexistent. Print-ing requires expert care and patience, withdodging needed to make shadow areas recognizable.

PAPER NEGATIVES AND POSITIVES

Today most photographers use clear-baseflexible film to record images in the camera.This was not always the case. Photographicpioneer William Henry Fox Talbot inventeda process called photogenic drawing. Thisprocess used paper sensitized with salt andsilver nitrate to make photograms andcontact-print copies of drawings and objects.By 1835, Talbot was using this paper processto record images in a camera obscura. Theprocess relied on a printing-out exposure(light made the complete image) for cameranegatives and prints. In 1841, Talbot pat-ented an improved process called the calo-type. It was much faster because the lightwas used to create a latent image that wascompleted during the development process.This process has served as the model for allcurrent analog negative/positive imagemak-ing systems.

Compared with clear film negatives, papernegatives are less sensitive to light, do notrecord as much of the visible spectrum,record less detail, and have a reduced tonalrange and higher contrast. Since the final

image is printed through the fibers of thepaper, the completed photograph has a soft,highly textured, impressionistic appearance.

Applications

Any paper may be treated with a light-sensitive emulsion and exposed (see Chapter6). Regular photographic paper is usuallyused. Paper can be exposed directly in aview or pinhole camera. The processedpaper negative can be contact printed withan unexposed piece of photographic paper tomake a positive print. An image from anormal negative can be used by enlarging iton a piece of photographic paper at thedesired size. This paper positive is contactprinted onto another piece of photographicpaper to form a paper negative. The papernegative is now contact printed onto another


Figure 3.6 Site/Unseen is about unseen people in public places. In thisseries the unseen people are the guards at a major art museum. Pinkelsays, “I was struck by the contrast between the trappings of wealth andclass at the museum and the realities for the guards working there. Theguards’ employment had changed from being directly employed by themuseum to being hired by a private company through which the museumthen contracts for guard services. In the process the guards lost theirunion representation and other benefits. This story is an excellent exam-ple of the effect of contract employment on the working conditions for thepoorest paid sector of the culture.” Since the museum did not allow flash,Pinkel shot with ISO 3200 film, which resulted in very grainy images.Using her computer she converted her images into negative prints so thatthe guards became “ghost-like figures symbolizing their transparency inthe workplace.”

© Sheila Pinkel. Site Unseen/Museum Guards: Monkey, 1998. Ink jetprint. 11 ¥ 17 inches.

piece of photographic paper to create thefinal print.

A transparency image can be used to makean enlargement on a piece of photographicpaper. Since the transparency image is a pos-itive, it can be used to produce a paper neg-ative that is in turn used to produce a papercontact print. Images on any type of translu-cent surface, such as the paper used in mag-azines, newspapers, and posters, can becontact printed and used in this process.Paper negatives can be combined withnormal negatives to make a multi-imagecomposition. Paper negatives and positivesare easy to retouch. The photographer canmake additions such as clouds or removeunwanted items.

Paper Negative and Positive Process

1. Place a continuous-tone negative in theenlarger and make a print at the exact sizeof the final image. The print should beflatter in contrast and darker than normal,having discernible detail in both keyhighlight and shadow areas. Use a low-contrast single-weight paper. Variable-contrast papers are handy for this process.Avoid papers that have the manufac-turer’s name imprinted on the back.Resin-coated (RC) paper can be usedbecause the plastic diffuses the trademarkso it is not visible in the final print. RCpaper makes good contact when twopieces are placed together for contactprinting.

2. Tape the corners of the completed print,image side down, to a light table forretouching. Dark areas can be intensifiedby adding density on the back of the print,thereby giving the printmaker controlover the shadow areas. Soft pencils,pastels, or even a ballpoint pen can beused. If retouching materials do notadhere properly, coat them with Mc-Donald’s Retouching Spray.

3. Contact print the retouched print onto apiece of unexposed photographic paper tomake a paper negative. Remove theenlarger’s lens board to reduce exposuretime. Make sure the two pieces of paperare in as close contact as possible. If

you are having trouble making goodcontact, try soaking the paper positiveand the unexposed paper in water andpressing them together with a squeegee orroller.

4. After processing and drying the papernegative, tape it, image side down, to thelight table for retouching. During thisstage, added density from retouching will block out and intensify the high-light areas.

5. Contact print the retouched negative ontounexposed paper. The choice of paperwill determine the amount of control theprintmaker has over contrast and surfacetexture. Coating the back of the paper negative with a thin layer of oil oftenincreases the contact, makes the nega-tive more transparent, and reduces exposure time.

Control of Detail and Texture

For maximum texture in the final print,expose the paper normally, emulsion sideup. For minimum texture and maximumdetail, briefly flash light from the enlargerthrough the paper’s base side (emulsion sidedown). Turn it over (emulsion side up) andcontact print it with the paper negative. Forminimum detail and texture, expose thepaper through its base side with no flashexposure.

Paper Negatives Using a Digital Process

Paper negatives can also be created using adigital process. Desktop printers connectedto a computer are affordable, quick, and offera variety of print attributes. Negatives froman inkjet, color, or black-and-white electro-static printer (photocopier) can also be usedas negatives (see Chapter 12). Although thequality of these desktop printers is not suit-able to create a negative for enlargementprinting, unique and high-quality results canbe achieved through contact printing. Checkwith the device manufacturer for detailsabout the weight and consistency of paperput through the printer.


REVERSING BLACK-AND-WHITE FILM

Lantern Slides

Today most photographers present prints astheir finished product. This has not alwaysbeen the case. At the turn of the nineteenthcentury, lantern slides were most popular in photographic clubs and salons. A lanternslide is a positive transparency, named afterthe nineteenth-century projectors calledmagic lanterns, made or mounted on glassfor projection. With slides, what you see iswhat you get. There is no second stepneeded to arrive at the final image as in thenegative/positive process. This enables theslide to depict a greater amount of detail anda wider range of tones than can be expressedby a traditional print. This is because film(the lantern slide) has a wider tonal rangethan paper. Lantern slides were fragile,heavy, thick, and larger than their 35mmheirs. The glass ensured image flatnessduring projection, giving the scene incred-ible sharpness. The bigger formats added tothe retention of detail and the luminosity ofthe original subject.

Current Uses for Black-and-White Slides

A modern photographer could still choose towork with black-and-white positives whenmaking photographs expressly for the fol-lowing purposes: reproduction in the printmedia, when images are needed for a slidepresentation, for copying any continuoustone material, when a complete darkroomwith a printing facility is not available, orsimply for the sheer beauty the slide imageis capable of bestowing on the subject.

Kodak Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit

The Kodak Direct Positive Film DevelopingOutfit is an all-liquid kit that delivers black-and-white slides from Kodak T-MAX 100Professional Film and Technical Pan Film.With T-MAX 100, this outfit provides con-tinuous-tone slides of the original subject.

This film is recommended for making copynegatives from black-and-white or color negatives, for duplicating black-and-whiteslides, for making black-and-white slidesfrom color slides, or for general pictorial pur-poses. When used with Technical Pan Film,the kit can be used to make high-contrasttitle slides or slides of computer-generatedgraphs and line art. Kodak no longer makesDirect Positive Panchromatic Film 5246,which was designed to make black-and-white transparencies.

Exposure

For normal contrast use, such as producingslides from continuous-tone photographs orartwork, and for general pictorial work, set the ISO for T-MAX 100 at 50. For high-contrast use, such as making slides from lineart, set the ISO for Technical Pan Film at 64.For initial use, make a series of exposures inwhich you bracket, in small increments ofone-third f-stop, one full f-stop over andunder the indicated exposure to determinethe correct speed for your situation.

Processing

Film must be handled in total darkness untilbleaching is completed, after which the filmcan be examined under a Kodak OA safelightfilter. Do not use white light until the filmhas been fixed.

Table 3.13 lists the tank processing steps for the Direct Positive Film DevelopingOutfit. Read the instructions supplied with the developing kit before mixing and processing. Wash, hypo clear, final wash, Photo-Flo, and dry following normalprocedures.

Contrast Control

It is not possible to alter the contrast of thefinal positive image to a large extent bychanging the temperature or time of the firstdeveloper. An increase in time or tempera-ture in the first developer will produce aneffect similar to overexposure of slide film.There is a general loss of density, as the


entire image is lightened, with highlightdetail becoming washed out. A decrease inthe time or temperature of the first developerproduces a result similar to underexposure.The overall density is increased, and thehighlights begin to darken.

Contrast is controlled most effectively atthe time of initial camera exposure by brack-eting, in one-third f-stops, within an effec-tive range of about one f-stop in the plus orminus direction. Slight changes in contrastcan be achieved with T-MAX 100 by modi-fying the first developer solution. This willproduce something similar to the result ofprinting a black-and-white negative on thenext higher or lower contrast grade of paper(see outfit for details). This procedure hasvery little effect on the contrast of TechnicalPan film.

The blacks can be intensified by combin-ing 20 milliliters of Rapid Selenium Tonerwith 1 liter of hypo clear solution.

One-Step Enlarged Negatives

One-step enlarged negatives can be pro-duced with T-MAX 100 film processed in theKodak Direct Positive kit by following theseguidelines:

1. Expose film in the same way you wouldto make a print. As the film is panchro-

matic it must be handled in total darkness.

2. Place the original negative, emulsion sideup, in the enlarger.

3. Use a black easel surface or cover it witha piece of opaque paper to reduce fog andflare.

4. Use brief exposure times. Set the enlarging lens to f-22 or f-32 (a neutral density filter may be needed toreduce the amount of light). Set the timer for 1/2-second intervals (a digitaltimer is recommended for repeatableresults).

5. Make a series of eight 1/2-second expo-sures (from 1/2 to 4 seconds).

6. Process normally following the instruc-tions supplied with the kit.

Reversing Other Black-and-White Films

It is possible to perform reversal processingon other black-and-white films. Other rever-sal films and kits are available, and someconventional films also can be reversed.Check the reversal kit you are using beforeprocessing, as certain films and film sizes donot yield good results.


PamphletKodak T-MAX 100 Direct Positive Film Devel-oping Outfit, Kodak Publication No. J-87.

Other SourcePhotographers’ Formulary, P.O. Box 950,Condon, MT 59826.

FILM FOR CLASSIC CAMERAS

Manufacturers stopped making film for mostclassic cameras years ago. If you would liketo do more than admire these machines, youcan use a black-and-white ortho copy emul-sion rated at ISO 32 in many of the oldercameras. This film is available in five sizescorresponding to Kodak 101, 116, 122, 124,and 616. Depending on the size, film is alsoavailable in Verichrome Pan, VPSIII, Plus-X,


Table 3.13 Tank Processing Steps for Kodak Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit at 68°F (20°C)

Step Time (Minutes)

First developer 7*Rinse 1/2Bleach 11/2Rinse 1/2Clearing bath 2Redeveloper 7*Rinse 1/2Fixer** 5

*This time is for fresh solutions. For partially used solu-tions, you must adjust the times in both the firstdeveloper and the redeveloper, using the tables pro-vided in the kit, to compensate for the number of rollsalready processed. Using this method, each 1-quartoutfit allows up to 12 rolls of 35 mm film (36 expo-sures), 12 rolls of 120 film, or twelve 8 ¥ 10 inchsheets to be processed. Follow suggested agitationpatterns.

**The processing outfit does not include fixer. Anyrapid or regular fixer may be used.

working procedures that deliver maximumpermanence from the materials being pro-cessed. With archival methods, it is possiblefor contemporary black-and-white film tolast thousands of years. Table 3.14 lists thebasic working procedures to process film formaximum permanence.

POLAROID INSTANT FILMS

There are many advantages to working withinstant materials. These include: no need fora darkroom or wet processing solutions;rapid feedback, allowing corrections andchanges to be made while still shooting; areliable way to test equipment, lighting, and


TRI-X, T-MAX-100, T-MAX 400, Pro 100, orEktachrome 100 Plus. Film sizes are 101,103, 116, 122, 124, 127, 616, 620, and 828 onspools and 21/4 ¥ 31/4 inches and 31/4 ¥ 41/4inches. Five-by-seven–inch sheets andcustom film sizes under 5 ¥ 7 inches can becut to order. For more information, contactFilm for Classics, P.O. Box 486, HoneoyeFalls, NY 14472, (716) 624-4945.

PROCESSING BLACK-AND-WHITEFILM FOR PERMANENCE

Most serious photographers would like theirefforts to last at least as long as their lifetime.To accomplish this goal, one must follow

Figure 3.7 Often working around people whom he does not know, Stone appreciates Polaroid’sPositive and Negative Film. In twenty seconds, he has a small print and a negative against whichhe can check his expectations. The print can be shared or given away to his subject, thus bringingthe subject into the process. The final image pays homage to the family album, with its handwrittentitles giving the specific location and circumstance of the photograph.

© Jim Stone. Steam Tractor and Owner, Canandaigua, NY, 1984. Gelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 24inches.


subject poses; and a good icebreaker whichcan help establish a rapport between thephotographer and the subject.

Positive and Negative Film

One of the most versatile Polaroid materialsis black-and-white positive and negativematerial. Polaroid Positive and Negative(P/N) Film (Type 55) has an ISO of 50 and astandard development time of 20 seconds at75°F (24°C). The processing of this materialis different from that of other instant films inthat the negative must be cleared in a sodiumsulfite solution, then washed and driedbefore printing. (Polaroid provides thechemical with the film.) The negative can bestored for up to 72 hours in a holding tankbefore it is dried. The sodium sulfiteremoves the processing gel and makes theimage visible.

Polaroid P/N film can be archivallyprocessed. After the sodium sulfite bath, thephotographer fixes the negative for twominutes in a rapid acid-hardening fixer and then continues to process the film following the same procedures as are used in regular black-and-white archival film processing.

The problem with this film is that theperfect exposure may be slightly different for the negative and the print, with the negative sometimes requiring more time. Thenegative is more fragile than a conventionalfilm negative and must be handled care-fully. These negatives can deliver beautifulprints and can be used in many nonsilverprocesses.


Books

American National Standards Institute(ANSI) Catalog of Photographic Stan-dards. Contact: ANSI, Sales Depart-ment, 1430 Broadway, New York, NY10018.

Anchell, Stephen G. and Bill Troop. TheFilm Developing Cookbook. Boston: FocalPress, 1998.

Eaton, George. Conservation of Photographs.Kodak Publication No. F-40, 1985.

Hicks, Roger, and Frances Schultz. The FilmBook: Choosing and Using Color andBlack and White Film. London, UK: David& Charles, 1996.

Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Color Photography.Third Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.

Kodak Black-and-White Darkroom Data-guide. Kodak Publication, No. R-20.


Sources of Archival Equipment andSupplies

Calumet, 890 Supreme Drive, Bensonville,IL 60106 (archival washers).

Conservation Resources International, 1111North Royal Street, Alexandria, VA 23314.

Darkroom Aids Company, 3449 NorthLincoln Avenue, Chicago, IL 60657 (newand used archival equipment).

Light Impressions, P.O. Box 940, Rochester,NY 14603-0940.

Table 3.14 Steps for Processing Black-and-White Film for Permanence*

Step Time

Presoak (optional) 1 minuteDeveloper As requiredAcid stop bath 1/2 minuteFixer (one or two baths) Twice clearing timeSelenium toner (1 :20) (optional)** Until a slight change in color occurs (about 6 minutes)First wash 2 to 5 minutesWashing aid 2 minutesFinal wash 10 minutes minimumWetting agent in distilled water 1 to 2 minutesAir-dry As needed

*Use fresh solutions at 68°F (20°C).**Film is immersed in toning solution directly from the fixer with no water rinse. Toner is used only once and

then discarded.

Lumiere Photo, 439 Monroe Avenue,Rochester, NY 14607-0940.

Salthill Photographic Instruments, WildcatRoad, Chappaqua, NY 10514 (archivalwashers and dryers).

Summitek, P.O. Box 520011, Salt Lake City,UT 84152 (archival washers).

TALAS Division, Technical Library Ser-vices, 130 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY10011.

20th Century Plastics, 20th Century Direct,PO Box 2393, Brea, CA 92822-2393(archival storage).

University Products, Inc., P.O. Box 101,Holyoke, MA 01041.

Sources of Photographic Chemicals

Artcraft Chemicals, Inc., P.O. Box 583, Sche-nectady, NY 12301 (bulk chemicals).

Bostick & Sullivan, P.O. Box 16639, Santa Fe,NM 87506.

Bryant Laboratory, 1101 Fifth Street, Berke-ley, CA 94710 (bulk chemicals and photo-graphic formulas).

Fisher Scientific, 200 Park Lane, Pittsburgh,PA 15230 (chemicals and equipment).

Photographers’ Formulary, P.O. Box 950,Condon, MT 59826 (bulk chemicals andclassic formulas that are no longer com-mercially available).


4Formulas of Your Own

PREPARED FORMULAS VERSUSMIXING YOUR OWN

Commercially Prepared Chemistry

A wide variety of commercially preparedformulas are available for use in photo-graphic processes. These prepared formulasare accurately compounded and easy to mix, and they provide consistent purity and uniformity that ensures high-qualityresults.

Why Mix Your Own?

It can be valuable to any photographer toknow how to prepare a formula from scratch.Mixing your own formulas can provide aclear, concrete cause-and-effect demonstra-tion of how various photographic processeswork. This understanding can be applied toachieve better control of the medium.Mixing your own formulas also can be lessexpensive than buying packaged prepara-tions. This process offers you a chance toexperience further visual adventure, and it is fun.

You do not have to be an expert in math-ematics or science to get involved in thisarea of photography. This chapter providesthe basic information needed to begin con-ducting experiments in controlling andheightening the final image with non-prepared photographic formulas. Specificdetails and formulas are included in the

appropriate chapter sections dealing withspecific processes.

Before attempting to mix any formula,read and follow all handling, mixing, andsafety instructions included with the chem-icals being used. Also read and follow all thegeneral safety guidelines outlined in Chapter2 of this book. Wear protective equipmentsuch as safety glasses, a plastic apron, rubbergloves, and a mask to avoid allergic reac-tions, burns, and irritation to the skin orlungs.

BASIC EQUIPMENT

Many photographers have most of the itemsneeded to prepare their own formulas. Theseinclude graduates, mixing containers, stir-ring rods or paddles, a funnel, an accuratethermometer, opaque storage bottles, protec-tive gear, and a well-ventilated area that isnot used for preparing food and is free fromchildren and animals. The items that may belacking are a scale and a mortar and pestle.All equipment must be made of nonporousand easy to wash materials.

Scales

A small, accurate scale is essential for weigh-ing chemicals. Scales are available in avariety of sizes, styles, and price ranges.Balance scales are recommended becausethey are reliable, affordable, long-lived, easy

FORMULAS OF YOUR OWN 55

to use, and do not require batteries or elec-tricity. When purchasing a balance scale, besure the sliding scale is easy to read and thatthe scale has removable pans for conve-nience of use and cleaning. The Ohaus ScaleCorporation makes a triple-beam balancescale that is superb for photographic pur-poses. The scale’s standard capacity range issuitable for most individual needs and canbe extended by using attachment weights. Itis sensitive to 0.1 gram. If you plan on doing

a good deal of your own mixing, this scale isa good investment.

Electronic scales are replacing many of thelower priced triple-beam balance scales.These scales, often battery powered, areavailable for those who want a simple digitalreadout. Most electronic scales will calculateTare weights with a push of a button. Tareweight is the mass of the container that holdswhat is being weighed. The Tare weightbutton automatically subtracts the weight

Figure 4.1 To get the results he wanted from printing-out paper, Hunter needed a negative with much greater than normalcontrast. He achieved this by rating 8 ¥ 10 inch TRI-X film at 100 and developing it in modified Pyro ABC developer. Theprinted-out image was treated with Gold Chloride Toner. This reduces the image and plates it with gold, producing alavender tone.

© Frank Hunter. Frank Ross’s Barber Shop, Lebanon Jct., Kentucky, 1985. Printing-out paper. 8 ¥ 10 inches.


of the container so that only the actual sub-stance (chemical) is weighed. The AcculabCompany makes different sized digitalscales, some the size of a credit card. TheAcculab GS200 is a portable electronic scalethat is simple to use and has multiple weigh-ing modes and a removable plastic platform.The prices for these electronic scales arecomparable to balance scales.

Scales can be ordered over the Internet,through mail-order photo and scientifichouses, from chemical supply houses, ordirectly from the manufacturer. Here are afew distributors to contact (many have toll-free phone numbers and Websites):

• Edmund Scientific, 101 East GloucesterPike, Barrington, NJ 08007-1380

• Lab Safety Supply Inc., P.O. Box 1368,Janesville, WI 53547-1368

• Ward’s Natural Science, P.O. Box 92912,Rochester, NY 14692-9012

Mortar and Pestle

A mortar and pestle made out of glass orporcelain can be useful for breaking upchemicals that are not in powder or grainform. Do not use marble or wooden sets, asthey will absorb chemicals and could conta-minate other formulas.

Spoons

A set of plastic or stainless steel spoons fortransferring chemicals from the bottle to thescale can prevent messy spills that are waste-ful and can cause contamination.

Mixing Equipment

Accurate, easy-to-read graduates in smalland large sizes, clearly marked in both mil-liliters (ml) and ounces (oz), are essential.Plastic containers of various sizes make goodmixing pails, and stirring paddles arehelpful for mixing.

Storage Containers

Different sized brown or opaque bottlesmade of glass or plastic make excellent

storage containers for mixed solutions.Opaque containers prevent deteriorationcaused by light. Plastic is more durable thanglass and can be squeezed to eliminate mostof the air to lessen the effects of oxidation.Remember that all plastic containers absorbchemistry over time. Keep similar chemistryin the same containers and replace plasticcontainers periodically. Medicine-dropperbottles, available at drugstores, are excellentfor keeping small amounts of expensivesolutions.

Certain chemicals are hygroscopic (absorb-ing water from the air) and can form a hardcrust upon exposure to air. Others are efflo-rescent, losing their normal water contentwhen exposed to air. Either of these condi-tions can make accurate weighing impossi-ble. Still other chemicals can evaporate orfume. Avoid these problems by tighteningthe lids on all bottles. Clearly label everybottle with its contents and the date it wasmixed.

CHEMICALS

Obtaining Chemicals

One can obtain many of the chemicals usedin contemporary processes from large pho-tography stores. When working with some ofthe more unusual or older processes, obtain-ing the required chemicals can be more problematic. Check with a local chemicalsupply company. Some companies may not sell chemicals in small quantities for indi-vidual use. If possible, represent yourselfthrough a business or educational facility.You also may be able to obtain chemicalsfrom the photography or chemistry depart-ment of a local college, or through mail-orderphotography stores. A few companies spe-cialize in stocking photographic chemicals.Check the ads in photography publicationsor do an Internet search for information onsuppliers.

If time permits, shop around, as the pricesof chemicals can vary dramatically. In addi-tion, manufacturers often give different tradenames to the same chemical. For example,the developing agent methylaminophenolsulfate is known as Kodak Elon, Agfa Metol,Pictol, and Rhodol. Spelling also can vary.For instance, the British spelling of sodium


sulfite is sodium sulphite, and the Britishspelling of sodium sulfate is sodium sul-phate. Chemicals come in different grades orclassifications. Be sure the price obtained isfor the exact grade of the chemical required.

Chemical ClassificationChemicals are given the following threestandard classifications that reflect theirpurity:

1. Analytical Reagent (AR) is the higheststandard for purity and uniformity. This grade is the most expensive and is not needed for most photographic purposes. It is usually labeled ACS(American Chemical Specification). In theUnited Kingdom, it is labeled ANALAR.

2. Pharmaceutical or Practical is about 97percent pure and can be used for almostall photographic work. It is labeled USP(United States Pharmacopoeia) or NF(National Formulary). In the UnitedKingdom, it is labeled either BP (BritishPharmacopoeia) or BPC (British Pharma-ceutical Codex).

3. Technical or Commercial is approxi-mately 95 percent pure and is subject tovariations that could alter the visualoutcome. It is not recommended forimportant work.

Sources of SupplyThe following are reliable supply sources ofphotographic chemicals (many have toll-freephone numbers and Websites):

• Artcraft Chemicals Inc., P.O. Box 583, Schenectady, NY 12301

• Bostick and Sullivan, P.O. Box 16639,Santa Fe, NM 87506

• Bryant Labs 1101 Fifth Street, Berkeley,CA 94701

• Gallard Schlesinger Chemical, 584Mineola Avenue, Carle Place, NY 11514

• Photographers’ Formulary, P.O. Box 950,Condon, MT 59826-0950

• Rockland Colloid, 44 Franklin Street, Pier-mont, NY 10968

• VWR Scientific (International Headquar-ters), P.O. Box 7900, San Francisco, CA94120 (can provide you with a regionaldistributor)

Storage

Keep all chemicals away from all living crea-tures. If necessary, lock them up. Label anddate all bottles of mixed solutions. Be surestorage bottles have a secure cap. Protect allchemicals from air, heat, light, moisture, andcontamination from other chemicals.

Disposal and Safety

When working with any chemical, youassume the responsibility for its safe use anddisposal. Follow any special instructionsincluded with each chemical or processbeing used as well as the safety recommen-dations in Chapter 2. Laws concerning dis-posal of chemicals vary widely. Check withyour local health department to get advice.Hazardous liquids can be poured onto kittylitter and placed in a plastic bag. Dry chem-icals or contaminated materials can be dis-posed of by sealing them in a plastic bag.Both should be put in a closed outsidedumpster. Do not mix liquid and solidwastes together, as dangerous reactionsmight occur.

PREPARING FORMULAS

Weighing Chemicals

Place your scale on a level surface, protectedfrom spills with newspaper or plastic, andzero it. Put a piece of filter paper, any cleanpaper, or a paper cup in the middle of thebalance pan. For critical measurements witha triple-beam scale, weigh the paper or cupfirst and include its weight plus that of thechemical. On electronic scales this proce-dure can be done automatically by pressingthe Tare button after the paper or cup isplaced on the scale and before the chemicalis added. When using a double-pan scale,place the same size paper in both pans sotheir weights will cancel each other out. Lineup the needed chemicals in an orderlyfashion. Put the chemical to be measured inthe center of the pan to avoid any leverageerrors. Use fresh paper for each chemical to prevent contamination and facilitatecleanup. Immediately recap the bottles to


avoid confusion, spills, or contaminatingone chemical with another.

Temperature

Closely follow the temperature recommen-dations given with each formula. If thechemicals need to be heated, carry out thisprocedure in a double boiler, not in a pandirectly over the heat source. Direct heat canalter or damage a chemical. The solubility ofmany chemicals is increased with heat. Forthis reason, the mixing temperature of thewater may vary from the solution’s workingtemperature. Other chemicals may releaseheat when dissolved, creating an exothermicreaction, and need to be mixed in cool water.Endothermic chemicals absorb heat whenmixed and may require hotter water for com-plete mixing.

Mixing Chemicals

Always follow the prescribed order of chem-icals given in the formula, as any changesmay prevent the solution from being prop-erly mixed. Follow specific recommenda-tions provided with the formula. In general,start with two-thirds to three-quarters of thetotal amount of water at the correct mixingtemperature. Slowly pour the first properlymeasured chemical into the water while stir-ring vigorously, not permitting any chemicalto settle at the bottom of the container. Waituntil each chemical has been completely dis-solved before adding the next one. When thecorrect sequence has been followed and allthe chemicals are thoroughly mixed, coldwater can be added to bring the solution toroom temperature. If you are not confident ofthe purity of the water being used, mix alldevelopers with distilled water.

Percentage Solutions

In some formulas the amount of a chemicalmay be too small to be weighed accurately,so the amount is given as a percentage solu-tion, or in terms of weight per volume. Forphotographic purposes, this can be simplystated as how many grams of a chemical aredissolved in 100 milliliters of water. Forinstance, a 5 percent solution has 5 grams ofa chemical dissolved in 100 milliliters ofwater. Regardless of the amount needed, thepercentage (how many parts of the chemicalto be mixed into 100 parts of water) is alwaysthe same.

When making a percentage solution, mixthe chemical in less than the total volume of water required. After the chemical is dissolved, add the remaining water. Forinstance, in preparing a 7 percent solution,dissolve 7 grams of the chemical in about 75milliliters of water. After mixing is complete,add more water so that the final volume isexactly 100 milliliters.

Formulas in Parts

Older photographic formulas were oftengiven in parts. Parts can be converted into the equivalent number of grams and milliliters or ounces and fluid ounces.For example, a formula calling for 10 partsof a chemical and 80 parts of water can betranslated as calling for 10 grams of thechemical and 80 milliliters of water or 10ounces of the chemical and 80 fluid ouncesof water.

pH Scale

Most photographic solutions have a definitepH (potential of hydrogen), which is a way to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a chemical. Acidity is measured by the

• When you are mixing an acid, always pour the acid into water. Do not pourwater into an acid, as splattering can cause dangerous burns. Be sure to weareye protection.

• Use a funnel when pouring mixed solu-tions into bottles. Tightly secure the topand label the bottle with the name ofthe solution and the date. Most devel-

opers are good only for a few monthsafter they have been mixed.

• Keep a written record of what you doso that you can judge the results. Thispermits easy adjustment and cus-tomization of the formulas.


number of hydrogen ions present, and alka-linity is measured by the concentration ofhydroxide ions in a solution. The scale runsfrom 1 to 14, with 7 being neutral. Pure dis-tilled water has a pH of 7. Chemicals with apH below 7 are considered to be acids.Chemicals with a pH above 7 are alkalines.The change of one whole increment in thepH scale indicates a tenfold change (plus orminus) in the intensity of the acid or alka-line reaction.

All photographic processing solutionsperform best within a specific pH range. Forexample, developers must be alkaline towork, stop baths must be acid, and fixers arenormally neutral to slightly acid. The pH ofmost of the commonly used working solu-tions in today’s photographic processes isbetween 5 and 9. The pH can be measuredwith pH test paper or with a pH meter. Thepaper is inexpensive but not very reliable. ApH meter, which is expensive, is required foraccuracy. Fortunately, most black-and-whiteformulas do not require stringent pH moni-toring. Small changes produced by varia-tions in pH usually do not cause severevisual defects. Most of these changes can becorrected during the printing of the negative.The use of distilled water will eliminatemost difficulties in controlling pH as long asthe chemicals are good and the proceduresbeing followed are correct.

Chemicals possessing either a high or lowpH should be handled with care. Acids onthe low end of the pH scale get progressivelystronger. Acids can dehydrate the skin and,in high concentrations, produce burns.Highly alkaline substances, such as calciumhydroxide, can degrease the skin and causeburns.

Acetic acid is the most commonly usedacid in photography. It is a relatively weakacid and does not react as vigorously as otheracids, but it can cause tissue damage in aconcentrated form.

Prolonged exposure to photographic chemicals can cause allergic reactions, crack-

ing, dehydration, or discoloration of the skin.Allergic reactions tend to be cumulative.When mixing or working with any concen-trated chemicals, wear full protective gear.

U.S. Customary Weights and Metric Equivalents

When preparing your own chemicals, youwill probably encounter formulas given inboth the U.S. customary and metric systems.The scientific world has adopted the metricsystem, but the United States at large has notfollowed suit. Older formulas in British pub-lications use still another system calledBritish Imperial Liquid Measurement. Thesesystems are not compatible. Many older for-mulas may be written in only one system, soit is often necessary to translate from onesystem to the other.


Books

Anchell, Stephen G. The Darkroom Cook-book. Second Ed. Boston: Focal Press,2000.

Anchell, Stephen G., and Bill Troop. TheFilm Developing Cookbook. Boston: FocalPress, 1998.

Donofrio, Diane (Ed.). Photo Lab Index, Life-time Edition. Keene Valley, N.Y.: Morganand Morgan, 2001.

Stroebel, Leslie, Richard D. Zakia, IraCurrent, and John Compton. Basic Photo-graphic Materials and Processes. 2nd ed.Boston: Focal Press, 2000.

Other Source

Chemical Manufacturers Association, 1300Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, VA 22209.

5Black-and-WhiteFilm Developers

Choosing a film developer requires intelli-gent consideration. You have a wide range ofpossibilities to choose from in selecting adeveloper that is appropriate for the film andits intended application. A developer is nota magical concoction that can correct mis-takes made at the time of exposure, but it does play a vital role in determining a number of key factors in the making of the final negative. These include acutance(sharpness), contrast, useful density range(the difference between the brightest high-light and the darkest shadow areas fromwhich detail is wanted in the final print), foglevel, grain size, speed, and the progression,separation, and smoothness of the tonalvalues.

The developer formula selected—its dilu-tion; degree of exhaustion; temperature of use; frequency, duration, and degree of agitation; and time the film is in the solu-tion—are all controls that the photographercan use to adjust the results obtained fromany developer.

WHAT HAPPENS TO SILVER-BASEDFILMS DURING EXPOSURE ANDPROCESSING?

Upon exposure, the light-sensitive emulsionproduces an electrochemical effect on thesilver halide crystals of the emulsion. Thischanges the electrical charge of the silverhalide crystals, making them responsive tothe developer. The exposure produces an

invisible latent image made up of thesealtered crystals. The developer reduces these exposed crystals to particles of metal-lic silver, forming the visible image on black-and-white film. The extent of this reac-tion is determined by the amount of lightreceived by each part of the film. The morelight striking an area, the more reducedsilver there will be, resulting in a higherdensity.

Chromogenic Film Differences

In chromogenic black-and-white film, as inmost color films, the developing processcreates both silver particles and dyes. Duringprocessing, the silver is removed in a bleach-ing process, leaving a negative image formedonly by the dyes. Ilford and Kodak bothmake chromogenic black-and-white filmsthat are developed in the C-41 color negativeprocess.

Remaining Processing Steps

After being developed, the negative has tiny particles of metallic silver and resid-ual silver halide that were not exposed andtherefore not developed. This halide must beremoved, or it will discolor the negativewhen it comes in contact with light.

To complete the developing process, plain water or a mild acid stop bath

BLACK-AND-WHITE FILM DEVELOPERS 61

(sometimes called a short-stop) is used toneutralize the alkaline developer still in the emulsion. The film is then transferredinto an acidic fixing bath to remove any of the unreduced silver halide in the emulsion. Fixer or hypo (once known assodium hyposulfite) is usually made up ofsodium thiosulfate. Rapid fixer generallycontains ammonium thiosulfate as its fixing agent. After fixing, the remaining thio-sulfate compounds must be eliminated. Thefilm is rinsed and treated with a hypo clear-ing solution, which changes the thiosulfateinto a compound that washes off the filmmore easily. Any residual fixer will discolor,stain, and ultimately destroy the image.Finally, the film is thoroughly washed and dried.

IMAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF FILM

Grain

The silver particles that make up the imagestructure are called grain. The grain size is determined by two major factors. The firstis the inherent natural characteristics of the film. Generally, the faster the film is, the coarser the grain. Fast films have athicker emulsion, permitting more verticalclumping of the grain. The second factordetermining grain size is development.During development the individual silvergrains tend to gather together and overlap,creating larger groups that form a pattern.This is not very noticeable in the negativebut becomes visible in an enlarged print. Thegrain we see in the print is not the individ-ual grains but the spaces between the grainson the negative. These grains hold back thelight during printing, so they appear whitein the print.

The number and size of the grains in anypart of the negative give it density. Graini-ness is increased by excessive density,which can be produced by overexposure oroverdevelopment. Improper film process-ing, including rough agitation, temperatureshock, excessive fixing, and lengthy wettime, increases the size of the grain. Visiblegrain also increases as the contrast of theprint increases.

Acutance

Acutance describes the ability of film torecord the edges of objects. The standard testmeasures film’s ability to form a sharplydefined image of a knife edge when exposedto a point light source. The nature of thegrain and how it is distributed affect thefilm’s acutance. Fine-grain films with a thinemulsion have a high acutance value. Theyproduce less spreading of the light becausethere is not as much emulsion throughwhich light must travel.

Developers do play a role in how we per-ceive a film’s acutance. An acutance devel-oper develops less of the faintly exposedportions of the knife line, reducing the gra-dient width and giving the impression ofincreased edge sharpness, even though thefilm may not measure out as having a higheracutance. The sharper the grain is, thegreater the appearance of acutance. Softergrain produces a diffused edge, giving theimpression of less acutance.

Resolution

The film’s ability to reproduce fine detail iscalled resolution. The camera equipment,film, and printing equipment determineresolving power. These factors include lenssharpness and freedom from aberrations, thegraininess of the emulsion, the contrast of the subject, the contrast characteristics of the film, and the degree of light scatteringthroughout the system. Slow, fine-grain filmshave a greater resolving power than fasterfilms containing larger grains. Fine-grainfilms have a greater acutance, producingsharper outlines and higher contrast. Thethinner emulsion yields less irradiation(internal light scattering), which can blur dis-tinctions between details. Excess density pro-duced by overexposure or overdevelopmentincreases light scattering in the emulsion.This reduces edge sharpness and contrast,which results in less overall resolving power.

The sharpness of the grain produced bythe developer influences resolution. Grainthat is not very sharp can reduce the resolu-tion of an image made through a first-rateoptical system. The sharper the grain, thehigher the degree of apparent resolution.


Fog

Fog is any tone or density in the developedimage that is produced by stray, non-image-forming light or by an unwanted chemicalaction. Fog adds density and is first notice-able in less dense areas. In a negative, itresults in a loss of contrast and detail in theshadow areas. Light fogging is caused by lensflare, camera light leaks, improper handling,loading or unloading of film, light leaks in the darkroom, poor safelight conditions,or exposure to X-rays. The latter most com-monly occurs in the baggage check-insystems used in airports (ask for handinspection of your photographic equipmentand do not put exposed film in yourluggage). Lead-lined film pouches can beused to reduce X-ray exposure.

Chemical fog results from the develop-ment of unexposed halides. This happens allthe time in small amounts, causing what isknown as the base-plus-fog density of film.Fog amounts greater than base-plus-fogdegrade the image. A restrainer, often potas-sium bromide, is added to the developer toreduce fog. Improper storage or outdatedfilm often produces high levels of fogbecause the silver halides become moredevelopable with age. High developmenttemperature, excessive agitation, or chemi-cal activity increases the fog level. Fog and other visible stains can result from fine-grain developers used with fast films or from the use of nearly exhausted chemi-cals. Letting the emulsion come in contactwith an excessive amount of air duringdevelopment produces an oxidation effectcalled aerial fog. Chemical dust, from themixing of chemicals, also is a source of fog.To prevent fog, make sure both camera anddarkroom are light-tight, use fresh films andsolutions, follow proper operating proce-dures and temperatures, maintain cleanworking conditions, and avoid airport X-raymachines.

COMPONENTS ANDCHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-AND-WHITE DEVELOPERS

Developer formulas contain a number of dif-ferent chemicals required to perform specificfunctions in the development of the film.

Getting to know the basic ingredients andthe roles they perform enables the photogra-pher to make adjustments to meet individualrequirements in different situations.

Developing Agent

The role of the developing agent is to reducethe silver halide salts in the emulsion tometallic silver. The developing agent is oxi-dized during this process. Since the dawn ofphotography, countless chemicals have beentried in the hope of producing a developingagent with improved properties. Most of thedeveloping agents currently in use were discovered before the turn of the century,although new developing agents are proba-bly being used in proprietary formulas thatmanufacturers have not revealed to thepublic.

The most common contemporary develop-ing agents are Metol (Kodak’s Elon), hy-droquinone, Phenidone, and ascorbic acid(vitamin C). Older formulas are amidol,glycin, and pyrogallol (pyro). Most general-purpose developers are compounded pairsof developing agents that complement eachother’s action during the developmentprocess. The most popular combinations areMetol and hydroquinone, known as an MQdeveloper, and Phenidone and hydro-quinone, sometimes called a PQ developer.The M stands for Metol, the Q comes fromQuinol, the old Kodak trade name for hydro-quinone, and the P represents Phenidone.The characteristics of these developingagents are discussed later in this chapter.

Metol and Phenidone provide good low-contrast shadow detail in the negative butproduce very little density in the highlights.Hydroquinone acts more intensely in thehighlight areas, adding density and contrast.The combination of the two developingagents results in greater development of theentire negative than the sum of the develop-ment given by equal amounts of the indi-vidual developing agents. In effect, whenMQ or PQ combinations are used, 1 + 1 = 3.This effect is called superadditivity and isused in the majority of contemporary for-mulas. The MQ and PQ combinations yieldgood shadow and mid-range detail, whilestill retaining easily printable density in thehighlights.


Metol should be handled with care, as itcan cause skin irritation that resemblespoison ivy. If you have a reaction to Metol,use a Phenidone-based developer. Note thatmost of Kodak’s developers have Elon(Metol) in them.

Phenidone behaves much like Metol. It ismore expensive, but it is used in smallerquantities. Phenidone has a low oral toxicityand is considered nontoxic. With normaluse, it is unlikely to cause dermatitis. Incombination with hydroquinone, it canproduce higher useful contrast. It is not assensitive to bromide, giving the solutionmore constant and longer keeping proper-ties. Phenidone can be more difficult to dis-solve and can require very hot water (175°For 80°C) to go into solution easily. Check theformulas carefully before mixing. Manypeople use a percentage solution whenmixing their own Phenidone-based formu-las, since only a small amount is required.

Some popular commercial developers thatclaim to be Metol free include Edwal’s FG-7,Acufine, Agfa’s Rodinal, Ilford’s Microphen,and Kodak’s HC-110.

Accelerator

Developing agents used alone can take hoursto produce useful density, are quickly oxi-dized by air, and yield a high level of fog. Analkaline accelerator creates an environmentthat greatly increases the developing agent’sactivity, dropping processing times fromhours to minutes. The amount of alkalinityin the accelerator determines how much ofan increase takes place in the developer.Alkalinity is measured on the pH scale: thehigher the pH, the greater the alkalinity.Some commonly used alkaline chemicals areborax or Kodak Balanced Alkali (sodiummetaborate), with a pH value of 9; sodiumcarbonate, with a pH of 10; and sodiumhydroxide, also known as caustic soda, witha pH of 12.

A developer containing sodium hydrox-ide, which has a high pH, greatly acceleratesthe action of the developer. It increases con-trast and is often used for high-contrastapplications such as graphic arts films. Thehigher the pH value, the more quickly thealkalinity drops off when used in a solu-tion. Developers with a high pH accelerator

oxidize extremely rapidly and have a verybrief life span. To combat these difficulties,the developer and alkaline (accelerator) arestored as separate A and B solutions that aremixed immediately before use.

A developer with a low-pH acceleratorsuch as borax produces less contrast andtakes longer to work, but it remains stable fora longer period of time in a working solution.

Preservative

When a developing agent is dissolved inwater, especially with an alkaline chemicalpresent, it oxidizes rapidly, causing the solu-tion to turn brown, lose its developingability, and produce stains on the emulsion.To prevent the developing agent from oxi-dizing, a preservative is added, usuallysodium sulfite. This increases the workingcapacity of the developer. It also can act as asilver solvent during the long developingtime, and in large quantities, as in D-23, itproduces the mild alkalinity needed to make

Figure 5.1 Connor holds to the maxim of Robert Bly: “Whoever wantsto see the invisible has to penetrate more deeply into the visible.” Connorlikes to keep her technical operations simple. Her 8 ¥ 10 inch Ektapanfilm is processed in Kodak HC-110, a convenient, one-shot liquiddeveloper. This image was contact printed using the sun on printing-outpaper toned with gold chloride.

© Linda Conner. Skull, Peru, 1984. Toned printing-out paper. 8 ¥ 10inches.


the developer work. In the A solution of thePyro ABC formula, sodium bisulfite preventsthe oxidation of the pyro developing agent.Potassium metabisulfite is sometimes usedin two-solution formulas instead of sodiumsulfite.

Restrainer

During the development process, someunexposed silver halides are reduced toblack metallic silver before development iscomplete, producing unwanted overall fog.A restrainer is added to the developer toreduce the fog level. Bromide, with deriva-tives of either potassium or sodium, is theprimary restrainer found in most developers.Potassium bromide is more commonly used.The restrainer increases contrast by prevent-ing the reduction of the silver halides; hence,the production of metallic silver, in theslightly exposed areas, giving a lower overalldensity to the shadow areas. This inhibitingof silver halide reduction also tends toproduce a fine-grain pattern. A potassiumbromide restrainer is used only in smallamounts, as it holds back the overall devel-oping action, reduces the speed of the film,and has a greater effect on the low-densityareas, diminishing the amount of usefuldensity created in the shadow areas. Somelow-alkaline developers do not producemuch fog and therefore do not require arestrainer.

As the emulsion is developed, solublebromide is discharged into the developer,increasing the proportion of restrainer in thesolution and thereby slowing the action ofthe developer. If these soluble bromides arenot removed through proper agitation of thesolution, they can inhibit the developingprocess.

Some developer solutions use benzotria-zole (formerly marketed as Kodak Anti-Fog No. 1) instead of potassium bromide.These two restrainers cannot always beinterchanged, as the benzotriazole does nothave the same effect with all developingagents.

Other Ingredients

Alcohol solvents can be found in certainconcentrated liquid developers to increase

the solubility of specific chemicals and toprevent freezing. Sulfates are sometimesadded to a developer to reduce emulsionswelling, which keeps the grain size down.

Keeping Qualities

The keeping qualities of any developer willbe affected by the following factors:

1. Purity of water. Use distilled water andavoid water that has been softened.

2. Chemical makeup. All developers shouldbe protected from the air. Most normaldevelopers containing sodium sulfite areslow to oxidize. High-energy and pyrodevelopers oxidize quickly after a work-ing solution has been prepared andshould be used immediately.

3. Storage containers. Use dark brown oropaque containers. Glass or stainless steelis best for long-term storage because theywill not interact with film developers.However, the breakability of glass doesnot make it safe or suitable for all situa-tions. Plastic can be used, but be awarethat some plastic containers allow oxygento pass through their walls and interactwith the developer. This speeds up theoxidation process and leaves brownishstains inside the container. Plastic is notrecommended for long-term storage.

4. Contamination. Follow the preparationinstructions and mixing order carefully.Do not allow the developer to come intocontact with other chemicals. Wash allequipment completely after use.

Basic Factors in Selecting a Developer

The photographer must bear in mind thenature of the subject, the type of enlargerlight source, and the size of the final print.For a subject calling for maximum retentionof detail, as in architectural work, traditionallandscapes, or photographs for reproduc-tion, a normal developer with maximumacutance is preferred, even at the expense ofincreased grain size. For a subject requiringa softer look with less sharply defined grainand a flowing progression of tones, as in


some portrait work, a fine-grain developerthat gives the grain a more rounded lookmight be appropriate.

Photographers using condenser enlargers,which emphasize contrast and crispness,may wish to use a softer negative with lower grain acutance. Those using a diffusion enlarger generally prefer maximumsharpness, since the diffused light softensthe image slightly. Many photographers who use diffusion enlargers extend thedevelopment time to create a slightly densernegative than they would use with a con-denser enlarger. This is done to retain some of the contrast that is lost in diffusionsystems.

The development time of most developerscan be varied to compensate for high-contrast or flatly lit scenes. For example, ifthe entire roll of film was exposed in brighterthan normal lighting conditions, the photo-grapher may wish to decrease the normaldevelopment time by 10 to 25 percent toreduce the overall contrast. This narrows thedistance between the key highlights andshadows, giving the negative a tonal rangethat will be easier to match with the paperto make a normal print. If a roll of film isexposed in flatter than normal light, the photographer can increase the normal devel-opment time by about 25 percent to produceadded contrast in the image.

LIQUID VERSUS POWDERCHEMISTRY

Developers are available in liquid andpowder form. Neither is better than theother, as both are valuable in various situa-tions. Most photographers work with bothtypes, although extra safety precautionsshould be taken when mixing chemistry inpowder form. It is a good idea to experimentwith both in noncritical situations to see thevisual results they can deliver.

Liquid Developers

Many liquid developers are proprietary for-mulas—that is, not published for use by thepublic—and cannot be obtained in any formother than those the manufacturer provides.Some proprietary formulas include Kodak’s

HC-110 and T-MAX developers, Edwal’s FG-7, and Agfa’s Rodinal. These formulas areconvenient, consistent in quality, and highin price. Many of the liquids are extremelyconcentrated and can be difficult to measureout in small quantities. Rodinal, sometimesused at dilutions of 1 :100, can be accuratelymeasured by using a hypodermic needle.HC-110 is too syrupy for this technique andcan be measured in small amounts in a 1-ounce graduate. With this method, alwaysmeasure on a level surface. Pour the devel-oper into a mixing container filled with halfthe water required for the proper dilution.Add the remaining water by pouring it, anounce at a time, into the small graduate andthen into the working solution. This ensures

Figure 5.2 Johnson wanted to create a dark and moody look at thiscrumbling, folk art tribute to the power of religion. “As the graffiti andvandalism became more pervasive through the place over time, theoriginal intent became subverted. I felt compelled to balance this placewith my understanding of it. I was not content to document it, but ratherused it to make a response to the notion that religion is a means toexplaining the unexplainable.” The use of FG-7 developer with itsadditional sulfite and Ilford FP-4 film provided the combination he wasafter to achieve maximum sharpness and rich tonality.

© Keith Johnson. Untitled, from the series Holy Land, USA, 1980. Tonedgelatin silver print. 10 ¥ 10 inches.


that none of the developer will remain in the graduate. Other people prefer to make a stock solution from these concentratedliquids that is later diluted to make aworking solution. Most of these developersare intended to be used one time (one shot)and then discarded.

Powder Developers

Powders can be more difficult to mix, andtheir dust can contaminate the darkroom.Prepare the solutions where the chemicaldust will not land on surfaces where film is handled. When mixing powders, wear amask to avoid breathing in the dust. Clean the mixing area with a damp papertowel. Ideally, powders should be mixed 24 hours before use to ensure that all the chemicals are dissolved and stable. This lackof convenience is offset by the fact that the formulas for many contemporary and older powder developers are available. Thephotographer who takes the time to mix aformula from scratch can save money and customize the formula for individualneeds. He or she is not restricted to what isavailable commercially, will gain a betterunderstanding of what happens in theprocess, will learn how to influence thedevelopment process, and will increasevisual possibilities.

BASIC DEVELOPER TYPES

Categorizing developers can be difficult. Thevisual results one photographer considersnormal might be unacceptable to another.This chapter offers some basic characteris-tics of developers, how they are typicallyapplied, and their formulas, if they are available. This information is intended as astarting point from which photographers can conduct experiments to see which film-developer combinations offer visual satisfaction.

Generally, developers are divided intofour categories: normal, fine-grain, high-energy, and special-purpose. Formulas forthe nonproprietary developers—that is, for-mulas that are published for public use—mentioned in this section are presented atthe end of this chapter.

Normal

The normal developer is one that provideshigh acutance, a moderate grain pattern, anda good range of clearly separated tones;maintains the film’s regular speed; and issimple to use. These developers can be usedwith roll or sheet film in a tank or tray.Common examples include HC-110, D-76,and FG-7. The key difference between anormal developer and a fine-grain developeris how the grain looks. A normal developeryields a sharp, toothy grain, similar to theshape of a pyramid. A fine-grain developerproduces a softer grain, similar to a roundeddome.

Many developers can be classified aseither normal or fine-grain. D-23 is one suchformula. D-23 is a Metol developer yieldinga moderately fine grain due to the solventaction produced by its higher than normalcontent of sodium sulfite. In the case of D-23, the sodium sulfite’s main purpose is notto create a finer grain but to produce the alka-linity needed for development to take place.The finer than normal grain is a by-productof this action. D-76 contains the sameamount of sodium sulfite as D-23, but its MQformula of Elon and hydroquinone gives itmore energy. This reduces the developingtime, so there is less silver reduction and thegrain remains better defined. HC-110, D-76,and FG-7 are available from the manufac-turer in packaged form. D-23 is not and mustbe mixed from scratch (see formula later inthis chapter).

Fine-Grain Developers

Fine-grain developers increase their silverhalide solvent power by chemical means,usually with a higher level of sodium sulfite.This increased solvency yields a reductionin graininess. Unfortunately, this is accom-panied by a reduction in film speed and acu-tance, producing a negative in which thegrain is actually softer than that of a normaldeveloper. Instead of the grains looking likethe well-sharpened point of a pencil, theyappear to have been rounded off. The nega-tive will actually deliver a less well-definedgrain pattern. This is not good or bad, it issimply different from the results obtainedwith a normal developer. It is a matter of


how the photographer wants the final printto look. Prints made from such negatives aresofter and smoother looking.

D-25 is a classic example of such a devel-oper. Its basic formula is the same as that for D-23, but sodium bisulfate is added as a buffer to reduce the developer’s pH value(alkalinity). This buffering effect increasesthe development time, resulting in increasedsolvent action of the sulfite on the silver,giving it a fine-grain effect. D-25 must bemixed from scratch.

Kodak’s Microdol-X is a fine-grain, Metol-only, high-sulfite developer that is similar toD-25. Microdol-X is available in liquid andpowder form.

Other fine-grain developers, such asAcufine and Ethol Blue, are designed forpush processing film to achieve max-imum speed.

High-Energy Developers

High-energy developers are often used forgraphic arts work or rapid processing. Theytend to produce high contrast, eliminatingthe middle tones and giving areas either ablack or clear density. They are generally notintended for normal pictorial use, but theycan be diluted and the exposure time manip-ulated to produce continuous-tone results.In many of these formulas, such as KodalithLiquid Developer, the developing agent andthe alkali are stored separately and mixedonly at the time of use. Once they are com-bined into a working solution, they rapidlyoxidize. The level of bromide in these for-mulas is generally increased to keep the foglevel down. This also helps to produce thecompletely clear areas on the film for high-contrast effects. Other widely used high-energy developers include Kodak’s D-8,D-11, and D-19 and Ilford’s ID-13.

Special-Purpose Developers

Special-purpose developers are designed forspecific uses such as direct-positive, high- or low-temperature, and low-contrast/low-energy processing; reproduction work; X-raydevelopment; nonstandard visual effects;and monobath or two-solution developmentmethods.

Two-Solution and Water-Bath DevelopmentBoth these procedures can be effective inreducing overall contrast while maintaininguseful density in the key shadow areas. Theypermit the developer to soak into the emul-sion before the film is placed in a bath ofmild alkali or water. When the film is takenout of the developer and placed in thesecond solution, the developer in the high-light areas rapidly exhausts itself, while thedeveloper in the shadow areas continues toact. The cycle may be repeated to achieve thedesired range of contrast. Either methodworks well with fast, thick-emulsion filmssuch as TRI-X and HP-5 Plus. The alkalinesolution method is more effective with abroader range of films, including slower,thin-emulsion ones. When working witheither method, one may have to give aboutone f-stop more exposure than normal.

Diafine is a commercially available two-bath formula designed to produce thehighest effective film speed, ultrafine grain,maximum acutance, and high resolution. Itis usable over a wide temperature range(70°F to 85°F, or 21°C to 29°C) with a singledeveloping time for all films. Diafine permitsa wide latitude of exposure without havingto adjust the time or temperature of thedeveloper.

Processing with D-23 and KodakBalanced Alkali

The Single-Cycle MethodFilm is developed in D-23 for 3 to 7 minutesat 68°F (20°C) and then allowed to soak,without agitation, in a 1 percent solution (10grams per liter) of Kodak Balanced Alkali(sodium metaborate). The process raises thefilm’s base-plus-fog level, but this fog canusually be printed through without diffi-culty. The fog level can be combated byadding a 10 percent potassium bromide solu-tion to the Balanced Alkali or by adding ben-zotriazole at the rate of 30 grains per liter ofBalanced Alkali. The resulting negative willappear to be soft but will contain fully devel-oped shadow area detail. Other developerssuch as Microdol-X may also be used.

The Multicycle MethodThe multicycle method can produce a morecompletely developed negative, with addi-


tional compensating effects, than the single-cycle procedure. In this process, the film isdeveloped in D-23 for 30 to 60 seconds, thenput into the 1 percent Kodak Balanced Alkali(sodium metaborate) solution for 1 to 3minutes with no agitation. The film is thenput into a weak acid stop bath and com-pletely rinsed in water. After these proce-dures, the film is returned to the D-23 for thesecond cycle. This entire procedure may berepeated three to five times to achieve thedesired contrast range.

POSTDEVELOPMENT PROCESSES

Replenishment

A developer loses its potency as it carries outthe task of reducing the exposed silverhalides. During this process, contaminants,mainly soluble bromides, which are a by-product of the chemical reaction, build up inthe solution. A replenisher is a chemicalsolution added to the original developer

to restore it back to its original strength,allowing it to be reused many times. Not alldevelopers can be replenished. Check with individual manufacturers to find outwhether a specific developer can be replenished.

Generally, for replenishment to be eco-nomical and effective, the developer must be used in at least one-gallon tanks. Also, the solution must have film run through it regularly (preferably daily) to keep thedeveloper at working strength. Carefulrecords of the amount of film processed must be maintained to determine the amountof replenishment required. For these rea-sons, large-volume users primarily usereplenishment.

Many photographers prefer one-shot (non-replenishable) developers because of theirconsistency and ease of use. If the volume ofwork is great enough, however, replenishingis more economical. Some photographerslike the look of a negative processed in a replenished solution. This preferencederives from the fact that during long devel-opment times, some of the residue silver inthe solution attaches itself to the developedemulsion in a process called plating, whichadds a slight amount of contrast and density.In 1989, with the introduction of Kodak T-MAX RS Developer and Replenisher,replenishing became easier for people pro-cessing small amounts of film.

T-MAX RS Developer and Replenisher

The T-MAX RS Developer and Replenisheris an all-liquid system designed to provide anumber of advantages over traditionalreplenisher methods. The mixed T-MAX RSacts both as a working solution and as areplenisher. No starter solution or separatereplenisher solution is required. At its rec-ommended temperature of 75°F (29°C), RSgives better shadow detail than regular T-MAX Developer. This makes it an excel-lent choice for both normal and push pro-cessing. It is suitable for low-volume,small-tank processing because it can bemixed in quantities as small as one gallon,does not require a daily run of film, and hasa good storage life. A working-strength solu-tion will keep for six months in a full, tightlyclosed bottle, and a half-filled bottle will last

Figure 5.3 Here 5 ¥ 7 inch TRI-X was exposed for about 1 minute at f-22. Two flashbulbs were fired during the exposure to paint the subjectsat appropriate and unpredictable points in time. To compensate for thelong, imprecise exposure with mixed lighting, Feresten used a double-bath development of exhausted Kodak Microdol-X followed by a Kodalksolution (now called Kodak Balanced Alkali). This reduced the overallcontrast while maintaining detail in the key shadow areas. Feresten likenshis method to casting a net into unknown waters. The results contain acollection of nonsimultaneous truths connected by time.

© Peter Helmes Feresten. Javier Garcia Wake, Fort Worth, Texas, 1987.Gelatin silver print. 125/8 ¥ 18 inches.


for two months. T-MAX RS can be used toprocess any T-MAX or conventional black-and-white film, such as TRI-X. It also may be used in an unreplenished system, one-shotted, and dumped. Kodak says not to useRS to replenish regular T-MAX Developer.

T-MAX RS Developer is easy to replenish.You simply mix one gallon of RS and pourthe required amount of solution into thedeveloping container. After the film is devel-oped, save the used developer in a separatebottle. For each 135–36, 120 roll, or 8 ¥ 10inch sheet processed, 11/2 ounces (45 milli-liters) of fresh RS Developer is added to theused solution. For example, if four rolls of135–36 film were processed, you would add6 ounces (180 milliliters) of fresh RS Devel-oper to the used solution. All future devel-opment is done in the used solution after ithas been replenished with fresh RS Devel-oper. Check the RS Developer instructionsfor detailed processing information, or getKodak T-MAX Developers, Kodak Publica-tion No. J-86.

Reticulation

Excessive swelling of the emulsion duringprocessing causes reticulation. It wrinklesthe emulsion into a random web-like patternthat is more visible than the grain itself. Themajor cause of reticulation is temperaturefluctuations between the different process-ing steps. Traditionally, reticulation has beenconsidered a mistake that destroys the detailand uniformity of a negative. However, retic-ulation can be purposely induced for agraphic, textured effect. Improvements incontemporary emulsions have reduced thelikelihood of accidental reticulation. In fact,it can be very difficult to induce reticulationwith most modern films. Induced reticula-tion methods are covered in Chapter 11.

Intensification

Intensifiers are used to increase the densityand contrast of an already processed under-exposed or underdeveloped negative or pos-itive. An intensifier cannot create somethingfrom nothing. Some density must be presentfor the intensifier to have any effect. Anintensifier will not save a grossly underex-

posed negative. When using any intensifier,read and follow all safety and handlinginstructions.

The safest, simplest, and most permanentintensifier is selenium. It is called a propor-tional intensifier, and it has a greater effectin the high-density areas than in the low-density ones. Selenium can add up to the equivalent of one f-stop of density to the upper highlight regions, which alsoincreases contrast. This added density dropsoff through the mid-tone areas and falls dras-tically as the shadow areas deepen. Sele-nium intensification is an excellent choicewith roll film because it does not increasegrain size.

The Selenium Intensification Process1. Soak the processed and completely

washed film for a few minutes in distilledwater.

2. Refix with plain hypo (no hardener) for 2minutes. This is easy to do with liquid fixby not mixing any of the hardener into thesolution.

3. Place the film in the selenium toner solu-tion diluted 1 :2 or 1 :3 with Kodak HypoClearing Agent or Perma-Wash for 2 to 10minutes at 68°F (20°C) with constant lightagitation. Dilution and time are deter-mined by visual inspection and will varydepending on the amount of intensifica-tion required. Some hypo clearing bathsmay produce discoloration when mixedwith selenium toner. Test your hypo clearwith some unwanted film before using itwith important work.

4. Put the film in a plain hypo clearing bath,at normal working strength, for 2 minuteswith constant agitation.

5. Wash the film for a minimum of 5minutes.

6. Dry the film.

Chromium and Silver Intensification

Photographers’ Formulary makes a chro-mium intensifier that increases the densityof black-and-white negatives. Like selenium,it is a proportional intensifier. Negativesintensified with chromium are stable and theprocess can be carried out in room light.


Chromium Intensifier at 70°F (21°C):1. Fix the film in an acid hardening fixer and

wash well. If the film is dry, soak it for 10minutes in distilled water before carryingout the next step.

2. Immerse only one piece of film at a timein the bleach for 8 to 10 minutes with agitation. Chemicals are used once anddiscarded.

3. Rinse the film in running water for 5minutes.

4. Redevelop the film in a low-sulfite devel-oper such as Dektol or D-72 (1 :3) until theimage is totally black (about 5 minutes).Do not use a high-sulfite fine-grain devel-oper such as D-76 or Microdol-X.

5. Rinse the film in running water for 1minute.

6. Fix for 3 to 4 minutes.

7. Wash the film for 10 to 20 minutes.

8. Repeat the process if desired for greatereffect.

9. Dry the film.

Negatives intensified with this process arenot considered to be permanent.

Photographers’ Formulary also makes asilver intensifier, which acts by depositingadditional silver on an underdeveloped neg-ative. The results are permanent, but the newgrain is predictably not as fine as the origi-nal image. The chemicals in the kit makefour stock solutions that are mixed togetherjust prior to use to make a single workingsolution. The stock solutions are stable forseveral months, but the working solution isusable for only 1/2 hour after mixing. Thenegative is intensified in room light to thedesired degree and then washed. This inten-sifier contains both Metol and silver nitratein a solid form and should be handled with care.

The Silver Intensification Process1. Mix the four stock solutions according to

the manufacturer’s instructions. The solu-tions are mixed 1 part solution A to 1 partsolution B to 1 part solution C to 3 partsof solution D. Exercise safety precautionsas silver nitrate is an oxidizer and iscaustic and in solid form can cause achemical burn.

2. If the film is dry, soak it for 10 minutes indistilled water. Immerse only one piece offilm at a time in the intensifier. Intensifi-cation is done by visual inspection. Youwill see a slow darkening as the intensifi-cation occurs. The longer the film is in thesolution the darker it will get. Chemicalsare used once and discarded.

3. Remove the negative and rinse in runningwater.

4. The film will have excess silver nitratethat must be removed by fixing in a 30percent sodium thiosulfate solution for 2to 3 minutes.

5. Put the film in a plain hypo clearing bath,at normal working strength, for 2 minuteswith constant agitation.

6. Wash the film for a minimum of 5 minutes.

7. Dry the film.

Reduction

Reducers are used to subtract density fromcompletely processed film that has beenoverexposed or overdeveloped. Reductioncan be tricky. Before attempting this processon an important piece of film, make somedupes and run tests to determine the correctprocedures before undertaking a reductionof the original. A negative can undergo thereduction process more than once but over-reduction cannot be undone. A negative canbe reduced slightly, a test print can be made,and if it’s not satisfactory the negative can bereduced again. Reducers are classified intothree general types:

1. Cutting or subtractive reducers act first on the shadow areas and then on the mid-range and highlights. They are excellentfor clearing film fog. The net effect is toincrease the overall contrast. Kodak R-4a(also known as Farmer’s Reducer) is themost widely used and easiest to controlcutting reducer. It is recommended forfilm that has been overexposed.

2. Proportional reducers decrease the imagedensity throughout the film in proportionto the amount of silver already deposited.The effect is similar to that achieved bygiving the film less development. KodakR-4b is an example of a proportional


reducer. It is suggested for use withoverdeveloped film.

3. Super-proportional reducers have a con-siderable effect on the highlight areas buthardly act on the shadow densities. Theyare the trickiest and most unpredictablereducers and are not often used.

Farmer’s Reducer (Kodak R-4a)Procedure

Prepare stock solution A:Water 250 millilitersPotassium ferricyanide 37.5 grams

(anhydrous)Cold water to make 1/2 liter

(500 milliliters)

Prepare stock solution B:Water 1,500 millilitersSodium thiosulfate 480 grams

(hypo)Cold water to make 2 liters

To use, take 30 milliliters of solution A,add 120 milliliters of solution B, and addwater to make 1 liter. Immediately put the film in this working solution. Watch the reducing action very carefully. Afterabout 1 minute, remove and wash the film.Examine it. If it needs more reduction, returnit to the solution. Repeat the examinationsteps every 30 seconds or so thereafter.Transfer the film to a water wash before thedesired amount of reduction has taken place.(To slow the activity of the reducer, makingit easier to control, cut the amount of solu-tion A by 50 percent.) When the reduction iscomplete, wash the film for 5 minutes. Fixthe film with an acid hardening fixer andgive it a final wash before drying. Anyresidue left on the film can be removedduring the final wash with a Photo-Wipe orcotton ball.

Farmer’s Reducer (Kodak R-4b)Procedure

Prepare solution A:Water 750 millilitersPotassium ferricyanide 7.5 grams

(anhydrous)Cold water to make 1 liter

Prepare solution B:Water 750 millilitersSodium thiosulfate (hypo) 200 gramsCold water to make 1 liter

Place the film in solution A for 1 to 5minutes at 68°F (20°C) with constant agita-tion. Transfer it to solution B for 5 minutes,then wash it. This process may be repeatedif necessary. After the desired degree ofreduction has been achieved, place the filmin an acid fixer for about 4 minutes. Followwith a hypo clearing bath and a final wash.

FILM DEVELOPER FORMULAS ANDTHEIR APPLICATIONS

This section provides a number of useful for-mulas and their general applications. Theyare listed by their major developing agentand are offered as points of departure. Pho-tographers should feel free to experimentand modify these formulas to reach their fullvisual potential. Tests should be carried outwith all formulas before attempting to usethem for critical work. Read and follow theinformation in Chapters 2 and 4 before usingany of the formulas presented here. Many ofthe chemicals used are dangerous if notproperly handled. Mix all formulas in theorder they are given. Formulas are presentedin both U.S. customary units and metric(when available).

Amidol Developer

Amidol (2,4-diaminophenol hydrochloride)was a popular developing agent in the firsthalf of the twentieth century because of itshigh reduction potential. It was often usedin a water-bath combination, since a smallamount of amidol is capable of efficientlyconverting the silver halides into metallicsilver. It contains no alkali, so there isminimum softening of the emulsion. Amidoldoes have a tendency to produce stains. It isused more today as a paper developer notedfor its beautiful blue-black tones. Weargloves at all times when working withamidol to avoid absorption of this substancethrough the skin. Ilford ID-9 is an easy-to-useamidol developer.


Ilford ID-9 Formula

Water (125°F or 52°C) 24 ounces (750 milliliters)

Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (100 (desiccated) grams)

Amidol 1/2 ounce (20 grams)

Potassium bromide 88 grains (6 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

This developer should be used as soon aspossible after being mixed. Starting devel-opment time with a medium-speed film is 8minutes at 68°F (20°C). Its standard usefulrange is 6 to 10 minutes.

Glycin Developer

Alfred Stieglitz and Joseph T. Keiley usedglycin in the early part of the twentiethcentury as a contrast control for a develop-ing technique used in making platinumprints. Glycin has since been used in modernfine-grain developers such as Ilford ID-60.

Ilford ID-60 Formula

Water (125°F or 52°C) 24 ounces (750milliliters)

Sodium sulfite 291 grains (20(desiccated) grams)

Potassium carbonate 2 ounces (60grams)

Glycin 1 ounce (30 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Dilute this formula at a ratio of 1 :7. Start-ing development time with a medium-speedfilm is 15 minutes in a tank and 12 minutesin a tray at 68°F (20°C).

Hydroquinone Developer

Hydroquinone is usually used as a develop-ing agent in combination with Metol (MQformula) or Phenidone (PQ formula). It canbe used as the sole developing agent in con-junction with an alkali, found in a B solu-tion, to produce extremely high-contrastimages. It loses much of its activity at a tem-perature of 55°F (12°C) or lower. It is usedfor line and screen negatives or for specialhigh-contrast visual effects. Ilford ID-13 andKodak D-85 are hydroquinone developers.

Ilford ID-13 Formula

Stock Solution AWater (125°F or 24 ounces (750

52°C) milliliters)Hydroquinone 365 grains (25 grams)Potassium meta- 365 grains (25 grams)

bisulfitePotassium bromide 365 grains (25 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Stock Solution BSodium hydroxide 13/4 ounce (50 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Caution: Sodium hydroxide generates heatwhen mixed and should be mixed only incold water. If mixed in warm water, it canboil up explosively. Do not handle thischemical without full safety protection.

Equal parts of Stock Solutions A and B arecombined immediately before use. Thissolution should be discarded after each use.Normal development time is 21/2 to 3 minutesat 68°F (20°C).

Kodak D-85 (Kodalith developer)

Water (not over 90°) 1,500 ccSodium sulfite (desiccated) 90 gramsParaformaldehyde 22.5 gramsSodium bisulfite 6.6 gramsBoric acid crystals 22.5 gramsHydroquinone 67.5 gramsPotassium bromide 9 gramsWater to make 3 liters

Due to its rapid oxidation, mix the devel-oper immediately before use and discardafter each use. Normal development time is21/2 to 3 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Metol Developers

Metol, also known as Elon and Pictol, is mostoften used in combination with a contrast-producing developing agent such as hydro-quinone in an MQ formula. By itself it is usedas a fine-grain, low-contrast, soft-workingdeveloper yielding excellent highlight den-sity. If you have any allergic reactions toMetol, try switching to a Phenidone-baseddeveloper. Agfa 14, Kodak D-23, and KodakD-25 are classic metol developers.


Agfa 14 Formula

Water (125°F or 24 ounces (75052°C) milliliters)

Elon 65 grains (4.5 grams)Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (85 grams)

(desiccated)Sodium carbonate 18 grains (1.2 grams)

(monohydrate)Potassium bromide 71/2 grains (0.5 gram)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Development time at 68°F (20°C) is 10 to 20 minutes, depending on the contrastdesired. During development use a 15-second water rinse instead of an acid stop. An acid stop may cause the sodium car-bonate to release CO2 bubbles within theemulsion.

Kodak D-23 FormulaThis Elon-sulfite developer is suitable forlow- and medium-contrast applications. Itproduces negatives with grain and speedcomparable to those developed with KodakD-76.


Elon 1/4 ounce (7.5 grams)Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (100 grams)

(desiccated)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Average development time for a medium-speed film is 12 minutes in a tank or 10minutes in a tray at 68°F (20°C).

Kodak D-25 FormulaThis is a fine-grain developer for low- andmedium-contrast uses. The grain is softerthan that produced with D-23.


Elon 1/4 ounce (7.5 grams)

Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (100 grams)(desiccated)

Sodium bisulfate 1/2 ounce (15 grams)

Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

With a medium-speed film, an averagestarting development time in a tank is about20 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Metol-Hydroquinone Developers

These MQ agents make up one of the mostpopular combinations for normal develop-ers. The soft-working Metol (Elon) and the density-providing hydroquinone acttogether to create a phenomenon known assuperadditivity—that is, the energy of thecombination of the two is greater than thesum of the energies of the individual parts.This combination can deliver a good balancebetween the shadow and highlight areaswhile maintaining the film’s speed, a tightgrain pattern, and good tonal separation.Kodak D-19, DK-50, D-76, and D-82 are allmetol-hydroquinone developers.

Kodak D-19 FormulaWhen mixed in the correct proportions,Metol and hydroquinone can produce a high-contrast, high-energy developer. Kodak D-19was originally used to process X-ray film, butis now used for continuous-tone scientificand technical work requiring higher thannormal contrast, as well as for special effects,including infrared processing.

Water (125°F or 16 ounces (500 52°C) milliliters)

Elon 30 grains (2 grams)Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (90 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 115 grains (8 grams)Sodium carbonate 13/4 ounces (52.5

(monohydrate) grams)Potassium bromide 75 grains (5 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Average starting development time is 6minutes in a tank or 5 minutes in a tray at68°F (20°C).

Kodak DK-50 FormulaDK-50 is widely used in commercial andportrait work to produce a crisp negative.


Elon 37 grains (2.5 grams)Sodium sulfite 1 ounce (30 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 27 grains (2.5 grams)Kodak Balanced 145 grains (10

Alkali (sodium grams)metaborate)

Potassium bromide 71/2 grains (0.5 gram)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)


For commercial work, DK-50 is generallyused without dilution. An average startingtime would be 6 minutes in a tank or about41/2 minutes in a tray at 68°F (20°C). For por-trait work using tank development, DK-50 isoften diluted 1 :1 and used for about 10minutes at 68°F (20°C). In a tray, it is usedundiluted for approximately 6 minutes at68°F (20°C).

Kodak D-76Formula D-76 was introduced in 1927 as a fine-grain developer for motion picture and still-camera films. This developer hasremained so popular that most film manu-facturers optimized their products for devel-opment with it. Pictorial photographers useD-76 for its ability to deliver full emulsion

speed, its handling of low-contrast scenes,and its provision of maximum detail inshadow areas.


Elon 29 grains (2 grams)Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (100 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 73 grains (5 grams)Borax (decahydrate) 29 grains (2 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Average development time with D-76undiluted in a tank is 8 to 10 minutes and in a tray 6 to 9 minutes at 68°F (20°C). With certain films, D-76 may be diluted 1 :1for greater sharpness and increased grain.

Figure 5.4 Marc writes: “It is my intention to create mythic images that combine a sense ofimplied narrative with the presence of ritual. The montages address cultural coding and privateenigma. They usually contain elements that reflect an African American identity and refer to thecomplex relationships with mainstream society. Self-portraiture remains an important element inthe work, which I recognize as a romantic search of my ancestral roots and cultural heritage. Themontages are meant to function as a visual crossroads. They are made from film recorder 4 ¥ 5 inchnegatives of photos taken from my work, the family archives, and found antique photos. Somemontages include objects placed directly on the scanner. I created the patterns using sections ofphotos, scanned objects, and drawings on paper and directly on the computer, and made analogprints using D-76 developer.”

© Stephen Marc. Untitled, from the series Soul Searching, 1997. Gelatin silver print. 12 ¥ 18 and 24 ¥ 36 inches.


Development time will be about 1 minutelonger.

Kodak D-82Formula D-82 is a high-energy formula forunderexposed negatives. It provides theutmost density with a minimum of exposure.


Wood alcohol 11/2 ounces (48 grams)Elon 200 grains (14 grams)Sodium sulfite 13/4 ounces (52.5

(desiccated) grams)Hydroquinone 200 grains (14 grams)Sodium hydroxide 125 grains (8.8 grams)

(caustic soda)Potassium bromide 125 grains (8.8 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Caution: Dissolve sodium hydroxide only in cold water, as a great deal of heat is created when it is mixed. It is best to dissolve sodium hydroxide in a separatecontainer of water and then add it to the solution after the hydroquinone. Stir vigorously.

Starting development time in a tank is 6minutes and in a tray 5 minutes at 68°F(20°C).

Phenidone Developers

People who are allergic to Metol (Elon)should use Phenidone developers, whichdeliver results very similar to those pro-duced by Metol developers. In combinationwith hydroquinone, a Phenidone developerbecomes a superadditive PQ formula. UnlikeMetol, Phenidone is actively regenerated bythe hydroquinone, resulting in a developerthat retains its activity longer.

The activity of Phenidone is about tentimes that of Metol. Phenidone developersproduce a denser fog than Metol developers.Since the type of fog created cannot be elim-inated with potassium bromide, an organicrestrainer such as benzotriazole is used. Thepurpose of the potassium bromide inPhenidone formulas is to stabilize the devel-oper against the changes produced by therelease of bromide during the developmentprocess.

Ilford Microphen FormulaMicrophen is a fine-grain Phenidone devel-oper that can also produce an effectiveincrease in film speed without yielding acorresponding increase in grain size. Its highspeed/grain ratio permits an increase of one-half f-stop without a change in the grainpattern. For example, HP-5 PLUS can berated at 650 ISO instead of 400.


Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (100 (anhydrous) grams)

Hydroquinone 77 grains (5 grams)Borax 46 grains (3 grams)Boric acid (granular) 54 grains (3.5 grams)Potassium bromide 15 grains (1 gram)Phenidone 3 grains (0.2 gram)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Starting development times range fromabout 41/2 to 6 minutes at 68°F (20°C).Microphen can be diluted 1 :1 or 1 :3. Thegreater the dilution, the greater the acutance.Diluted developer works well for retainingkey shadow and highlight details in subjectspossessing a wide tonal range. Depending onthe film and dilution of the developer, devel-opment times can range from 5 to 21minutes, with an average being about 8 to 11minutes, at 68°F (20°C).

Ilford ID-62Formula ID-62 is a good general-purposePhenidone developer.

Stock Solution:Water (125°F or 24 ounces (750

52°C) milliliters)Sodium sulfite 13/4 ounce (50 grams)

(anhydrous)Hydroquinone 175 grains (12 grams)Sodium carbonate 2 ounces (60 grams)

(desiccated)Phenidone 71/2 grains (0.5 gram)Potassium bromide 30 grains (2 grams)Benzotriazole 3 grains (0.2 gram)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

For tank development, dilute 1 :7 anddevelop 4 to 8 minutes at 68°F (20°C). Fortray development, dilute 1 :3 and process 2to 4 minutes at 68°F (20°C).


Ilford ID-68Formula ID-68 is a low-contrast, fine-grainPhenidone developer.


Sodium sulfite 3 ounces (85 grams)(anhydrous)

Hydroquinone 75 grains (5 grams)Borax 92 grains (7 grams)Boric acid 29 grains (2 grams)Potassium bromide 15 grains (1 gram)Phenidone 1.9 grains (0.13 gram)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Use undiluted. Starting times for tankdevelopment are 7 to 11 minutes and for traydevelopment 4 to 7 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Ilford ID-72Formula ID-72 is a high-contrast Phenidonedeveloper.

Water (125°F or 52°C) 750 millilitersSodium sulfite (anhydrous) 72 gramsHydroquinone 8.8 gramsSodium carbonate 57 grams

(monohydrate)Phenidone 0.22 gramPotassium bromide 4 gramsBenzotriazole 0.1 gramorBenzotriazole 1% solution 10 millilitersCold water to make 1 liter

Use undiluted. Starting development timeis approximately 5 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

POTA Developer

POTA is a very low-contrast developer orig-inally designed to develop images of nuclearblasts, where the light ranged over 20 f-stops.Presently it is used primarily to developKodak Technical Pan Film to normal con-trast for general pictorial use.

Water (100°F or 38°C) 750 millilitersSodium sulfite 30 gramsPhenidone A 1.5 gramsCold water to make 1 liter

Use immediately, as the solution deterio-rates very quickly after it has been mixed.Starting development times range between111/2 and 15 minutes in a tank and 61/2 minutesand 8 minutes in a tray at 68°F (20°C).

Pyro Developers

Pyrogallol, known as pyro and pyrogallicacid, has been used as a developing agentsince the 1850s. Pyro creates a yellow stainin proportion to the metallic silver formed inthe negative. Wear protective gloves, as pyroalso will stain your fingers and nails. Thisyellow stain will block some of the blue lightduring the printing process. Although thenegative may look flat, it will print with goodcontrast. Pyro also has been useful in devel-oping underexposed film because the stainreinforces the silver image enough to makethe thin negative more printable. It is evenpossible to bleach the silver away and printonly from the stain, yielding a very fine-grainimage. Pyro also has a tanning effect on theemulsion, hardening it during development.This reduces the lateral movement of thesilver, producing a high degree of acutance.The tanning effect is more pronounced infast, thick-emulsion films.

Pyro oxidizes swiftly. This can make itunpredictable when using the standardtime/temperature method of development,as the amount of image stain depends on thedegree of oxidation. For this reason, tradi-tional workers, such as Edward Weston,developed the film by visual inspectionunder a faint green safelight. Presently pyrois rarely used. With fast, highly sensitivemodern films, this process of visual inspec-tion is not recommended, as the fog levelmight become too high.

Pyrocatechin (catechol) can be used withcontemporary films to create a staining and tanning effect similar to that produced bypyro. It works well with fast, thick-emulsionfilms, especially when dealing with high-contrast scenes. It provides excellent separa-tion in the highlight areas but reduces thespeed of the film by about 50 percent. Tomake up for this speed loss, metol is some-times added to the formula. The metol willnot change the character of the developer.

Kodak D-1/Pyro ABC Formula


18°C) milliliters)Sodium bisulfite 140 grains (9.8 grams)Pyrogallol 2 ounces (60 grams)Potassium bromide 16 grains (1.1 grams)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)


Stock Solution BWater (65°F or 24 ounces (750

18°C) milliliters)Sodium sulfite 31/2 ounces (105 grams)

(desiccated)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Stock Solution CWater (65°F or 18°C) 24 ounces (750

milliliters)Sodium carbonate 21/2 ounces (90 grams)

(monohydrate)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Mix and use fresh developer immediately.For tray development, the normal dilutionsare 1 part each of stock solutions A, B, andC with 7 parts water. Develop for 6 minutesat 65°F (18°C). With a tank, take 9 ounces(285 milliliters) of solutions A, B, and C andadd water to make 1 gallon (about 4 liters).Develop for about 12 minutes at 65°F (18°C).To minimize oxidation, mix solution B, solu-tion C, and the water, and then add solutionA immediately before using. If there is anyscum on the surface of the developer, removeit with blotting paper before developing orunwanted stains may result.

PMK FormulaThe PMK (Pyro-Metol-Kodak Balanced Al-kali) formula solves two of pyro developer’sproblems: reduction in speed and rapid oxi-dization. Adding Metol to the formula com-bines the high degree of acutance and imagestain of traditional pyro and adds stabilityand repeatability. PMK developers have anextremely long shelf life.

Solution AWater (68°F or 24 ounces (750

20°C) milliliters)

Add a few crystals of sodium bisulfite, thenadd the following:

Metol 145 grains (10 grams)Sodium bisulfite 291 grains (20 grams)Pyrogallol 3 ounces (100 grams)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Solution BDistilled water (68°F 48 ounces (1.4 liters)

or 20°C)Kodak Balanced 21 ounces (600 g)

Alkali (sodium metaborate)

Water to make 64 ounces (2 liters)

Mix solutions A and B in the followingproportions: 1 part A and 2 parts B to 100parts water. While mixing parts A and B the solution will change color from green toa pale yellow. The Photographers’ Formu-lary makes both a powdered and liquid PMK formula consisting of stock A and Bsolutions.

An alkaline fixer solution is necessary to achieve maximum pyro stain. An acidrapid fix may diminish staining effects ofboth pyro and PMK formulas. You canincrease the yellowish stain by putting theprocessed and fixed negatives back into thedeveloper.

Pyrocatechin Compensating Developer Formula

Solution AWater (68°F or 18°C) 100 millilitersSodium sulfite (desiccated) 1.25 gramsCatechol (pyrocatechin) 8 grams

Figure 5.5 Using printing-out paper, which works well with a strong,contrasty negative (TRI-X at 100), Hunter achieved the results he wantedby using a modified Pyro ABC developer. This developer was a favoritewhen printing-out paper was most popular (1850 to 1920). The paper wasexposed in sunlight until the highlights were slightly degraded and thenfixed in two baths of rapid fix. The image was toned with gold chlorideuntil the darkest shadows lost their green cast and took on a lavendercolor.

© Frank Hunter. Methodist Church, Mexico, New York, 1985. Tonedprinting-out paper. 8 ¥ 10 inches.


Solution BSodium hydroxide 1 gramCold water to make 100 millilitersCaution: Mix sodium hydroxide only in

cold water.

Immediately before use, mix solutions Aand B in the following proportions: 20 partsA and 50 parts B to 500 parts water. Startingdevelopment times are 10 to 15 minutes at68°F (20°C).

Paraminophenol/Rodinal Developers

Paraminophenol, better known by its tradename, Rodinal, has been used as a develop-ing agent since the 1890s. It can be preparedin a very concentrated solution that lasts fora long time, and diluted with water to createan excellent general-purpose developer.When used with fast film having an ISO of400 or more, Rodinal produces a visible butvery tight, sharp-edged grain pattern.

Paraminophenol Formula

Stock Solution ABoil 10 ounces (625 milliliters) of water,

then allow it to cool for 5 minutes.Add a few crystals of potassium

metabisulfite, then add the following:Paraminophenol 384 grains (50

hydrochloride grams)Potassium metabisulfite 2 ounces (150

grams)Stir until dissolved.

Stock Solution BSodium hydroxide 3 ounces (215 grams)

(caustic soda)Cold water 8 ounces (500

milliliters)Caution: Use cold water only.

Add 6 ounces (350 milliliters) of the Bsolution to the A solution, stirring con-stantly. A precipitate of the paraminophenolsolution will form but will dissolve as moresodium hydroxide is added. Put in enoughsodium hydroxide to almost dissolve thisprecipitate.

Add cold water to make 16 ounces (1/2liter). Place in a tightly closed opaque bottleand allow to cool. If any of the paraminophe-nol crystallizes, add more sodium hydroxideto nearly dissolve it. It is necessary to leavesome of the paraminophenol undissolved tomake the developer work properly.

Mix 1 part of the bottled solution with 10parts of water for use with negatives. Start-ing development times are about 6 to 10minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Rodinal Highlight FormulaThis is a modified formula based on com-mercially prepared Rodinal that can deliverbetter performance in the highlight areaswith contemporary films.

Figure 5.6 In this series Dru Germany uses theframework of a character study to exploregender, power, technology, and free will. Thestill life setups are done in the studio withbackdrops that have been digitally producedfrom photographs she makes in the town where she lives. The negatives are scanned,manipulated, and outputted on a digital printerusing 11 ¥ 17 inch photo-quality paper. Theprints are then enlarged on an architecturalphotocopy machine and become the backdropfor the scene. The setup is proofed with adigital camera and then shot with an 8 ¥ 10inch camera. The negatives are processed inPMK developer from the Photographers’Formulary to achieve the high degree ofacutance needed to make mural size prints.

© Robin Dru Germany. #78, James, from theseries The Palimpsest Portraits, 1998. Tonedgelatin silver print. 8 ¥ 10 inches and 48 ¥ 38inches.


Water (70°F or 21°C) 350 millilitersRodinal 7 millilitersHydroquinone 1.3 gramsWater to make 500 milliliters

This formula is for only one roll of film tobe developed in a two-reel tank. For tworolls, double the amount of Rodinal andwater and process in a four-reel tank. Start-ing development times at 70°F (21°C) are asfollows: one roll of Plus-X or FP-4, 11minutes; two rolls, 12 minutes; one roll ofTRI-X or HP-5 PLUS, about 15 minutes.

Agitate the film for the first complete minute,then 10 seconds for each minute after, allow-ing the tank to stand still between agitations.

XTOL

One of the newest developers is based on avitamin C derivative (sodium isoascorbate)and a modified form of Phenidone. Fordecades it was known that ascorbic acid(vitamin C) acts as a reducing agent and canbe used as a developing agent in a high-alkalinity solution. As early as the 1940s,Kodak chemists worked with an ascorbicacid-based developer. Ascorbic acid made itscommercial debut in 1996 as Kodak XTOL.XTOL has been hailed as the replacement forD-76 because of its low toxicity, superiorspeed, finer grain, excellent sharpness, andease of use and replenishment. The formulaprovided gives a close approximation toKodak’s patented process (US Patent5,756,271, 1998).

XTOL Approximation Formula

Part ASodium sulfite anhydrous 10 gramsDiethylene-triamine-pentaacetic

acid, pentasodium salt (40%) 1 gramSodium metaborate (8 mole) 4 grams4-Hydroxymethyl-4-methyl-1-

phenyl-3-pyrazolidone 0.2 grams(Phenidone)

Part BSodium sulfite anhydrous 75 gramsSodium metabisulfite 3.5 gramsSodium isoascorbate 12 grams

Add part A to 750ml of water at room tem-perature; follow with part B and water tomake 1 liter. Depending on the dilution,starting development time is between 6 and8 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

MYTOL

Paul Lewis developed another formula usingascorbic acid and Phenidone as developingagents. The Phenidone provides good low-contrast shadow detail and is superadditivewith ascorbic acid. Called MYTOL, thedeveloper can be used straight, but a 1 :2dilution is recommended. Increasing the

Figure 5.7 Campbell’s work refers to thesacred artistic tradition of the West to examinecontemporary beliefs. Here, she creates a“chapel” in the form of an artificial universededicated, tongue-in-cheek, to Western rationa-lism, ironically critiquing its effects on natureand ourselves. The light boxes connote thestained glass windows of medieval cathedrals.The portraits are photographed with a 6 ¥ 7cmformat camera on TRI-X film and processed inRodinal to achieve a sharply defined grainpattern. She hand-painted the black-and-whiteprints and rephotographed them using colornegative film. The final images are on colorDuratrans, a positive transparency material. (See Color Plate 1.)

© Kathleen Campbell. Rational Being, from theseries Modern Theology Or a Universe of OurOwn Creation, 1996. Color Duratrans and mixedmedia. Light box installation. 4 ¥ 5 feet.Original in color.


dilution increases the relative speed of thedeveloper but dilutions of 1 :1 or 1 :2 are rec-ommended. Average starting developmenttime is 9 minutes in a tank or 8 minutes ina tray at 68°F (20°C).

MYTOL Formula

Distilled water (80°F or 27°C) 750 mlSodium sulfite anhydrous 60 gramsKodak Balanced Alkali 4 grams

(sodium metaborate)Sodium ascorbate 13 gramsPhenidone 0.15 gramsSodium metabisulfite 3 gramsWater to make 1 liter

WHY BOTHER?

You may ask, “Is all this really necessary?What difference does it make whether Iknow the components of a developer andhow they work?” The information providedin this chapter increases your visual options.In many photographic situations, you cannotcontrol the circumstances under which youmake the picture. On the contrary, you areforced to work with conditions as you findthem. This additional information will helpyou to make the most out of what has beendealt you. Mixing your own formulas isanother way for you to educate yourself.This knowledge can give you the flexibilityand power to repudiate conformity. It pro-vides an alternative to mediocrity and stag-nation by helping you realize the fullpotential of your vision. Strong feeling andpassion are not enough to make the completestatement. Photographers also need crafts-manship and precision. The blend of spiritand knowledge can result in the organizationof chaos, enabling photographers to picturewhat is inside their hearts and minds.


Adams, Ansel, and Robert Baker. The Nega-tive. Boston: Little Brown, 1995.

Anchell, Stephen G. The Darkroom Cook-book. Second Ed. Boston: Focal Press,2000.

Anchell, Stephen G., and Bill Troop. TheFilm Developing Cookbook. Boston: FocalPress, 1998.

Donofrio, Diane (Ed.). Photo-Lab-Index, TheLifetime Edition. Keene Valley, NY: Mor-gan and Morgan, 2001.

Wall, E.J., and F.I. Jordan; rev. and enlargedby John S. Carroll. Photographic Facts andFormulas. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976 (out of print).*

Figure 5.8 Friedman says, “While the original full-frame 35mm black-and-white depicts the Holocaust survivors in an objective manner, thecropped version is a grim, claustrophobic, and confrontational picture.”Processing in Edwal FG-7 with extra sodium sulfite gave Friedman theacutance to enlarge a small portion of the negative. Today commercialdevelopers like Kodak XTOL provide a more convenient andenvironmentally friendly way of achieving similar results.

© James Friedman. Survivor’s Reunion, Majdanek Concentration Campnear Lublin, Poland, #42, from the series 12 Nazi Concentration Camps:1983. Toned gelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 24 inches.

6 Analog Printmaking:Equipment, Materials, and Processes

THE ANALOG PRINTMAKINGPROCESS

The analog printing process offers the pho-tographer countless ways of interpretingwhat has been recorded on film. It is not amechanical process of simply translatingwhat is on the negative into a print. The negative is a point of departure. It providesthe photographer with the raw material toprepare the final product. If nine differentphotographers were given the same negativeto print, the chances are that nine differentrenditions would be made. Ansel Adamssaid that “the negative is like a musical scoreand the print is the performance.” When thephotographer makes a print from the nega-tive, it begins a life of its own.

The negative provides the basic construc-tion information for the creation of the print.Although printing offers the photographer asecond chance to correct for technical errorsin exposure and processing, defects such aspoor lighting or unsharp focus cannot be corrected. Most important, however, print-ing gives photographers the opportunity tofurther express themselves by defining theirrelationship to the subject.

To make a good negative one must com-prehend that the human eye has a range ofonly about ten f-stops and photographicpaper has a limit of about three f-stops. Inpractice, the photographer must decide howto expose the film to obtain the desired rangeof tones within these physical limits. The

Zone System (see Chapter 1) applied sensi-tometry to the nineteenth-century maxim,“Expose for the shadows and develop for thehighlights” to deal with this situation.

Generally, a properly exposed negativehaving good shadow detail provides theinformation needed to permit a successfulvisualization of the subject. Continued diffi-culties with weak, underexposed negativesindicate the need to (1) make sure all equip-ment is functioning properly, (2) reviewexposure methods, and (3) go over film pro-cessing procedures. Without a good nega-tive, printmaking is a difficult, frustrating,and joyless chore.

Most photojournalists do not make theirown prints. The process is carried out byothers because their pictures are primarilydesigned to be seen as inky reproductions inmagazines and newspapers and not as fineart on a gallery wall. However, for many pho-tographers, this is not an acceptable practice.The act of printmaking offers them the finaldegree of personal satisfaction in dealingwith the subject. Printmaking means takingcontrol, making decisions, and becomingemotionally and physically involved in theprocess of determining the final outcome ofthe image.

The printmaking process brings togetherall a photographer’s ideas, knowledge,equipment, and technique to express in aconcrete form what was seen and felt. Agood print demonstrates both the objectiveand subjective experience, conveying a


sense of the physical reality and the photog-rapher’s reaction to it. Good printing reflectsa combination of the underlying conceptsbehind the image, technical knowledge,practice, and patience and is constantlyopen to reevaluation.

Styles in Printmaking

Beginning in the 1930s and going throughthe late 1960s, the “straight” aesthetic dom-inated printmaking. The straight style isreflected in the work of photographers suchas Paul Strand and Edward Weston. Gener-ally, their prints are made on a silver-basedglossy paper from a negative that is notaltered except to correct for technical short-comings. Their prints express a completerange of clearly separated tones that revealform and texture in the key highlight andshadow areas that were visualized at thetime the negative was exposed.

A movement in alternative printmakingthat started in the 1960s has expanded thedefinition of printmaking practice. The alter-native printmakers revived old processesand experimented with new ones, often blur-ring the distinction between the two bound-ary lines. They used different types of papersand emulsions, manipulated the negative forsubjective reasons, combined photographywith other media, combined new and oldimages, appropriated images from othersources, and in general dispensed with therules of what was considered acceptable.This chapter deals with the printing of traditional silver-based materials. The otherstyles of printmaking are discussed in laterchapters.

Learn What Is Available

It is vital for photographers to becomeacquainted with the numerous avenuesavailable to express their vision. Imaginehow boring it would be if all photographswere required to be printed according to thesame set of guidelines. Tremendous visualpossibilities lie in producing quiet, soft,subtle prints with a limited range of tones.In other cases, snappy renditions with strongcontrast, stressing deep blacks and solidwhites, may be required. It is up to the

photographer to decide which style bestexpresses the situation.

There is no right or wrong style of print-making. Photographers should considermaking prints in a variety of ways to expandtheir personal expression. Printmaking is ahighly personal and subjective response tothe factual and emotional experience of thesubject. The temporal relationship betweenthe negative and the print is in flux, alteringthe aesthetic response each time a print ismade. In the past there were those who advo-cated that negatives and prints should bemade as quickly as possible to elicit the“purest” response to the subject. But otherexpressive printers like Josef Sudek had adifferent approach in which the negative hasto be put “to one side” and time is allowedto pass before one knows the appropriateway to make the print. Sudek stated: “It takesme some time to realize if a photograph isany good or not. . . . If you do the positivesright away you’ll probably be disappointed;my memory still retains too vivid an imageof the real landscape, with which you cannotcompare a photographic image, because it isimpossible to photograph things as they are.Only when the memory fades am I capableof finding out how someone who has notseen the reality with me may see the photo-graph. I think that for photographs like minehaste is a poor counselor.”1

What Makes a Good Printmaker?

One becomes a good printer by printing anddiscovering what methods and techniquesallow your personal vision to be realized.This involves making lots of prints to seewhat happens. The best way to see visualpossibilities is to make one more print andcompare it with the previous ones. Thismeans following through with additionalideas and not worrying that everything youdo turns out to be a “success.” Part of thecourse of discovery and learning is comingto terms with failure, for without it knowl-edge would be static. Becoming a goodprinter means overcoming fears and preju-dices, temporarily suspending judgment,and trying a different approach to see what

1Otakar Chaloupka. The artist Josef Sudek speaks. Cs.fotografie 1963;11:373.

ANALOG PRINTMAKING 83

occurs. In black-and-white printing, theamount of sensitivity displayed in renderingthe scale of tones in relation to the aestheticand emotive concerns of the subject deter-mines how well the print succeeds.

The best printmakers learn all they canabout their craft and then forget it. They have mastered and can control the processbut are not bound to a set of establishedrules. Good printers use their knowledge as a point of departure to travel into theunknown. The German philosopher Fried-rich Nietzsche said, “The powerful man isthe creative man, but the creator is not likelyto abide by the previously established laws.”A good printmaker is like a magician who isable to amuse, amaze, astonish, enchant, andreveal.

To help ensure that you do not overlookpossibilities, closely inspect your negativeson a light table and make contact sheets. Inthe darkroom, through visual trial and error,make a series of test prints to determine the correct exposure time for the grade ofpaper that will yield the desired amount ofcontrast.

Do not hesitate to crop or enlarge portionsof your negatives. There is nothing writtenin stone stating that a negative must beprinted full frame. Alfred Stieglitz had noqualms about cropping when it woulddeliver the visual results he desired, as inWinter on Fifth Avenue, 1892. It is also per-missible to return to old negatives and givethem a new interpretation. Ansel Adamsprinted Moonrise, Hernandez, NM, 1941, fordecades, even altering the original negativethrough intensification to achieve more dra-matic renditions. A good print visually artic-ulates a particular set of circumstances at agiven time and place. Later it is possible todiscover significant things we did not origi-nally recognize and see how each negativecan hold numerous interpretations, recollec-tions, and identities. William Henry FoxTalbot’s Cambridge tutor, William Whewellsaid, “Of all the visits of old friends the mostagreeable and the most affecting is the visitform a man’s former self.” Ultimately thegoal should be to let photography be pho-tography and not overburden the processwith unnecessary dogmas or rules. Norshould one sanctify the moment of takingover the moment of making. The journey that a photographer makes to find a satisfac-

tory pictorial representation should be giventhe same credence as the origin of the photograph.

Good printmakers maintain their sense ofwonder. They retain the ability to be aston-ished, and continue to get excited every timethe image emerges in the developer. For themprintmaking is more than completing theprocess of transforming negative tones intopositive ones. It is a creative, expressive, andflexible act that requires thought, feeling, andcontrol. The camera provides the appearanceof the subject, and the intelligent printmakersupplies meaning and emotion. Good print-ers are dreamers and risk takers who findways to breathe life into the image so theviewer can interact with it and discovermeaning. Printmaking is an art that blendsconcrete technical processes with subjectivefeelings. If a print is lacking in one of theseareas, it will not be successful.

Printmaking techniques are not difficult tolearn and can be mastered with practice,patience, and discipline. Finding a photo-

Figure 6.1 Friedman recorded this scene using a Leitz 21mm SuperAngulon lens, which delivers great depth of field, and then enlarged asmall section of the 35mm negative. Friedman states that “by radicallyisolating and enlarging a segment of the full frame photograph, I trans-formed a picture about a memorial sculpture created to honor those whowere murdered at Majdanek concentration camp into a photograph abouttourists who visit the site.”

© James Friedman. Tourists at Monument Designed by Sculptor WiktorTolkin that Includes Three Tons of Human Ashes from Majdanek’sCrematoria, Majdanek Concentration Camp, near Lublin, Poland, from theseries 12 Nazi Concentration Camps, 1983. Toned gelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 24 inches.


graphic voice to express yourself is a muchmore complex matter. It means listening toyourself and then pursuing that direction byexposing film and making prints. The key isto devote the time needed to explore theseinner processes. Ultimately one may ask ifbeing an artist is an innate ability or one thatcan be learned, and wonder if followingthese suggestions will make a difference.The answer is maybe and maybe not, buthow will you know unless you try? Thesepathways should help you organize andmore thoughtfully present your ideas invisual form.

As you gain printing experience, you willacquire items of personal preference. Thereis no need to rush out and buy everything atonce. Find out exactly what you need beforemaking any purchases. Do not get carriedaway. More equipment will not necessarilymake you a better printer or produce a morepowerful image. If lack of specific equipmentis preventing you from producing pho-tographs, acquire what is necessary to makethe image. The printmaker’s job is to find aconvincing way to give concrete form to thedream that is encapsulated in the negative.

PRINTING EQUIPMENT

The Enlarger

The enlarger is the fundamental instrumentin most photographers’ darkrooms. Consid-erable thought should be given to the fol-lowing items when choosing an enlarger.

SizeThe size of an enlarger refers to themaximum negative size it can handle.Enlargers are widely available in sizes from35mm (24 ¥ 36mm) up to 8 ¥ 10 inches (20.3¥ 25.4cm). When purchasing an enlarger,choose a machine capable of handling thelargest negative that you anticipate using. A4 ¥ 5 inch enlarger is generally a good invest-ment because it is versatile and allows youroom to work with all the widely used neg-ative sizes. Even if you plan to work onlywith roll film, a larger format enlarger canensure uniform light coverage of the nega-tive. Some enlargers experience a falloff oflight in the corners (vignetting) when usedwith their maximum negative size.

IlluminationAny size of enlarger can distribute lightevenly across the negative in a number ofdifferent ways. The two major methods areknown as the condenser and the diffusionsystems.

In a condenser system, the illuminationgenerally comes from one very bright tung-sten bulb, which is often frosted to reducecontrast. In the better systems, the light isfocused through plano-convex lenses, withthe convex sides facing each other. Thelenses focus the light into straight parallellines known as a collimated beam. A con-denser enlarger provides greater imagesharpness and contrast than a diffusionenlarger. Many 35mm photographers preferthis system because of its ability to retainimage sharpness at high levels of magnifica-tion. Condenser enlargers generally formbrighter images and thus provide the fastestexposure times.

The disadvantages of condenser systemsinclude the fact that any defects in the neg-ative, as well as grain and dust, are empha-sized in the print. There also can be a loss intonal separation in the highlight areas due tothe Callier effect.

The Callier effect refers to the way thelight is scattered by the silver grains thatform the image. In a condenser system, thehighlights of the negative, which have thegreatest deposits of silver, scatter and losethe most light. The shadow areas, having theleast amount of density, scatter the leastamount of light. The net effect is that theupper highlight values can become blockedand detail is lost. The Callier effect alsoaccentuates the differences between theshadow and highlight areas, delivering aprint with greater contrast.

The degree to which this effect is revealedin the print varies widely due to differencesin the design of the various enlargers. TheCallier effect is not as noticeable in filmswith a thin (slow) emulsion. It is barely per-ceptible in chromogenic films, in which thefinal images are formed with colored dyesinstead of silver.

To compensate for the Callier effect when printing with a condenser system,some photographers slightly reduce theirdevelopment time. This produces more sep-aration in the highlight areas. If the devel-opment time is reduced too much, there will


be a loss of separation in the lower shadowtones.

In a diffusion system, the illumination isdiffused. The most popular diffused-lightsource is the cold light. It consists of a fluo-rescent grid or tube that is situated behind adiffusing screen. The cold light producesvery smooth, uncollimated light, which isnot affected much by the Callier effect. Thisenables the upper highlight areas to beprinted without blocking up. Also, since thecold light does not produce much heat, thereis no problem with negatives buckling. Thecold light tends to minimize the effects ofdust and other minor imperfections in thenegative, thereby reducing the amount ofspotting required in making the print.

Cold lights require their own transformersand are extremely sensitive to voltage fluc-tuations and temperature changes. A voltagestabilizer or a light-output stabilizer, whichmonitors the intensity of the tube and auto-matically adjusts it, is highly recommendedto make printing more consistent. Certainsolid-state digital timers cannot be used withcold lights because the surges of current pro-duced by the tube can damage the timers.Diffusion systems that operate with tungstenbulbs help you avoid these difficulties, butthey can produce enough heat to cause buck-ling with larger negatives.

Diffusion systems are generally slowerthan condenser systems, and require longerexposure times. Prints made with a diffusionenlarger also tend to appear less sharp. Dif-fusion models work best with larger nega-tives, which require less magnification,making sharpness less critical. Compared toa condenser, a diffusion enlarger will reduceoverall contrast. A cold light tends to lowercontrast in the shadow areas. This effect isnot as noticeable with diffusion systemsusing incandescent bulbs.

Both condenser and diffusion systemsoffer advantages and disadvantages. Ideally,it is advantageous to have access to bothtypes. When the opportunity presents itself,try out both systems and see if your aestheticand technical considerations are more ful-filled by one system than the other.

Negative CarriersThe negative carrier is made to hold the neg-ative flat and parallel to the enlarging lens.There are two basic types of carriers: glass

and glassless. A glassless carrier is mostoften used with negative sizes up to 4 ¥ 5inches. A glass carrier is usually recom-mended with negative sizes of 4 ¥ 5 inchesor larger to make sure that the film remainsflat. Two advantages of glassless carriers arethat you only have to worry about keepingthe two sides of the negative (rather than thefour additional surfaces of the two pieces of glass) from collecting dust and also that there are no Newton rings to be con-cerned with.

Figure 6.2 Nakagawa tells us that this series revolves around a timewhen, “I found out that my father was dying of cancer and that my wifewas giving birth to our daughter. Photographing became a way for me to‘slow down’ and question things that were happening to me as changebrought a different rhythm to my life. I became fascinated with preser-ving and creating memories by constructing visual connections andrelationships between my family members. Through this cycle of age, Ibegan to recognize time as being circular, where the beginning and endcan occur simultaneously.” Nakagawa wanted to maintain a criticalnarrative of death and birth without being overtly emotional or nostalgic.He did this by using a Zone VI variable-contrast cold light enlarger headand a cold-tone paper (Ilford Multigrade IV FB, Glossy) with warm-tonedeveloper (Agfa Neutol WA) and very weak selenium toning solution tocreate subtle tonality changes.

© James Nakagawa. C.A.T. Scan and Baby Shoe, Bloomington, IN, Winter,1999, from the series Kai, 1998–1999. Toned gelatin silver print. 14 ¥ 14inches.


Newton Rings Newton rings are the irides-cent concentric circles that occur when thefilm and glass are pressed together with anuneven amount of pressure. They are causedby the interference effect of light reflectingwithin the tiny space between the glass andthe base side of the negative. They do notoccur between the glass and the emulsionside of the film. Changing the amount ofpressure between the glass and the negativeshould cause the Newton rings to disappear.Some photographers have reportedly solvedthis problem by gently rubbing the glasssurface of the negative carrier with jeweler’srouge to roughen the glass. An unexposedsheet of Kodak Professional B/W DuplicatingFilm (available in 4 ¥ 5 inch or 8 ¥ 10 inchsheets) can be fixed, washed, cut to size, andplaced between the glass and the negative toeliminate this problem.

Negative Curl Most negatives will curlslightly toward the emulsion side. This cancause the image to be slightly less thansharp. You can correct this by stopping thelens down to a smaller aperture to increasethe depth of focus.

Negative Pop If the enlarger light is left onfor a long time during composing and focus-ing, the negative can overheat and pop up,changing its position. If this happens, let thenegative cool down and refocus.

Enlarging LensesEnlarging lenses need to be sharper thancamera lenses to resolve the grain or dyepattern in the film during printing. A typical35mm camera lens may record 100 line pairsper millimeter (lp/mm) of information on thefilm, but a good enlarging lens is capable ofresolving 300 lp/mm. This translates intobetter grain definition, delivering sharper

prints and clearer separation of tonal values.The higher resolving power of an enlarginglens also enables it to outperform mostcamera lenses when doing flat copy ormacrophotography. Adapter rings are avail-able to mount enlarging lenses on camerasfor such purposes.

Field Flatness The characteristics thatmake a good enlarging lens are not the same as those that determine a good cameralens. Since the negative and paper are flatduring the exposure of the print, a goodenlarging lens needs to have a flat field offocus. The problem is that the field curvatureof a lens changes with distance, meaning alens can have a truly flat field at only onedistance.

Most camera lenses can tolerate some fieldcurvature, but enlarging lenses cannot. Acamera lens typically has a flat field of focusat about thirty feet. The average enlarginglens has a flat field at a magnification ofabout 4¥, with an acceptable flatness rangefrom about 2¥ to 6¥.

If the lens does not produce a flat field offocus, it will not be possible to get both thecenter and edges of the image sharp. Stop-ping down the lens to a small f-stop, thusincreasing the depth of field, can helpcorrect focusing problems caused by a lackof field flatness.

Focal Length It is important to have anenlarging lens of the proper focal length tomatch the format size of the negative. Thegeneral rule is to have the focal length of the lens about equal to the diagonal mea-surement of the negative in order to make aconventional looking print.

A wide-angle lens has a focal length 20 to25 percent shorter than that of a normal lens.This means the wide-angle lens is capable of increasing the image size by about 30percent at the same enlarger height as anormal lens. The biggest problem with wide-angle lenses is that they have more imagefalloff in the corners than an enlarging lenswith a normal focal length. Table 6.1 lists thestarting points for various types of enlarginglenses that are compatible with given nega-tive formats to deliver normal pictorialresults. Variation from these rules canproduce other types of visual effects. Forinstance, using a 105mm enlarging lens with

Table 6.1 Normal Enlarging Lenses Compatible with a Given Format Size

Format Normal Focal Length Wide-Angle Focal Length

35mm 50mm 40mm6 ¥ 6cm 75mm to 80mm 60mm6 ¥ 7cm 100mm to 105mm 80mm6 ¥ 9cm 100mm to 105mm 80mm4 ¥ 5 inch 150mm to 160mm 135mm5 ¥ 7 inch 210mm (81/2 inch) Not recommended8 ¥ 10 inch 300mm–360mm (12–14 inch) Not recommended


a 35mm negative will compress the visualspace.

All lenses make a somewhat brighterimage in the center than they do at the edges.Just as with a camera lens, an enlarging lensgenerally provides optimum image sharp-ness if it is stopped down two to three f-stopsfrom its widest aperture.

Using Longer than Normal Focal LengthLenses Some printers prefer a longer focallength enlarging lens than normal, like an 80mm lens with a 35mm negative, becauseit uses only the center of the lens’s field ofview. This means that resolution is at itspeak, making for better definition at anygiven f-stop, and avoids the problem of illu-mination falling off at the edges. The disad-vantage is the need for a greater distancefrom the lens to the easel, which requires theenlarger to be raised to a higher level. Thisincreases the exposure time and can surpassthe capacity of the enlarger’s bellows tofocus the image.

Focus Shift An enlarging lens should becolor corrected and free from major aberra-tions. Poorly corrected lenses can createspherical aberrations, which lower imagedefinition and produce focus shift. When alens is at its maximum f-stop (wide open),the image is created by the center and edgesof the lens. When the lens opening isstopped down to a small f-stop to make theprint, only the center of the lens is used toform the image. If the lens is poorly cor-rected, using only this tiny central portioncan cause the point of focus to shift, whichresults in a loss of image sharpness.

Dirt and Flare Make sure the enlarging lensis always clean and there is no light flarefrom leaks around the enlarger. Both theseconditions will produce a loss of contrast inthe print.

Inexpensive enlarging lenses usually have four elements. Lenses having fewerthan four elements are not recommended.Better quality lenses normally have six ormore elements. They are better corrected for color and may be labeled APO (apo-chromatic). They probably will deliver betterdefinition in black-and-white printing aswell.

Safelights

Most conventional black-and-white paperscan be conveniently used under specificsafelight conditions. Normal-graded papersare sensitive only to blue light and can behandled under a fairly bright yellow safe-light. Variable-contrast papers are sensitiveto a wider band of the spectrum and mayrequire a different safelight filter. A lightamber filter, such as Kodak’s OC, is a goodgeneral choice when working with bothgraded and variable-contrast papers. Checkthe specific manufacturer’s instructionsbefore use.

For use with contact papers, Kodak rec-ommends using its OA filter (greenishyellow). Panchromatic papers (sensitive tothe full visible spectrum), such as KodakPanalure, are designed to produce an accu-rate tonal translation of a color negative intoa black-and-white print. They are sensitiveto a much broader range of the spectrum andshould be handled under a No. 13 safelightfilter (amber) or in total darkness. Orthochro-

Figure 6.3 The choice of enlarging lens can greatly affect the look of thefinal print. The 35mm negative for this image was made with an 18 mmNikkor lens, but rather than use a standard 50 mm enlarging lens, Hirschchose a 105mm Componar lens. This combination purposefully playswith the viewers’ sense of pictorial space by taking the distortion of avery wide-angle camera lens (100 degree view) and then condensing itwith a slightly telephoto enlarging lens. This fabrication of a newpictorial space reminds us how much artifice there is in the creation of a photographic print.

© Robert Hirsch. Untitled (detail), from the series The Architecture ofLandscape, 1999. Toned gelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 16 inches. Courtesy ofCEPA Gallery, Buffalo, NY.


matic (not sensitive to red) materials—forinstance, litho films such as Kodak Com-mercial Film—need to be handled under ared safelight such as a Kodak No. IA, No. 1,or No. 2. These filters are safe for mostpapers except the panchromatic types.

Safelights come in a variety of styles andprice ranges, from inexpensive models thatscrew into a light fixture to powerful ceiling-mounted sodium-vapor units. Some lampsoffer the versatility to switch filters to matchwhatever paper is being used. Ruby lamps,with the filter built into the glass, are a veryinexpensive alternative to safelights, al-though some workers claim that some ofthese bulbs are not safe and will fog the paper.It is best to test all safelights periodically withthe specific materials being handled underthem. In addition, the distance of the safelightfrom the paper, the brightness of the bulb, theage of the filter, and the number of safelightsused are all factors in fogging.

If a safelight fogs the paper before it isexposed, this process is called hypersen-sitization. The most frequent cause of safelight fog is latensification, which occursif the safelight fogs the paper after it has been exposed. Minimum amounts of safe-light fog are noticeable as a loss of contrastin the upper highlight values. This causesthe tones to become more compressed andlowers the overall contrast of the image. Asthe fog level increases, the print becomesdenser (darker), most noticeably in the high-light areas. Table 6.2 provides a list ofcommon safelight filters and their generalapplications.

Safelight TestingThe safelight’s bulb size and distance fromthe print should permit safe handling of thematerial for about 5 minutes. You canperform several different tests to ensureselection of the proper safelight.

Quick Test Under operating safelight con-ditions, place an opaque object, such as acoin, on a piece of printing material. Leaveit there for 5 minutes and then process thepaper. If a white area is visible, safelight cor-rection is required.

Pre-exposure Test Using the enlarger, pre-expose the paper to make a very faint graytone. Pre-exposed paper is more sensitive to small amounts of light than unexposedpaper and so pre-exposing the paper makesthe test more accurate. After pre-exposingthe paper, place an opaque object in thecenter of it and position the paper at thenormal distance it will be from the safelight.Leave it there for 2 minutes. After process-ing, the outline of the object should not bevisible. To find the maximum safelight time,repeat the test, adding 1 or 2 minutes of safe-light exposure until the outline of the objectbecomes visible.

Real-Thing Test In total darkness, make anexposure that will produce a full tonal rangeprint. After making the exposure, cover halfthe paper with an opaque piece of paper,turn on the safelight, and put the paperunder the safelight, at its normal distance,for 2 minutes. Turn the safelight off andprocess the paper. After processing, visuallycompare the two halves. If a careful exami-nation of the two, especially in the highlightareas, does not reveal any loss of contrast orincrease in density, the safelight can be con-sidered safe with that particular paper underthose conditions.

General Safelight Guidelines• Match the safelight designation with the

type of paper being used.

• Minimum distance with a single directsafelight and normal graded paper is about4 feet with a 15-watt bulb.

Table 6.2 Safelight Filters and Their General Applications

Color Kodak Safelight Filter Application

Yellow (OO) Black-and-white contact and duplicating materialGreenish Yellow (OA) Black-and-white contact and duplicating materialLight Amber (OC) Contact and enlarging papersRed (No.1) Blue-sensitive materialsLight Red (No.1A) Slow orthochromatic materialsDark Red (No.2) Faster orthochromatic materialsDark Green (No.3) Panchromatic materialsBrown (No.6B) Blue-sensitive X-ray films


• A 25-watt bulb can be used in a singleindirect safelight hung from the ceiling inan 8 ¥ 10-foot darkroom.

• Avoid having a direct safelight too close tothe enlarger or processing sink. Follow themanufacturer’s guidelines as a startingpoint for correct distance placement.

• Check the condition of the filters periodi-cally. They can deteriorate over timewithout any visible change in color. Asafelight that shows any signs of deterio-ration or uneven density should bereplaced.

• For added protection, prints can beprocessed facedown during most of thedevelopment time.

• Test safelights regularly and wheneveryou are using a new printing material.

Easels

In addition to providing a stable surface forcomposing and focusing the image, an easelmust be able to hold the printing material flatand parallel to the negative. It also providesa stable surface for composing and focus-ing the image. Easels with independentlyadjustable blades are recommended becausethey allow you to change the paper size andthe size of the print borders. Easels with awhite focusing surface can reflect enoughlight back through certain single-weightpapers to produce a change in the overallprint values. This can be corrected by paint-ing the easel yellow or by taping a thin sheetof opaque cardboard to it. This is not usuallya problem with double-weight papers.

Focusing Devices

The image must be critically focused on youreasel to ensure the maximum benefit of thecamera and enlarging lenses. When makingenlargements, optimum focus occurs whenthe grain of the negative is sharp over theentire image. You can achieve this throughthe use of a grain focuser or magnifier. Thesedevices generally have a mirror that divertspart of the projected image to an eyepiece forviewing. Adjust the fine-focus control of theenlarger until the grain appears sharp in theeyepiece.

With large-format negatives and some fine-grain films such as Kodak Technical PanFilm, focusing on the grain can be difficult.In cases such as these, use a focusing devicethat simply magnifies a small part of theimage in the eyepiece for viewing. Thesedevices also are useful for checking thecorner sharpness of the image. Many peopleuse both types of focusing aids to ensureoptimum focus.

Whenever you are using filters, such asthose used with variable-contrast papers,you will obtain the best results if you placethe filters between the light source and thenegative. Filters used below the negative canaffect the optical quality of the image and the focus. If you are using filters below thenegative, recheck the focus with the filter in place.

The following guidelines will help youproduce sharply focused enlargements:

1. Adjust the enlarger to get the proper printsize.

2. Open the lens to its maximum aperture,to produce the brightest possible image.

3. Place a scrap sheet of paper, emulsionside down, the same type as you will usefor the final print, in the easel as a focus-ing target.

4. Adjust the fine-focus control on theenlarger until the image is sharplyfocused.

5. Stop the lens down to a working apertureof between f-8 to f-16 to improve imagesharpness.

6. Recheck for possible focus shift. Makeany final adjustments after the workinglens aperture is set.

7. Remove the scrap focusing paper, insertthe printing paper, and make the exposure.

Timers

Accurate and repeatable results are requiredingredients in the timing of all photographicprocedures. Timers are available with me-chanical or electronic operating gear, havingboth a visible display and audible signal toindicate when the timing operation is complete.


Electronic timers are extremely accurate,especially for short times. They can be set togive repeatable results in units as small as afraction of a second, which can be useful forfine-tuning a print. Some can be set to runan entire processing program. The digitalelectronic timers are generally the mostexpensive and may not work with cold-lightenlarging heads.

Mechanical timers are less expensive and are compatible with any standard photographic equipment. They are not asaccurate as electronic timers at brief expo-sures and cannot be set to run a processingprogram.

Trays

Good quality photographic trays that areimpervious to chemical contamination are

available in heavy plastic or stainless steel.To facilitate agitation of the solutions, thetrays should be slightly bigger than the print being processed. For example, an 8 ¥10 inch print should be processed in an 11 ¥ 14 inch tray.

Trays are available with flat or ribbedbottoms. Some workers prefer the ribbedbottom because they say it is easier to pickthe print out of the tray. Others say theribbed bottom can damage the print byscratching it against the ribs or causing theprint to bend or fold more easily. Generally,having several of both types is useful. Tryeach type to determine personal preference.

When the printing session is complete,discard the developer and pour the stop bathinto the developer tray. This will neutralizethe residual alkaline developer solution.Thoroughly wash all trays with warm water.

Figure 6.4 When making a series of images to be used in sequence, as in Klett’s five-panel piece, it is usually important tohave each print match as closely as possible for the sake of visual continuity. To obtain these results, especially when makinglarge images, the printmaker must be consistent in all procedures such as focusing the image. All mechanical equipment,including safelights, must be checked to make sure it is in top working order to deliver accurate and repeatable results.

© Mark Klett. Around Toroweap Point, Just Before and After Sundown, Beginning and Ending with Views Used by J.K.Hillers, Over 100 Years Ago, Grand Canyon, 1986. Gelatin silver prints. 20 ¥ 80 inches. Courtesy of PaceWildensteinMacGillGallery, New York.


Many printers label or color coordinate theirtrays so that they always use the same trayfor each solution to avoid chemical con-tamination. Commercial preparations com-patible with environmental concerns areavailable to clean stubborn stains.

Enlarging Meters

Enlarging meters are designed for mass-production situations, but in the making of a fine print, the artist should be activelyinvolved in appraising the tonal range of the print and not spending time program-ming a meter. The expressive print is aunique and highly subjective item and doesnot lend itself to a cool, mechanical processof analysis. If you want machine prints, take

the film to your local one-hour processingshop.

Miscellaneous Equipment

Negative Cleaning MaterialsA clean negative ensures maximum qualityand reduces the headache of later spottingthe print. Antistatic devices can help youachieve this goal. Antistatic brushes, such asthe Staticmaster, do a good job but containsmall amounts of radioactive polonium. Ifthis is a concern, use an antistatic devicesuch as the hand-held Zerostat gun. Justpoint the Zerostat at the film and squeeze thetrigger, showering positive ions onto the film.When you release the trigger, the film isstruck by a stream of negatively charged ions,which neutralize both the positive and neg-


ative charges. The Zerostat is more likely tobe sold in record stores than in camera shops,as it works well on any plastic-based surface,such as a disk. It requires no batteries anddoes not use any radioactive materials. Inconjunction with the Zerostat, you can use agood sable brush to clean the negative.

Canned air, another cleaning device, is notrecommended, as it simply blows the dustaround. Some products spit their propellantout of the can along with the air, which canstain the negative.

Dealing with ScratchesProducts such as Edwal No-Scratch can beused with small-format negatives to hidescratches that do not go completely throughthe emulsion. Clean the negative beforepainting on No-Scratch. After printing thenegative, remove the No-Scratch completelywith film cleaner and lint-free towels such asPhoto-Wipes, as No-Scratch leaves a stickyresidue and this and other defect-hidingproducts will diffuse and soften the image.

Other ToolsOther important printing items are a reliablethermometer, burning and dodging tools(which can be homemade from an opaqueboard and thin, hard wire or a bicyclespoke), print tongs to avoid getting chemicalsolutions on your skin, thin surgical glovesfor handling prints (especially duringtoning), and a collection of graduates andstorage bottles.

A NotebookKeep a notebook to record the details of howeach print was made. Typical informationshould include negative identification; typeand grade of paper; type, dilution, and tem-perature of developer; f-stop; exposure time;and burning and dodging instructions. Thisrecord can save you time if you have toreprint the negative and can refresh yourmemory when you are creating new prints.

STANDARD PRINTING MATERIALS

All black-and-white photographic printingmaterials consist of a base or support, gen-erally paper, coated with a light-sensitiveemulsion. The emulsion is made of silverhalide crystals suspended in gelatin. Silver

chloride, silver bromide, and silver iodideare the most widely used silver halide saltsin contemporary photographic emulsions.The individual characteristics of an emul-sion, such as contrast, image tone, andspeed, are determined by the type of silversalt or salts, how they are combined incoating the base, and any other ingredientsadded to the emulsion.

Silver chloride papers are generally veryslow and are used for contact printing. Theyhave excellent scale and tonal values and areeasy to tone. Bromide emulsions are muchfaster, can be used for either enlarging orcontact printing, and usually have a cool orneutral tone. Bromide and chloride are oftencombined in the making of warm-tonepapers.

The speed of the emulsion is determinedby its ANSI (American National StandardsInstitute) number and is comparable to theISO rating system for films. These numbersare not of any particular use in the making ofan expressive print, except as an indicator forcomparing relative increases or decreases inexposure times when changing papers.

Modern papers come in a variety of sur-face textures and sheens, different weights,and various base tints. There are no indus-try standards in these areas. Each manufac-turer creates its own set of guidelines, so thephotographer must sort through the optionsand find what is appropriate for a particularsituation.

Paper Types

Currently there are three basic commerciallyprepared paper types: conventional fiber-based papers, resin-coated (RC) papers, and papers for activation or stabilizationprocessing.

Fiber-Based PapersFiber-based papers are coated with bariumsulfate, a clay substance known more com-monly as baryta, beneath the emulsion. Thisprovides a smooth, clean, white backgroundthat covers the inherent texture of the paperand provides a reflective surface for the emul-sion. Cool or warm coloring is often added tothe baryta, since it covers the paper base andprovides the white that you see in a print.Photographic papers are predominantly three


different emulsions: chloride, bromide, andchlorobromide. Most papers are the chloro-bromide combination with a small amount ofsilver iodide. The proportion of silver chlo-ride to silver bromide determines the speedand tone of the paper. Papers with a higherproportion of silver chloride are generallyslower and produce warmer tones than pre-dominantly silver bromide papers, which arefaster and produce a colder image. Beware ofpapers that have “optical brighteners” addedto increase the reflectance in the highlightareas of the print, as they can lose their effectover time.

Resin-Coated PapersResin-coated (RC) papers have a polyethyl-ene coating on both sides of the paper base,making them water-resistant so that chemi-cals cannot soak into the paper fibers. Thisallows RC papers to be processed andwashed very quickly, as all the chemicals areeasier to remove.

RC papers can be marked with a pen orpencil, dry fast, have a minimum amount ofcurl, and hold up well in physically stress-ful situations that would destroy a conven-tional gelatin silver print. The problems withRC papers include the following:

• The polyethylene layer tends to deterio-rate and can crack over time.

• They cannot be processed to archival standards.

• They often have a reduced range of visibletones with poor separation in the darkvalues, and are apt to lack a solidmaximum black.

• The brighteners commonly used in RCpapers have a tendency to migrate into theshadow areas during washing. This pro-duces a veiling effect that reduces theoverall tonal range.

• The high reflectivity of the RC coating cancreate viewing problems.

• The picture elements often appear to siton the surface, giving the image a lack ofvisual depth.

Papers for the Activation andStabilization Processes

Papers that have developing agents incorpo-rated directly into the emulsion are designed

for activation and stabilization machine processing (although they can be processedin a tray). When a print is needed im-mediately, this is the route to take, althoughthe print quality will suffer. Both sta-bilization and activation processes are desirable for their convenience and im-mediacy. These papers are not intended forwork requiring long-term keeping capabili-ties and cannot be processed to archivalstandards.

Figure 6.5 Selecting the proper paper to solvea specific problem is a critical component ofprintmaking. Sloan wanted to fuse photographywith three-dimensional forms to stretch thetraditional photograph beyond its flatness and tocomment on the concept of the “decisivemoment.” Sloan fashioned this piece from twoimages made on RC paper for its strength. Thephotographs were mounted on aluminum andthen cut into strips with tin snips. Holes weredrilled in the edges and the pieces werereassembled using a secondary image for thevertical sections (to add depth). Galvanized steelwire was then threaded through the holes andtwisted to hold the fragments together.

© Jennifer Sloan. Fragmented Face, 2000.Gelatin silver prints on aluminum. 24 ¥ 20 ¥ 4inches.


Stabilization ProcessWith the stabilization method, the process-ing time can be as short as 15 seconds for an8 ¥ 10 inch print. The print comes out of themachine damp, but air-dries within minutesat normal room temperature. This type ofprint will last for several days before begin-ning to deteriorate. Its life span can beincreased by fixing and washing it, follow-ing regular print processing procedures.

Activation ProcessThe activation process, such as Kodak’sEktamatic Processors and companion KodakEktamatic SC paper, takes about 1 minutedry-to-dry time (the time the print enters theprocessor to the time it emerges) for an 8 ¥10 inch print. This process is designed fordeadline work, such as for a newspaper,where print stability is not important. Thecontrast of Ektamatic SC papers can be con-trolled with the use of Polycontrast filters.These papers can be conventionally pro-cessed in a tray and then fixed and washedto extend their life. If this is done, Kodakclaims these prints will last as long as con-ventionally processed RC prints. Most activation papers like Ektamatic SC use fluorescent optical brighteners to produce aclearer white. Ektamatic SC papers producea warm black tone with the processor and aneutral black tone with tray processing.

The Double-Density Effect

Why does a transparency (a slide) providemore detail and subtlety than a print of theidentical scene? Transparencies are viewedby transmitted light—that is, the light passesthrough the transparency one time beforebeing seen by our eyes. With a print, lightpasses through the clear gelatin emulsionand strikes the base support of the paper,resulting in a reflection rate of about 90percent. Light that is not pure white (whichis almost always the case) has to passthrough the silver densities of the printtwice, once when it strikes the paper andagain when it is reflected back, and createswhat is known as the double-density effect.

For example, imagine that the silverdensity in the emulsion of one part of a printallows 60 percent of the light to reach thebase of the paper. Since only 90 percent of

this light is reflected back from the base, only54 percent of the light remains. Now this 54percent has to pass through the same silverdensity again as it is reflected back, sub-tracting another 50 percent. Thus only 27percent of the original light strikes the eyefrom this part of the print. The silverdeposits in the print screen the light twice,creating the double-density effect. Thisresults in a loss of detail, limiting theamount of separation between tones.

Paper Colors

Manufacturers make the base of their papersin a variety of colors. The color variationsinclude brown-black, bluish black, andneutral black through a slightly warm to avery warm buff or ivory. There is no onestandard for comparison. To get an idea ofwhat the paper looks like, carefully examineand compare paper samples from each man-ufacturer. Most camera stores have thesesamples, or the company will send you a setupon request.

The image color will be affected by thechoice of developer and can be furtheraltered through toning. For instance, pro-cessing a warm-tone paper in a warm-tonedeveloper can produce a print so warm itwill have olive green values (which can beneutralized by toning).

Selection of paper color should be givenserious thought, but it remains a highly sub-jective and personal matter. It should reflectthe photographer’s overall concerns and themood he or she wants to achieve.

Paper Surface and Texture

Papers are available with a number of dif-ferent surfaces. Smooth, glossy papers havethe greatest reflectance range. They presentthe most brilliant images with the widestrange of tonal separation and good detail in key highlight and shadow areas. Mattesurfaces have a reduced reflection-densityrange, with the amount depending on thedegree of texture. They produce a print withmuch less brilliance. The matte surface is agood choice when extensive retouching orhand-altering of the print is planned. Mattepaper takes airbrush, regular brush, and


pencil retouching extremely well. Onceagain, there are no industry standards thatpermit direct comparison. Each manufac-turer has its own system for designating thesurface and texture characteristics.

Grades of Paper

Matching the density range of a negative tothe exposure range of a paper is necessaryfor a print to reveal the complete tonal rangeof the negative. To accomplish this, photo-graphic papers are made in various degreesof contrast. Papers are given a number, calleda paper grade, to indicate their relativedegree of contrast. The higher the number is,the harder or more contrasty the paper.There is no industry standard, as eachcompany uses its own grading system. Table6.3 lists some paper grades and their generalcontrast characteristics.

A normal negative, with a complete rangeof values, should produce a full range printon grade 2 or 3 paper. A normal negative canbe printed on a lower grade of paper for asofter, less contrasty look or on a highergrade to achieve a harder, more contrastyappearance. If you want to make a long tonalrange print from a contrasty negative, youshould use a low-contrast paper. A high-contrast paper can be used to extend thetonal range of a low-contrast or flat negative.Soft, low-contrast papers are fast and have along tonal scale. Hard, high-contrast papersare slower and have a shorter scale.

Even though a grade 2 paper is consideredto be industry normal, there is really no stan-dard for normal in printmaking. You shouldnever feel locked into trying to print on onlyone grade of paper. Expressive printingmeans that each negative must be evaluatedin terms of how the final print should readand feel, and the grade of paper should beselected accordingly. If you think a print

lacks contrast, make another print on a grade3 or grade 4 paper and visually decide whatworks for you.

Variable-Contrast Papers

Variable-contrast papers have a blend of twoemulsions. Usually the high-contrast emul-sion is blue sensitive, and the low-contrastemulsion is orthochromatic, which is sensi-tive to blue and green. By exposing the paperthrough special variable-contrast filters or a variable-color light source, the differentproportions of the two emulsions are ex-posed. Since variable-contrast papers aresensitive to a broader band of the spectrumthan regular graded papers, you should readand follow the specific manufacturer’s in-structions for proper safelight conditions. Variable-contrast papers are designed to be exposed with tungsten or tungsten-halogen light bulbs. Their use with othersources, such as cold lights, may requireexperimentation.

AdvantagesOnly one box of variable-contrast paper isneeded to produce a wide range of contrast.Filters are available in half-grade steps suchas 11/2, 21/2, and 31/2. Also, various sections ofthe paper can be exposed with differentfilters to alter the contrast locally within theprint. For instance, imagine a landscapehaving a dark, flatly lit foreground and abright, contrasty sky. A higher than normalfilter could be used to expose the shadowareas of the foreground and increase con-trast. Then a lower than normal filter couldbe used to make a second exposure for the sky.

DisadvantagesVariable-contrast papers tend to print flatterthan graded papers at any given level of con-trast. They do not print as deep a cold-toneblack as do graded papers, and the exposuretime is longer with higher filter numbers.Also, using variable-contrast filters belowthe lens, as is most commonly done, canresult in a loss of image contrast, cause dis-tortion of the image, and reduce overallsharpness. It may be necessary to refocus theimage after the filter is placed in front of thelens. This may be a problem, depending on

Table 6.3 Contrast Characteristics of Paper Grades

Paper Grade General Contrast Characteristics

0 Very soft, extremely low contrast1 Soft, low contrast2 Normal, average contrast3 Slightly above normal contrast4 Hard, above normal contrast5 Very hard, very contrasty


the intensity of the filter, as it might be dif-ficult to see the image clearly enough tocheck the focus accurately. This problem canbe eliminated by printing with a dichroiccolor head enlarger. When working with acolor enlarger, most manufacturers providemagenta and yellow filtration that is equal tothe filter numbers.

Variable-contrast papers can be comparedto a zoom lens. A lens with a single fixedfocal length should always deliver a sharperimage than a zoom lens set at the same focallength. This does not mean you should not use a zoom lens, but it does mean thatthe lens has certain limitations. Likewise,variable-contrast papers can be used with

great success in a wide variety of photo-graphic applications. When the opportunitypresents itself, try some of the variable-con-trast papers and see if they meet your needs.

Mural and Postcard Paper

Photographers who want to make printslarger than 20 ¥ 24 inches will probably haveto obtain mural paper. Typically, muralpaper is sold in rolls of various widths andlengths that start at about 40 inches wide and100 feet long and come in F (smooth, glossy)and N (smooth, semi-matt) surfaces. Muralpaper can be processed in homemade plastictroughs to save chemicals and space. One

Figure 6.6 A 17mm fish-eye lens and a mirror allowed Jachna to play with our traditional sense of perspective and space.A high-contrast print was achieved by exposing variable-contrast paper through a color enlarger with 40 points of magentafiltration. Many variable-paper manufacturers supply a guide that tells how the paper can be exposed by using the filters in adichroic color enlarger.

© Joseph D. Jachna. Door County, Wisconsin, 1970. Gelatin silver print. 8 ¥ 12 inches.


technique is to cut PVC pipe down themiddle, cap the ends with a piece of Plexi-glas, and seal them with fiberglass cement.Another way is to simply cap the ends ofPVC pipe so that they become their ownrotary processing tubes. Make certain thediameter of the PVC pipe is large enough toallow the chemicals to freely circulatearound the paper in the tube to avoid pro-cessing marks. Mural paper can also beplaced in a large, clean sink and the chemi-cals can be applied with sponges. A small

Figure 6.7 ParkeHarrison creates photographs that tell stories of loss, human struggle, and personalexploration within landscapes scarred by technology and overuse. ParkeHarrison says: “The scenes Idepict display futile attempts to save or rejuvenate nature. I portray these attempts within my workby inventing machines and contraptions from junk and obsolete equipment. These contraptions areintended to help the character in the black suit I portray to jump-start a dying planet. I patch holesin the sky, create rain machines, chase storms to create electricity, communicate with the earth tolearn its needs. Within these scenes, I create less refined, less scientific, more ritualistic, and poeticpossibilities to work with nature rather than destroying it. I attempt to represent the archetype of themodern man and draw the viewer into the scene without dictating a message or the outcome of themyth presented.” To produce large-scale prints, ParkeHarrison uses an enlarger mounted to awheeled cart to project the image onto mural paper pinned to the wall. The paper is processed introughs made from cutting PVC pipe long-ways and then capping the ends with a piece of Plexiglassealed with fiberglass. The prints are manipulated with darkroom techniques, paints, and varnishes.

© Robert ParkeHarrison. Listening to the Earth, 1998. Gelatin silver print with mixed media. 34 ¥ 45inches. Courtesy of Bonni Benrubi Gallery, New York.

amount of chemistry can be placed on thebottom of a clean sink. The sponge is con-stantly, yet gently, moved throughout theprocess while the paper is rotated to ensureeven development. Different sponges shouldbe used for each chemical to avoid possiblecontamination.

Photographers wishing to make their ownofficial-looking postcards can use Ilford’s 4 ¥6-inch RC Post Card paper that comes inboxes of 100 and has the word “Postcard” onthe nonemulsion side of the paper.


Current Papers

More good photographic papers are beingmade today than in the past several years.Commonly used papers are currently madeby Agfa, Arista, Bergger, Forte, Ilford, Kodak,Luminos, Mitsubishi, and Oriental. Everypaper has its own distinct personality, andthe makers often alter its characteristics overa period of time. The only surefire way to

find out what these papers will or will notdo for your work is to use them.

Print Finishing

FerrotypingIf a high-gloss finish is desired, it is possibleto dry a glossy paper on a special metal ferrotype plate. Ferrotype prints can producea tremendous amount of glare. Using a glossy paper and not ferrotyping will delivera smooth, semigloss finish with much less glare. The heat required during the fer-rotype process may also darken print tonalvalues.

Air DryingGenerally, photographers making high-quality fine art–type prints prefer air dryingbecause there is less dry-down effect thanwhen heat is used. Typically, prints aresqueezed on a piece of Plexiglas or heavyglass with beveled and sanded edges. Theyare then placed face down on a drying frame,which can be homemade or commerciallypurchased, that consists of a wooden ormetal frame with new plastic screen mater-ial pulled tightly across it (window screenframes can also be used). Prints are allowedto dry naturally in a dust-free environment.The cleanliness of the screening materialmust be checked and maintained before eachuse. Prints may be weighted later under aheavy piece of glass to lessen the curlingeffect.

Prints are now ready to be spotted with afine #0 sable brush and spotting colors likeSpoTone or dyes like Dr. Martin’s.

Waxing the Print

Gelatin silver prints can be treated with awax medium such as Dorlands Wax Mediumor Gamblin Cold Wax. Waxing can be doneto protect the print surface, to create asurface similar to that of a painting, to buildup a three-dimensional effect, or to make athree-dimensional object. Wax mediumscontain mineral spirits along with severaltypes of waxes and are very flammable. Thewax is often heated to its melting point tomake it easier to work with, but the flashpoint (the temperature at which the vapor of

Figure 6.8 This work was part of a three-week mail art project that consisted of mailingphotographic postcard collages from major citiesin Europe to Buffalo, NY. Mead says that thiscard “representing Day 11 and my visit to the Victoria and Albert Museum in London,memorializes the conservation attempts on thefamous Portland Vase through manipulation and alteration of two identical postcard imagesof the Wedgwood copy of the vase. The recon-structive efforts done on the vase are referencedthrough (1) the grid inscribed on the card, (2)the cutting and re-assembly of the images, (3)arrows making ‘missing shards,’ and (4) a smallpacket containing seventeen fragments that wereactually left over after the reconstruction. Postalcancellation marks or other evidence oftransatlantic mail passage served as chanceadditional to the collage.”

© Jerry Mead. Day #11-V&A Museum, from theseries European Travellage, 1995. Mixed media.4 ¥ 6 inches. Original in color.


produce a positive rather than a negativeimage. This material can be exposed in aview camera and may be used to make directpositive enlargements from color trans-

a combustible liquid can be made to ignite)for wax mediums is between 107°F and145°F. Do not expose the wax to direct flame.Melt the wax in a double-boiler pan. Waxmedium may be thinned with turpentine ormineral spirits. Wax also comes “soft” andcan be directly applied with either a buffingcloth or a small piece of cheesecloth to thesurface of the photograph without thinning.

For protection, a small amount of wax thesize of a dime will cover an 11 ¥ 14 inchprint. Afterwards the wax can be buffed to asheen. Several coats of wax can be appliedto simulate the surface of a painting, but youshould allow several days or even a weekbetween coats. A brush can be used to spreadthe wax and induce the brushstroke effectsof a painting. A hair dryer can be used tokeep the wax soft while spreading it on theprint surface.

The wax can be applied even more thicklyto achieve a tactile three-dimensional look.Prints can also be imbedded into blocks ofparaffin wax to create a transparent three-dimensional presence. Wax mediums aregenerally available at professional art supplystores. If you cannot find wax locally trySiphon Art, P.O. Box 710, San Rafael, CA94915, or Gamblin Artists Colors Co., P.O.Box 625, Portland, OR 97207.

SPECIAL PRINTING MATERIALS

Panchromatic Papers

Panchromatic means sensitive to the fullrange of the visible spectrum. Panchromaticpapers are designed to produce an accurateblack-and-white tonal rendition from a colornegative. Regular printing paper is notpanchromatic. It is sensitive mainly to theblue portion of the visible spectrum and distorts the tonal range of the original colornegative (especially in the red part of thespectrum) when a black-and-white transla-tion is created. Panchromatic papers, such asKodak Panalure, should be handled under acolor safelight filter, such as Kodak No. 13,or in total darkness.

Direct Positive Papers

Direct positive papers, such as Kodak Pro-jection Positive Paper, are intended to

Figure 6.9 Adrian’s idea of the photographicfragmentation of the human form evolved out ofthe aesthetic, historical, and theoretical tensionbetween the belief in the body as an ideal formand as a series of fragmented parts. Adrianstates that: “This shift from the body as uniqueand whole to the isolation of body parts andlimbs, organs, and fluids, emphasizes the vul-nerability of our bodies, revealing connectionsand divisions. I embed isolated body parts inblocks of wax, and combine them with amedium of classification and categorization tocritique, resist, and reconstruct dominantrepresentations of the human form. In a liquidstate the wax is poured into an adjustablewooden box and the print is pressed into thetop of the wax block as it cools, allowing a thinlayer of wax to run over the image’s surface andharden. Composed as geometric solids, it wasthe fleshy, tactile block of wax that gave theweight, impenetrability, and isolated presencethat I sought for these exposed photographicfragments of the body.”

© Kathleen Adrian. Flesh Fragment (Malehead), from the installation Fragmentations,1997–1999. Gelatin silver prints embedded intoblocks of paraffin wax. 30 ¥ 25 ¥ 3 inches.


parencies. Direct positive papers are used inthe coin-operated portrait booths that delivera strip of pictures while the subject waits.

Liquid Emulsions

Liquid emulsions give the photographer the freedom to go beyond two-dimensionalpaper-based printing. Liquid emulsions canbe applied to almost any inanimate surface,

including paper, canvas, china, glass, leather,metal, plastic, rock, and wood. Liquid emul-sions allow the photographer to consider thepossibilities of extending the photographicmedium into the third dimension.

Liquid Light

Liquid Light is a commercially prepareddirect silver nitrate emulsion. After it isapplied to a surface, it is handled andprocessed in the same manner as the emul-sion on normal photographic paper. Refrig-erated, Liquid Light has a shelf life of up totwo years. Here are some guidelines forusing Liquid Light:

1. Place the bottle of solid emulsion in a panof hot water until its contents becomeliquid (usually a couple of minutes).Open the bottle only under normal papersafelight conditions.

2. In the darkroom, under a paper safelight,pour some emulsion into a glass or plasticbowl. Do not use a metal bowl, as silvernitrate reacts with metal. Rapidly applythe emulsion with a soft, clean brush.Coat a piece of paper at the same time toserve as a test strip for determining thecorrect exposure. Mark the back of anypaper that is coated because the emulsioncan be hard to see once it dries.

3. Allow the coated material to dry in totaldarkness until it is at least tacky. After it is dry, it can be stored and handled like normal photographic paper. Bestresults are usually obtained if the coatedmaterial is used as soon as possible afterdrying.

4. The emulsion is slow and not very sensi-tive to light. When making an exposure,open the enlarging lens to about f-4 andmake a series of about six exposures in 5-second increments on the test strip.

5. All processing solutions must remainbetween 60°F (16°C) and 68°F (20°C), asthe emulsion will soften at temperaturesabove 70°F (21°C) and will release fromthe paper. Process following normalpaper procedures, making sure not to let tongs touch the emulsion in the chem-istry or wash baths. The emulsion isextremely delicate when wet. If the emul-

Figure 6.10 Hubbard, who had been investigating themes surroundingthe human form, wanted to address the issue of AIDS by juxtaposing aclassical odalisque pose against the contemporary threat. The originalnegative was made with Kodak High Speed Infrared black-and-white film,but was printed twice—once normally, and then flipped and printedagain. The prints were produced by using a sponge brush to apply twocoats of Liquid Light onto Stonehenge artists’ paper. The second coat wasapplied while the first coat was still tacky. The paper was allowed tocompletely dry before printing. The paper was developed in straightDektol to increase contrast. The resulting images were hand-colored withMarshall’s Oils and Pencils, Prismacolor pencils, and charcoal. The titlecomes from a collection of Cole Porter songs released in 1990, red hot andblue, to benefit AIDS research and relief.

© Kitty Hubbard. red, hot, and blue (diptych), 1994. Hand-colored liquidemulsion on paper. 26 ¥ 60 each. Collection of Kelly and ClevelandAdams, New York. Original in color.


Table 6.4 Archival Processing for Silver-Based Fiber Papers at 68°F (20°C)

Step Approximate Time

Developer 11/2 to 3 minutesAcid stop bath 1/2 minuteFirst fixing bath 3 minutesSecond fixing bath 3 minutesQuick water rinse As neededFirst wash 5 to 10 minutesWashing aid or hypo eliminator* 2 to 6 minutesHirsch’s Express method: Perma-Wash 1 to 10 minutes

and Rapid Selenium Toner**Toning* 1 to 10 minutesFinal wash 60 minutes minimumAir-dry As needed

*Exact times are determined by the needs of the photographer through testing.**The express method combines the washing and toning steps and may not be

suitable for all papers.

sion peels up at any time during process-ing, dispose of the print and start again. Itmay dry flat but in time will peel off ofthe paper.

6. Determine the correct time, make theexposure on the coated material, andprocess.

Liquid Light will produce a warm blackimage with soft contrast. The contrast can be controlled, to some degree, by using anormal paper developer such as Dektol orSelectol-Soft and varying the rate of dilution.A good starting point is 1 part developer to10 parts Liquid Light.

Ag-Plus

Rockland also makes Ag-Plus, a liquid emul-sion with a higher concentration of silverhalide that has an ISO of 160, but otherwiseis similar to the original Liquid Light. Itsfaster speed makes it the more practicalchoice when making larger prints, and it alsorequires thinner coatings of emulsion toproduce an image.

Paper-based images can be colored withRockland Print Tint or regular photographictoners. Rockland also makes a contact-speedemulsion designed to be used on fabriccalled Rockland Fabric Emulsion SensitizerFA-1. The iron-silver emulsion gives anantique Vandyke iron-silver image with afull range of warm brown-black tones.

For more information on Liquid Light andother Rockland products, contact RocklandColloid Corp., Box 376, Piermont, NY 10968.

Luminos Silverprint Emulsion

Luminos Silverprint Emulsion is anothercommercially prepared direct silver nitrateemulsion. The emulsion works well on bothwatercolor and printing paper and can behandled and processed like Liquid Light.The Silverprint Emulsion has an ISO speedof 160 and is rated as contrast 3. Diluting theemulsion 1:1 to 1:4 with hot water can alterthe contrast. The more dilute the solution,the lighter the image. Additional coats of emulsion can be added to increase the contrast. Allow surface to almost drybetween coats.

Figure 6.11 Photo linen is a manufactured cloth that has been treatedwith a photographic emulsion. It tends to have more contrast thanemulsions that are applied to fabric by hand. DiVola used mural-sizephoto linen to produce an image that has the feel, look, and scope of alarge-scale canvas painting.

© John DiVola. Quarter Moon, 1987. Photographic linen. 42 ¥ 42 inches.

Silverprint Emulsion is a very thin liquidwhen warmed. The thinner emulsion worksits way into the fibers and bonds with thepaper, unlike Liquid Light, which appears tosit on top of the paper. The emulsion is alsomuch faster than Liquid Light. When makingan exposure, open the enlarging lens toabout f-8 and make a series of about six expo-sures in 5-second increments on the teststrip. Once coated, Silverprint Emulsion hasbetter keeping qualities than Liquid Lightand can be kept up to a month before expos-ing and processing.

Luminos Photographic Linen

Luminos Photographic Linen is a commer-cially prepared cloth that has been treatedwith a photographic emulsion. It is availablein a number of standard photographic papersizes as well as in mural lengths (50 inch ¥98 foot rolls) and is handled and processedlike regular photographic paper. It tends tohave a deeper black and more contrast thanthe Rockland emulsions.

For more information, contact LuminosPhotographic Corp., 25 Wolffe Street, Yon-kers, NY 10705.

PROCESSING PRINTS FORPERMANENCE

“Eternal duration is promised no more tomen’s work than to men,” said French writerMarcel Proust. The processing of prints toarchival standards ensures that the work willhave the opportunity to communicate withothers in the future. A properly processedand stored black-and-white print should last at least hundreds of years. Table 6.4summarizes the guidelines for achievingmaximum life for black-and-white gelatinsilver fiber papers.

It is relevant to remember that it may notbe necessary to be a master craftsman tomake thought-provoking work, but lack ofskill in a specific medium can mean a lossof communicative ability. Deficiency of craftcan be construed as intentional and part ofthe meaning, but it may also be interpretedas laziness and a basic misunderstanding ofthe power of the photographic image toaffect and move the viewer.


For a list of information sources, see Addi-tional Information at the end of Chapter 3.


7 Black-and-White PaperDevelopers

Learning to become a good printer requirescuriosity about all aspects of making anexpressive print. The more information youhave about developers, the more control youcan exercise over the image. As your knowl-edge and competence increase, so do thevisual possibilities.

PAPER VERSUS FILM DEVELOPERS

All silver-based developers, whether theyare for paper or film, are quite similar in theirchemical composition (see Chapter 5). Themajor difference between paper and filmdevelopers is that paper developers are gen-erally more alkaline, which increases theirenergy. If a film developer is used to processa print, the image will appear gray with no maximum black (the deepest black thepaper is capable of producing) and will lackcontrast.

What a Developer Can Do

It is helpful to know what chemicals makeup a typical paper developer and the func-tions they perform in printmaking. Thechoice of developer influences the tonalrange, contrast, and image color of the print,but it cannot make up for a poorly exposednegative. The best and easiest way to get thetype of print you want is to work from aproperly exposed negative.

Developing-Out Papers

Developing-out silver-based papers (thoserequiring a chemical developer to bring outthe image) have a thin emulsion that isdesigned to be chemically developed to com-pleteness. Developing time varies dependingon the type of developer, its dilution, thetemperature, and the type of paper. All these factors will affect the outcome of thefinal print.

COMPONENTS OF BLACK-AND-WHITE SILVER PRINT DEVELOPERS

Major Developing Agents

Metol and HydroquinoneMetol and hydroquinone are used in variouscombinations to form the majority of black-and-white print developers. Metol (KodakElon) produces a delicate, soft, neutral grayimage with low contrast. With prolongeddevelopment, both contrast and densityincrease. Metol is energetic, has a long shelflife, and is commonly blended with hydro-quinone to increase contrast.

Hydroquinone makes a high-contrastimage with a brownish tint. It works best in the low and middle range of tonal valuesand is rarely used by itself because it re-quires lengthy development times. Combin-ing hydroquinone with another developing

agent, such as Metol, activates it. Hydro-quinone has a short life span and starts tobecome ineffective at temperatures below60°F (15°C).

Metol-hydroquinone developers are con-venient, economical, extremely versatile,and have a long life span. By varying the proportions of Metol and hydroquinone, thephotographer can alter the color and contrastof the print.

PhenidonePhenidone is the proprietary name of Ilford’sdeveloping agent that acts like Metol. Usedalone, Phenidone produces a low-contrastimage with a gray color. It is more expensivethan Metol, but it also is more potent and can be used in much smaller amounts.Phenidone is recommended for people whoare allergic to Metol. It acts as a superaddi-tive agent (see Chapter 5) when combinedwith other developers such as hydroquinone.Phenidone has a long storage and tray life. Itcan often be exchanged for Metol in formu-las by substituting 10 percent of the amountof Phenidone for the amount of Metol.

AmidolThis longtime favorite of classic printmakerssuch as Edward and Brett Weston is used to

produce rich images with cold, blue-blacktones. Amidol is often used at high dilutionssuch as 1 :20 (1 part amidol to 20 partswater) with an extended development timeof 10 minutes to produce soft images. Thisalso can be effective when working with avery contrasty negative. Using amidol atreduced rates of dilution and at higher thannormal temperatures can produce brillianthigh-key prints. These have excellent high-light detail and retain subtlety withoutdulling the high tonal values.

Amidol is expensive and can stain theprint, your skin, and clothes. Since amidolis poisonous, you must wear thin rubbergloves and/or use print tongs when workingwith it. Amidol is another alternative forthose suffering from Metol poisoning.

Amidol must be mixed just before use, asit will keep only a couple of hours in solu-tion. The addition of citric acid (60 gramsper quart) as a buffer will help prolongamidol’s useful life and will minimize thestain it produces.

GlycinWhen used with bromide papers, glycin produces a straightforward black tone. Withchloride or chlorobromide papers, it deliverssoft brown or sepia tones. Glycin is often


Figure 7.1 Smith processed his 8 ¥ 20 inch Super XX film in Pyro ABC. The resulting negative was contact printed on Azopaper, which was developed in amidol. This combination delivers a luxuriously detailed print that retains subtlety in boththe high and low values and invites the viewer to linger over the image.

© Michael A. Smith. New Orleans, 1985. Gelatin silver print. 8 ¥ 20 inches.

used with Metol and hydroquinone in devel-opers such as Ansco 130, which favors thehighlight areas of the print. With somepapers, it produces a very slight stain in theupper highlight tonal range, often resultingin a soft glowing quality.

Reduction Potential

The strength of a developer’s activity isknown as its reduction potential (howrapidly the developer converts the silverhalides to metallic silver). The relative reduc-ing energy of a developer is measured againsthydroquinone, which has been assigned anarbitrary reduction potential of 1. The reduc-tion potentials of other commonly useddeveloping agents are as follows: glycin, 1.6;Metol, 20; amidol, 30 to 40.

Other Paper Developer Ingredients

AcceleratorThe energy and stability of a developerdepend on the alkalinity (pH) of the solu-tion. Most developers have an alkali addedto serve as an accelerator. A greater concen-tration of alkali will produce a more ener-getic but short-lived solution.

The most commonly used accelerator issodium carbonate, which is favored becauseits buffering action helps the developermaintain the correct pH level, thus pro-longing its usefulness. Sometimes borax isused as the accelerator. On rare occasions,sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) is used forextremely active formulas or for high-contrast effects. It has a high pH and shouldbe handled with full safety measures.

Certain developers, such as amidol, do notuse an accelerator. In amidol, the reaction ofthe sodium sulfite with the water producesthe needed pH for the developing action totake place.

PreservativeA preservative, usually sodium sulfite,absorbs the free oxygen molecules in thedeveloper. This retards oxidation andextends the working life of the solution.

RestrainerThe restrainer slows down the reduction ofthe silver halides to metallic silver, slightly

reducing the speed of the paper and increas-ing the development time. This is importantin preventing fog caused by high-energydevelopers, extended development times, orout-of-date papers. A developer without arestrainer will reduce some of the unexposedsilver halides to metallic silver, producingan overall fog. You can print through a lightfog, but as the fog becomes denser, it alsobecomes visible in the finished print. The fogis most noticeable in the highlight areas. Theupper range of tones will appear veiled andlacking in separation. The restrainer willkeep the highlights clear and increase theapparent visual contrast of the print.

The most widely used restrainer is potas-sium bromide. If used in a high concentra-tion, it will cause many papers to take on agreenish cast. Selenium toning (see Chapter8) can neutralize this.

Benzotriazole is a popular organic re-strainer that can be used to help clear fog andproduce cleaner-looking highlights. It tendsto produce colder tones than potassiumbromide, shifting the image color to bluishblack. Benzotriazole is available in powderform and as Edwal Orthazite (liquid).

WaterThe key ingredient in any developer is water.Generally, if the water supply is safe forhuman consumption, it is safe for photo-graphic purposes. The amount of chlorineadded to many water supplies is too small tohave any effect. The same applies to coppersulfate, which is often added to kill bacteriaand vegetable growth. The most importantconsideration is to be sure that the water isclose to neutral on the pH scale (7). If thewater is more alkaline (having a pH greaterthan 7), it will cause the developer to bemore active, thus reducing the total amountof time for development.

If the water contains a large number ofimpurities, boil it and let it stand until theprecipitate settles. Then gently pour it,without disturbing the sediment, throughprewashed cheesecloth or a paper filter. Distilled water may also be used.

If you suspect there is a problem with thewater, do a comparison test by mixing twosolutions of developer, one with tap waterand the other with boiled or distilled water.Process and compare the results. Film is generally more susceptible to variations in

BLACK-AND-WHITE PAPER DEVELOPERS 105

water quality than prints. The most commonproblems are foreign particles, which candamage the emulsion, and changes in the pH,which can affect the speed of the materials.

The amount of calcium, iron salts, andmagnesium found in water determines itshardness. The greater the concentration of these minerals, the harder the water. Very hard water produces nonsoluble pre-cipitates that collect on equipment andmaterials. The use of a water softener is notrecommended because the softening processcan remove too many of the minerals, espe-cially calcium carbonate, and affect process-ing. Water softeners can drop the calciumcontent to below 20 parts per million (ppm).If the calcium carbonate level is too low, itcan affect the activity and stability of thedeveloper.

Many taps contain an aerating filter, asmall screen screwed into the end of thefaucet that adds oxygen to the water toimprove its taste. This filter should beremoved because added oxygen can increasethe oxidation rate of many solutions, thusreducing their life span.

The perfect water supply for photographicpurposes has a pH of about 7, contains 150to 250ppm of calcium carbonate, and is freeof most particle matter.

OTHER PROCESSING FACTORS

Temperature

The rate of development depends on thereducing potential of the developing agentand its dilution, the characteristics of theemulsion, the amount of time in the devel-oper, and the temperature of the solution. Alldevelopers work more quickly as their tem-perature rises. Just as with film develop-ment, 68°F (20°C) has been adopted as thestandard processing temperature for mostsilver-based papers. All processing solu-tions, including the wash, should be kept asclose to the temperature of the developer aspossible.

Changes in the temperature affect not onlythe processing time but also the characteris-tics of the developing agents themselves.Metol performs consistently over a widerange of temperatures, but hydroquinonedoes not. It becomes extremely active above

75°F (24°C) and loses much of its effectbelow 55°F (13°C). For example, as the temperature drops below 68°F (20°C), aMetol-hydroquinone developer will producea softer, less contrasty print than normal. As the temperature rises above 68°F, theprint will become harder and contrastier.Changes in temperature also will change theimage color of various papers from theirnormal appearance.

Time

Chloride papers are the fastest, having adeveloping time of about 1 minute. Bromidepapers are the slowest, requiring times of 3minutes or longer. Chlorobromide papers(widely used for enlarging) have the widesttime latitude. Exposure and developmenttimes can be varied to produce differentimage colors. Chlorobromide papers have anormal developing range of 11/2 to 3 minutes.Generally, more exposure and less develop-ment will result in a warmer image tone thannormal. Depending on the paper, less expo-sure and more development time will resultin a colder image. A developing time that istoo short will not allow the developer to per-meate the emulsion evenly. This can resultin flat, uneven, and muddy-looking prints.Too long a developing time can fog or stainthe paper.

Agitation

To avoid uneven processing and streaking,prints should be agitated constantly byrocking the developer tray in different direc-tions. First slide the paper, with a quick fluidmotion, into the developer. Then lift up thefront of the tray so that it is at a 10- to 30-degree angle and set it back down. Do thesame thing on the right side of the tray.Repeat the procedure at the front of the trayand on the left side. Return again to the frontand repeat this pattern of agitation until thedevelopment time is complete.

Prints should be kept under the developerduring the entire processing time. Do notremove them from the developer for inspec-tion, as exposure to the air can fog the developer-saturated emulsion.


Dry-Down Effect

Determining the correct exposure for anexpressive print can be accomplished onlythrough visual inspection. A number offactors need to be considered. Under safe-light illumination, prints tend to appeardarker than they do under white light. Prints always have a richer, more lumi-nous look when they are glistening wet than they do after they have dried. Allpapers darken, losing some of their reflectivepower, as they dry. This dry-down effect cancause subtle shadow areas to becomeblocked. The highlight areas appear brighterin a wet print because the swelling of theemulsion causes the silver to spread apartslightly. This permits more light to bereflected back from the base of the paper.After the print is dry, the silver becomesmore tightly grouped, so the density appearsgreater, reducing some of the brilliance of thehighlight areas.

You can compensate for the dry-downeffect by reducing the exposure time by 5 to10 percent, depending on the paper. Somephotographers dry a test print or strip witha hair dryer or in a microwave oven to obtain an accurate exposure. They can then compare the dried print with a wet oneto get an idea of what changes will occur.This is important when working with anunfamiliar paper.

Edge Burning

Although edge burning is not a developmenttechnique per se, you should take it into con-sideration when deciding on the correctexposure. Many prints can benefit from addi-tional exposure at the edges (5 to 10 percentof the total exposure is a good starting point).Making the edges darker can help keep theviewer’s eye from wandering out of thecorners of the print. This method is effectivewhen there are bright highlights in a corner.Edge burning creates a definite separationbetween the print and its matte or mountboard, keeping the two from visually blend-ing together.

Method 1The simplest method is to hold an opaquepiece of cardboard that is larger than the

print over the print, revealing the edge andabout 25 percent of the image into the print.Then make an exposure equal to about 5 to10 percent of the total print time. During theexposure, move the card away from thecenter of the print out to its edges. Eachcorner will receive two edge exposures,making them darker than the center portionof the entire edge. This can be visually effec-tive, allowing the light to act as a visualproscenium arch that contains and framesthe image.

Method 2This technique permits all four edges to beburned in at the same time, thus giving allthe edges and corners an equal increase indensity. This is done by using an opaqueboard cut in the shape of a rectangle or ovalin proportion to the image size and format.Center the board above the print so that itreveals the image area about 25 percent ofthe distance into the print. Set the timer forthe desired amount of additional exposure,then using a smooth, steady motion, movethe opaque board toward and away from thepaper.


Figure 7.2 The Shampoo Room series documents the early 1990s NewYork nightclub scene where the worst sin was to be boring. In a world ofecstasy, VIP rooms, guest lists, drag queens, and alcohol, Klub Kids com-peted to see who was the most fabulous and fierce. Just as the subjects ofthis series of nightclub portraits used costume to draw attention to them-selves, Valentino darkens the edges of his prints to keep the viewer’s eyefrom wandering outside of the print and on his subjects.

© John Valentino. Miss Channel, Limelight, from the series The ShampooRoom, 1992. Gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches.

CONTROLLING CONTRAST DURINGDEVELOPMENT

After you have selected the developer andgrade of paper, you can alter the contrast ofthe final image in a variety of simple,straightforward ways.

Two-Solution Development

You can reduce contrast and bring outshadow detail by transferring the paper fromthe developer to a tray containing a 10percent sodium carbonate solution or plainwater and then transferring it back to thedeveloper. You may repeat this process untilyou obtain the desired results. The follow-ing guidelines are a starting point for thisprocedure, but you will probably want tomodify them as you go along.

1. Immerse the print in the developer forabout 30 seconds.

2. Place the print in a 10 percent sodiumcarbonate solution without agitation for about 90 seconds. You can use plainwater, but it will increase the chances ofyour getting a mottled effect, which canbe very noticeable in textureless highlightareas such as a cloudless sky. The car-bonate results in a more uniform density.

3. Return the print to the developer for anadditional 30 seconds.

4. Place the print in the stop bath and con-tinue to process normally.

Local Controls

In situations where it is not practical to burnor dodge, you can apply various solutions tochange the print’s tonal value. These opera-tions can be carried out in a flat-bottom tray.Care must be taken to avoid getting the solu-tion in areas where it is not wanted, as a darkor light halo effect might be created in thetreated area. Use a brush or cotton swab toapply the solution. The type of paper be-ing treated greatly affects the degree towhich these controls can be applied with-out fogging or staining the print.

• Glycerin can be applied directly to the print to hold back (lighten) spe-cific areas.

• Hot water can be used to increase thedeveloper’s activity in selected areas.Begin processing the print in a developerthat is weaker than normal. After about 30seconds, remove the print, place it on aflat surface, and brush very hot water onareas requiring more development. Givethe print a number of brief applications,for about 10 to 15 seconds, and then returnit to the developer. This process may berepeated.

• Straight, undiluted stock developer can beapplied to specific areas for increaseddevelopment and contrast. Begin by pro-cessing the print normally for 30 seconds.Remove the print from the developer,place it on a smooth, flat surface, wipe offall the developer with a squeegee orchamois cloth, and apply the stock devel-oper, which has been heated to about100°F (38°C). Let the print sit for 10 to 30seconds, then return it to the regulardeveloper. This process may be repeatedas needed.

• Alkali may be applied to heighten thedeveloper’s effect. Prepare an acceleratorsuch as sodium carbonate in a saturatedsolution, dissolving as much acceleratoras possible in about 6 ounces of water.Follow the same application procedure asin the hot water method. This techniqueoften produces the most noticeable visual effect.

• A small pocket flashlight with the bulb wrapped in opaque paper to form an aperture from which the light sourcecan be controlled may be used to darkensmall portions of the print. This is accom-plished by removing the print from thedeveloper after about 30 to 45 seconds andcompletely wiping off the chemical witha squeegee or chamois cloth. The selectedarea is given extra exposure, and the printis returned to the developer tray for com-pletion of the process.

• Print flashing is another effective way to reduce contrast and improve high-light detail. In traditional print flash-ing, the negative is removed from theenlarger and the paper is given a brief (1 second or less) exposure with whitelight. These short exposures can be dif-ficult to control without an accuratedigital timer.


• An alternative method that uses a longerflash time can be carried out with amechanical timer. Before or after the printis exposed, hold a piece of tracing vellumsuch as Clearprint 1000H under theenlarging lens. Give the print a flash expo-sure of 10 to 20 percent of that requiredfor the normal exposure. For instance, ifthe total exposure time were 15 seconds,the flash time would be 11/2 to 3 seconds.There is no need to remove the negativefrom the enlarger, as the tracing vellumacts as a light mixer. The time will bedetermined by the effect desired and thelight transmission qualities of the vellum.

• Finally, altering the formula of the devel-oper will alter the contrast of the print.Adding more hydroquinone and/or potas-sium bromide to the formula can increasecontrast. Increasing the amount of Metol(Elon) in the formula can decrease con-trast. Blacks can be deepened through theaddition of carbonate. The increase inMetol depends on the desired outcome,but a range of about 10 to 25 percent issuggested.

MATCHING DEVELOPER AND PAPER

Cold-Tone Papers

Fast, coarse-grain chlorobromide papers gen-erally produce cold black through blue-blackimage color. The normal developer for thesepapers is a Metol-hydroquinone combina-tion containing a large amount of acceler-ator (alkali) and a minimum of restrainer(bromide) to prevent fog. Complete develop-ment in a full-strength developer shoulddeliver a print with rich, deep, luminoustones and full detail in key highlight andshadow areas. Shortened development timesproduce less than a maximum black, pre-venting details in the upper range of high-lights from becoming fully visible. Theypermit mottling in clear areas, produceuneven effects with streaks, and give theimage an overall greenish tone.

Warm-Tone Papers

Slower, fine-grain papers have a higher proportion of silver chloride than cold-tone papers. These papers work best whenprocessed in Metol-hydroquinone develop-

ers that contain less accelerator (sodium carbonate) and more restrainer (potassiumbromide) than those used with cold-tonepapers. Increasing the exposure time andreducing the development time can createeven warmer tones. This can be accom-plished by diluting the developer with twoto three parts of water and/or increasing theamount of potassium bromide. Less activedevelopers such as glycin tend to producewarmer tones than the Metol-hydroquinonecombinations. For maximum effect, usethese methods with warm-toned papers, asthey tend to have almost no effect on cold-tone papers.

DEVELOPER APPLICATIONS ANDCHARACTERISTICS

Kodak Dektol

The most commonly used paper developer is Kodak Dektol, which is a Metol-hydroquinone formula. Dektol is a cold-tone developer that produces a neutral toblue-black image on cold-tone papers. It isavailable as a prepared powder or can bemade from the D-72 formula, which is verysimilar. Dektol’s standard dilution is 1 :2 (1part developer to 2 parts water) with a rec-ommended developing range of 45 secondsto 3 minutes at 68°F (20°C). It can be usedstraight to increase contrast or diluted 1 :3 or1 :4 to cut contrast and produce warmertones on certain papers. If you do this, adda 10 percent solution of potassium bromidefor each 32 ounces of working solution.Almost every manufacturer makes a devel-oper that is very similar to Dektol. Peoplewho are allergic to Metol developers can usePhenidone-based prepared formulas such asIlford Bromophen and Ilford ID-36.

Kodak D-72 FormulaThis is a cold-tone paper developer.


Metol (Elon) 45 grains (3 grams)Sodium sulfite 11/2 ounces (45 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 175 grains (12 grams)Sodium carbonate 23/4 ounces (80 grams)

(monohydrate)Potassium bromide 30 grains (2 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)


Processing procedures are the same asthose for Dektol. For colder, blue-blacktones, reduce the amount of bromide (startby reducing it by one-half).

Kodak Polymax T

Polymax T is a liquid developer designed toproduce a neutral to cold-black image oncold-tone papers. It has a standard dilutionof 1 :9 (1 part developer to 9 parts water)with a useful range of processing times from1 to 3 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Ilford Bromophen

Bromophen is a Phenidone-hydroquinone–based cold-tone developer which is availablein prepared powder form. It is normallydiluted 1 :3 (1 part developer to 3 partswater) and has a developing time of 11/2 to 2minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Ethol LPD

LPD is a Phenidone-hydroquinone devel-oper available in both liquid and powderform. LPD can be used with both cold- andwarm-tone papers. Varying the dilution ofthe stock solution can alter the tone of eitherwarm- or cold-tone papers. LPD is designedto maintain uniform contrast even if thedilution of the stock solution is changed. Forexample, with a cold-tone paper it may bediluted 1 :8 (1 part developer to 8 partswater) to produce a very light to warm silvertone, or 1 :2 for a cold to blue-black tone.Dilutions of 1 :6 and 1 :4 deliver light silverand neutral silver tones, while a dilution of1 :1 or even full strength produces thecoldest, most brilliant blacks. Ethol LPD hasa standard development time of 11/2 to 3minutes at 70°F (21°C). LPD offers great printcapacity and may be replenished.

Sprint Quicksilver

Quicksilver is a pyrazolidone-hydroquinonedeveloper that develops all image tones at aconstant rate. This means that overall printdensity increases with development, andcontrast remains fairly stable. It has a stan-dard dilution of 1 :9 (1 part developer to 9parts water) with a useful range of 1 to 4minutes at 65°F to 77°F (18°C to 25°C). Atthe standard dilution, it produces a neutraltone on cold-tone papers. It gives warm-tonepapers a more neutral color than other devel-opers and is not recommended for certaincold-tone chloride papers (contact papers)such as Azo. Quicksilver may be convertedto other Sprint Systems developers such asDirect Positive B&W and color slide andprint developers.

Kodak D-52/Selectol

D-52, also known as Selectol, is designed toproduce a warm black to a brown-blackimage with normal contrast on warm-tonepapers. D-52 is generally mixed 1 :1 (1 partdeveloper to 1 part water) and is developedfor 2 minutes at 68°F (20°C). Increasing theexposure and reducing the developmenttime to 11/2 minutes can produce a slightlywarmer image color. Increasing the develop-


Figure 7.3 The image, photographed directly from a television, wasprojected in an enlarger to about 30 ¥ 40 inches. Nine 8 ¥ 10 inch piecesof paper were exposed under specific areas of this projection. All thepaper was processed in Sprint Quicksilver, which is known for its abilityto develop image tones at a very steady rate. The final composite thattakes us in and out of conventional photographic time was made bygridding together the various 8 ¥ 10 inch sections.

© Karl Baden. Strike, 1985. Gelatin silver prints. 24 ¥ 30 inches.

ment time and reducing the exposure canresult in colder tones and a slight increase in contrast. The effectiveness of either technique depends on the paper being used.For warmer tones, increase the amount of bromide (start by doubling it).

Kodak D-52 Formula


Metol (Elon) 22 grains (1.5 grams)Sodium sulfite 3/4 ounce (21.2 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 90 grains (6 grams)Sodium carbonate 250 grains (17 grams)

(monohydrate)Potassium bromide 22 grains (1.5 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Kodak Ektonol

Ektonol is a warm-tone developer availablein prepared powder form and designed forimages that are going to be toned. Ektonol’sstandard dilution is 1 :1 (1 part developer to1 part water) with a recommended develop-ing time of 11/2 minutes at 68°F (20°C). It con-tains no carbonate, giving it a lower pH thanmost cold-tone developers. This makes itgood for rapid-process papers that have adeveloping agent built into the emulsion.The lower activity of this developer does nottrigger the developing agent in the paper,thus permitting some control over develop-ment (see Chapter 6).

Kodak Ektaflo, Type 2

Ektaflo, Type 2, is a liquid developer forwarm-tone papers. At a dilution of 1 :9 (1part developer to 9 parts water), it has adevelopment time of 11/2 to 4 minutes. Thewarmest tones are produced by the lowestdevelopment times. An increase in time willproduce colder tones.

Kodak Selectol-Soft

Selectol-Soft is a packaged powder propri-etary formula similar to D-52, but it devel-ops the print to a lower contrast and favorsthe development of highlight areas. Selectol-Soft is known as a surface developer. It pen-

etrates the emulsion slowly, acting on thehighlights first and then on the middle andlower tonal areas. It gets stronger as thedevelopment time increases. Selectol-Softacts like a low-contrast, Metol-only devel-oper such as Ansco 120 (see formula). It hasa regular development time of 2 minutes at68°F (20°C) and a standard dilution of 1 :1 (1part developer to 1 part water). Changes inthe dilution and development time affect theimage color on warm-tone papers. Extendingthe development time to 8 to 10 minutesdeepens the blacks, creating a rich print witha fairly neutral tone. Selectol-Soft can beused in conjunction with a cold-tone devel-oper such as Dektol for additional contrastcontrol (see the next section on variable-contrast development). Its warm-tone char-acteristics are not noticeable on cold-tonepapers, but it will develop a cold-tone grade to a lower level of contrast.

Ansco 120 FormulaThis is a low-contrast Metol developer.


Metol 1/4 ounce (12.3 grams)Sodium sulfite 1 ounce (36 grams)

(desiccated)Sodium carbonate 1 ounce (36 grams)

(monohydrate)Potassium bromide 27 grains (1.8 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Ansco 120 is usually diluted 1 :2 (1 partdeveloper to 2 parts water), but it may beused at full strength or at a higher dilution.Its normal developing time ranges from 11/2 to3 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Variable-Contrast Development

Variable-contrast developers are useful formaking small adjustments (less than a fullpaper grade) that permit precision adjust-ments of the tonal range of the print. Threeseparate approaches to working with vari-able-contrast developers are offered: (1)using a combination of the standard Kodakdevelopers Dektol and Selectol-Soft, (2)working with a two-part developer likeEdwal T.S.T., and (3) using the classic Dr.Roland Beers formula that must be mixedfrom scratch. (See “Other Paper DeveloperFormulas” at the end of this chapter.)


Dektol and Selectol-SoftStock solutions of Dektol and Selectol-Softcan be combined to provide almost as muchcontrast control as the Dr. Beers developer.They have the advantage of being mixablefrom widely available commercial formulas.Two methods have been successful invarying the contrast with Dektol and Selectol-Soft.

In the first method, you can add contrastto a long tonal range print and build up agood solid maximum black by adding 50milliliters of straight stock Dektol per liter ofSelectol-Soft stock solution (11/2 ounces perquart). Increase the amount of Dektol in 50-

milliliter increments until you achieve thedesired contrast. The maximum that can beadded is about 350 milliliters of Dektol perliter of Selectol-Soft stock solution (10ounces per quart). Beyond this limit, theoutcome resembles that achieved withDektol alone. Do not add any additionalwater to this solution.

In the second method, begin print devel-opment in Selectol-Soft until good highlightseparation is evident. Then transfer the printinto Dektol to complete its development. Dif-ferent times in each solution and differentamounts of dilution permit a good deal ofvariation in contrast. As a starting point,


Figure 7.4 Killing Time brings together the architectural ruins of the Anasazi culture from the1100s in New Mexico with the contemporary urbanscapes from Denver, Colorado; Montezuma,Colorado; and Carefree, Arizona. By combining negatives with visual accuracy into a quadruplet,Erf has created the impression of a single photograph bringing together never seen realities andtruths from two cultures. Alignment of these images is critical to unify the composition and ismade easier with the use of a large-format view camera, in this case a 1926, 11 ¥ 14 inch KodakEmpire State View with a 12 inch Dagor lens. The ground glass allows the artist to align imagesexactly by juxtaposing the image on the ground glass with an actual photograph while in the field.Erf begins with a single picture and then proceeds to build his quadruplets one photograph at atime until complete. The use of two-step contact print development, using Selectol Soft 1 : 1 for 21/2minutes and then Dektol 1 : 2 for 21/2 minutes on an Ilford multigrade fiber-based paper, gives Erf theability to fine-tune and control contrast to make the four different prints match up.

© Greg Erf. Killing Time, 1997. Toned gelatin silver prints. 22 ¥ 28 inches.

placing a print in Selectol-Soft for about 90seconds and then in Dektol for 90 secondswill produce results that are about halfwaybetween those of developing the print ineither solution by itself. Prints not receiv-ing full development will lack a rich maxi-mum black.

Edwal T.S.T.Edwal T.S.T. (Twelve-Sixteen-Twenty) is aliquid two-part developer capable of con-trolling both the contrast and tone of animage. T.S.T. is very convenient and versa-tile and can deliver distinct visible results ona wide range of papers. T.S.T. can be dilutedfrom 1 :7 (1 part developer to 7 parts water)up to 1 :39 to achieve varying effects. At 1 :7, T.S.T. produces the coldest tones andthe deepest blacks. At 1 :15, it produces aneutral black. Warm tones on warm-tonepaper begin to occur at a 1 :19 dilution. Thesoftest warm tones occur at a dilution of 1 :39. T.S.T. will not produce a brown-toneimage on cold-tone paper.

For normal contrast and image tone,Edwal recommends using 1 ounce of solu-tion B for every 8 ounces of solution A,regardless of the dilution used. Developmenttimes for normal contrast prints are 2 to 21/2minutes at 70°F (21°C).

Reducing the amount of solution B willproportionally increase the contrast. Solu-tion B can be eliminated entirely formaximum effect. Reducing solution B alsoincreases the developer’s activity, and it maybe necessary to reduce the standard devel-opment time or slightly reduce the paper’sexposure time.

If you want maximum contrast, you canadd Edwal Liquid Orthazite, a restrainercontaining benzotriazole, to T.S.T. to preventfog. Use 1/2 to 1 ounce of Orthazite per quartof T.S.T. at the 1 :7 dilution to maintainclean, clear highlight detail.

You can decrease print contrast by increas-ing the amount of solution B up to doublethe normal amount. When you increase theamount of solution B, you can extend thedevelopment time up to 4 minutes.


Figure 7.5 Part of printmaking involves working through the process to arrive at a desiredcerebral and emotional response of the subject. For psychological effect, Hirsch wanted to producethe coldest tones and the deepest blacks while maintaining clear highlight detail. He did this byusing Edwal T.S.T. developer at 1 : 7 with no solution B and 1 ounce of Orthazite.

© Robert Hirsch. Untitled (detail), from the series The Architecture of Landscape, 1999. Tonedgelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 16 inches.

Solarizing Developer

The Sabattier effect, commonly called solar-ization, is achieved by re-exposing the print(it may be done on film) to white light whileit is being developed. The problem with thisprocedure is one of control. The print tendsto get dark and muddy very rapidly. The fol-lowing is a formula for a solarizing devel-oper similar to Solarol, which maintainsprint contrast during this procedure.

Solarizing Developer (Stock solution)

Water (68°F 20°C) 24 ounces (750milliliters)

Metol (Elon) 180 grains (12.0 grams)Sodium sulfite 11/4 ounces (37.5 grams)

(anhydrous)Sodium carbonate 615 grains (41.0 grams)

(monohydrate)Sodium bromide 72 grains (4.8 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

SolarolSolarol is a prepared powder developer thathas been specially formulated to maintainprint contrast during this procedure. Fol-lowing are some guidelines for working with Solarol:

1. Prepare a stock solution of Solarol anddilute it 1 :1 (1 part developer to 1 partwater) for use at 68°F (20°C).

2. Make a normal print on high-contrastpaper to determine the correct exposureand development time. This informationis vital because the ideal time for re-exposure is at about one-third the timeneeded for total development. High-contrast paper tends to deliver a morepronounced effect. Simple scenes em-phasizing strong graphic form are usuallygood subjects for initial experiments.

3. Place a 40-watt light bulb with a shock-proof switch about 3 feet above the areawhere the developer tray with the printwill be placed for re-exposure.

4. To achieve the Sabattier effect, expose apiece of paper at one-third less time than the normal test print in step 2. Forexample, if the exposure time for the test

print was 12 seconds, the correct expo-sure for the Sabattier effect would be 8seconds.

5. Develop the paper face up in Solarol forone-third the established developingtime. For instance, if the developing timefor the test print was 120 seconds, theideal time for re-exposure would be atabout 40 seconds. At this point, turn onthe 40-watt bulb, without removing thepaper from the developer, for 1 second.

6. Continue the developing process for thetotal established time.

7. After development is complete, finishprocessing the print following normalprocedures.

The intensity of the Sabattier effect can bealtered, from strong to gentle, by the follow-ing: (1) varying the distance of the white re-exposure light from the developer tray, (2)using different-strength light bulbs (10 to200 watts), (3) increasing or decreasing theamount of re-exposure time, or (4) printingon different grades of paper. Practice,patience, and experimentation are needed todiscover the full range of possibilities withthe Sabattier effect.

Nonrecommended Developers

It is possible to achieve unusual effects byprocessing in nonrecommended developers.Normal silver-based paper can be processedin a litho developer, with the rest of the stepsremaining the same, to produce differenttonal and color effects than those producedwith a normal paper developer. For example,Ilford’s Multigrade RC or Luminos ClassicWarmtone paper can be processed inKodalith Super RT or developer to create avery soft, low-contrast image with a pinkishbrown color. Depending on the paper,Kodalith Super RT has a useful developmentrange of about 11/2 to 4 minutes at 68°F (20°C).The print may appear dark after it comes outof the developer, but it tends to bleach outin the fixer. Image color can often be con-trolled through a combination of exposureand development time (long exposure withshort development or short exposure withextended development). Print mottling can


result from this technique, but some peoplefind that this enhances the look. Anotherexample is the use of activator and stabilizerwith regular photographic papers. Experi-mentation is in order.

Developers can also be applied in nontra-ditional ways such as with a spray bottle ora paintbrush. Developers can also be com-bined with other unintended ingredients toachieve uneven print densities, partial imagedevelopment, unusual print colors, andbrushlike visual effects.

Exhausted Developers

When a developer nears exhaustion, unusualcolor shifts can occur. When silver grains inpaper first begin to develop, they have a yellowish color. As they develop furtherthey turn reddish, then brown, and finallyblack. Exhausted developers are unable to fully reduce the silver halide in the emulsion, leaving a colored image. Overex-posing the print and then underdevelop-ing it will produce similar results. Mixingequal amounts of exhausted developer(glycin-based developers work best) withfresh developer can also create shifts in printcolor.

OTHER PAPER DEVELOPERFORMULAS

The following formulas can be helpful incontrolling the contrast and image tone ofsilver-based black-and-white photographicpapers.

High-Contrast Developer

Agfa 108 Formula


Metol 75 grains (5 grams)Sodium sulfite 11/2 ounce (40 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 88 grains (6 grams)Potassium carbonate 11/2 ounce (40 grams)Potassium bromide 30 grains (2 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

This paper developer will produce higherthan normal contrast on many cold-tone

papers with a hard, cool blue-black tone. Itis generally used at full strength with adevelopment time of 1 to 2 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Warm-Tone Developers

It is possible to produce tones through warmblack, luminous brown, and sepia by varyingthe type of developer. The type of paper used determines the effects generated. Fastneutral-tone papers yield warm blacks andbrown-blacks, and slower warm-tone papersproduce brown-black through very warmbrown in the same developer. Experimenta-tion is required to find the combination thatwill produce the desired image tone.

Agfa 120 FormulaThis is a warm-tone hydroquinone devel-oper.


Figure 7.6 To make this picture, Lebe made a photogram directly on thepaper. This photogram was contact printed on high-contrast paperprocessed in Solarol. The image was then very slightly bleached withpotassium ferricyanide, with specific areas being bleached with a brush orQ-Tip. Finally, the print was painted with liquid watercolors. To makeapplication easier, Photo-Flo was added to the mixing water to help thewatercolors penetrate the print surface.

© David Lebe. Garden Series, #2, 1979. Gelatin silver print with paint. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Original in color.



Hydroquinone 350 grains (24 grams)

Potassium car- 21/2 ounces (80 grams)bonate

Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Standard starting procedure is to dilutethe developer 1 :1 (1 part developer to 1 partwater) at 68°F (20°C) and process 11/2 to 3minutes. On a paper such as Agfa Brovira-Speed, this combination produces a warmblack tone. Agfa 120 can deliver a variety ofwarm black to brown tones depending on thepaper, dilution, and exposure time. Forinstance, a brown-black tone can be pro-duced on Agfa Portriga Rapid by increasingthe exposure time by up to about 50 percent,diluting the developer 1 :5, and processing 4to 5 minutes.

Agfa 123 FormulaThis is a brown-tone hydroquinone devel-oper.



Hydroquinone 350 grains(24 grams)

Potassium car- 2 ounces (60 grams)bonate

Potassium bromide 365 grains (25 grams)


Agfa 123 is designed to produce brown-black through olive-brown tones on warm-tone portrait paper. For example, you can get a neutral to sepia brown on Agfa PortrigaRapid by doubling the normal exposure,using a dilution of 1 :4 (1 part developer to 4 parts water), and processing for about 2 minutes. If you increase the exposure timeto 21/2 times normal, use a dilution of 1 :1,and extend the processing time to 5 to 6minutes, Portriga Rapid can produce abrown-black tone.


Figure 7.7 Fish’s manipulated photographs question Western conceptsof beauty by combining classical sculpture with nude figure studies. Her6 ¥ 7 cm negatives are scanned and reworked with Adobe PhotoShop®

and outputted to 4 ¥ 5 inch film by a service bureau. To achieve herunique tones Fish begins processing her print in Dektol (1 : 1), but duringthe development process she sprays the paper with nonrecommendeddevelopers: a mixture of Ilford Multigrade developer and Kodak activatorand stabilizer. A starting mixture might consist of 30 percent developer,40 percent activator, and 30 percent stabilizer. The resulting imagesprovoke awareness of the shortcomings of our “unclassically” propor-tioned bodies and our less-than-ideal corporeal states. (See Color Plate 2.)

© Alida Fish. Walking with Pygmalion, #8, 1998. 20 ¥ 16 inches. Tonedgelatin silver print. Courtesy of Schmidt/Dean Gallery, Philadelphia, PA.Original in color.


Amidol Formula


Amidol 120 grains (10 grams)Sodium sulfite 365 grains (30 grams)

(desiccated)Citric acid (crystal) 60 grains (5 grams)Potassium bromide 3/4 ounce (30

(10% solution) milliliters)Benzotriazole* 1/2 ounce (20

(1% solution) milliliters)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

*Edwal Liquid Orthazite can also be used.

Amidol is designed to be used full strengthand developed for 2 minutes at 68°F (20°C)to get blue-black tones. It may be diluted andhave the developing time lengthened toobtain softer, high-key prints. Amidol mustbe mixed fresh before each use because itwill keep for only a few hours in stock solu-tion. Since amidol has no carbonate, it doesnot require exact mixing. Variations in theamount of amidol affect the developing time.Variations in the amount of sodium sulfiteaffect the keeping qualities of the solution.Amidol is not very sensitive to bromide, sothe amount of potassium bromide may beadjusted to ensure clear highlights. Contactpapers often need only about half as muchbromide as enlarging papers.

Glycin Developers

Glycin is a versatile paper developer thatproduces a strong, deep black on bromidepapers and brown to sepia tones on warm-tone chloride and chlorobromide papers.

Glycin Formula


Sodium sulfite 31/3 ounces (100grams)

Trisodium phosphate 41/6 ounces (125(monohydrate) grams)

Glycin 375 grains (25 grams)

Potassium bromide 45 grains (3 grams)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

With bromide papers the normal dilutionis 1 :4 (1 part developer to 4 parts water), and

with chloride and chlorobromide papers the dilution is 1 :3. Normal developing timeis 2 to 3 minutes at 68°F (20°C). A wide rangeof tonal effects can be achieved by alteringthe exposure, dilution, and processing time.

Ansco 130 FormulaAnsco 130 is an all-purpose Metol-hydroquinone glycin developer that pro-duces smooth, deep, well-separated blacktones while retaining highlight detail andbrilliance with a wide range of processingtimes.


Metol 32 grains (2.2 grams)Sodium sulfite 13/4 grains (50 grams)

(desiccated)Hydroquinone 50 grains (11 grams)Sodium carbonate 21/2 ounces (78 grams)

(monohydrate)Potassium bromide 80 grains (5.5 grams)Glycin 50 grains (11 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

It is normal for this developer to appear tobe slightly colored. For normal results,dilute 1 :1 (1 part developer to 1 part water)at 68°F (20°C). Cold-tone papers can bedeveloped for 2 to 6 minutes, while warm-tone papers have a range of 11/2 to 3 minutes.Higher contrast can be achieved by usingAnsco 130 straight. Increasing the dilution to1 :2 can create softer prints.

Ilford ID-78 FormulaID-78 is a Phenidone-hydroquinone warm-tone developer.


Sodium sulfite 13/4 ounce (50 grams)(desiccated)

Hydroquinone 175 grains (12 grams)Sodium carbonate 2 ounces (62 grams)

(desiccated)Phenidone 71/2 grains (0.5 gram)Potassium bromide 6 grains (0.4 gram)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Dilute 1 :1 (1 part developer to 1 part water)at 68°F (20°C) and process for 1 minute. Toextend the developing time, increase thedilution to 1 :3 and process for 2 minutes.


Table 7.1 Dr. Beers Variable-Contrast Developer Dilutions

Contrast

Low Normal High

Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3 Sol 4 Sol 5 Sol 6 Sol 7 Sol 8

Parts of A 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Parts of B 0 1 2 3 4 5 14 15Parts of water 8 8 8 8 8 8 0 0

Sol = solution.

Figure 7.8 Van Cleef finds Dr. Beers two-solution developer to be effective in refining the contrast of her final print. To retain the subtle nuances of the texture of this image, Beers solution #3 (slightly lower contrast than normal) wasused with grade 2 Agfa paper. The Metol developing agent in solution A acts on the high tonal values while thehydroquinone develops the middle and lower tonal values.

© June Van Cleef. Retired Farmer and His Wife, 1988. Gelatin silver print. 11 ¥ 14 inches. Courtesy of The AfterimageGallery, Dallas.

Catechol (Pyrocatechin) FormulaPyrocatechin yields exceedingly rich browntones on bromide papers.


Catechol (Pyro- 60 grains (4 grams)catechin)

Potassium car- 11/2 ounces (45 grams)bonate

Potassium bromide 6 grains (0.4 grams)Water to make 30 ounces (900 milliliters)

Catechol (Pyrocatechin) works best atabout 100°F (38°C) with exposure timesgreatly reduced from those used with normalcold-tone developers. After development,the print is cooled in a water bath and thenprocessed following normal procedures.

Dr. Beers Variable-Contrast Formula

Dr. Beers is the standard against which variable-contrast developers are generallymeasured. Varying the proportions of thestock solutions A and B results in a progres-sive range of tonal contrasts.


52°C) milliliters)Metol 120 grains (8 grams)Sodium sulfite 350 grains (23 grams)

(desiccated)Sodium carbonate 300 grains (20 grams)

(desiccated)*Potassium bromide 16 grains (1.1 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Stock Solution BWater (125°F or 24 ounces (750

52°C) milliliters)Hydroquinone 120 grains

(8 grams)Sodium sulfite 350 grains (23 grams)

(desiccated)Sodium carbonate 400 grains (27 grams)

(desiccated)*Potassium bromide 32 grains

(2.2 grams)Cold water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

*The original Dr. Beers used potassium car-bonate. Sodium carbonate may be substituted,as it is less expensive and more widely avail-able. It should not produce any observable differences.

Stock solutions A and B are mixed at the time of use in varying proportions toyield a progressive range of contrasts, aslisted in Table 7.1. Dr. Beers has a develop-ing range of 11/2 to 5 minutes at 68°F (20°C).The low-number solutions can be dilutedeven further with water for extremely softeffects.


Adams, Ansel. The Print. Boston: Little,Brown, 1995.

Anchell Stephen G. The Darkroom Cook-book. Second Ed. Boston: Focal Press,2000.


8Toning for Visual Effects

Toning plays a vital role in translating thephotographer’s visual intent into a concretereality. Alterations in the color relationshipsof a print can dramatically change the aes-thetic and emotional responses to the work.

PROCESSING CONTROLS

When working with black-and-white materi-als, the following four factors play a role indetermining the final color of the photo-graph:

1. Paper type and grade

2. Developer type, dilution, and tempera-ture and length of development

3. Processing and washing

4. Chemical toner type, dilution, and tem-perature and length of toning

The developer-paper combination plays akey role in determining the look of the print,regardless of which type of toner is selected.Similarly, toner that delivers the desiredvisual effect with one developer-paper combination can be ineffective or produceundesirable effects with another. Most manu-facturers provide charts that list widely usedand recommended paper-toner combina-tions. For example, if the printmaker wantedto achieve the maximum warm brown colorfrom a toner, a paper such as Ilford Multi-grade Fiber Base Warmtone developed in

Kodak D-52 might be recommended. Almostall papers respond to some degree to mosttoners. Generally, warm-tone silver chloridepapers (contact papers) show a more pro-nounced toning effect than cold-tone silverbromide papers (enlarging papers).

Extended development times tend to limitthe effect of a toner. A warm-tone developer,such as Kodak D-52 or Kodak Selectol-Soft,used in place of a cold-tone developer, suchas Kodak Dektol, will produce even warmerimages. Thorough washing is important toavoid print staining. Experience, testing, andcareful observations are necessary for con-sistent and repeatable results. Keeping awritten record of procedures can help youbuild a storehouse of toning knowledge.Experimentation is the only way to see whatworks best in your situation.

BASIC TYPES OF TONERS

Many toners are available in prepared liquidor powder form, and mixing from formulasmay derive even more variations. Chemicaltoners can be divided into three major types:replacement, mordant dye, and straight dye.

Replacement Toners

The use of inorganic compounds (salts) toreplace or partially replace the silver in afully processed photograph makes for a wide

TONING FOR VISUAL EFFECTS 121

variety of image colors. In this process, thesilver is chemically converted with tonerssuch as gold, iron, selenium, sulfur, andother metallic compounds. Some of thesetoners act directly on the silver image, whileothers rely on bleaching the image and thenredeveloping it in a toning solution. It is pos-sible to achieve muted and subtle visualeffects with replacement toners, which arealso permanent and stable.

Mordant Dye Toners

A mordant is a compound that combineswith a dye so the color cannot bleed ormigrate within the dyed medium. Inmordant dye toning, the image is convertedto silver ferrocyanide through the use of amordant such as potassium ferricyanide. Amordant acts as a catalyst, permitting the useof dyes that would not normally combinewith silver. The dye is deposited in directproportion to the density of the ferrocyanide(mordant) image. This process allows dyetoners to be used to produce a wide varietyof vivid colors. Image color can be furtheraltered by immersing the photograph in abath containing different colored dyes or bycombining dyes. Some of the problems withmordant dye toners are:

1. They are not as stable as replacementtoners.

2. They are more likely to fade upon pro-longed exposure to UV light.

3. Some of their initial intensity is often lostduring the washing process.

4. Traces of the toner are often left in thewhite base areas of the paper even after acomplete wash.

Straight Dye Toners

With these toners, the silver is not convertedand the dye affects all areas equally. Thesetoners are widely available and very easy touse. Although they can produce vivid colors,the lack of difference in toner intensitybetween the highlight and shadow areastends to create a flat color field effect. This can unify a composition, or it can create a sense of sameness that can be visu-ally dull.

PROCESSING PRINTS TO BE TONED

The following procedures are recommendedstarting points for all toning procedures dis-cussed in this chapter, unless otherwisenoted. Table 8.1 summarizes the processingsteps in toning for visual effects.

Figure 8.1 Toning permits the photographer to reenter the photographand continue to make visual statements about the nature of the subject.The photographer’s knowledge of materials and expressionistic drive cancome together in this process. Byrd used an etching needle on his 6 ¥ 7cm negative (emulsion side for black lines and base side for white lines).The print was made by exposing the negative through wet tissue paper onthe paper’s surface for 50 percent longer than the normal time. Then theinterior rectangle was masked, and the print was given additionalexposure. The paper was processed in Ethol LPD (1 :1) for 3 minutes.After the final wash, the print was immersed in copper toner for 10minutes, redeveloped in LPD (1 :9) for 20 seconds, treated with a silvertoner for 5 minutes, washed in a hypo clearing bath, and reimmersed inthe copper toner for 5 minutes.

© Jeffrey Byrd. Life Is Splendid and Obscure and Long Enough, 1989.Gelatin silver print. 20 ¥ 16 inches. Original in color.


Printing and Development

To a certain degree, almost all toners affectthe contrast and/or density of a print, so it isa good idea to experiment before toning any final prints. Some toners lighten the final print and others darken it. Changes inexposure and/or development time may beneeded to adjust for these effects. Manytoners’ instructions tell you whether toexpect such changes. When first workingwith a toner, it is helpful to make extraprints, including duplicates of what isbelieved to be the proper exposure andprints having more and less exposure thannormal. The making of additional prints alsopermits variation in toning times, thusincreasing your selection of color effects.

Stop Bath

After development is complete, printsshould be drained and then immersed in a28 percent acid stop bath for 30 seconds withconstant agitation at 68°F (20°C).

Fixer

Proper fixing, with fresh fix, is a must toensure high-quality toning results. Either asingle rapid fixing bath or a two-bath methodcan be used. Incomplete fixing will fail to

remove residual stop bath and silver thio-sulfate compounds, resulting in an overallyellow stain on prints toned with seleniumor sulfide. These stains are most visible inthe border and highlight areas of the print.Purplish circular stains are often due toimproper agitation during fixing. Excessivefixing can bleach the highlight areas andproduce an unexpected change in the colorof the toned image.

Many papers tone more easily if the paperis fixed without any hardener. Some tonersspecifically require the use of fix withouthardener. Check the directions before pro-cessing.

Prints toned with nonselenium browntoners can be treated with a hardener toincrease surface durability. This is doneright before the final wash. A hardening bathsuch as Kodak Liquid Hardener is diluted 1 :3 (1 part hardener to 3 parts water), andthe prints are immersed in it with constantagitation, for 2 to 5 minutes. The print isthen given a final wash.

Washing before Toning

After proper fixing, rinse excess fixer off theprint and begin the first wash of at least 5minutes at 68°F (20°C). Photographs can bestored in a water holding bath until theprinting session is complete. This allows the

Table 8.1 Processing Steps in Toning for Visual Effects at 68°F (20°C)

Step Summary Time

1. Developer Select a developer-paper combination to match the toner 11/2 to 5 minutes2. Stop bath Use a regular 28% acetic acid stop bath. 1/2 minute3. First fix Use only fresh fix. Check to see if hardener is needed. 3 to 5 minutes

Do not overfix.4. Second fix Same as step 3. 3 to 5 minutes5. Rinse Remove excess fix with water. 5 minutes

minimum6. First wash* Begin the removal of chemicals. 2 to 5 minutes7. Washing aid Use Perma-Wash or Kodak Hypo Clearing Agent. 2 to 5 minutes8. Second wash Remove fixer residuals to prevent staining. 10 minutes9. Toning Use a minimum of three trays:

Tray 1—water holdingTray 2—tonerTray 3—collection trayTray 4—running water (print washer)

10. Washing aid Same as step 7. 2 to 3 minutes11. Final wash* Remove all chemicals from the paper. 60 minutes12. Drying Air-dry, face down, on plastic screens. Do not use heat. As needed

*All washing times must be established for specific conditions. The times given should be adequate to preventprint staining in most applications.


remaining washing and toning steps to becarried out at the same time.

After the first wash, prints are immersedin a washing aid or hypo eliminator for recommended times, usually about 2 to 5minutes. The print is then washed for aminimum of 10 minutes, after which it isready to be toned.

Previously processed and dried prints canbe toned, but first they must be allowed tosoak in a water bath and become completelysaturated. If you do not do this, the tonermight be unevenly absorbed, resulting in amottled finish.

Washing after Toning

After the print has been toned, it must bewashed. The washing time will vary depend-ing on the combination of paper, toner, andwashing technique. Check the manufac-turer’s recommendations for suggested start-ing washing times. A general guideline is torinse the print immediately after it comesout of the toner, immerse it in a washing aid,with constant agitation, for 2 to 3 minutes,and then give it a final wash of 1 hour.

The wash and washing aids can affectcertain toner-paper combinations. For in-stance, mordant dye toners tend to loseintensity during the final wash. You cancompensate for this loss by extending thetoning time. When the print is immersed ina washing aid, sepia toners may be intensi-fied or a shift in tonality may occur, whileblue toners may lose intensity.

Drying

Toned prints should be allowed to air-dry,facedown, on plastic screens. Heat-dryingcan produce noticeable shifts in color.

GENERAL WORKING PROCEDURESFOR TONERS

Safety

Review and follow all safety rules outlinedin Chapter 2 before beginning any toningoperation. Always wear thin, disposablerubber gloves and work in a well-ventilatedarea. Some toners, such as Kodak Poly-Toner

and certain sepia toners, release sulfurdioxide (rotten-egg smell) and should beproperly ventilated with an exhaust fan.Have no other photographic materials in thetoning area. Certain toners can releasehydrogen sulfide gas, which can fog unex-posed film and paper and oxidize unpro-tected silver images on film and prints.

Equipment

When working with a single-bath toner, aminimum of three clean trays, slightly largerthan the print, are required. The first tray isused to hold the prints waiting to be toned.The second contains the toner. The thirdcontains a water bath to hold the prints afterthey have been toned. A fourth tray or printwasher with a running water bath is desir-able to rinse off excess toner. The action ofthe toner will continue as long as there is anytoner remaining on the paper. Different tonaleffects can be achieved by varying the dilu-tion rates of the single-bath toners.

Reuse of Toners

Once toners have been diluted and used,they cannot be reliably stored or reused. An exception is hypo alum sepia toner,which actually improves with use and canbe kept for years. Generally, the correctamount of toner solution for the number ofprints being toned should be mixed for eachtoning session and discarded after it hasbeen used.

Use of a Comparison Print

Keep a wet, untoned print next to the printbeing toned as a visual guide to the toner’saction. This is the only accurate way tomeasure how much effect has taken place. A disposable work print can be placed on the backside of a flat-bottom tray and proppedup next to the toning tray for easy viewing.

BROWN TONERS

Brown toners are the most widely used anddiverse group of toners. They are generallyconsidered to have a warm, intimate, andengaging effect. They are divided into three


major groups. Selenium toners such asKodak Rapid Selenium Toner deliver pur-plish to reddish brown tones. Cool chocolatebrowns are created from single-solution,sulfur-reacting toners such as Kodak HypoAlum Sepia Toner T-1A, Kodak PolysulfideToner T-8, and Kodak Brown Toner. Verywarm browns are produced by bleach andredevelopment sulfide toners such as KodakSulfide Sepia Toner T-7a. Any Kodak tonerwith a “T” in the name is a formula tonerand must be prepared by you. Berg andEdwal also make brown toners.

Some toners are capable of producing awide range of effects and cannot be put intoa single category. These include Kodak Poly-Toner, which can yield a wide range ofcolors, and Kodak Gold Toner T-21, whichproduces a range of neutral brown tones onwarm-tone papers.

Brown Tones on Warm-Tone Papers

Many warm-tone papers, such as IlfordMultigrade Fiber Base Warmtone andLuminos Charcoal R Warm-tone, lose con-trast and density in polysulfide brown tonerssuch as Kodak Brown Toner and Kodak Poly-sulfide Toner T-8. These toners also bleachthe image slightly, producing a yellow-brown color that may not be visually accept-able. You can compensate for these effects by modifying the development time. UsingLuminos Charcoal R Warm-tone paper as anexample, process it in Kodak D-52 (1 :1) for2 minutes at 68°F (20°C). Use the same exposure time to make another print, but in-crease the development time to 31/2 minutes.The extra development time increases boththe contrast and the density, offsetting thebleaching effect of the toner. Warm-tonepapers can deliver even richer browns whenprocessed in a cold-tone developer such asDektol (1 :3) for 31/2 minutes at 68°F (20°C).

Brown Tones on Neutral- and Cool-Tone Papers

Neutral- and cool-tone papers, such asKodak Polycontrast, do not produce a yellowcast. You can maintain contrast and densityby increasing the developing time by about25 percent and leaving the exposure time the same.

Kodak Rapid Selenium Toner

Kodak Rapid Selenium Toner is a preparedsingle-solution toner that can be used tomake purplish brown to reddish browncolors on neutral- and warm-tone papers.Rapid Selenium Toner converts the silverimage into brown silver selenide and causesa slight increase in print density and con-trast. The increased density is more no-ticeable in the highlight areas, while theincreased contrast is more noticeable in theshadow areas. To compensate for these char-acteristics, a slight reduction (often less than10 percent) in development time may be necessary.

The starting dilution rate for Rapid Sele-nium Toner is 1 :3 (1 part toner to 3 partswater). The normal toning time range is 2 to8 minutes. Diluting the toner 1 :9, 1 :20, or 1 :30 slows the toning action, producing avariety of intermediate effects, and is easierto control. Very subtle effects and protectivebenefits against atmospheric gases can beachieved by diluting 1 ounce of Rapid Sele-nium Toner to a gallon of water and toningfor 8 to 15 minutes. Allow for the fact thattoning will continue for a brief time in thewash. A faint smell of sulfur dioxide may benoticeable when you are working with thistoner. After toning is complete, treat theprint with a washing aid and then wash for1 hour.

Kodak Poly-Toner

Kodak Poly-Toner is a versatile, single-solution, commercially made toner. Poly-Toner changes the silver image into partselenide and part sulfide. It is capable of pro-ducing a variety of brown tones, from sepiaon cold papers to warm browns on warmpapers. Table 8.2 provides some commonstarting points for working with Kodak

Table 8.2 Toning with Kodak Poly-Toner at 70°F (21°C)

Dilution Tone Produced Time

1:4 Reddish brown 1 minute1 :24 Brown 3 minutes1 :50* Warm brown 7 minutes

*A loss of density can occur at this dilution. Compen-sate by increasing the print’s development time.


Poly-Toner. Following toning, immerse theprint in a washing aid and then wash for atleast 1 hour.

Kodak Brown Toner

Kodak Brown Toner is a packaged single-solution toner that produces sepia tones onmost papers. This is accompanied by a lossin contrast that can be offset by increas-ing the development time. Brown Tonerchanges the silver image into brown silver

sulfide. This toner does contain potassiumsulfide and should be used only in a well-ventilated area.

Kodak Brown Toner has a normal toningrange of 15 to 20 minutes at 68°F (20°C) withagitation. When toning is finished, treat theprint with a washing aid and then wash forat least 1 hour. Increasing the temperaturewill increase the toner’s activity and reducethe toning time. Kodak Polysulfide Toner T-8, whose formula is provided later in thissection, can produce results very similar tothose produced by Kodak Brown Toner.

Kodak Sepia Toner

Kodak Sepia Toner is a prepared two-solu-tion toner that can provide good sepia toneson cold-tone papers such as Kodak PolymaxFine Art and Ilford Multigrade IV FB, oryellow-brown tones on warm-tone papers.Varying the toning time to alter the color isineffective with Kodak Sepia Toner and isnot recommended. This toner changes thesilver image into brown silver sulfide. Itresults in some loss of print density, whichcan be corrected by increasing the expo-sure time.

With Kodak Sepia Toner, the print isbleached in solution A for approximately 1minute, until the blacks in the shadow areasdisappear. A light brown image in theshadows, with the lighter tones becominginvisible, indicates that the bleaching iscomplete. If the print is not totally bleachedbefore being put in the sulfide toner, irregu-lar tones are likely to occur. After bleaching,the print is thoroughly rinsed for a mini-mum of 2 minutes in running water, thenimmersed in solution B for about 30 seconds,until the original density returns. Followingthe completion of the toning operation, theprint is placed in a washing aid and thenwashed for a minimum of 1 hour. KodakSulfide Sepia Toner T-7a, whose formula isprovided in this chapter, delivers similarresults to those achieved with Kodak Sepia Toner.

Retoning ProcessIt is possible to retone prints in Kodak SepiaToner to achieve a subtler, but neverthelessmore striking, effect than can be producedfrom a fully toned sepia image. The gray

Figure 8.2 Pipo uses the nineteenth-centuryphotographic syntax to reinterpret and simulatetintype portraits made in the American West.Using himself as an Asian model for all thecharacters, he takes on and gives new twists ofmeaning to gunslingers, musicians, miners, and gentlemen. “By consciously assuming cul-turally powerful icons, and not the assumedstereotypical representations of Asians as thesubmissive other (opium addicts, domesticservants) my goal is to humorously and ironi-cally question and challenge the legitimacy and authority of the Western myth.” Pipo usesKodak Poly-Toner to warm the image to mimicthe feel of an old photograph. The prints werefuture toned with a combination of coffee andchicory from the Café du Monde in NewOrleans.

© Pipo Nguyen-Duy. AnOther Western, 1998.Toned gelatin silver print. 5 ¥ 4 inches. Originalin color.


areas are the most affected with this method,turning slightly golden brown rather thanreddish brown. The black portions of theprint change little or not at all.

For this retoning process, make a numberof prints that are slightly darker than normal(start with a range of 10 to 25 percentdarker). Papers such as Ilford MultigradeFiber Base Warmtone and Ilfobrom GalleryFB deliver good results. Begin experimenta-tion with test prints, as it may be necessaryto adjust the processing times depending on the type of paper and its contrast. Toachieve the subtlest effects, begin with a dryprint that has been fixed and completelywashed. Use the regular Kodak Sepia Tonermixture at about 68°F (20°C) and followthese steps:

1. Place the print in solution A (bleach) forabout 30 seconds.

2. Wash in running water for 2 minutes.

3. Place the print in solution B (toner) forapproximately 1 minute.


5. Rebleach the print in solution A forabout 15 seconds.


7. Retone in solution B for approximately1 minute.

8. Wash for 1 minute.

9. (Optional) Place the photograph in a 1 :13 solution of Kodak Liquid Hard-ener (1 part hardener to 13 parts water)for about 3 minutes with occasional agitation.

10. Give the image a final wash in runningwater for a minimum of 30 minutes.

Kodak Hypo Alum Sepia Toner T-1a

Kodak Hypo Alum Sepia Toner T-1a isdesigned to deliver sepia tones on warm-tone papers. Hypo Alum Sepia Toner T-1aresults in a loss of contrast and density,which can be offset by increasing the expo-sure time by up to 15 percent or increasingthe development time by up to 50 percent.This toner is designed to be used at a high

Figure 8.3 Reflecting on the idea of more than one, Doug and MikeStarn challenge many basic concepts of fine art photography. They areknown for crumpled, scratched, torn, and taped-together images that havebeen thumbtacked to the wall. The Starns make large-scale photographsand installation pieces designed to hold the viewers’ attention in biggallery spaces alongside painting and sculpture. Rembrandt Heads is sixprints of the same negative, photographed at the Art Institute of Chicago,that were given six different exposure times. These prints were thencopper-toned at different lengths of time, resulting in a variety of copperhues from salmon to deep copper.

© Doug and Mike Starn. Rembrandt Heads, 1989. Toned gelatin silverprints with Scotch tape. 88 ¥ 51 inches. Original in color.


temperature, 120°F (49°C), for 12 to 15minutes. Toning at above 120°F for longerthan 20 minutes may cause blisters or stainson the print. The toner may be used at roomtemperature, but toning will take severalhours. The solution should be agitated occa-sionally during this process. After com-pletion, it may be necessary to wipe the print with a soft sponge and warm water to remove any sediment. The print is thentreated with a washing aid, followed by afinal wash of at least 1 hour.

Kodak Hypo Alum Sepia Toner T-1aFormulaPrepare this formula carefully followingthese instructions:

Water (68°F or 20°C) 90 ounces(2,800 milliliters)

Sodium thiosulfate 16 ounces (80 grams)(pentahydrate)

Dissolve completely and then add the fol-lowing solution:

Water (160°F or 20 ounces 70°C) (640 milliliters)

Potassium alum 4 ounces (120 grams)(fine granular)

Now add the following solution, includingthe precipitate, slowly to the hypo alumsolution while stirring rapidly.

Water (68°F or 20°C) 2 ounces (64 milliliters)

Silver nitrate crystals* 60 grains (4 grams)Sodium chloride 60 grains (4 grams)*Dissolve the silver nitrate completely, then dis-

solve the sodium chloride. Immediately add thesolution along with the milky-white precipitateto the hypo alum solution. The formation of anyblack precipitate should not impair the actionof the toner if it is properly handled. Weargloves because silver nitrate will stain anythingit touches black.

After combining these two solutions, addwater to make 1 gallon (3.8 liters). When youare ready to use the toner, heat it in a waterbath to 120°F (49°C).

Kodak Sulfide Sepia Toner T-7a

Kodak Sulfide Sepia Toner T-7a is a two-solution bleach and redevelopment toner. Itis capable of delivering warm brown toneson many types of paper, including cold-tonepapers. Its results and general characteristicsare similar to those achieved with the pack-aged Kodak Sepia Toner.

The print to be toned is placed in solutionA (bleach) until only a faint yellowish brownimage remains. This takes 5 to 8 minutes.The print is then rinsed completely inrunning water for a minimum of 2 minutes.Next it is immersed in solution B (toner)

Figure 8.4 Bailey explains that “This image was made with a toy Dianacamera that permits little control when taking a photograph. This neces-sitates a more spontaneous and intuitive approach to making photographs.Neither the result from the Diana, nor the subsequent toning processesemployed, respond well to willful intent (the expectation that a certainpredetermined look can be achieved upon command). This approachrequires that one entrust oneself completely to the tools, to the materials,and to the processes themselves.” Bailey later printed the image on Ilford,Warm Tone fiber paper in Zonal Pro HQ Warm Tone developer (10 :1). Toachieve the brownish-pink color, Bailey used a hypo alum sepia toner.

© Jonathan Bailey. Playa del Carmen (Quintana Roo) 1994. Toned gelatinsilver print. 51/2 ¥ 51/2 inches. Original in color.


until the original details return, about 1minute. After this procedure, the print isgiven a thorough rinse and treated in a hard-ening bath for 2 to 5 minutes. The hardeningbath can be prepared by mixing 1 part pre-pared Kodak Liquid Hardener with 13 partswater, or using 2 parts Kodak Hardener F-5astock and 16 parts water (see formula). Thehardening bath should not affect the color ortonality of the print. After toning (and hard-ening), place the print in a washing aid andthen wash for a minimum of 1 hour.

Kodak Sulfide Sepia Toner T-7a Formula

Stock Bleaching Solution AWater (68°F or 32 ounces (1 liter)

20°C)Potassium ferricya- 21/2 ounces (75 grams)

nide (anhydrous)Potassium bromide 21/2 ounces (75 grams)

(anhydrous)Potassium oxalate 61/2 ounces (195

grams)28% acetic acid* 11/4 ounces (40 grams)Water to make 64 ounces (2 liters)*To make 28 percent acetic acid from glacial

acetic acid, combine 3 parts glacial acetic acidwith 8 parts water.

Stock Toning Solution BSodium sulfide (not 11/2 ounces (45

sulfite; anhydrous) grams)Water (68°F or 20°C) 16 ounces (500

milliliters)

Prepare the bleaching solution as follows:

Stock Solution A 16 ounces (500milliliters)

Water 16 ounces (500 milliliters)

Prepare the toner as follows:

Stock Solution B 4 ounces (125 milliliters)

Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Mix the solutions directly before use anddispose of them after each session.

Kodak Hardener F-5a Formula

Water (125°F or 20 ounces 50°C) (600 milliliters)

Sodium sulfite 21/2 ounces (75 (anhydrous) grams)

28% acetic acid* 71/2 ounces(235 milliliters)

Boric acid crystals** 11/4 ounces (37.5 grams)

Potassium alum 21/2 ounces (75 (fine granular, grams)dodecahydrate)


*To make 28 percent acetic acid from glacial aceticacid, combine 3 parts glacial acetic acid with 8parts water.

**Crystalline boric acid is suggested because it isdifficult to dissolve boric acid in powder form.

The standard dilution for Kodak HardenerF-5a is 1 :13 (1 part hardener to 13 partswater). Process for 2 to 5 minutes at 68°F(20°C).

Kodak Polysulfide Toner T-8

Kodak Polysulfide Toner T-8 is a single-solution toner delivering slightly darkerbrown tones than Kodak Sulfide Sepia Toner T-7a on warm-tone papers. UnlikeKodak Hypo Alum Toner T-1a, it has theadvantage of not having to be heated. Thistoner is not recommended for use with cold-tone papers.

Kodak Polysulfide Toner T-8 Formula

Water 96 ounces (750 milliliters)

Sulfurated potash 1 ounce (7.5 grams)Sodium carbonate 145 grains (2.5

(monohydrated) grams)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Prints are immersed in Polysulfide TonerT-8 for 15 to 20 minutes, with agitation, at 68°F (20°C). Raising the temperatureincreases T-8’s activity and reduces thetoning time to as low as 3 to 4 minutes at100°F (38°C). After toning, the print is rinsedin running water for at least 2 minutes andcan then be treated in a hardening bath, asmentioned in the Kodak Sulfide Sepia TonerT-7a section, for 2 to 5 minutes. If sedimentforms on the print during the toning process,it should be removed with a soft sponge andwarm water before the final wash. Whenthese operations are complete, treat the printin a washing aid and give it a final wash ofat least 1 hour.


Kodak Gold Toner T-21

Kodak Gold Toner T-21, also known asNelson Gold Toner, is a single-solution tonerthat yields an excellent range of brown toneson most warm-tone papers but has littleeffect on most cold-tone papers. T-21 isunique in the fact that it tones the highlightand shadow areas at the same rate. Thisallows the toning action to be stopped anytime the desired effect has been achievedwithout having to worry whether the high-light and shadow areas have received equaleffects. It also makes possible a variety of

even-toned effects that can be created bysimply changing the time in the toning bath.T-21 has a normal toning time range of 5 to20 minutes. This toner requires carefulpreparation to achieve the expected results.

Kodak Gold Toner T-21 Formula

Stock Solution AWater (125°F or 50°C) 1 gallon (4 liters)Sodium thiosulfate 2 pounds (960

(pentahydrate) grams)Ammonium persulfate 4 ounces (120

grams)

Figure 8.5 Barrow wondered how much he could alter the photographic image and yet retain its specific qualities. Inputting together this work, he used gold toner at an elevated temperature of 135°F (57°C) to create extreme blue-blacks on acold-tone paper. The print was torn apart and then reconstructed with staples and silicon caulking. Various areas of theimage were fogged with spray lacquer paint.

© Thomas Barrow. Yard Descent, 1982. Gelatin silver print with caulk and paint. 17 ¥ 21 inches. Courtesy of Andrew SmithGallery, Santa Fe. Original in color.


The sodium thiosulfate must be totallydissolved before adding the ammonium per-sulfate. Vigorously stir the solution whenadding the ammonium persulfate. The solution should turn milky. If it does not,increase the temperature until it does.

Cool the solution to about 80°F (27°C),then add the following solution, includingthe precipitate, slowly, stirring constantly. Ifpredictable results are desired, the first bathmust be cool when these two solutions arecombined.

Cold water 2 ounces (4 milliliters)Silver nitrate 75 grains (5 grams)

crystals*Sodium chloride 75 grains (5 grams)

*The silver nitrate crystals must be completelydissolved before adding the sodium chloride.Wear gloves as the silver nitrate will stain any-thing it comes in contact with black.

Stock Solution BWater (68°F or 20°C) 8 ounces (250

milliliters)Gold chloride 15 grains (1 gram)

Slowly combine 125 milliliters of stocksolution B with all of stock solution A, stir-ring rapidly. Allow the bath to stand until itis cold and a sediment has formed at thebottom. Pour off only the clear liquid for use,leaving the sediment behind.

Pour this clear solution into a tray andheat it with a water bath to 110°F (43°C).During toning, maintain a temperature of100°F to 110°F (38°C to 43°C). When toningis complete, treat the print in a washing aidand give it a final wash of at least 1 hour.

This bath may be revived by adding stocksolution B. The quantity needed depends onthe number of prints toned, the intensity ofthe tone desired, and the time of toning. Forinstance, when toning to a warm brown, add4 milliliters of stock solution B after aboutfifty 8 ¥ 10 inch prints or the equivalent havebeen toned.

Kodak Gold Protective Solution GP-1

For years Kodak Gold Protective SolutionGP-1 was the standard treatment to protect asilver-based photograph from atmosphericgases. Recent scientific evidence indicatesthat selenium toning can be more effective

and a great deal less costly for protectivemeasures. GP-1 is an extremely stable tonerthat is capable of yielding very pleasingbrown tones. The high cost of gold haslimited its widespread use. Gold toner pro-tects all fiber-based papers and creates atleast a slight visual effect in almost all cold-tone papers.

For protective toning, the print isimmersed in the gold toner for about 10minutes, with agitation, at 68°F (20°C), oruntil a barely perceptible change in imagetone (a slight blue-black) occurs. The toningtime can be increased up to 20 minutes forvisual effect. Following the toning operation,treat the print with a washing aid and giveit a final wash of at least 1 hour.

Kodak Gold Protective Solution GP-1Formula

Water 68°F (20°C) 24 ounces (750 milliliters)

Gold chloride (1% 21/2 drams (10 stock solution) milliliters)

Sodium thiocyanate 145 grains (10 grams)Water to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

Mixing 1 gram of gold chloride in 100 milliliters of distilled water can make a 1percent stock solution of gold chloride. Addthe stock solution of gold chloride to theamount of water indicated (24 ounces). Mixthe sodium thiocyanate separately in 4ounces (125 milliliters) of water. While stir-ring rapidly, slowly add the thiocyanatesolution to the gold chloride solution. GP-1deteriorates quickly and should be mixedright before use. It has a capacity of aboutthirty 8 ¥ 10 inch prints per gallon. Work ina well-ventilated area and wear protectivegloves when mixing this formula.

BLUE TONERS

Kodak Blue Toner T-26

Kodak Blue Toner T-26 delivers solid, deepblue tones on warm-tone papers and softblue-black tones on neutral-tone papers. Ithas no effect on cold-tone papers. T-26increases the contrast and density of theprint slightly. This can be corrected byreducing the normal exposure time (a 10percent reduction is a good starting place).


This toner deteriorates rapidly and shouldbe mixed immediately before use. Toningstarts in the highlight areas and then slowlymoves into the shadows. Careful observationis necessary to avoid getting a partially tonedprint with blue highlights and untonedshadow areas. Berg, Edwal, and Photogra-phers’ Formulary also make blue toners.

The range of toning times is 8 to 45minutes at 68°F (20°C). Increasing the tem-perature of the bath to 100°F to 105°F (38°Cto 40°C) speeds up the toning action, thusdecreasing the toning times to 2 to 15minutes. Since toning is slow, only occa-sional agitation is needed to avoid streaking.For consistent results with a number ofprints, slide them rapidly into the toner oneafter the other. T-26 exhausts itself veryquickly. It has a capacity of only five tofifteen 8 ¥ 10-inch prints or the equivalentper quart. When toning is finished, immersethe print in a washing aid and follow with afinal wash of at least 1 hour.

Kodak Blue Toner T-26 Formula

Part A SolutionWater 68°F (20°C) 31 millilitersGold chloride* 0.4 grams

Part B SolutionPowder thiourea (thiocarbamide) 1 gramTartaric acid 1 gramSodium sulfate (anhydrous) 15 grams

*A 1 percent gold chloride solution can be used(available from chemical supply sources). Use40 milliliters of this solution as part A and add937 milliliters of water to make a total of 977 milliliters of solution.

Dissolve the gold chloride in the water tomake part A. Add part A to 946 milliliters (1quart) of water at 125°F (52°C). Stirring, addpart B. Continue to stir until all the chemi-cals are totally dissolved.

RED TONERS

Red toners can be intense and spectacular,but they require more work than brown orblue toners to achieve good results. Gener-ally, the best and most varied results requiretoning the print in two separate toners. Forexample, a print is first toned in Kodak SepiaToner or Kodak Brown Toner and thoroughlywashed. Then it is immersed in Kodak Blue

Toner T-26 for 15 to 30 minutes at 90°F(32°C) with occasional agitation. Cold-tonepapers produce solid reds, while warm-tonepapers yield orange-red hues.

Start with a print having more density andcontrast than normal, as there is a loss ofthese qualities, especially in the shadowareas, with most papers. Red tones can beproduced in a single bath of Red Toner GT-15 (see formula). Regardless of whichmethod you use, treat the completed tonedprint with a washing aid and give it a finalwash of at least 1 hour. Berg and Edwal alsomake red and copper toners, which may bemixed to produce intermediate hues andintensities.

Red Toner GT-15 Formula

Stock Solution APotassium citrate 11/2 ounces (100 grams)Water 68°F (20°C) to make 16 ounces

(500 milliliters)

Stock Solution BCopper sulfate 115 grains (7.5 grams)Water to make 8 ounces (250 milliliters)

Stock Solution CPotassium ferri- 100 grains (6.5 grams)

cyanideWater to make 8 ounces (250 milliliters)

Mix stock solution B into stock solution A.While stirring, slowly add stock solution C.Red Toner GT-15 bleaches the print. Com-pensate by extending the printing time wellbeyond normal, up to 50 percent.

GREEN TONERS

Green tones are possible with a toner suchas Green Toner GT-16. This toner is mosteffective on warm-tone papers. It bleachesthe image, so more exposure time thannormal (10 to 25 percent) is necessary. Berg,Edwal, and Photographers’ Formulary makegreen toners.

Green Toner GT-16 Formula

Stock Solution AOxalic acid 120 grains (7.8 grams)Ferric chloride 16 grains (1 gram)Ferric oxalate 16 grains (1 gram)Water 68°F (20°C) to make 10 ounces

(285 milliliters)


Stock Solution BPotassium ferricyanide 32 grains (2 grams)Water to make 10 ounces (285 milliliters)

Stock Solution C*Hydrochloric acid 1 ounce (28.4

milliliters)Vanadium chloride 32 grains (2 grams)Water to make 10 ounces (285 milliliters)

*First add the acid to the water. Then heat thesolution to just below the boiling point and addthe vanadium chloride.

Mix stock solution B into stock solution A.Stirring vigorously, add stock solution C.

Tone in the mixed solution until the printappears deep blue. Then remove and washuntil the tone changes to green. After thegreen tone appears, continue to wash for anadditional 10 minutes. Treat the print with awashing aid and give it a final wash of atleast 1 hour.

If a yellowish stain appears, you canremove it by placing the print in the follow-ing solution:

Ammonium thiocyanate 25 ounces (1.6 grams)

Water 68°F (20°C) to make 10 ounces (285 milliliters)

This operation should be carried out beforetreating the print with a washing aid andgiving the final wash.

TONING VARIATIONS

Selective Toning

It is possible to tone only selected areas of aprint by brushing on a mask that preventsthe toner from affecting the covered area.

Begin with a frisket material such asFotomask made by Luminos Photo Corp.,Grumbacher Miskit, Incredible White Maskliquid frisket, or rubber cement and thinnerplus different-size brushes. Fotomask ishandy because it is a bright red liquid plastic, making it easy to see where it hasbeen applied. Rubber cement, thinned 1 :1

Figure 8.6 Addressing issues of the body, including sexual preference and AIDS, Byrd began thispiece with medium-format studio shots that were printed on Kodak Poly Fiber matte surface paper.To add texture, Byrd scratched the negatives by putting them under his shoe and spinning on them.The prints were made about 30 percent too dark and toned for about 20 minutes in copper toner.The dry prints were torn and glued together and painted with a mixture of glue, sand, and tar. Thephotographs of the roses were done on 4 ¥ 5 inch fiber paper, stand off the larger image about 3 to 4 inches, and are in gold frames. When installed, a charcoal frame is directly drawn onto thegallery wall around the entire piece. (See Color Plate 3.)

© Jeffrey Byrd. Listening for Falling Debris, 1991. Toned gelatin silver prints with mixed media. 75 ¥ 137 ¥ 3 inches. Original in color.


(1 part rubber cement to 1 part rubber cement thinner), may also be used. Anotheroption is clear self-adhesive frisket, such asPhoto/Frisket Film made by Badger Airbrush.

Working TechniqueWorking on a dry print, brush the frisket orrubber cement onto the areas not to be toned.When using rubber cement, apply severalthin coats, allowing one to dry before apply-ing the next. This ensures complete coverageand reduces the likelihood of the toner’sseeping into areas that are not fully protected.

To avoid leakage into protected areas,some printmakers place the dry printdirectly in the toner without any presoak. Ifyou do this, you must constantly agitate theprint to avoid streaks. Because of the mask,the print may buckle and curl due to unevenwetting, but this should not harm the print.If this method does not work, presoak theprint for 3 to 5 minutes.

After toning is complete, follow thenormal post-toning procedures. Remove thefrisket after the print has been washed forabout 30 minutes. You can remove Fotomaskby picking it up with sticky masking tape orby rubbing your fingers across the coveredarea after the print has gone through abouthalf of its final wash. After you remove themask, wash the print for a minimum of 1hour to get rid of any residue from the mask.

Multitoned PrintsDifferent toners can be selectively applied tovarious areas of the photograph. If you aredoing this, you must repeat the entireprocess each time, with the exception of theextra wash, which is given after all thetoning is done. If you do not wish to combinetoners, be certain to protect the previouslytoned areas with frisket.

Areas of a print can be selectively tonedwhile it is still wet. Exact control and evenness of toning are extremely difficult to achieve, but interesting and unexpectedpossibilities exist with this technique.

To wet-tone a well-washed print, place iton a clean, flat surface and squeegee the backand then the front so it is completely free ofwater. Then apply the toner with a brush orcotton swab. You can add a couple of dropsof a wetting agent such as Kodak Photo-Floto the toner to prevent it from beading up onthe print surface. For more intensity, rinse

the print with water, squeegee, and apply asecond coat of toner. Apply only one colortoner at a time. You can repeat this processas many times as you wish to obtain thedesired results.

Toning with Colored Dyes

Prints can be toned with almost any sub-stance. Natural organic dyes made frombeets, coffee, grapes, or tea are possibilities.Commercial dyes such as RITTM are morecommonly used. These are inexpensive,come in a wide range of colors, and are avail-able at most supermarkets.

RITTM dyes come in powder form and areprepared by mixing the dye with a gallon of water at 125°F (52°C). Mix the dye thoroughly, as undissolved crystals will stainthe print.

Dye Technique1. Presoak the print in water for about 2

minutes.

2. Immerse the print, emulsion side down,in a tray of prepared dye at 100°F (38°C).

3. There is no standard dyeing time. The dyebegins to work after about 1 minute,depending on the type of paper used andthe color desired. Agitate the print con-stantly. You can view it anytime, as thedye will continue to work until the printis removed from the solution.

4. When the desired color is achieved,remove the print and wash it for 15 to 60minutes, or until all the excess dye isremoved.

5. Air-dry the print, face down, on a plasticscreen.

Selective DyeingDyes, like toners, can be used to make multicolored compositions. First apply thefrisket to any areas you do not want dyed.After the first areas have been dyed, washed,and dried, remove the frisket or rubbercement from the next area that you want todye. You can protect the previously dyedarea with frisket or rubber cement. Thenplace the print in another tray containing adifferent color dye. You may repeat thisprocess as many times as desired.


Mixing ColorsA mixed-colored effect can be achieved bytreating the print with different dyes withoutusing any masking materials.

Bleaching Dyed PrintsYou can use plain household bleach orFarmer’s Reducer, applied with a number 0or smaller brush, to remove small areas ofdye from the image. Bleaching can provideaccents in highlight areas or be used to createwhite areas within the composition.

Split-Toning

Split-toning can visually expand the sense ofspace within a photograph by intensifyingthe differences between the cool white high-light areas and the warm brown shadowareas. This can create an unexpected andsubtle sense of spatial ambiguity. Some pho-tographers claim that split-toning can unifyobjects within a composition and give itadded depth. Others do not care for it, sayingit fractures the continuity of the photographby making it seem disjointed and out ofkilter. The only way to evaluate the effect ofsplit-toning is to apply the technique to animage and decide whether it creates thedesired visual effect. Chlorobromide paperslike Ilford Warmtone, Agfa Portriga, andLuminos have two different sizes of silverparticles in the emulsion which tone at dif-ferent rates, making them more useful forsplit-toning.

Paper and Developer SelectionAs in all toning operations, the choice ofpaper and developer plays a key role indetermining the visual outcome. Silver chlo-ride contact papers, such as Kodak Azo,deliver a noticeable split-toning effect. Theuse of a warm-tone developer, such as KodakD-52, with such papers yields an even morevivid effect. Chlorobromide enlarging paperstend not to work as well, and bromide papersshow almost no effect. If your negatives arenot big enough to contact print, you canenlarge them (see Chapter 3). Photograms(cameraless images made by placing objectsdirectly on the paper) also can be split-toned(see Chapter 11).

A more pronounced split-toning effectseems to take place with the developer tem-perature slightly above normal. A tempera-

ture of 77°F (25°C) with Azo paper in KodakD-52 is a suggested starting point. Keep thetemperature constant, as variations of even 1degree can alter the results.

Processing ProceduresAdjust the exposure time so that Azo papercan be developed in Kodak D-52 for 1 minuteat 77°F (25°C) with constant agitation. Devel-oping for more than 11/2 minutes tends toreduce the split-toning effect. Developing forless than 45 seconds can produce an imagewith streaks or without the proper density.After development is complete, continue toprocess following normal print processingprocedures, up through the first wash. Thenyou are ready to tone.

Split-Toning FormulaA split-toning solution can be prepared bymixing the following formula:

Water (68°F or 20°C) 750 millilitersRapid Selenium Toner 70 millilitersPerma-Wash 30 millilitersKodak Balanced Alkali 20 grams

(sodium metaborate)Water to make 1 liter

Immerse the prints in the toner bath andagitate by continuously interleafing theprints (taking the bottom one and moving itto the top). Observe the prints carefully.Keep an untoned print available for visualreference. First the blacks will intensify.Next the print will exhibit an overall dull-ness. Finally the shadow areas will start towarm up, and the split between the high-lights and shadows will begin to becomeevident. This should happen within about 4to 5 minutes.

Continue toning until you like the colorand effect. At this point, put the print in awater bath. If the print tones too long, thesplit will lose its intensity and eventuallydisappear, taking on a uniform brown color.When split-toning is complete, treat theprint with a washing aid for 2 minutes, thenwash for at least 1 hour. Air-dry the print,face down, on a plastic screen.

GP-1 Split Toning ProcessJonathan Bailey has developed the followingformula.

Step 1: Tone prints in a working solutionof Kodak Rapid Selenium toner (1 :10–1 :15)


until the tones in the print split. Treat theprint with a washing aid for 2 minutes, thenwash for at least 1 hour.

Step 2: Place selenium toned prints in GP-1 stock solution. With constant agitation,tone prints by inspection until the desiredresult is reached (usually 3 to 10 minutes).The gold tone will strengthen blues in thehighlights and will add a dark green to theshadow areas. Hand wash for 15 minutes.Let prints sit in a water bath and changewater every 15 minutes. Air-dry the print,face down, on a plastic screen.

GP-1 Stock Solution

Part AGold chloride 1 gramDistilled water to make 100 ml

Part BSodium thiocyanate 100 gramsDistilled water to make 1,250 ml

For a working solution, mix 10ml Part Ato 500ml water. Add 125ml Part B, and then water to make 1,000ml. Stock solutionswill keep for months in brown glass con-tainers. Use working solution immediatelyafter mixing and discard after use. Workingsolution tones about twelve 8 ¥ 10 inchprints.

Toning Black-and-White Films

It is possible to tone black-and-white filmsfor color effects. Kodak T-20 is a versatile,single-solution dye toner that can be used toproduce many different color effects. Becertain to mix and use this formula only ina well-ventilated area.

Kodak T-20 Dye Toner Formula

Dye* 3 to 6 grains (0.2 to 0.4 grams)

Wood alcohol or 31/4 ouncesacetone (100 milliliters)

Potassium ferri- 15 grains (1 gram)cyanide

Glacial acetic acid 11/4 drams(5 milliliters)

Water (68°F or 20°C) to make 32 ounces (1 liter)

*The amount of dye needed depends on the typeof dye being used, as follows:

Nabor Yellow 6G 3 grains (0.2 grams)Auramine 0 (yellow) 6 grains (0.4 grams)Methyl violet 11/4 grains (0.1 grams)Methylene blue BB 3 grains (0.2 grams)Rhodamine B (red) 6 grains (0.4 grams)Nabor Orange G 3 grains (0.2 grams)Nabor Brilliant Pink 3 grains (0.2 grams)Nabor Blue 2G 3 grains (0.2 grams)Bismark Brown 3 grains (0.2 grams)Victoria Green 6 grains (0.4 grams)Fuchsin (red) 3 grains (0.2 grams)

Average toning time is 3 to 9 minutes at68°F (20°C). The tone will vary dependingon the film and length of toning time.Beyond about 9 minutes, there is a dangerthat the image will begin to bleach out. Oneshould experiment on unwanted or duped

Figure 8.7 Angel tells us that “These photographs elicit memories andthoughts rather than the specific reality of the observed world. I use aplastic Diana camera that eliminates the detail often found in traditionalphotography. Through the distortion provided by this camera, I engagethe viewers in a dialogue between their own experiences or associationsand the photograph itself. After selective bleaching the print was split-toned in sepia toner. The print was removed from the toner bath A beforethe entire image was affected, quickly rinsed, and put into toner bath Bimmediately. Thus the highlights are warm and the shadows cool.”

© Catherine Angel. Going Home, from the series Enchanted Landscapes,1994. Toned gelatin silver prints. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Courtesy of Photo-EyeGallery, Santa Fe. Original in color.

film before attempting to tone a finishedpiece. After toning is complete, wash thefilm until the highlights are clear, and thencontinue to give the film a final wash ofabout 15 minutes. These dyes are not con-sidered archival and will fade over time.


Books

Donofrio, Diane (Ed.). Photo-Lab Index, Life-time Edition. Keene Valley, NY: Morganand Morgan, 2001.

Hicks, Roger, and Frances Schultz. TheBlack and White Handbook: The UltimateGuide to Monochrome Techniques. NewYork: Sterling Publishing, 1997.


Toning KODAK Black-and-White Materials.Kodak Publication No. G-23.

Other Sources

Berg Color-Tone, Inc., P.O. Box 16, EastAmherst, NY 14051

Edwal Scientific Products, 12120 SouthPeoria Street, Chicago, IL 60643

Luminos Photo Corp., P.O. Box 158, Yonkers,NY 10705

Photographers’ Formulary, P.O. Box 950,Condon, MT 59826 (bulk chemicals andprepared versions of many formulas that are no longer commercially manufactured)


9 Special Cameras andEquipment

WHAT IS A CAMERA?

A traditional camera, from a room-sizecamera obscura to the latest hand-held auto-matic, is essentially a light-tight box. A hole(aperture) is made at one end to admit light,and some light-sensitive material (usuallyfilm) is placed inside the box opposite thehole. The camera’s purpose is to enable thelight to form an image on the film. This canbe accomplished in a variety of ways, butmost modern cameras have the same basiccomponents. These include the following:

• A viewing system that allows accuratecomposition of the image.

• A lens, instead of a hole, that focuses therays of light to form a sharp image at theback of the camera. This image is upsidedown and backward. The lens also deter-mines the field of view and influences thedepth of field in the scene.

• An adjustable diaphragm, usually an over-lapping circle of metal leaves that createsan adjustable hole called an aperture. Theaperture controls the intensity of the lightthat passes through the lens. When it iswidened (opened), it permits more light topass through the lens. When it is closed(stopped down), it reduces the amount oflight passing through the lens.

• A shutter mechanism that prevents lightfrom reaching the film until the shutter isreleased. The shutter opens for a measuredamount of time, allowing the light to strike

the film. When the time has elapsed, theshutter closes, preventing any additionallight from reaching the film.

• A focusing control that changes the lens-to-film distance, thus allowing a sharpimage of the subject to be formed atvarious distances.

• Light-sensitive material, traditionallyfilm, that records the image created by thelight. Most cameras use roll film, cassettes,or individual sheets. Electronic camerasrecord images magnetically on disks or inmemory chips.

• A holder for the light-sensitive material.This is a system or device designed tomaintain the correct position of the film inrelationship to the lens.

• A film-advance mechanism, in roll andcassette cameras, that advances the filmafter an exposure is made to the next avail-able unexposed portion of the roll or cassette. Sheet film is loaded into filmholders that are put in the back of thecamera. Electronic imaging cameras auto-matically go to the next free space on the disk.

• A light meter, usually built into the bodyof the camera, measures the intensity ofthe light.

The Role of the Camera

The camera remains the primary tool thatmost photographers use to define and shape

an image. The selection of camera and lens can determine image characteristicssuch as sharpness, tonal range, field of view, and graininess of the final print.Because of this, it is often possible to identify the type of camera used in the cre-ation of a particular image. Consequently,the type of camera chosen should supportthe photographer’s way of seeing andworking, since it plays an integral role indetermining the final outcome of the image.To limit the choices of cameras is to reduce the possibilities of what one canexpress about the nature of a subject andphotography itself.

Throughout the history of photography,the changing needs of the photographer, aswell as the expanding applications of themedium, have led to the development ofmany specialized camera designs. Camerasare the result of centuries of evolutionarychange. This can be seen in designs from thepast, such as Etienne-Jules Marley’s photo-graphic gun (capable of capturing a sequenceof images on a single round photographicplate), to those of the present, as in today’sspy camera hidden inside a working digitalwatch.

The camera’s design is a basic part of thephotographer’s visual language. It is up tothe individual photographer to understandand apply a camera’s capabilities, to learn itsstrengths and limitations, and to know whento use different cameras to achieve thedesired results.

We assume that the reader has a funda-mental knowledge of the basic cameras currently in widespread use, including the single lens reflex (SLR), the range finder,the twin lens reflex, and the view camera(see Chapter 13 for the digital camera). If youare not familiar with how these camerasoperate, a review is in order before continu-ing with this chapter. The remaining sec-tions of this chapter introduce some camerasand techniques that photographers haveused to explore nontraditional photographicvisions.


Adams, Ansel. The Camera. Boston: Little,Brown, 1983.

TOY CAMERAS: THE DIANA ANDTHE HOLGA

Are you feeling alienated by the latest high-tech camera equipment? If the answer is yes,try a Holga and escape into the simplicity ofa totally plastic toy camera. Beginning in theearly 1960s, the Diana (120 film size camera)was made by the Great Wall Plastic Factoryof Kowloon, Hong Kong. It was also mar-keted under other names such as Arrow andBanner. They were often given as prizes atcarnivals or as free promotions. The Diana isno longer made, and the main sources forthese cameras are secondhand stores, yardsales, flea markets, camera shows, andonline auctions.

Camera Models

A number of different Diana models wereproduced. The original has only a singleshutter speed (the shutter speed variestremendously from camera to camera, fromabout 1/30 to 1/200 second). Some modelshave a B (bulb) setting for time exposures.The Diana F features a built-in flash, but thesynchronization often does not work prop-erly. The shutter on all these cameras can befired as many times as wanted, so it is easyto make multiple exposures (often uninten-tionally). All these models have three aper-ture settings: sunny (f-16), cloudy (f-6.3), anddull (f-4.5). The cameras also have adjustablezone focusing areas, which can be set at 4 to6 feet, 6 to 12 feet, and 12 feet to infinity. TheDiana uses 120 roll film and makes 16 expo-sures of about 2 ¥ 2 inches per roll.

Diana cameras have become collectors’items, making them harder to find and moreexpensive. A clone model called the Holgais currently being manufactured which uses120 film and produces 6 ¥ 4.5cm, and 6 ¥6 cm negatives. It has a 60mm, f-8 plasticlens and focuses from 3 feet to infinity. TheHolga’s shutter speed is about 1/100 secondand has two f-stops: f-8 (normal) and f-11(sunny). No two Holga cameras are the same;some have slow shutters, others have pecu-liar lens distortions, and almost all havelight leaks.

True Diana fans say, “It just ain’t the same.”While the optics of the two cameras are not


exactly alike, the Holga is so inexpensive(usually under $20) that you can purchaseadditional cameras and feel free to alter theplastic lens with sandpaper or paint on thelens to create soft focus or colored effects.

You can permanently convert the Holga’sshutter speed to bulb by removing theshutter spring and gluing the shutter to theopen position. The shutter arm that used totrigger the shutter will now open to let lightin as long as the shutter release is depressedand will close when released. The shutterarm will let some light in, so it’s necessaryto put the lens cap on between exposures toprevent fogging.

The Holga has a hot shoe for flash but it isunusual in that it causes two flashes, onewhen you press the shutter and one whenyou release. The exposure is made with thefirst flash; the second flash serves no par-ticular purpose except to wear down the batteries more quickly.

Characteristics

Light LeaksAlmost all the Dianas and Holgas have lightleaks. Many photographers wrap black tapearound the camera body, after the film isloaded, to prevent stray light exposure of thefilm. The red transparent frame-counterwindow and the inside seams of the cameraalso can be taped. Some people paint thecamera’s interior flat black. The area wherethe lens is attached to the camera has beenknown to leak light, requiring additionaltaping.

You can take multiple images on oneframe or overlap images by partially windingto the next frame. The film-advance mecha-nism does not always completely tighten theexposed film, resulting in a light fog whenthe film is removed from the camera. ManyDiana users combat this by unloading thefilm in a darkroom or changing bag and thenplacing the film in an opaque container orwrapping it in aluminum foil. Others just gowith the flow and take whatever surprisesthe camera may provide.

The LensThe plastic lens creates a soft-focus image.The lens tends to be sharpest in the middle,

with the focus falling off rather rapidlytoward the edges. The lens is not color cor-rected, so unusual color effects and shifts arenormal.

The ViewfinderThe Diana’s and the Holga’s viewfinders arenot corrected for parallax, so what you see in the viewfinder is not exactly the sameas what the lens sees. This produces animage with a somewhat haphazard lookbecause you have to figure out the composi-tion by intuition and guesswork. Often whatyou see is higher than what the lens sees;raising the camera slightly can compensatefor this.

Film SelectionBlack-and-white or color films may be used.Negative films having an ISO of 400 are oftenshot to compensate for the limited range ofcamera adjustments. These fast films providea greater tolerance for exposures that are less than perfect (a likely situation with thecameras). The faster films tend to emphasizegrain and texture, adding to the lack of traditional image clarity for which Diana and Holga photographs are known. Use onlybrand-name 120 roll film. Some of the off-brands use heavier spools and paper thattend to bind in the camera or break theadvance mechanism.

Why Choose a Plastic Camera?

The Diana and the newer Holga questionphotographic axioms such as “a photographmust be sharp,” “a photograph must havemaximum detail,” and “a photograph mustpossess a complete range of tones to be con-sidered good.” Plastic cameras challenge thephotographer to see beyond the equipmentand into the image.

The cameras also are easy to use. There isno need to use a light meter or to calculateshutter speeds and f-stops. Finally, the Dianaand the Holga summon up the Dadaist tra-ditions of chance, surprise, and a willing-ness to see what can happen. This lack ofcontrol can free you from worrying aboutdoing the “right” thing and always being“correct.” Since both cameras are toys, they allow you to look at and react to the

SPECIAL CAMERAS AND EQUIPMENT 139

world with the simplicity and playfulness of a child.

THE PINHOLE CAMERA

Would you like a new camera but do notthink you can afford one? For a couple ofdollars and a few hours of your time, you can build a simple pinhole camera. Pinholecameras are commonly made from sheet-film boxes, oatmeal boxes, and coffee cans.

Building cameras allows you to participatein an aspect of picture making from which you are normally excluded. Manyphotographers enjoy the feeling of creatingthe camera that in turn forms their photo-graphic vision. The pinhole camera removesyou from the expensive high-tech environ-ment of fully automatic or digital camerasand returns you to the basic function ofvision.

An image formed by a pinhole instead ofa lens has the benefit of universal depth offield. This means that everything from theforeground to the background appears tohave the same degree of sharpness. A uni-formly soft, impressionistic image is charac-teristic of pinhole photographs.

Building a Pinhole Camera

You can make a pinhole camera out of any structurally sound light-tight container(avoid shoeboxes). A 4 ¥ 5 inch film box(100-sheet size) makes a good first pinholecamera with a wide angle of view, becausethe closer the light-sensitive material is tothe pinhole, the wider the field of view andthe shorter the exposure.

Get a thin (0.002) piece of brass or alu-minum about 2 inches square from an auto-motive or hardware store. Also obtain asharp, unused sewing needle (see Table 9.1).A number 13 needle is ideal for a 4 ¥ 5 inchfilm box (the smaller the pinhole, the sharperthe image and the longer the exposure time).Since the distance between the front andback of the box is short, a larger needle hole could result in exposure times that aretoo short.

Hold the needle between your thumb andindex finger and gently drill a hole in one


Figure 9.1 In an effort to dispense with the standard, hard-edged,rectangular photographic image, Wessner used a Diana camera to combinetheater, drawing, painting, and photography. The prints were developedby painting nondiluted Dektol onto the paper with handmade brushes,feathers, reed pens, and rags. The effect disengaged the head of the figurefrom the background, causing it to float and break up the traditional senseof pictorial space. In the final step, the image was painted with metallicpowders.

© Robyn Wessner. Star Hats, 1987. Gelatin silver print with metallicpowders. 31 ¥ 25 inches. Original in color.

Table 9.1 Diameter of Some Common Sewing Needles

Needle Number Hole Diameter

4 .036 inches5 .031 inches6 .029 inches7 .036 inches8 .023 inches9 .020 inches

10 .018 inches12 .016 inches13 .013 inches

side of the metal. Then turn the metal overand drill the other side. Do not stab a holeinto the metal. Use very fine sandpaper to remove any burrs around the hole. Repeat this procedure until the opening is the same size as the diameter of theneedle. By drilling, sanding, and slowlyexpanding the hole, you should end up withan almost perfectly round aperture withoutany burrs. The more perfectly round andburr-free the pinhole, the sharper the imagewill be.

After completing the drilling operation,find the center of the front of the camera box.At this center point, cut a square openingequal to half the diameter of the metalpinhole material (1 inch square). Save thiscutout for use as a shutter. Center thepinhole metal inside the box and secure itwith black tape.

Darken the cutout on all sides with a black marker. If necessary, put black tape around the sides so it fits snugly back intothe camera front, over the pinhole. Let apiece of tape stick out to act as a tab-typehandle. This handle will allow the cutout toform a trapdoor-style shutter that can beremoved and replaced to control the expo-sure time.

Exposing Paper

Begin by exposing black-and-white photo-graphic enlarging paper outside in daylight.Single-weight fiber paper without any print-ing on the back works best. This paper isreadily available, inexpensive, easy to pro-cess, and you can see exactly what is hap-pening under the safelight. Typical daylightexposures with a film-box camera can runfrom 1 to 15 seconds, depending on the timeof day, the season, the size of the pinhole,and the focal length (the distance from thepinhole to the paper).

Determining the Exposure

To determine the f-stop of your pinholecamera, simply measure the distance fromthe pinhole to the film plane and divide bythe diameter of the pinhole. The formula forcalculating the f-stop is: f = v/d where fequals aperture, v equals distance frompinhole to film or paper, and d equalspinhole diameter. For example, a .018 inchpinhole at a distance of 6 inches from thepaper (focal length), produces an f-stop of 333.


Figure 9.2 Building a pinhole camera allows you to create a machine that reflects your own personal vision. Rennerconstructed a six-pinhole panorama camera. Outdated aerial Plus-X film was exposed, processed in Dektol, and contactprinted on grade 5 paper. The image presents a ghostly combination of space, time, and movement, which could not havebeen achieved with a commercially made camera.

© Eric Renner. Ticul/Graves, 1969. Gelatin silver print. 10 ¥ 29 inches.

Processing

After making the exposure, process the paperusing normal black-and-white methods. Ifthe paper negative is too dark, give it lessexposure time. If it is too light, give it moreexposure time. Trial and error should estab-lish a paper negative with proper densitywithin three exposures. When you get a goodnegative, dry it and then contact print it(emulsion to emulsion) with a piece of unex-posed paper. Light will penetrate the papernegative. Process and then evaluate the paperpositive. Make exposure adjustments andreprint until you are satisfied.

Exposing Other Materials

After you have mastered the camera and theblack-and-white enlarging paper, you areready to expose any type of photographicmaterial in the pinhole camera. Materialsmay include film (black-and-white or color),regular RA-4 color paper, Ilfochrome (whichgives a direct positive), and even Polaroidmaterials such as SX-70.

Converting a 35mm Camera to aPinhole Camera

You can convert a 35mm camera to a pinholecamera by covering a UV filter with opaquepaper in the center of which you have madea good pinhole. Attach the pinhole filter tothe camera’s lens, and it becomes a pin-hole camera. You also can convert an oldsnapshot-type or disposable camera to apinhole camera by removing its lens andreplacing it with a pinhole aperture.

Why Make Your Own Camera?

A small group of photographers build theirown cameras or modify existing models. Hereare some of the reasons why they do this:

• For the aesthetic pleasure and craftsman-ship of creating their own photographicinstrument

• To build a camera to carry out a specificfunction for which there is no commercialequivalent

• For financial reasons, as it is often possi-ble to make equipment for a great deal lessthan it would cost to buy it commercially


BooksHirsch, Robert. Exploring Color Photogra-

phy. Third Ed. NY: McGraw-Hill, 1997.Renner, Eric. Pinhole Photography: Redis-

covering a Historic Technique. Second Ed.Boston, MA: Focal Press. 1999.

Shull, Jim. The Hole Thing: A Manual ofPinhole Photography. Dobbs Ferry, NY:Morgan and Morgan, 1974.


Figure 9.3 In his Two Canyons series Bullisexplores two locations: the Columbia Gorge near Vantage, Washington, and the concrete andsteel canyons of New York City. Based on pastexperience, Bullis composes intuitively becausehis pinhole camera does not have a viewfinder.Using a camera-mounted matte box and con-sulting with notes and sketches, Bullis uses alight pencil to add light drawings to the latentimage before development.

© Larry Bullis. Ingar in a Tree, Central Park,from the series Two Canyons, 1991. Cyanotype.6 ¥ 5 inches.

DISPOSABLE CAMERAS

A recent contribution to our throwawayculture is the disposable camera. It was con-ceived as a way to sell film and prints topeople who do not own a camera, are caughtwithout one at a special moment they wishto capture, or just have the urge to shootsome snapshots. Typically these camerashave a cardboard or plastic body containinga fixed-focus plastic lens with simplifiedinternal workings.

These disposables offer photographers aninexpensive way to expand their image-capturing abilities. Two unusual models use35mm film. The first is the Kodak MAXWaterproof, which is encased in plastic andis waterproof to a depth of 12 feet. Thismakes it an ideal camera for use duringinclement conditions. It features a fixed-focus, single-element 35mm plastic lenswith one exposure setting of f-11 at 1/110second. The camera comes loaded with 27exposures of 800-speed film and has oversizecontrols for ease of use while underwater. Acamera like this enables the photographer totake pictures without the fear of damagingexpensive equipment.

The second 35mm disposable is the Kodak Max Panoramic Camera, which is apseudo panorama-type camera producing animage almost three times longer than it iswide. It contains a fixed-focus 25mm f-12lens with a shutter speed of 1/100 second. Itrecords a 78-degree horizontal view on a13.33 ¥ 36.4mm band across the middle of anormal 35mm frame and has a curved filmplane to ensure edge-to-edge sharpness. It isdesigned to make dramatic 4 ¥ 11 inchprints.

You do not have to dispose of a disposablecamera after a single use. Many disposablescan be carefully opened, reloaded withwhatever type of 35mm film is desired,resealed, and reused. The plastic lens tends to produce a rather soft image similarto that produced with the Diana or Holgacamera. As long as relatively fine-grain filmis used and small prints are produced, theimage quality should be acceptable. This softeffect can be exaggerated by making bigenlargements. Using higher speed films is a way to achieve a heightened grain effect. It is also possible to remove the plastic

lens and replace it with a pinhole aperture,thus creating a store-bought pinhole camera.

EXPANDING THE ANGLE OF VIEW

Many photographers find that the normallens that comes with their camera limitstheir vision. These imagemakers want theirwork to reveal a larger sense of visual space.Dealing with larger expanses of space posesa number of problems. Aesthetically, therenever seems to be enough visual informationin this type of photographic image, prohibit-ing the image from successfully conveyingthe sense of physical space at the site wherethe photograph was made.


Figure 9.4 The camera used to make this circular image was hand-carved out of a solid piece of mahogany. It uses 5 ¥ 7 inch film, features a spring-loaded ground-glass back, and has a peephole viewfinder so that hand-held shots can be made. In blending traditional craftsmanshipwith electronic technology, Wang used Phil Davis’s computer programs(Beyond the Zone System) to establish film speed, exposure, and develop-ment time. Wang has made other cameras as a way of escaping from therestrictions of the manufacturer’s predetermined formats.

© Sam Wang. Banyan Tree, 1988. Gelatin silver print. 14 inch circularimage on 16 ¥ 20 inch paper.

Technically, due to distortion problemswith cameras and lenses, it is problematic toachieve a realistic rendition of sweepingexpanses of space. Traditionally, there aretwo approaches to solving this problem: theuse of ultrawide-angle lenses, and the use ofspecial-purpose panoramic cameras. Somecontemporary imagemakers have abandonedboth these methods in search of a new aes-thetic answer. They have come up with alter-natives such as combining many individualimages to create a single nontraditional rep-resentation of the scene. See the section onpanoramic mosaics later in this chapter andChapter 11 for discussions of some of thesemethods.

Rectilinear Wide-Angle Lenses

The first method most photographers thinkof when they want to portray an expandedsense of space is the ultrawide-angle lens.

The newer and more expensive lenses arerectilinear, meaning that they are designed toreproduce straight lines without bending ordistorting them. An example of such a lensis the 14mm Nikkor f-2.8 that produces a114-degree sweep, giving a broad sense ofopen visual space. The amount of distortionis minimal, providing the subject has beenvertically aligned with the camera back on aleveled tripod. The slightest tilt will causestraight parallel vertical lines to converge.Circular spaces and rounded objects tend to reveal more distortion than those withstraight horizontal planes. Many of theselenses have built-in filters, thus encouragingthe photographer to interact with and furtherinterpret the scene.

The cosine law dictates that there isalways some light falloff with a rectilinearlens. This loss of illumination is noticeablein the corners of the frame (vignetting),making the center of the image appearbrighter. The amount of falloff depends onthe quality of the lens.

Wide-angle lenses have more depth offield at any given aperture than their normalor telephoto cousins. This can be used toadvantage when a photographer wants tomaintain image sharpness from the fore-ground through the background. Wide-anglelenses also allow imagemakers to get veryclose to a subject and manipulate the depthof field to control what parts of the imagewill remain in focus.

Full-Frame Fish-Eyes

A typical full-frame fish-eye (FFF) provides180-degree diagonal coverage and about 150-degree coverage across the 36mm side of35mm film. Unlike a rectilinear lens, a high-quality FFF should not produce anyvignetting. However, these lenses do sufferfrom heavy barrel distortion. The centerportion of the lens (about 5 to 10 degrees)usually has the least distortion, whichbecomes more pronounced toward the edgesof the frame. Because of this, strong verticallines on both sides of the frame will bendtoward each other. Visually, this can result ina sense of closed space, which defeats one ofthe main reasons for using a FFF. If bendinglines are not acceptable, you should not con-sider using these lenses. Some photographers


Figure 9.5 Crane wanted to change the reality of a microcosmic world.She did this by making images using Polaroid Positive/Negative film in a21/2 pound, 4 ¥ 5 inch handmade wooden camera with a 65 mm SchneiderSuper Angulon lens. Crane hand-held the camera and used a wideaperture opening with a moderately fast shutter speed. Crane says sheprimarily exposed the front of her subject “by moving in very close to it. Iused the extreme wide-angle lens to exaggerate and enlarge the subject sothat it would dominated the image area while the space behind it becameminiaturized.”

© Barbara Crane. Fleshy Fungi # 6, 1989–1990. Toned gelatin silver print.8 ¥ 10 inches and 16 ¥ 20 inches.

like this barrel distortion and incorporate itin their imagery. When evenness of illumina-tion is of prime importance, the FFF is prefer-able to a wide-angle rectilinear lens.

PANORAMIC CAMERAS

Why will an ultrawide-angle lens on a 35mm camera not produce a panoramicphotograph? Regardless of how short (wide)the focal length of the lens happens to be, theaspect ratio remains unchanged. The aspectratio is the height-to-width relationship ofany film format. The 24 ¥ 36mm format of a35mm image has an aspect ratio of 1.5 :1,making it 50 percent wider than it is high. A panoramic camera achieves its effect byaltering the aspect ratio, making its horizon-tal plane two to five times wider than its vertical plane, thus increasing the sense of space.

Types of Panoramic Cameras

Panoramic cameras can be divided into threebasic designs:

1. A swing-lens camera having a curved film plane.

2. A roll film camera (not an SLR) capableof recording a horizontal slice of animage. This is done by using a longer-than-normal focal length lens designed tobe used on a larger format (view) camera.

3. A 360-degree camera whose entire bodyrotates while the film is pulled past a sta-tionary slit that acts as the shutter. Thesecameras are actually “any angle” cameras.The amount of visual coverage is deter-mined by setting the camera to rotate fora prescribed number of degrees. Many canbe reprogrammed to go past a complete360-degree circle until they run out offilm to expose.

Swing-Lens CamerasThe 35mm Widelux, whose 26mm fixed-focus lens provides a 24 ¥ 56mm frame, produces a 140-degree view and is the best-known and most widely used of the swing-lens cameras. It gives a wide field of viewand offers good image size, and the image

can be printed on a 21/4 inch enlarger. TheWidelux image is made by a lens that swingsleft to right and has a curved film plane tocompensate for the angle of the swinginglens. The camera does not have a conven-tional shutter but a focal-plane drum-slitmechanism to make and record the expo-sure. The Widelux 1500 works on the sameprinciples but uses 120 roll film to give a150-degree view on a 50 ¥ 122mm frame. A4 ¥ 5 inch enlarger is needed to make printslarger than contact size.

The Russian-made Horizon 202 is a rela-tively inexpensive swing-lens camera thatproduces a 120-degree horizontal and 45-degree vertical view. It has a built-in bubblespirit level that is visible from the top of the camera and can also be seen in theviewfinder for use in hand-held shots. Whenthe camera is level, the camera produces animage with a straight horizon. When theimage is taken with the camera tilted up ordown, the horizon looks bent. The Horizon202 comes with a 28mm f-2.8 lens and anaperture range from f-2.8 to f-16. It has ashutter with two speed ranges; the first is1/2, 1/4, and 1/8 of a second and the otheris 1/60, 1/125, and 1/250 of a second. Theseexposure times are achieved by varying theslit width of the shutter from 6mm to 1.5mmin combination with the rotation speed ofthe lens.

The Round-Shot 35 is a swing-lens camera manufactured by SEITZ Phototech-nik in Switzerland. Because it comes with afixed f-2.8 35mm lens it produces a more“normal” perspective because the 35mmlens does not accentuate the foreground areaof the frame as much as a Widelux 26mmlens. The Round-Shot has reflex viewing, sothe photographer can preview the scene tosee what the lens will take in at any givenangle setting. It is run by a hand-held controlunit and features a push-button micro-processor panel that includes a liquid crystaldisplay (LCD) that shows the preselectedangle of view and a frame counter. Thecamera operates in 90-degree increments,allowing for up to eight shots equaling 720-degree views on 35mm film.

The swing-lens cameras all possess similarcharacteristics. They have limited shutterspeeds, as the speed indicated applies onlyto the vertical section of the film beingexposed by the focal plane slit at any given


moment. The overall length of time it takesto make the exposure is longer than the indi-cated shutter speed. The actual exposuretime is how long it takes the swinging lensto make its full sweep. For this reason, thesharpest results are obtained when thecamera is on a tripod. Hand-held swing-lenscameras are sharp only at high shutterspeeds. These cameras must be held on the top and bottom, not on the front andback, or your fingers might be included inthe picture. Holding these cameras by hand can require some practice to produce adecent image. Most of these cameras work best on a precisely leveled tripod, ascamera tilt results in either concave orconvex horizons.

Since the lens is closer to the center of thesubject than to either of its ends, the “cigareffect,” which visually expands the centerportion of the image, comes into play. It ismost noticeable with straight parallel lines.Objects moving in the same direction as thelens rotation may be stretched, and thosemoving against the lens rotation may becompressed. By learning how this effectworks, you can either use it to your advan-tage or compensate for it. A conventionalflash generally cannot be used with this typeof camera.

Roll CamerasRoll cameras equipped with a viewcamera–type lens produce a more limitedpanoramic effect but do not have the exag-gerated perspective of an ultrawide-anglelens on a normal camera. This design altersthe aspect ratio by providing an elongatedframe. Examples of these cameras includethe Fuji GX 617, a 6 ¥ 17cm format which has four interchangeable lenses: a 90mm f-5.6, a 105mm f-8, a 180mm f-6.7,and a 300mm f-8 lens. The GX 617 camera can use either 120 or 220 roll film. TheLinhof Technorama 617 S III is a 6 ¥ 17cmformat camera that has interchangeable 72mm, 90mm, or 180mm lenses provid-ing views of 115, 110 and 72 degrees, respectively; and the Linhof Technorama612 PC is a 6 ¥ 16cm format which has inter-changeable lenses, an 8mm rise that givesthe effect of a shift lens, and takes 120 or 220roll film.

Hasselblad XPanOne of the most versatile roll film cam-eras is the Hasselblad XPan Dual FormatPanoramic camera with interchangeablelenses. Introduced in 1999, the XPan iscapable of making 24 ¥ 65 or 24 ¥ 36 formatsizes on the same roll of film. The 24 ¥ 65


Figure 9.6 The XPan is a flat film camera that reduces panoramic distortion found in curved film lens-type cameras. This produces a more natural binocular view of the world, allowing thephotographer to see photographically at the same angle of view, perspective, and coverage as we dowith our eyes. A 35mm camera capable of taking standard format or panoramic shots, the XPan is a rangefinder camera with standard SLR-type features such as autoexposure and motor filmadvance. One of the unique features of the XPan is its ability to switch between standard 35 mm(24 ¥ 36mm) and panoramic format (24 ¥ 65mm) without wasting film. When you turn the formatknob, the film rewinds or forwards to prevent images from overlapping or to avoid having largegaps in between frames.

© Keith Johnson. St. Genevieve, 1999. Toned gelatin silver print. 7 ¥ 18 inches.

format has an aspect ratio of 1 :2.7, but since the film lies flat, distortion is minimal.There are three medium-format lenses available that give superior coverage withoutreduced corner sharpness, even at larger lens apertures. These lenses are: a 90mm(with angle of view of 23 or 39 degrees and the approximate equivalent of a 50mmlens on a 35mm camera when in panoramicmode), a 45mm (with angle of view of 44 or 71 degrees, with the approximate equiva-lent of a 25mm lens on a 35mm camerawhen in panoramic mode), and a 30mm lens(with angle of view of 62 or 94 degrees withan approximate equivalent of a 17mm lens on a 35mm camera when in pan-oramic mode).

The camera offers shutter speeds of 2.5minutes to 1/1000 of a second and the synchspeed is 1/125 of a second, allowing use ofnormal electronic flash. Bare bulb flash orextremely wide-angle diffused flashes arerecommended. The XPan utilizes DX coding,aperture priority, TTL automatic metering,and auto-bracketing. It also has a self-timerand continuous-mode shooting. The filmloads are 21 exposures on 36-exposure35mm film and 13 exposures on 24 exposurelengths. Focusing is done through a rangefinder that is lens and format coupled andprovides parallax correction.

360-Degree CameraThe 360-degree cameras include the Globus-cope, which has a 25mm lens capable of pro-ducing a complete circular image of 157mmon 35mm film; the Alpa Roto 60/70, whichuses either 120, 220, or 70mm film, has a 75mm lens to deliver 360-degree views, andhas a provision for a repeating flash; and theHulcherama 120S, which uses 120 or 220film with a 35mm lens to create views up toand beyond 360 degrees. The Hulcherama120S can use Mamiya, Hasselblad, or Pentaxlenses, and has an up and down lens shiftand through the lens viewing.

Panoramic Effects without aPanoramic Camera

It is possible to simulate the look of apanoramic camera image with a normalsingle-frame camera by capturing a series

of overlapping views. This is called thepanoramic mosaic working technique.

With a 35mm camera, you would use alens having a focal length of 35mm to 55mm. Lenses with wider or narrower focallength tend to create more distortion whenyou attempt to put the images together. Tomake the matching of the single frameseasier, begin by photographing an outsidescene that is evenly illuminated by daylight.Load the camera with a slow film (ISO 25 to 100) for maximum detail. Kodak T-MAX100 is a good film to start with. Place thecamera on a precisely leveled tripod with apanoramic head calibrated to show 360degrees. Use a mid-range to small lensopening (f-8 or smaller) to ensure that youget enough depth of field. Using a cablerelease or self-timer, make a series of expo-sures covering the entire scene. Overlap eachsuccessive frame by about 25 to 33 percent.

After printing is complete, overlap theprints. For the most naturalistic look, care-fully match the prints’ tonality. (Extra caremust be taken during the printing of theimages to make sure the tonality is constant.)Trim and butt them together where the seamis least obvious. For the most accurate per-spective, trim and butt together only at the center 10- to 15-degree portion of eachimage. Prints may be attached to a boardusing dry-mount tissue or an archival whiteglue such as Jade No. 403 distributed byTalas. If you plan to dry-mount the print, besure to tack the dry-mount tissue to the backof the print before trimming.

Instead of butting the images exactlytogether, you can mount them separatelywith space in between. This style of presen-tation is known as a floating panorama.

Many cameras now come equipped with aso-called panorama mode, which is a filmmask that alters the aspect ratio.


Talas, 568 Broadway, New York, NY 10012.

SEQUENCE CAMERAS

Hulcher Sequence Cameras

Specially designed sequence cameras suchas the Hulcher 35mm Model 112 and the


the number of exposures (up to 250) that youcan make without reloading.

Single-Image Sequences/16mm MovieCameras

Even without a sequence camera, powerwinder, or motor drive, you can achieve asense of sequential time by stringing togethera series of individual images into a singlecomposition. If grainy enlargements are not a problem, you might consider using a 16mm movie camera to make sequentialimages. The video camera revolution hascaused the prices of 16mm equipment todrop drastically, making them a more afford-able option. Black-and-white 16mm nega-tive film, such as Eastman Double-X (ISO200 tungsten or 250 daylight) and 4-X (ISO400 tungsten or 500 daylight), is available in100-foot rolls. These films must be processedby a commercial lab with 16mm capability.


Figure 9.7 The artists photographed with a 16 mm Bolex movie camera. Then they edited,sequenced, enlarged, and stripped the negatives for the final series of images that was contactprinted. Hollis Frampton [1936–1984] and Marion Faller satire the images of Eadweard Muybridge,whose exhaustive study of Animals in Motion (1899) and The Human Figure in Motion (1901)included over 20,000 photographs of men, women, children, and animals in common andsometimes unusual types of movement. Faller and Frampton employed the visual devices ofMuybridge’s nineteenth-century study, including the scientific grid, while creating humorousscenarios like Mature Radishes Bathing and Zucchini Squash Encountering a Sawhorse.

© Marion Faller and Hollis Frampton. 782. Apple Advancing [var. “Northern Spy”] from the seriesSixteen Studies from VEGETABLE LOCOMOTION, 1975. Gelatin silver print. 11 ¥ 14 inches.

Hulcher 70 (70mm) Model 123 can expose aprescribed number of frames during a spec-ified period of time. You can load thesecameras with magazines holding 100 to 400feet of film, and they can make exposures asrapidly as 65 frames per second (fps). Thelimited hand-production of the Hulchercameras makes them very expensive. De-tailed information is available from theCharles A. Hulcher Company, 909 G Street,Hampton, VA 23661.

Power Winders and Motor Drives

Many 35mm cameras today come with abuilt-in power winder that can make expo-sures at the rate of 2 to 6 fps. Most 35mmSLRs have optional motor drives that arecapable of exposing film at the same rate.Either type is usually more than adequate for most sequential uses. Some professionalcameras have special film backs that increase

Using a movie camera is ideal because it isdesigned to make a sequence of single-imageexposures (typical speeds are 8, 16, 24, 32,and 64fps).

Obsolete and Toy Cameras

Over the years, various manufacturers have produced cameras capable of makingsequential exposures. Examples include theGraph-Check, which has eight separatelenses that are fired sequentially in a con-trolled time span of 1/10 to 4 seconds onto4 ¥ 5 inch film. The Yashica Samurai, withautomatic focusing and a 25mm–75mmzoom lens, can expose a roll of 35mm filmcontinuously, like a movie camera, or oneframe at a time as quickly as you can pressthe shutter-release button. Such cameras cannow be located via online auctions and usedcamera sources. A good source of usedequipment is the monthly publication Shutterbug, 5211 S. Washington Avenue,Titusville, FL 32780.

Another possibility is the plastic point-and-shoot sequence cameras that are mar-keted and distributed under various nameslike Action Catcher. These cameras featurefour single-element lenses that make fourseparate exposures about 1/8 second aparton a single frame of 35mm film. Currently amodel can be ordered from Porter’s Photog-raphy, P.O. Box 628, Cedar Falls, IA 50613-9986 for under $15.

Electronic Imaging

Still and video digital cameras and elec-tronic editing offer imagemakers numeroussequential potentials. These topics arecovered in Chapters 12 and 13.

SPECIAL-USE CAMERAS

Scale Model Camera

There are all sorts of cameras designed to accomplish particular tasks. One suchcamera is the Photech Scale Model Camera,which was built to meet the needs of archi-tects, designers, engineers, and others whowork with tabletop models. It allows them to

see how the model will look at full size. TheScale Model Camera is small and light-weight, and it has an inverted periscopesnorkel design that enables the photographerto position it within the model rather thanoutside it. This greatly increases the numberof vantage points from which images of theinterior of the model can be made, whilemaintaining the correct perspective.

The camera comes equipped with an f-90lens, giving it an almost infinite depth offield from about 21/2 inches to infinity. It hasan optical viewfinder that allows you topreview the image without distortion. Expo-sures are made on Polaroid 31/4 ¥ 41/4 inchfilm by using a remote-control device. Thisensures sharp pictures by eliminating cam-era shake, one of the biggest problems inscale model photography.

For more information about the PhotechScale Model Camera, contact Charrette


Figure 9.8 A toy sequence camera provides a simple and inexpensivetechnique of creating unusual spatial juxtapositions, exaggeratingproportions, altering scale, and disrupting space and time. By purposelymoving the camera while it was making its exposures, Hirsch plays off ofthe Renaissance system of one-point perspective by fragmenting thesubject and redefining it from various viewpoints. Each frame offers newinformation, implying that meaning is a continuous process of visualchange that is relative to the viewer’s mental and physical position,thereby making doubt a major subject of the image. This four-framecompression also allows the audience to comprehend, in a single view,the multiplicity of a subject.

© Robert Hirsch. Dream Land Chapel, 1989. Toned gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches.

110 Format and APS Cameras

In the past, serious photographers have usedother amateur style cameras such as thePentax Auto 110 (1979–1983), a bantam SLRthat used 110 film cartridges and featuredinterchangeable lenses. The tiny negativewas an excellent way to produce exaggeratedgrain and soft focus effects. Today similarresults can be achieved with high-speed filmand the Advanced Photo System (APS),which was introduced in 1996. The APScameras use a film cartridge about a thirdsmaller than a conventional 35mm cassette.


A good reference to learn about suchcameras is McKeown’s Price Guide toAntique & Classic Cameras. The latestedition lists and describes over 10,000cameras, lenses, and accessories. It also pro-vides technical and historical information aswell as current market values (they also havea Website).

STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY

The fusing of photography with Sir CharlesWheatstone’s discovery of the stereoscopiceffect—the illusion of the third dimensionon a flat field of view—set off two waves ofstereo mania in Europe (1854 to 1880) andthe United States (1890 to 1920). Stereocards became immensely popular because ofthe illusion of depth, space, and solidity thatthey were able to produce. The stereo phe-nomenon, like television and computers oftoday, found its way into millions of homes,bringing entertainment, education, and pro-paganda in a manner deemed aestheticallypleasing by the public at large. It is still occa-sionally used commercially for special pro-motions, as in the Sports Illustrated Winter2000 swimsuit issue, which featured a 3Dsection and viewing glasses.

Producing the Stereo EffectPhotographically

The three-dimensional effect is created bytaking separate photographs of a subject


Figure 9.9 Miniature tableaux allow DeFilipps Brush to usejuxtaposition and extreme discrepancies of scale to explore visualconditioning. The counter-reality evokes the themes of anticipation,expectation, and recognition, which imply, but do not include, humanpresence. The Photech Scale Model Camera is an ideal tool, since it canbe maneuvered within a constructed space. The alternative would be touse a camera to look into the space from above, which would not besuitable for the artist’s purposes.

© Gloria DeFilipps Brush. Untitled (#2155), 1986. Gelatin silver print withcolored pencils. 191/2 ¥ 271/2 inches on 24 ¥ 30 inch paper. Courtesy of MCGallery, Minneapolis. Original in color.

Corporation, 31 Olympia Avenue, Woburn,MA 01888.

Half-Frame Cameras

A common special-use camera is the 35mmhalf-frame model, which exposes one-half of a standard 35mm frame, doubling thenumber of exposures that can be made on a roll of film. Originally designed to becompact cameras, Olympus made 19 “Pen”models and four “F” series reflex modelsfrom 1959 to 1983, virtually creating thehalf-frame market. The name Pen derivesfrom the concept that a camera could becarried and used as easily as a writing in-strument. Photographers have intentionallyused half-frame cameras to create diptychs. They deliberately expose the film knowingthat they will print the subjects of the twohalf-frames as a single image to form a visualjuxtaposition.

from two different viewpoints. These view-points are 21/2 inches apart, which is theaverage distance between the pupils of thehuman eyes. The easiest way to do this iswith a stereo camera. The typical stereocamera has two lenses, 21/2 inches apart, andan interlocking double shutter that simulta-neously exposes the two images side by sideon the film. A print from each image is prop-erly mounted on a standard 31/2 ¥ 71/2 inchstereo card. The right image is on the rightside of the card, and the left image is on theleft side, with 21/2 inches between the centersof the images. The card is then placed in astereo viewer, whose main purpose is topresent the right image only to the right eyeand the left image only to the left eye. Thebrain combines the two images, creating thevisual sensation of the third dimension.

Stereo Cameras

The last big boom in stereo followed WorldWar II and lasted until the late 1950s. Manycameras, viewers, and projectors were madeduring this time, and they constitute themajority of stereo equipment still usedtoday. The most common cameras were manufactured by Kodak, Revere, Sawyer,Stereo Realist, and Wollensak. The Nimslo,which uses the lenticular screen (describedin the next section), was manufactured in the 1980s. The Argus Stereo Camera is theonly stereo camera currently being made.The Argus stereo 3-D camera kit has twin 28mm fixed-focus lenses and uses 35mmfilm. The kit comes with its own viewer,which holds 4 ¥ 6 inch prints. The Polaroidpassport cameras, which make two expo-sures at the same time on a single piece of Polaroid film, also can be used to makestereo portraits.

Lenticular Screen Cameras

Some stereo cameras produce three-dimen-sional effects by interlacing the imagesthrough the use of a lenticular screen. Thelenticular screen is made up of a transparentpattern of tiny lens elements called lentic-ules. The lenticules recreate an image on theemulsion as a series of lines or points fromwhich a completed image is formed. When


Figure 9.10 Photographer and video and installation artist Steve Harpuses a Canon Demi half-frame camera, which records 72 (rather than 36)images on a roll of 35mm film, to produce diptych images about travel,place, and history. The camera makes vertical rather than horizontalimages, allowing two adjacent frames to be put together in the negativecarrier and printed as one image. Using his camera quickly as a sketch-book, Harp produces a series of diptychs in which juxtapositions arecreated and where each individual image is seen or considered in termsof the other.

© Steve Harp. Diptych—Forli, 1998. Gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches.

Figure 9.11 Meares built a stereo camera designed to use PolaroidPositive/Negative material. This permits instant evaluation andsubsequent modification of the in-process image. The resultant three-dimensional photographs, when viewed with a stereoscope, allow theviewer to enter the spatial world of Meares’s archetypically derived dream images.

© Lorran Meares. Thanksgiving with the Findell’s, 1978. Gelatin silverprints (stereo pair). 31/2 ¥ 7 inches.

Draw a light pencil line down the centerof a 31/2 ¥ 7 inch, 2 ply matte board (the stereocard). Attach the right image to the right ofthis line and the left image to the left of theline. For viewing, put the card on a flat,evenly illuminated surface. Cut a piece ofmatte board to about 31/2 ¥ 5 inches and placethe 31/2-inch side on the centerline betweenthe two images. Look down the 5-inch side.The board will act as a divider, keeping theright eye focused on the right image and theleft eye focused on the left image. Inexpen-sive twin plastic lenses are available foreasier viewing.


BooksBurder, David, and Pat Whitehouse. Pho-

tographing in 3-D. Distributed by Reel 3-D, Enterprises, Inc., P.O. Box 2368, CulverCity, CA 90231.

Starkman, David, and Susan Pinsky. Reel 3-D Enterprises’ Guide to the Nimslo 3-DCamera. Distributed by Reel 3-D, Enter-prises, Inc., P.O. Box 2368, Culver City, CA90231.

Tomosy, Thomas. Restoring the Great Collectible Cameras: (1945–1970). Distrib-uted by Amherst Media, 155 Rano St.,Buffalo, NY 14207.

Waack, Fritz G. Stereo Photography: AnIntroduction to Stereo Photo Technologyand Practical Suggestions for Stereo Pho-


Figure 9.12 To overcome some of the limitations of using a strobe to stop action, Davidhazy has done extensive work withmoving-film stroboscopy. These methods enable him to analyze motion in detail over an extended period of time whileproducing motion-analysis images suitable for publication.

© Andrew Davidhazy, Rochester Institute of Technology. Stroboscopic Nude Study #2, 1987. 35mm transparency film. 1 ¥ 91/4inches. Original in color.

viewed, the lenticules allow only the righteye to see the right lens image and the lefteye to see the left lens image. This permitsthe human brain to blend the images, thusproducing a three-dimensional effect. Stereocameras such as the Nimslo, Nishika, andTrilogy use the lenticular system. Specialprocessing of the prints is required to pro-duce the stereo effect. The lenticular screenis used to make stereo postcards, posters,and magazine illustrations.

Stereo with a 35mm Camera

The simplest way to experiment with stereo photography is with a 35mm camera. Just make two exposures of a static (non-moving) scene. After you make the firstexposure, shift the camera to the left 21/2 inches and make the second exposure.This can be accomplished by making the first exposure with the camera up to the righteye and the second exposure with thecamera up to the left eye. Binocular stereoattachments that consist of mirrors andprisms, which split a 35mm frame into anarrow vertical pair, are marketed for 35mmcameras.

Make prints no larger than 31/2 ¥ 31/2 inchesof the right and left images, making certainthat the density of both is the same. Mark theback of the right image with an “R” and theback of the left with an “L” to avoid confus-ing the two.

tography. Distributed by Reel 3-D, Enter-prises, Inc., P.O. Box 2368, Culver City, CA90231.

Other SourcesBerezin Stereo Photography Products, 21686

Abedul, Mission Viejo, CA 92691.National Stereoscopic Association, P.O. Box

14801, Columbus, OH 43214.Reel 3-D, P.O. Box 2368, Culver City, CA

90231 (new stereo equipment).Stereo Photography Unlimited, 1005 Bark-

wood Court, Safety Harbor, FL 34695(used stereo equipment).

STROBOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Photographs of moving subjects made by theuse of repeated flashes or a pulsing lightsource are known as stroboscopic pho-tographs. Ernst Mach achieved the first suc-cessful stroboscopic images, of bullets inflight, at the end of the nineteenth century.In the early 1930s, Dr. Harold Edgerton of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)developed the modern electronic flash, ush-ering in the modern era of stroboscopy.

Stroboscopic Effects

There are two ways that stroboscopic effectsare generally used to make photographicimages. The first method of stationary filmstroboscopy takes place in a darkened room,

where the shutter of the camera is opened fora very brief time. During this time, the suc-cessive flashes of light from a stroboscopestop and capture a subject in motion. Theresult shows the subject at different pointsduring its course of travel on a single pieceof film. Dr. Edgerton’s widely known imagesare examples of this process. The limitationsof this method include the number of expo-sures that can be made on a single piece offilm before the event becomes chaotic, andthe actual length of time (determined by the speed of the subject’s motion) that isavailable to record the path of the subject’stravel.

The second method, moving film stro-boscopy, permits a clear and detailed visualrecord of a subject’s motion to be made overa longer period of time. This method is dis-cussed in the following section.

Moving Film Stroboscopy

The following items are needed to carry outmoving film stroboscopy:

1. A 35mm camera with a T (time) or B(bulb) setting that permits the film to berewound with the shutter open. Somecameras automatically close the shutterwhen the film is rewound.

2. A strobe that can be operated at a fra-ctional power setting, such as 1/32 or 1/64,and can be fired in quick succession. Flash



units with a stroboscope mode designedfor use with motor drives are ideal becauseof their rapid recycling time.For those who want to purchase a truestroboscope, Edmund Scientific, 101 EastGlouchester Pike, Barrington, NJ 08007-1380, and Radio Shack stores sell the least expensive stroboscopes. The phy-sics department at a local school orcollege also might be able to lend you a stroboscope.

3. Thirty-six exposures of black-and-whiteor color film.

Find a shooting area with a dark back-ground (black is best) and enough room forthe subject to carry out its intended path ofmotion. It must be possible to darken thisarea so that the stroboscope becomes the solelight source. Set up the stroboscope so it illuminates only the subject and not thebackground.

Load the camera with your film of choiceand advance the film until the next to lastframe appears on the film counter. To avoidexposing any of the film, it is best to do thisin a darkroom or changing bag with the lenscap on, the aperture closed, and the shutterset to the highest speed. Make certain thatthe shutter is completely wound beforegoing on to the next step. If the last windleaves the shutter half-cocked, push in therewind button and finish the cycle withoutforcing the camera’s mechanism.

Place the camera on a tripod. Set thecamera’s aperture to what it would be for anormal single-flash exposure based on thesubject-to-flash distance or a flash meter.Focus on the subject. Push the rewindrelease button to enable the film-advancesprockets to turn freely without tearing thefilm perforations. Set the shutter at the T orB setting. If you use B, lock the shutter in itsopen position with a locking cable release.Turn off or block out any light except thestroboscope or flash.

Turn on the strobe and have the subjectbegin its motion. Observe it a few times toget a good idea of its path of travel. Whenyou are ready to make the exposure, open theshutter with the T or B setting and startwinding the film at a steady and even paceas the subject performs, illuminated only bythe strobe. If you are using a camera strobe,

an assistant can hold and fire it off-camera.The key factor in determining the outcomeis the speed at which the film is wound pastthe open shutter, based on the length of filmin the camera. There are three basic factorsto consider in deciding how quickly to windthe film:

1. The speed at which the subject travels

2. The frequency of the strobe illumination

3. The amount of separation desired be-tween images


Collins, Douglas, and Joyce Bedi. Seeing theUnseen: Dr. Harold E. Edgerton & theWonders of Strobe Alley. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press, 1994.

Davidhazy, Andrew. “Moving Film Stro-boscopy.” Kodak Newsletter for PhotoEducators, Volume 21, No. 1(1988): pp.1–3.

Edgerton, Harold. Electronic Flash/Strobe.Third Ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,1986.

UNDERWATER EQUIPMENT ANDPROTECTION

Until recently, if you wanted to make pic-tures in or around water, you had only twooptions: get a Nikonos 35mm underwatercamera or find a cumbersome watertighthousing for the equipment. Today there arenumerous options available.

The Underwater Standard: Nikonos

Since the 1960s, the Nikonos has been theunderwater camera by which all others aremeasured. The present model, Nikonos V,has interchangeable lenses, is submersible toa depth of 160 feet, can be operated manu-ally or by automatic aperture priority, comeswith through-the-lens (TTL) flash metering,and has a film speed range of ISO 25 to 1,600.It is the most professional and expensive ofall the current underwater cameras. Formore information, contact Nikon, Inc., 623Stewart Avenue, Garden City, NY 11536.

Motormarine I and II

Sea & Sea of Japan offers underwater SLRhousing and camera systems featuring the Motormarine I and II cameras. Thesecameras can be submerged to 150 feet andoffer a wide array of professional features,including interchangeable lenses, electronicflashes, and other accessories, many ofwhich are compatible with the Nikonos. Sea& Sea products are distributed by GMI Pho-tographic, Inc., P.O. Drawer U, Farmingdale,NY 11735.

Weatherproof versus Waterproof

The development of the weatherproof/water-proof lens shutter, or compact camera, hasprovided a number of alternatives to theNikonos. These cameras are essentially auto-matic point-and-shoot machines to whichweather/water protection has been added.They are designed for people with an activelifestyle who do not want to risk ruiningtheir expensive camera gear in a canoe or on a ski slope. Many different models ofwaterproof and weatherproof cameras areavailable. There is even a disposable water-proof camera. It is important to distinguishbetween a completely submersible camera(waterproof) and one that only resists water,dirt, dust, and sand but cannot be submersed(weatherproof). The manufacturer will usu-ally state how many feet one can submergea waterproof camera.

All the current models are lens shuttercameras and not SLRs. They have Galileanfinders that provide only an approximation ofthe exact image size. They are more limitedthan a Nikonos in terms of submersibledepth, ISO range, and exposure control. Inexchange for these limitations, the photogra-pher gets a less expensive, lightweight, anddurable camera capable of delivering goodimage quality in average lighting conditions.

Submersible Sags

Another recent development is the mechan-ically sealed, heavy-duty plastic bag, whichenables photographers to keep their equip-ment dry and still operate the camera con-trols. High-quality bags such as Pioneer’s

EWA-Marine-housing have optical glasslenses for distortion-free images and built-ingloves for easy operation. They also are largeenough to handle flash units and motordrives and are tested to a depth of 100 feet.These bags can be adapted to fit almost anycamera, from a compact to a 6 ¥ 7cm unit.Bags are also available for video camcordersand movie cameras. For further information,contact Pioneer Marketing and Research, 216Haddon Avenue, Suite 522, Westmont, NJ08108.

For the general transporting of equipmentin wet conditions, such as on a raft trip, trya product such as the Bagton. It is made outof yellow polyester that is resistant to UVlight and is waterproof, tear-resistant, andsupposedly unsinkable. Bagtons come in dif-ferent sizes, with a capacity ranging from 1to 42 gallons. For more information, contactNe, Inc., P.O. Box 1587, Cambridge, MA02238-1587.

Hard Cases

To protect equipment when you are travel-ing or when doing fieldwork, you might consider purchasing a rugged, lightweight,shock-resistant, watertight case made of non-corrosive, light-reflecting material. Pelicanequipment cases (Pelican Products, 2255 Jefferson Street, Torrance, CA 90501) are theleast expensive. They are made from high-impact ABS structural resin and have an O-ring seal that is watertight to 10 feet. Satter’sTundra cases (Satter’s, 4100 Dahlia Street,Denver, CO 80207) are structurally similar tothose made by Pelican, but they are water-proof to a depth of 30 feet and cost a littlemore. The most expensive cases are made byRimowa (H.P. Marketing, 16 Chapin Road,Pinebrook, NJ 07058) and are waterproof to67 feet.

Hard Case Alternative

An inexpensive alternative to buying a hardcase is using a large portable ice chest, suchas those made by Coleman or Igloo. If water-tight security is not important, an ice chestpacked with foam offers excellent protectionfor photographic gear.


What to Do if Equipment Gets Wet

Should a piece of photographic equipmentget wet, quick action is necessary to save itfrom ruin. If salt water is the culprit, flushthe item with fresh water. Then open theequipment up as much as possible and com-pletely dry it with a hair dryer set on low. Adrying oven also can be effective and is easyto construct. Place the wet equipment in a

plastic bag with a zip-type closure. Place thenozzle of a hairdryer inside the bag and zipthe bag closed. Secure any open spaces withtape. Then make a small hole at the oppositeend of the bag so the air and moisture canescape. Turn the hair dryer on low and let itrun until the gear is totally dry. When theequipment is dry, take it to a camera repairshop as soon as possible.


10 An Introduction to SomeWidely Used AlternativeProcesses

Thus far this book has primarily dealt withapplications of traditional silver-based pho-tography. There are numerous alternativeprocesses that can be used to create a pho-tographic image. Most of the processes dis-cussed in this chapter are now considered tobe commercially obsolete. Once regarded astechnical breakthroughs, they have been dis-carded in favor of new processes that aremore convenient, faster, and cheaper to use.Some of these processes come from othervisual mediums, like drawing, painting, andprintmaking. Other methods, such as the use of a copy machine, derive from com-mercial communications. These processesare often combined, blurring the boundarybetween the various visual arts media (seeChapter 11). Some can deliver a longer tonal scale while others produce syntheticcolors. If French writer Marcel Proust wascorrect when he said that art is a “transla-tion” of life, then learning about theseprocesses can be a recipe for change that mayexpand the horizon of possibilities and makeyou a better photographer by permittinganother way of expressing your ideas aboutlife.

The common factor among these diversealternative processes is that they do notproduce an image that looks like a tradi-tional gelatin silver photograph. The straightprint is what most people expect to see whenthey look at a photograph. It is the cherishedfrozen instant, removed from the flow oflinear time that has been preserved for con-templation and examination. The task of this

type of photograph has often been to recordand document the visible world. Since the1960s, many photographers have questionedthe virtues of the straight photograph, par-ticularly its spare range of working materialsand the prescribed area in which the pho-tographer is supposed to operate. The alter-native processes allow the imagemaker toexplore and extend the relationship betweenthe photographer, the event being pho-tographed, the interpretation of subject, andthe process of photography. In these alterna-tive processes, the camera image becomes a point of departure for transforming theentire relationship. The resulting photo-graphs challenge traditional “factory made”ideas about the camera image, and as factsbecome less important, beauty and imagi-nation can step forward in importance. Thenature and scope of photography have beenredefined by an alternative aesthetic thatsays a good photograph is not necessarilybased on objectivity and scientific rationale.It dramatically demonstrates that there aremultiple intelligences—ways of seeing—thatcan come into play when making photo-based images.

This chapter provides an introduction tosome processes that have been widely usedin recent years. It offers a technical startingpoint based on formulas and methods thathave been proven successful. In most casesalternative printers have to mix their ownsensitizer and processing chemicals fromstock chemical compounds and coat theirown paper. Most of the processes discussed


are contact printing processes, not enlarge-ment ones, and thus a negative equal to thefinal image size is required. (See Chapter 3for one way of making enlarged negativesand for information on making negativesdirectly from slides.)

The discussion here is confined to coatingpaper stock with various emulsions, al-though it is possible to use these emulsionson almost any porous material, includingceramics and fabric. For more informationon coating other materials, see AdditionalInformation at the end of the chapter. Becertain to follow all the safety rules outlinedin Chapter 2. Regardless of which processyou use, it is advisable to read the chapter in its entirety before experimenting with any of the processes, as specific methods from one technique often can be applied toanother.

ABOUT PAPER

The most important and often overlookedpart of an alternative image is the paper onwhich it is printed. Being able to select thepaper that best supports the image is anadvantage of the alternative processes. Thecolor and texture of the paper an image isprinted on play a major role in determiningwhat the final photograph looks like andhow a viewer will respond to it. In gelatinsilver, gum, and carbon prints the photo-chemistry is contained within a binder layeron top of the paper so that the image actu-ally floats on the uppermost portion of thepaper. In alternative processes iron salts areabsorbed into the surface fibers of paperwhere they come into contact with variouschemical substances, so the image is in factpart of the paper.

Paper is made from cellulose fibersderived from different plant sources, pri-marily cotton and wood pulp. Papers madefrom the wood of coniferous trees are knownas sulfite pulp paper. In these papers woodchips are cooked in calcium bisulfate orsodium sulfite, and bleached, producinglong, strong fibers. The highest quality ofthese papers is known as alpha cellulosepapers. Papers made from this process aregenerally not suitable for alternative print-ing. Cotton rags or rag papers come from thepart of the cotton plant that is used for textile

manufacture. Rag content describes theamount of cotton fiber relative to the totalamount of material used in the pulp. Thesepapers are the most suitable for the processesdescribed in this chapter. Many papersdesigned for drawing, etching, and water-color may have bleaches, buffers, clay fillers,dyes, optical brightening agents, sizingagents, and wet-strength resins incorporatedinto the fibers, which can affect the appear-ance of the print.

Wet Strength and Acid Content

Two primary concerns in choosing a paperfor alternative photographic processes arewet strength and acid content. Generallypapers that are suitable for etching, lithog-raphy, or watercolor have sufficient wetstrength to withstand the coating, process-ing, and washing of prints. Acid-free paperis a must for most art applications. Toproduce their papers, archival manufactur-ers sometimes neutralize the acids in paperby adding an alkaline substance like calciumcarbonate or magnesium carbonate into the pulp. Calcium carbonate reacts withiron-based sensitizer solutions used in many alternative processes, changing theirpH, and producing unpredictable results.Therefore a nonbuffered acid-free paper is recommended.

Cold and Hot Press Paper

Cold pressed paper has a surface with slighttexture that is produced by pressing the fin-ished sheet between cold cylinders. Coldpress papers tend to absorb more liquid thanhot pressed papers, which have a smoothsurface that is produced by pressing a fin-ished sheet through hot cylinders. Hot presspapers are generally more suitable for alter-native processes.

Sizing

Sizing is the process by which gelatin rosin,starch, or another synthetic substance isadded to paper to provide resistance to theabsorption of moisture and to fill in the gapsbetween paper fibers. Sizing added to the

INTRODUCTION TO SOME WIDELY USED ALTERNATIVE PROCESSES 159

pulp during manufacture is known as inter-nal sizing. After the sheet is formed, it maybe either surface sized (painted or brushedon the surface), or tub sized (immersed in a bath).

Experimentation is essential, because apaper that works well with the cyanotypeprocess might not be chemically compatiblewith a platinum/palladium sensitizer. Beaware that papers with the same name, butmade by different mills, may have under-gone different chemical preparation duringmanufacture and therefore deliver dissimilarresults.

CYANOTYPE PROCESS

Cyanotype, Greek for “dark blue impres-sion,” is one of the easiest and least expensive ways of gaining hands-on experi-ence with an alternative nonsilver process.Sir John Herschel invented the method in1842 and used it as a proto-photocopymachine for making duplicates of his intri-cate notes.

The first aesthetic application of the cyan-otype is credited to Anna Atkins, whoworked with it in the 1840s and 1850s toillustrate her book Photographs of BritishAlgae: Cyanotype Impressions. The heydayof the process was in the 1880s, when archi-tects and shipbuilders used precoated cyan-otype paper to make fast, inexpensive copiesof line drawings.

The major disadvantage of the process,which kept it from becoming more widelyadopted, is its bright blue color. In Natural-istic Photography for Students of Art (1889),Peter Henry Emerson said, “No one but avandal would print a landscape in red orcyanotype.” Yet the process remainedpopular for a time with professional andamateur photographers as an inexpensiveand speedy method for proofing negatives.

The chief attractions of the cyanotype areas follows:

1. The process is simple and inexpensive.

2. It may be used on a variety of surfaces andmaterials.

3. Its relatively long printing times enablethe printmaker to observe the imageduring the printing process.

4. The final image can last a long time (be archival), depending on the basematerial.

5. The intense blue color can be altered withadditional processing steps.

How the Process Works

Herschel discovered that when light acts oncertain ferric (iron) salts, they are reduced toa ferrous state. Many of these processes,including cyanotype, kallitype, Vandyke,platinum, and palladium, are sometimesreferred to as iron-salt-sensitive processes orferric processes, since they are all based onthe reduction of iron.

In the cyanotype process, the light cat-alyzes the reduction of ferric ammoniumcitrate to a ferrous salt. The ferrous salt thenacts as a reducer on the potassium ferriccyanide. This produces a precipitate ofinsoluble blue pigment, ferrous ferricyanide,which is also known as Prussian blue. Theareas that are not exposed to light remain ina ferric state. During development, washingremoves these unreduced salts, leavingbehind the insoluble ferrous ferrocyanide.During drying, the ferrous ferrocyanide oxi-dizes to the distinctive deep blue.

It is possible to obtain different colors bychanging the metallic salt applied to theferrous image. Basically this is what happensin kallitype and platinum printing. It is alsopossible to alter the final blue image througha toning process.

Safety

In addition to the general safety guidelinesprovided in Chapter 2, be aware of these spe-cific concerns when working with cyan-otypes:

1. Potassium ferricyanide should not beheated above 300°F (147°C) or allowed tocome in contact with any concentratedacid, as poisonous hydrogen cyanide gascan be produced.

2. Unused emulsion should be disposed ofby absorbing it in kitty litter placed insidea plastic bag. This bag should be sealedand placed in a covered trash containeroutdoors.


Printing

Cyanotype emulsion has a long exposurescale. Negatives with a complete range oftonality work well, as do contrasty negatives.A full range of tones can be produced on asmooth paper from a negative that wouldnormally require a Grade 0 paper in normalsilver-based printing.

The cyanotype emulsion can be applied toany absorbent surface, including almost anypaper, even colored stock (except those thathave an alkaline buffer), fabric, bisque ware,and leather. The emulsion can be applied toother photographs or combined with otherprocesses like Vandyke and with techniquessuch as hand-coloring and toning.

Choosing a Paper

A high-quality, well-sized rag paper such asArches Cover and Arches Platine, workswell as a starting point. Beautiful prints alsocan be made on unsized papers, such asRives BFK. Any changes in the color ofcoated paper (when stored in the dark) fromyellow to green or blue is a sign of paper/chemistry incompatibility.

After you have mastered the technique,consider applying the emulsion to fabric oreven chamois leather. The tighter the weaveof the fabric, the deeper the blue tends to be.

Commercially made cyanotype paper isavailable at specialty art supply stores. It isalso sold as sun paper in museum andscience stores. The quality of these materialsvaries widely and should be tested beforebuying in quantity.

Making the Sensitizer

The cyanotype emulsion is made by prepar-ing the sensitizer from two stock solutionswhich are combined in equal parts at thetime of use.

Cyanotype Formula

Stock Solution AWater (68°F or 20°C) 250 millilitersFerric ammonium citrate 50 grams

(green)*

*The green variety provides an emulsion that isabout twice as light-sensitive as the brown.

Stock Solution BWater (68°F or 20°C) 250 millilitersPotassium ferricyanide 35 grams

Mix the solutions separately. Store them in tightly closed opaque containers. The separate solutions have a shelf life of up tosix weeks.

When you are ready to use them, combineequal amounts of stock solution A and stocksolution B. Once combined, they have auseful life of about one day. The peak sensi-tivity of coated paper occurs within the firsttwo hours after the emulsion has beenapplied. Coated paper may be stored andused, with reduced light sensitivity, for aperiod of about two weeks.

Modern Cyanotype: The Mike Ware Process

Photographer and chemist Michael Ware has developed an “improved” cyanotypeformula. Ware has replaced ferric ammo-nium citrate with ferric ammonium oxalateto make a formula that is more light-sensitive, more readily penetrates paperfibers, and is less prone to mold than the tra-ditional process. The results are cyanotypeimages that do not bleed, require shorterexposures, and have a dark (almost black)maximum density.

The preparation of this sensitizer solutioncalls for a little more experience in chemicalmanipulation than is required to make a traditional cyanotype sensitizer. This workshould be carried out under tungsten light,not fluorescent or daylight. A hotplate will be found convenient for heating the solutions.

Michael Ware has provided the followinginstructions:

Sensitizer chemicals needed:Ammonium iron (III) oxalate 30 gramsPotassium ferricyanide 10 gramsAmmonium dichromate 0.1 gramsDistilled water 100 cc

Analytical Reagent (AR) Grade (99%) chem-icals are preferred.

1. Heat 20cc of distilled water to about160°F (70°C) in a small Pyrex glassbeaker, and completely dissolve 10 grams


of potassium ferricyanide in it, with stir-ring; keep the solution hot.

2. Heat 30cc of distilled water in a secondbeaker to about 120°F (50°C), and dis-solve in it 30 grams of ammonium iron(III) oxalate. Add 0.1 gram of solid ammo-nium dichromate and dissolve it. (If youcannot weigh out this small amount, thenadd 0.5cc of 20 percent ammoniumdichromate solution, previously preparedby dissolving 2 grams of the solid in dis-tilled water and adding water up to a finalvolume of 10cc.) Mix thoroughly.

3. Now add the hot potassium ferricyanidesolution to the ammonium iron (III)oxalate solution, stir well, and set themixture aside in a dark place to cool andcrystallize, until it just reaches room tem-perature. For this quantity of solution, thecooling will take an hour or two.

4. Separate the liquid from the green crystals by decanting (carefully pouringthe liquid off the mass of solid) and fil-tering (a Whatman grade 1 filter paper isadequate). The green crystals (potassiumiron (III) oxalate) should be disposed ofsafely because they are poisonous. Thevolume of filtrate extracted should beabout 60cc.

5. Make up the filtered solution with dis-tilled water to a final volume of 100cc.Mix well. (This sensitizer can be mademore dilute, e.g., by making up to 200cc;it will be faster to print, but will yield aless intense blue.)

6. Store the sensitizer solution in a well-stoppered, clearly labeled brown bottle.Kept in the dark, at room temperature, itsshelf life should be at least a year.

Safety alert: If ingested, this sensitizersolution is much more toxic than traditionalcyanotype sensitizer and immediate medicalattention must be sought.

Applying the Emulsion

The emulsion from either formula can beapplied under subdued tungsten light or ina darkened room. Avoid fluorescent lightsbecause most of them produce UV light,which can affect the cyanotype emulsion, as

well as all the other nonsilver processes dis-cussed in this chapter. UV light raises thebase fog level of the coated emulsion, reduc-ing its overall sensitivity. This can reducethe contrast range and degrade the highlightand shadow details.

Spread newspapers on all working sur-faces to protect them from cyanotype stains.After making the sensitizer, coat the paperwith it. Two ounces of working solution willcoat about eight 8 ¥ 10 inch prints.

There are two basic ways to coat paper.The first coating method is called floating.Put the emulsion in a tray and float the paperon the solution for 2 to 5 minutes. Occa-sionally tap the backside of the paper gentlyto dispel any air bubbles, taking care not toget any of the sensitizer on the nonemulsionside.

The second method involves using a poly-foam brush (the same type used to paint thetrim on your house). Tape or pin the paperto a smooth, nonporous surface. Dip thebrush into the emulsion, squeeze out theexcess, and brush evenly across the paper.The emulsion should be kept wet and not beoverworked or reapplied during this process,or it will lose sensitivity.

Dry the paper in total darkness (a hairdryer, set on low, can be used to speeddrying). The coated paper should appearyellow-green when it is dry.

Exposure

Cyanotypes are exposed by contact printingwith a UV light source such as the sun, fullspectrum or plant growth fluorescent lamps,a sunlamp, a carbon arc, or a mercury vaporlamp. In a darkened room, put the negativeon top of the sensitized paper (emulsion toemulsion) in a contact frame or under Plexiglas or glass (glass absorbs UV light,making exposure times somewhat longer). Acontact-printing frame with a tensioned splitback is a major convenience in all nonsilverprinting as it permits inspection without the risk of misaligning the paper and the negative.

Consistent sunlight is the best source ofexposure. Sunlight exposure time may runfrom 5 to 20 minutes depending on the loca-tion, the time of day, the cloud conditions,and the season. Exposure times with sun-


lamps start at about 15 minutes. Keep thelamp about 24 inches from the print frame.If the frame gets too warm, a small fan canbe used to dispel the heat. Wear appropriateeye protection when working with anysunlamp. The correct exposure time can bedetermined through inspection or by makinga test strip. As the paper is exposed, it turnsfrom yellow-green, to green, to dark green, to

blue-green, and finally to blue-gray, at whichtime exposure should be complete.

It is necessary to overprint, as the high-light areas will lighten when the print iswashed. Print until the highlights are con-siderably darker than desired. At this point,the shadow areas will begin to reverse.Check exposure by opening one side of theprint frame back and carefully lifting thepaper away from the negative, without dis-turbing the registration. If you are usingglass, tape the paper and negative togetheron the support board on three sides, leavingthe fourth free for inspection.

Processing

Process the print in subdued tungsten lightby washing it in a tray of running water for 10 to 15 minutes at 68°F (20°C). Washuntil the highlight areas are clear of stain (noyellow color should remain). Allow the printto dry in a darkened room. If intensifying or toning is planned, do it while the print is still wet. Washing in alkaline water (pH 8or higher) will bleach the image. This can be corrected by increasing the exposure time.

Cyanotypes can fade slightly after pro-cessing, but they will return to their originalcolor if left in the dark to reoxidize. The finallook of a cyanotype cannot be determineduntil it has had a chance to completely dryand oxidize.

Oxidation Solution

To see the final tone immediately, place theprint in an oxidation solution directly afterwashing.

Cyanotype Oxidation Solution Formula

Water (68°F or 20°C) 200 millilitersHydrogen peroxide 20 milliliters

(regular 3% solution)

Quickly and evenly immerse the print inthe oxidation solution for a couple ofseconds. Remove, rinse, and dry it.

Toning

The color of a cyanotype can be altered to a certain extent through the use of chemical

Figure 10.1 Using a Victorian visual vocabulary, Dugdale’s cyanotypesare rich in metaphor, nostalgia, and melancholy. Even after cataracts and aseries of strokes left him with only 30 percent of his sight, Dugdale hascontinued to make images with an 11 ¥ 14 inch Kodak view camera builtin 1910. Often taking inspiration from a diverse group of photographersincluding William Henry Fox Talbot, Thomas Eakins, and George PlattLynes, Dugdale uses intuition and memory to compose his images whilerelying on a magnifying glass and assistants to focus his camera.

©John Dugdale. Christ Our Liberator, 1999. Cyanotype. 11 ¥ 14 inches.Courtesy of Wessel + O’Connor Gallery. Original in color.


toners. Formulas that require the direct usesof ammonia or ferrous sulfate are not rec-ommended because the colors obtained fromthem easily fade. It is possible to produceonly local changes in color by brushing thetoner on selected areas of the print. You canmake more than one color change on a print.

Red-Brown TonesThe following formula produces a solid red tone, but the highlight areas turn yellowwithin about a week and will remain so.

Solution AWater (68°F or 20°C) 180 millilitersTannic acid* 6 grams

Solution BWater (68°F or 20°C) 180 millilitersSodium carbonate 6 grams

In a tray, immerse the print in solution Afor 5 minutes. Then immerse the print in aseparate tray of solution B for 5 minutes.Follow with a 10-minute wash in runningwater at 68°F (20°C).

Lilac to Purple-Brown Tones

Tannic acid* 70 gramsWater (68°F or 20°C) 1 literPyrogallic acid* 2 drops

Mix the tannic acid and water. Heat thesolution to 120°F (49°C) and add the pyro-gallic acid. Rapidly and evenly immerse theprint in the solution, or splotching mayresult. Allow the image to tone until it takeson a lilac color. Wash in running water at68°F (20°C) for 15 minutes.

Deeper tones can be produced by puttingthe print in a solution of 15 grams of causticpotash and 1 liter of water. After toning inthis solution, wash for 15 minutes.

Violet-Black Tones

Solution AWater (68°F or 20°C) 1 literSodium carbonate (washing 50 grams

soda)

Immerse the print in this solution until itturns yellow, then wash for 2 minutes.

Solution BGallic acid* 8 gramsPyrogallic acid* 0.5 gramsWater (68°F or 20°C) 1 liter*Always add the acids to the water.

Take the yellow print from solution A andplace it in solution B until the desired colorappears. Follow with a 10-minute wash inrunning water. The gallic acid produces theviolet tones. Increasing the pyrogallic acidresults in a blacker tone.

KALLITYPE AND VANDYKEBROWNPRINT PROCESSES

Kallitype Characteristics

Dr. W.W.J. Nichol invented the kallitype in 1899. The process is based on Sir JohnHerschel’s iron-silver reduction processcalled the chrysotype (the modern process isprovided at the end of this section). This pro-cess is similar to platinum printing, exceptthe kallitype image is made up of metallicsilver instead of platinum.

The kallitype is a simple process consist-ing of silver nitrate and ferric salt. When thekallitype emulsion is exposed to light, someof the ferric salt is reduced to a ferrous state.The newly created ferrous salt reduces thesilver nitrate to metallic silver. This metallicsilver is not as stable as metallic platinum.Careful processing that removes all the ferricsalt and nonimage silver greatly increasesprint stability.

The kallitype process was never commer-cially popular because it was introduced atthe same time as gaslight papers, which werecontact-printing, developing-out papers witha silver chloride emulsion that could beexposed by artificial light. Even more impor-tant, the kallitype had an initial reputa-tion for impermanence. When Nichol firstunveiled his process, he recommended theuse of ammonia for a fix, which proved to beineffective. When fixed in sodium thiosulfate(hypo), a kallitype can be as permanent asany other silver-based process.

The kallitype offers an excellent introduc-tion to the more complex platinum printing.It is not as versatile as platinum, but it is amuch less expensive way of achieving a platinum-like print quality. As in the plat-inum print, the kallitype works well with acontinuous long-tone negative. There areseveral formulas and variations of the kalli-type process. The easiest one is known asVandyke or Brownprint. After mastering it,you will be prepared to move on to the morecomplex general kallitype process.


Vandyke Brownprint Characteristics

The Vandyke Brownprint technique isnamed after the characteristic rich browntones found in the paintings of seventeenth-century Flemish master Anthony Van Dyck(or Vandyke). A Vandyke image producedfrom a long-tonal-range negative will havecomplete detail, from full shadows to fullhighlights. Shorter-tone negatives produceless-deep shadows. The color can range frommedium brown to dark black-brown. Imagecontrast can be slightly controlled duringdevelopment with the addition of potassiumdichromate to the developer water. Theemulsion has a shelf life of a couple ofmonths and improves with age. Ideally, theemulsion should be prepared and allowed toage two to three days before it is used.

Most acid-free rag papers, such as ArchesPlatine, Arches Cover, and Strathmore 500,offer good starting points. Rives BFK willwork, but it should be sized first for con-sistent results (see the section on gumbichromate later in this chapter). As withcyanotypes, the emulsion may be applied insubdued tungsten light by brushing or float-ing. No metal should come in contact with thesilver nitrate, as it will cause a chemical reac-tion, so polyfoam brushes with all-woodenhandles are suggested for coating. After thepaper is coated, it should be dried in a dark-ened room. Paper may be heat- or fan-driedand should be printed on immediately, as thecoated emulsion loses its sensitivity rapidly,producing flatter, grayer images. Be sure thecoating is yellow before making any expo-sures. If it looks brown, it is no good.

The Vandyke process works well on manyfabrics because it contains no colloidal bodysuch as gelatin or gum arabic. The emulsionsoaks into the fabric, leaving it unaltered (itdoes not stiffen up). Natural fibers, such asclose-weave cotton, produce the deepestbrown tones. Do not use permanent-pressmaterials as they repel the emulsion.

When combining a Vandyke with a cyan-otype image it is necessary to print the cyan-otype first, to prevent the Vandyke frombleaching.

Vandyke Formula

Stock Solution AFerric ammonium citrate 90 gramsDistilled water (68°F or 250 milliliters

20°C)

Stock Solution BTartaric acid 15 gramsDistilled water (68°F or 250 milliliters

20°C)

Stock Solution CSilver nitrate* 30 gramsDistilled water (68°F or 20°C) 1 liter

*Wear gloves when handling silver nitratebecause it will stain black anything it touches.

Mix each stock solution separately. Withconstant stirring, combine stock solutions Aand B, then slowly add stock solution C.Store in a tightly closed opaque container ina cool, dry location. Allow to ripen (age) twoto three days before using. Shake the emul-sion before each use, including betweenbrush dips, to ensure even distribution of thesilver nitrate. Tightly sealed and refrigeratedsolutions can last for years. Do not let theferric ammonium citrate be heated above300°F (147°C) or come in contact with anyconcentrated acid, as poisonous hydrogencyanide gas can be produced.

ExposureA Vandyke Brownprint is contact printed,using a print frame or heavy piece of glassand a smooth support board, under sunlightor an artificial UV light source until high-light detail becomes visible. Summer sun-light exposures can be as brief as 30 secondsbut winter exposures can take an hour ormore. The color of the emulsion will changefrom yellow to a dark reddish brown duringnormal exposure. The exposure time for theVandyke emulsion is about half that forcyanotypes. A typical trial exposure in fullsummer sun might be about 2 minutes. Acomparable exposure with photofloods atabout 24 inches from the print frame couldbe about 15 minutes. Underexposed (thin)negatives can be exposed until the emulsionturns a tan-brown color. Overexposed(dense) negatives should be exposed untilthe emulsion turns silvery brown.

DevelopmentThe Vandyke is developed in a darkenedroom in running water at 68°F (20°C) for acouple of minutes, or until the water runsclear. The negative basically determines thecontrast, but it may be increased slightly byadding a 10 percent dichromate solution tothe developer water. After the print haswashed for 1 minute, transfer it to a tray con-


taining 16 ounces (475ml) of water andabout 10 drops of the dichromate solution.Increasing the number of drops of dichro-mate solution produces more contrast. Afterthe desired level of contrast is reached,transfer the print back into a tray of runningwater. This process may be repeated.

FixTo achieve the true Vandyke brown andensure permanency, the image must be fixedin a 5 percent bath of plain thiosulfate for 5 minutes at 68°F (20°C). This fixing bath is prepared by dissolving 25 grams ofsodium thiosulfate in 500 milliliters ofwater. Since it is a weak solution, it shouldbe monitored with a hypo check and re-placed often.

When the image enters the fix, it willdarken and turn brown, and the highlightsshould become brighter. Fix, with agitation,for 5 minutes. If the image is allowed toremain in the fix longer than 5 minutes, itcan begin to bleach. Extending the time inthe fix can correct for overexposed prints.

Washing and DryingWash the image in running water at 68°F(20°C) for 5 minutes. Then place it in a hypoclearing bath for 2 to 3 minutes and give it afinal wash of 30 minutes to ensure perma-nence. The image can be air- or heat-dried.Heat drying will darken the brown tone.

A Basic Kallitype Process

The basic kallitype process is similar to theVandyke, but it is more complex. The basickallitype formula uses a mixture of ferricoxalate, oxalic acid, and silver nitrate as thesensitizer. When this emulsion is exposed tolight, the ferric oxalate is changed to aferrous state, which reduces the silver nitrateto metallic silver. During development, theferrous oxalate is dissolved, leaving behindthe metallic silver that forms the image. Theadvantages of kallitype over the Vandyke are that it offers better control over contrastand tone.

Kallitype Formula

Distilled water 16 ounces (473 (100°F or 38°C) milliliters)

Ferric oxalate 23/4 ounces (78 grams)

Oxalic acid* 80 grains (5.2 grams)Silver nitrate* 1 ounce (31 grams)*Wear gloves when handling both oxalic acid and

silver nitrate as they are poisonous and willstain anything they come in contact with.

Dissolve the ferric oxalate and oxalic acidin the water. Constantly stirring, add thesilver nitrate. Pour the solution into anopaque bottle with a tightly sealed lid andallow it to ripen for at least three days before use.

After the emulsion has ripened, warm thecontainer in a water bath at 100°F (38°C) toredissolve the crystalline silver oxalate pre-cipitate. Apply the emulsion in a darkenedroom to paper or cloth at 100°F by floating orcoating with a polyfoam brush. The emulsioncan be heat-dried. Printing should be carriedout immediately because the sensitizedcoating will begin to deteriorate within a day.

DevelopmentThe image color is determined by the selec-tion of developer. Contrast can be controlledthrough the use of a 10 percent potassiumdichromate solution in any of the devel-opers (see Development in the Vandykesection). With a normal contrast negative,add 2 drops of the 10 percent potassiumdichromate solution to the developer. If thenegative is flat (lacks contrast), add 6 to 10or more drops to the developer. There is noneed to add any dichromate with contrastynegatives. Prints are processed for 5 to 10minutes in any of the developer formulas.Best results are usually obtained when thedeveloper is warm.

Kallitype Black-Tone Developer Formula

Distilled water 500 milliliters(100°F or 38°C)

Borax 48 gramsSodium potassium tartrate 36 grams

(Rochelle salt)

Kallitype Brown-Tone Developer Formula

Distilled water (100°F or 500 milliliters38°C)

Borax 24 gramsSodium potassium tartrate 48 grams

Kallitype Sepia-Tone Developer Formula


Sodium potassium tartrate 24 grams


Kallitype Clearing Solution FormulaAfter development is complete, rinse theprint in running water and clear it for 5minutes using the clearing solution.

Water (68°F or 20°C) 1 literPotassium oxalate 120 grams

Kallitype Fix FormulaAfter the clearing bath, fix the print for 5minutes in the fix solution. Be sure to checkand replace this solution often.

Water (68°F or 20°C) 1 literSodium thiosulfate 50 gramsHousehold ammonia (plain) 12 milliliters

Washing and DryingWash the print for several minutes, then treatit with a hypo clearing bath for 3 minutes.

Give a final wash of 30 minutes to ensurepermanence. Air-dry the print.

Combining Processes

The cyanotype and the kallitype processescontain chemicals that will attack oneanother when combined on the same surface.Unusual visual effects are possible, but donot expect the resulting image to be perma-nent. Changes can take place within a week.If you wish to preserve the effect, it is neces-sary to rephotograph the work on color film.

Chrysotype Process

Robert W. Schramm and Liam Lawlessdeveloped the following chrysotype processthat can be carried out in room temperatureof 68°F (20°C).

1. Sensitizer:8 drops of 10 percent gold chloride solu-tion (made with distilled water)12 drops of distilled water20 drops of 18 percent ferric ammoniumcitrate solutionNote: After the sensitizer is mixed youhave about 20 minutes to coat the paperbefore the gold starts precipitating out.The look of the images is similar to thecyanotype except they are more of a flatslate blue with a slight reddish cast,which can give them a light purpleappearance.

2. Developer:Potassium oxalate solution. Use 1/2 tea-spoon in a pint of water.Develop for 1 to 2 minutes.

3. Clear:10 percent sodium sulfite solution.Clear for 1 minute.

4. Wash for 30 to 60 minutes, depending onthe paper.

PLATINUM AND PALLADIUMPROCESSES

William Willis patented the platinum print-ing process in 1873 and began to market itin 1879 under the name Platinotype. Pho-tographers such as P.H. Emerson and Fred-

Figure 10.2 A year after William Henry Fox Talbot announced hisinvention of silver-based photography, Sir John Herschel developed amethod for making photographic images in gold. Herschel’s chrysotypeformula, named after the Greek word for gold, had difficulties withcontrast control and image fogging. (The modern formula eliminates thoseproblems.) Depending on the size of the microscopic particles of gold, thetype of paper, and developer, chrysotypes can range in color from blacksand pinks, to blues, purple, violet, green, and in some cases a goldencolor.

© Robert Schramm. Full Moon, 1999. Chrysotype print. 8 ¥ 8 inches.Original in color.


erick H. Evans used the paper. It also becameextremely popular with the Pictorialists, the Linked Ring Society, and the Photo-Secessionists.

Platinum is a contact-printing process inwhich the image is first partially printed out(becomes visible) in UV light. After expo-sure, the full image is chemically developedout to completion. Like all printing-outprocesses (P.O.P.), it allows subtle highlightdetails to be retained without the deepshadow areas becoming buried. This is dueto its self-masking ability. When a print ismade using this process, the shadow areasare the first to appear on the paper, darken-ing the top layer of the print emulsion,which then acts as a mask. This mask holdsback some of the light so the shadows do notget as dark as they would in a silver-basedprint that is developed out. Consequently,light is permitted to pass through the denserhighlight areas of the negative without theshadows going black and losing detail. Thusa soft print with a long tonal scale and lumi-nous shadow detail can be produced.

All sensitizing and developing can bedone under subdued tungsten light. Varyingthe proportions of the sensitizer solutionscontrols contrast. Platinum produces animage color from silvery gray to rosy brown.The print has a matte surface, so there is noreflected glare. Platinum is more stable thansilver, so images can be as permanent as thepaper on which they are printed.

The major disadvantage of platinum is itsextremely high cost. For this reason, plat-inum papers have not been widely avail-able since 1937. At present, the PalladioCompany is making a platinum-palladiumpaper in two contrast grades (see AdditionalInformation at the end of this chapter). Pal-ladium, which is somewhat less expensive,can be substituted for platinum and willdeliver similar results, although it does notprovide as much color variation. Palladiumproduces brown-tone prints. Platinum andpalladium are often mixed in equal parts toproduce a warmer tone than can be achievedwith platinum alone.

Platinum Printing

Platinum is not light-sensitive enough topermit enlarging, so a large or enlarged neg-

ative is needed for contact printing. Due tothe slowness of the material, burning anddodging are not generally done during print-ing but are carried out when the enlargednegative is made (see Chapter 3).

The platinum process is similar to otherferric, iron-sensitive processes such as thekallitype, except that platinum salts are usedin place of silver salts. The paper is sensi-tized with ferric oxalate and potassiumchloroplatinite. When exposed to UV light,the ferric salts are reduced to the ferrousstate in proportion to the density of the neg-ative. When the print is developed in apotassium oxalate developer, the newlyformed ferrous salts are dissolved, and they,in turn, reduce the platinum to the metallicstate. The image is then cleared in a bath ofdilute hydrochloric acid, which eliminatesthe remaining ferric salts, leaving behind animage composed only of platinum.

NegativesPlatinum delivers a classic straight-lineresponse, meaning that the print will revealthe full range of tonal values, from darkshadows to very subtle highlights, that havebeen recorded on the negative. For thisreason, negatives possessing a long and fulldensity range with good separation andshadow detail make excellent candidates forprinting. Platinum is one of the few emul-sions capable of successfully rendering sucha wide contrast range. Generally, a contrastyand dense negative that will print well on aGrade 0 silver-based enlarging paper is agood starting place.

If the negatives being made are only forplatinum printing, some printmakers in-crease the amount of exposure given to thefilm by as much as quartering the standardISO rating. For instance, a 400 speed filmwould be exposed at ISO 100. T-MAX filmsare an exception. Try T-MAX 100 at ISO 75and T-MAX 400 at ISO 200. In addition,some people increase the developing time by30 to 50 percent. D-23 is a favorite developerfor negatives that will be used to print onplatinum (see Chapter 4 for the formula).Thin negatives look dull, flat, and lackdetail. On the other hand, printing negativesmade on high-contrast film (litho film) is notcommon because their lack of tonal rangedoes not take full advantage of the subtletiesof the platinum process. Obviously, experi-


mentation is in order. If the negatives beingmade are for both platinum/palladium andsilver printing, expose T-MAX 400 at ISO200 or T-MAX 100 at ISO 50 and process inD-23.

PaperFine-textured, 100 percent rag papers, likeCrane’s Kid Finish #64, is an excellent start-ing point. Papers with too much texturecause the fine details of platinum to be lost.Rives BFK and similar papers are veryabsorbent and soak up copious amounts ofexpensive emulsion. Such papers can besized to reduce their rate of absorption (seethe section on gum bichromate later in thischapter). A paper’s chemical makeup canhave a noticeable effect on the color andtonal range of the print. Paper manufactur-ers are continually making changes in theiroperations. Test a variety of papers in orderto determine the desired results.

ChemicalsThe price of platinum and palladium saltsvaries greatly, so check a number of sourcesbefore ordering. Sometimes ferric oxalatecan be hard to find. It is deliquescent (dis-solves by absorbing moisture from the air)and should be stored in a tightly sealedopaque bottle. If prints appear to be fogged,test the ferric oxalate by dissolving some inwater and adding a 5 percent solution ofpotassium ferricyanide. If this mixture turnsblue, the ferric oxalate has become ferrous.Discard it, as it will deliver poor results.

Platinum Emulsion FormulaThe emulsion is made up of three separatestock solutions, each stored in an opaqueglass bottle with a medicine dropper. Do notinterchange the droppers. Label the bottlesand store them in a dark place. The platinumsolution lasts indefinitely. The oxalates willkeep for a couple of weeks or up to a fewmonths if refrigerated. When the oxalatesolution goes bad, the print highlightsbecome uneven and start to fog. Follow allsafety procedures as outlined in Chapter 2when handling these chemicals.

Stock Solution 1Distilled water (120°F or 55 milliliters

49°C)Oxalic acid 1 gramFerric oxalate 15 grams


49°C)Oxalic acid 1 gramFerric oxalate 15 gramsPotassium chlorate 0.3 grams


38°C)Potassium chloroplatinite* 10 grams*Do not use chloroplatinate. If some of the plat-

inum should precipitate out of the solutionduring storage, warm it in a water bath, prior touse, to redissolve the platinum.

All the solutions should be prepared 1 to2 days beforehand and allowed to ripen.When you are ready to use the solutions,combine them to produce the desired con-trast level (see the next section) in a cleanglass bottle. Tighten the top and mix byshaking.

Contrast ControlThe contrast of the image is controlled byvarying the proportions of solution 1 andsolution 2. Following is a list of emulsionmixtures for contrast control with a normalnegative.

Very Soft PrintsSolution 1 22 dropsSolution 2 0 dropsSolution 3 24 drops

Soft PrintsSolution 1 18 dropsSolution 2 4 dropsSolution 3 24 drops

Average-Contrast PrintsSolution 1 14 dropsSolution 2 8 dropsSolution 3 24 drops

Above-Average-Contrast PrintsSolution 1 10 dropsSolution 2 12 dropsSolution 3 24 drops

High-Contrast PrintsSolution 1 0 dropsSolution 2 22 dropsSolution 3 24 drops

Raising Contrast In addition to increasingthe amount of solution 2 in the emulsion,


you can raise the contrast of a print by doingone or more of the following:

1. Use a hard, smooth-surface (hot pressed)paper.

2. Give the paper a second coat of emulsionafter the first has dried.

3. Add 5 to 25 drops of a 10 percent solu-tion of potassium dichromate to thedeveloper.

4. Lower the temperature of the developer.

5. After the first exposure is processed anddried, recoat the paper and expose itagain with the same negative.

Lowering Contrast Print contrast may belowered in the following ways:

1. Use a soft, rough-surface (cold pressed)paper.

2. Reduce overall exposure time and processin a warm to hot developer.

3. Add a few drops of clearing bath to thedeveloper.

Applying the EmulsionThe emulsion can be applied under subduedtungsten light. Practice coating on scrappaper. Use water to which a few drops offood coloring has been added to make iteasier to see what is happening. Tape or pinthe paper to a smooth, flat surface. Use abrush with no metal parts (about 2 incheswide) that has a thin row of bristles so aminimum amount of emulsion is used. If thebrush has any metal, do not let the emulsioncome in contact with it, as this will cause achemical reaction that will contaminate theemulsion. Metal parts may be painted withrubber cement for protection.

Dip the brush into distilled water andsqueeze it out. Doing this will reduce theamount of emulsion used. Using a cleandropper, put a line of emulsion along the topof the paper. With long, rapid, parallelstrokes, brush the emulsion up and downand back and forth until the surface is dry.Coat an area larger than the negative so thatthe excess can be trimmed off to make teststrips. Spread the emulsion as evenly as pos-sible. Avoid puddles that may soak into thepaper and produce uneven print density.

Wash the brush immediately after use, asexposure to light will cause ferrous salts toform in any remaining emulsion. If the brushis not properly washed, these salts can con-taminate future prints during the coatingprocess. Paper can also be coated by using a3/8 inch or 1/2 inch diameter glass or acrylicrod instead of a brush. Rods coat paperevenly and use less solution than othercoating methods and can be purchased or made.

Making Your Own Glass Coating RodsObtain solid glass rod stock or Pyrex glassrod and tubing from a supplier like FisherScientific (see Additional Information at the end of the chapter) or from a glassblowersupplier. The rod should be slightly longerthan the width of the paper to be coated.With a three-cornered file, score the rodwhere you want to cut it. Grasp the rod inboth hands with your thumbs on the side ofthe rod opposite the score and snap the rodlike a stick. The rod will break neatly at thescore. The ends of the rod can be roundedusing a plumber’s propane torch by holdingone end of the rod in the flame and rotatingthe rod slowly. The flame will glow yellowand the end of the rod will begin to melt.Withdraw the rod from the flame and let itcool (do not put the rod in water to cool, asit will shatter). Repeat the procedure on theother end.

Coating Paper with a Rod Using a cleandropper, put a line of emulsion along the topof the paper. Place the rod in the emulsionand pull the rod and emulsion across thepaper. When you have reached the other sideof the paper, lift the rod up and down slightlyto redistribute the emulsion and then dragthe emulsion back to your original startingpoint. Repeat this procedure five or six timesuntil the paper is evenly coated. Remove anyexcess emulsion with a paper towel.

Drying the Paper Once the paper is coated,hang the paper with plastic clips or clothes-pins with no metal in a darkened room, oruse a hair dryer on low heat to speed drying.Platinum emulsion is hygroscopic, and willabsorb moisture from the air. If too muchmoisture is absorbed into the paper, thehighlight areas can produce degraded andgrainy results. Heating the paper as it dries


helps reduce the likelihood of this occurring.When dry, the unexposed paper should be apale yellow color.

Do not handle the emulsion surface, as itis easily contaminated before printing iscompleted. Sensitize only the paper neededfor immediate use. Expose and process assoon as possible.

PrintingThe emulsion is exposed by contact printingwith UV light. Combine the negative andpaper (emulsion to emulsion) in a printingframe or under glass with a smooth, firmsupport. A typical sunlight exposure can run1 to 5 minutes depending on the season, thetime of day, and cloud cover. Many workersprefer a UV exposure unit with a fluorescent,pulsed xenon, or quartz light source. Theyproduce more constant exposures that can beeasily repeated (see Additional Informationat the end of this chapter). A home sunlampalso may be used. At a distance of about 24inches from the printing frame, exposuretimes may run 15 to 30 minutes with asunlamp. Since the platinum emulsion is expensive, making test strips that showkey highlight and shadow areas is recom-mended.

The image will print out to a limitedextent, appearing to be a lavender-grayagainst a yellowish ground. Correct exposurewill have detail in the highlight areas, butthis will be faint and is difficult to use as anaccurate guide (another reason to make teststrips). The correct exposure cannot bedetermined until the print has beenprocessed and at least surface dried.

Exposure time also depends on theamount of potassium chlorate (solution 2) inthe emulsion. An increase in potassiumchlorate cuts the printing speed and resultsin higher contrast. An emulsion for very softprints, having no solution 2, may need 25percent less exposure than normal. An emul-sion for high-contrast prints, having themaximum amount of solution 2, may needup to 75 percent more exposure than usual.

Platinum Developer FormulaDue to the hygroscopic nature of platinumemulsion, the print should be processedimmediately after exposure. Developmentcan be carried out under subdued tungsten

light in a saturated solution of potassiumoxalate.

Water (120°F or 48 ounces (1,420 49°C) milliliters)

Potassium oxalate 1 pound (454 grams)

Store the developer in an opaque bottleand use at 68°F (20°C). Do not discard thedeveloper. It will last a long time withoutany replenishment and can actually improvewith age as the platinum residuals build up.When a precipitate forms, decant the solu-tion (gently pour off the solution withoutdisturbing the sediment) into another con-tainer.

The developer acts very rapidly, so youmust immerse the print, face up, with aquick, continuous motion. Hesitation mayproduce development lines or streaks thatcan sometimes be removed by rubbing theprint while it is in the developer. Develop-ment time is 1 to 2 minutes, with gentle agi-tation. Development is automatic, meaningthat the chemical reaction will continueuntil it is complete and then it will stop.Consequently, increasing the developmenttime beyond about 2 minutes will not affectthe final image.

The color of a platinum print becomeswarmer as the temperature of the developerrises. A warmer temperature also increasesthe printing speed of the paper, so less expo-sure is required. Make sure the developertemperature remains constant between thetest strip and the final print to ensure con-sistent results. Warm developer reduces theoverall print contrast. You can compensatefor this to a certain degree by increasing theamount of solution 2 in the emulsion.

Platinum Clearing Bath FormulaAfter development, in normal room light,clear the print in three successive baths ofdilute (1 :60) hydrochloric acid (1 parthydrochloric acid to 60 parts water). Thisbath removes any remaining ferric salts bychanging them into soluble ferric chloride. Ifthis is not done, the print will remain light-sensitive and continue to darken. Someworkers have found that citric acid, phos-phoric acid, or Bostick & Sullivan’s EDTAClearing Agent (tetra-acetic acid tetra-sodium) work well and are safer to use thanhydrochloric acid.


Hydrochloric Acid Clearing Solution

Water (68°F or 20°C) 420 millilitersHydrochloric acid (37%) 7 milliliters

Always add acid to water. This solutionmay be reused and lasts indefinitely.

EDTA Clearing Solution

Water (68°F or 20°C) 420 millilitersEDTA 15 grams

Clear the print for 5 minutes in three sep-arate trays of the clearing bath with occa-sional agitation. After a few prints have beencleared, dump the first bath, refill it withfresh solution, and move it to the end of theclearing trays so it becomes the third bath.Move the second bath up to the first positionand the third to the second. This ensures the

complete removal of the iron salts from theprint. The third bath should remain clearafter the print has gone through. If it is notclear, give the print a fourth bath in freshclearing solution.

Washing and DryingAfter clearing, wash the print for 30 minutesin running water at 68°F (20°C). Handle theprint with care, as it is very delicate at thisstage. Prints may be air-dried or dried withlow heat from a hair dryer.

SpottingDried prints may be spotted with black Indiaink diluted with water. This often matchesthe neutral to warm black tones of a plat-inum print. Burnt umber and lampblack

Figure 10.3 Modica spent ten years photographing the lives of a family with 14 children living inan isolated rural town in New York using an 8 ¥ 10 inch view camera and one lens. Modica choseplatinum printing for its extended and subtle tonal range and because the image is located in thepaper itself, as opposed to sitting on top of the paper as in a gelatin silver print.

© Andrea Modica. Treadwell, New York, from the book Treadwell. Platinum/Palladium print. 8 ¥ 10inches. Original in color.


watercolors work well when mixed to theproper shade.

Combination Printing

Platinum can be combined with palladium,gum, or cyanotype. When cyanotype is usedwith platinum, the cyanotype should beprinted last, as the potassium oxalate devel-oper will bleach the cyanotype image.

Palladium Printing

When comparing palladium with platinum,remember that they act very much alike.Even experts can have difficulty seeing thedifference between a platinum and a palla-dium print. Palladium is less expensive thanplatinum and produces a permanent brown-tone print that is warmer than the imageachieved with platinum. The working pro-cedures are the same as those used with plat-inum, except for the following:

• Palladium salts are not as sensitive as plat-inum salts to potassium chlorate, whichcontrols the contrast. This can be cor-rected by doubling the amount of potas-sium chlorate in solution 2.

• Palladium is more soluble in hydrochloricacid, so the clearing bath can be diluted 1 :200 (1 part hydrochloric acid to 200parts water). The contrast of palladiumcannot be increased by adding potassiumdichromate to the developer because the image will bleach out during the clear-ing baths.

• Solution 3 of the emulsion sensitizer mustbe modified as described in the followingformula.

Modified Palladium Emulsion Solution 3 Formula

Distilled water 2 ounces (100°F or 38°C) (60 milliliters)

Sodium chloro- 169 grains (9 grams)palladite

If sodium chloropalladite is unavailable,use the following formula.

Modified Palladium Emulsion Solution 3A Formula

Distilled water 11/2 ounces (40 (100°F or 38°C) milliliters)

Palladium chloride 77 grains (5 grams)Sodium chloride 54 grains (3.5 grams)

GUM BICHROMATE PROCESS

The gum bichromate process operates on the principle that colloids (gelatinous sub-stances) become insoluble when they aremixed with certain light-sensitive chemicalsand exposed to UV light. This effect is called hardening or tanning. The most fre-quently used colloids in photography arealbumen, gelatin, and gum arabic. In the gumbichromate process, the support material iscoated with a gum arabic that contains apigment (watercolor or tempera) and with a light-sensitive chemical (ammonium orpotassium dichromate) to produce a nonre-alistic color image from a contact-size nega-tive. Gum arabic, a water-soluble colloid, ishardened by exposure to UV light and thusmade insoluble in direct proportion to thedensity of the negative. The areas that are not hardened remain water soluble and arewashed away with the unneeded pigmentduring development. The hardened areas are left intact and bond the pigment to thesupport. A great deal of control over the finalimage can be exercised through the follow-ing: choice of paper, pigment, localizeddevelopment, recoating the paper with thesame color or a different color, or using thesame or different negatives for additionalexposures.

John Pouncy patented the first workablegum process in the late 1850s. The processwas used by the Pictorialists from the 1890sto about 1920, often under the name Photo-Aquatint. Gum printing experienced a majorrevival in the late 1960s. Among the reasonsfor making gum prints are the following:

• It is inexpensive because it uses no metalsalts.

• It permits extensive manipulation of theimage.

• It is versatile, so it can be combined withother processes.

• It is permanent.


The disadvantages of gum printing stemfrom its versatility. It is a more difficultprocess to control than the nonsilverprocesses discussed earlier in this chapter.Multiple coats of emulsion and exposure are necessary to build up a deep, rich image. The support material (paper) must be sized, or the registration of the differentexposures will not line up, thus producingblurry images. Any subtle or fine detail will be lost in the process. Gum also does notdeliver a realistic color image balance.

This section offers a starting point formaking gum prints on paper. There arecountless formulas for gum printing, and theprocess can be used with almost any type ofsupport material. Keep a record of yourworking methods and make adjustments.Feel free to modify the suggested workingmethods whenever necessary.

Paper

Start with a high-quality watercolor oretching paper that has a slight texture andthe ability to withstand repeated soaking anddrying. Some widely available papersinclude Arches Watercolor, Rives BFK, andStrathmore 500 Series (two- or three-ply).All paper should be presoaked and sized.Some papers, such as Strathmore 500, can bepurchased presized. For exacting work, eventhese papers may have to be presoaked andresized.

PresoakingPresoak by placing the paper in hot water(100°F or 38°C) for 15 minutes and thenhanging it up to dry. Without the presoak,the paper will shrink after the first time it isprocessed, thus making accurate registrationof the next exposure impossible.

SizingAfter the presoak, size the paper. There aretwo widely used methods of sizing. Thequickest and easiest way is to use spraystarch. Pin or tape the paper to a clean,smooth support board. At a distance of about12 inches, start spraying the starch at thebottom of the paper in horizontal sweepsand work upward to the top of the paper. Donot overspray, as too much starch willprevent the emulsion from sticking to the

paper. Use a soft, clean, damp sponge towipe off any excess starch and to ensure aneven coat. Apply a thin coat of starchbetween exposures to prevent the colorsfrom bleeding into each other.

The gelatin method of sizing is more effec-tive but also more time-consuming. Dissolve28 grams of unflavored gelatin in 1 liter ofcold water. Allow it to swell (sit) for about 10minutes and then slowly heat the solution to100°F (38°C) until it is completely dissolved.Pour the solution into a tray and soak eachsheet of paper for 2 minutes. Lightly squeegeeoff the excess solution and hang the paper upto dry (low heat may be used).

Many workers give the paper a second coat of sizing after the first one has dried.The gelatin sizing must be hardened or elseit will wash away during processing. In awell-ventilated area, harden the surface byfloating the paper in a bath of 25 millilitersof 37 percent formaldehyde and 500 milli-liters of water for 2 minutes and then dryingit. A 1 percent glyoxal solution can also beused to harden gelatin sizing. In a well-ven-tilated area, add 25ml of glyoxal 40 percentsolution to 900ml of water. Add water tobring the level up to 1 liter. Float the sizedpaper in the 1 percent glyoxal solution for 5to 10 minutes and then dry.

Emulsion

The emulsion is made of pigment, gum, sen-sitizer, and distilled water. Varying theamounts of these ingredients will result innoticeable changes in image characteristics.For this reason, experimentation is a must.A specific combination might deliver resultsthat are pleasing to one imagemaker butunsatisfactory to another.

Pigments

The easiest way to add color to the emulsionis with good-quality tube-type watercolorssuch as Winsor-Newton and Grumbacher.Many workers find that the opaque gouache-style watercolors perform well. Temperacolors also may be used. The following ispresented as a basic palette, which comesclose to resembling the primary subtractivecolors in color photography:


• Alizarin crimson (close to magenta)

• Monastral or thalo blue. Prussian blue is not recommended because it is chemi-cally incompatible with cadmiums andvermilions.

• Cadmium yellow (pale). Hansa yellow is aless expensive synthetic that can be sub-stituted for cadmium.

In addition to these three primary colors,there are earth colors such as burnt sienna(brownish brick red); raw sienna (yellowerthan burnt sienna); burnt umber (dark red-brown); and raw umber (yellowish brown).These colors, in conjunction with lampblack,are useful in making a wide variety of tones.

Note that the chrome colors, such aschrome yellow, can be chemically incom-patible with the sensitizer and with otherorganic pigments. Emerald green, which ispoisonous, should not be mixed with othercolors, as it is not chemically compatible.

Gum Solution

The gum solution may be prepared from a formula, but it is advisable to purchase it in small premixed amounts. This bypassesthe difficult process of dissolving the gumand prevents the handling of mercury chloride, which is a toxic chemical used tostop the growth of bacteria. Lithographer’sgum (14°Baumé) solution is available fromgraphic arts or printing suppliers. Be sure itcomes with a preservative, such as 1 percentformaldehyde, as it does not keep well. Toensure its freshness, some practitioners buyit in small quantities and replace it often.

Sensitizer

The recommended sensitizer is ammoniumdichromate (bichromate is the same thing)because it is more sensitive to light thanpotassium dichromate, thus making fasterexposure times.

Ammonium Dichromate SensitizerFormula


Ammonium dichromate* 30 grams*Wear gloves, as this may cause skin irritation.

Store sensitizer in an opaque bottle. If pre-cipitate forms during storage, reheat and dis-solve the solution.

Preparing the Emulsion

The amount of pigment should be varieddepending on the desired effect and the typeof paper being used. The following is pro-vided as a general guideline, but experimen-tation is in order.

Gum Dichromate Emulsion Formula

Gum arabic solution 40 millilitersPigment (tube-type *

watercolors)Ammonium dichromate 40 milliliters

sensitizer*Pigment amounts vary greatly depending on the

desired effect. The following is only a startingpoint:

Alizarin crimson 3 gramsMonastral or thalo blue** 2 gramsCadmium yellow 3 gramsBurnt sienna 3 gramsBurnt umber 3 grams**Pure blues are difficult to achieve because the

orange dichromate tends to shift the colorbalance to green.

Put the gum arabic and pigment in a cleanbaby food jar, secure the lid, and shakerapidly until the solution is completelymixed. Then add the dichromate and shakeuntil the solution is uniform. Generally, thegum and dichromate are mixed in equal pro-portions, while the amount of pigment isvaried. It is advisable to use the emulsionquickly, within one day or working session,as it does not keep well.

The Effects of Varying the Emulsion Ingredients

Varying the proportions of the gum, pig-ment, and sensitizer results in the followingchanges:

• Increasing the gum permits more pigmentto be retained without staining. If there istoo much gum, the emulsion will be toothick to be easily applied and may flakeoff during development.


• Decreasing the gum causes the emulsionto set up more slowly and also may causestaining.

• Increasing the pigment causes the emul-sion to set up more rapidly and deepensthe color in the shadow areas. This oftenrequires forced development and may pro-duce stains in the highlights. Too muchpigment may cause the image to crumbleoff the paper during development.

• Decreasing the pigment allows the high-light areas to develop more readily butproduces very low contrast, as there willbe little shadow density.

• Increasing the sensitizer delivers less con-trast, as it thins the emulsion; thus lesspigment is deposited on the supportsurface.

• Decreasing the sensitizer results in a lackof light sensitivity, with only the shadowareas printing out.

Coating the Paper

The emulsion is not very sensitive to lightwhile it is wet, so coating can be carried outunder subdued tungsten light. The papershould be pinned or taped to a smooth, flatboard. Generally, the lightest color is appliedfirst, as it may not print well over the darkercolors. Some workers like to print a darkcolor first to make registration easier whenadditional coats are applied.

Pour the emulsion in a small non-porous bowl or jar. Dip a spreading brush at least two inches wide (polyfoam brusheswork fine) into the emulsion. Squeeze outthe excess on the side of the bowl. Coat thepaper with long, smooth, horizontal strokesand then with vertical ones. Have enoughemulsion on the brush to make one completestroke without having to redip. The strokesshould overlap slightly. Perform this opera-tion as rapidly as possible (10 to 15 secondsfor an 8 ¥ 10 inch). Do not let the emulsionpuddle or flood the paper.

Immediately take a dry blending brushand, holding it vertically to the paper, paintin long, gentle strokes, using only the tip ofthe brush to smooth out the emulsion. Thisstep also should be done as quickly as possible. The coating must be even and thin, or the gum may flake off the print later.

Stop blending as soon as the emulsionbecomes stiff or tacky. Many of the smallbrush strokes will smooth out as the paperdries.

Hang the paper to dry in a darkened room. A fan or hair dryer, set on low heat,can be used to speed drying. The papershould be exposed as soon as it is dry, as itwill not keep for more than about a day. If itis sealed in a plastic bag and refrigerated,however, the paper can keep for up to twoweeks. Try to avoid working in humid conditions, as the bichromate solutionabsorbs moisture from the air, making it lesssensitive.

Exposure

Combine the negative and paper (emulsion toemulsion) in a contact-printing frame orunder a clean piece of glass with a smoothsupport board. Expose this sandwich to UVlight. Typical sunlight exposures can be 5 to10 minutes. With photofloods, at a distanceof 18 to 24 inches from the printing frame,exposures may be 20 to 60 minutes. Sunlampexposures can range from 10 to 40 minutes.Different pigments require different expo-sures. Use a fan to lengthen the life of thelight source and keep the negative and printfrom getting too hot. Excessive heat mayproduce a pigment stain in the print.

Development

Immediately after exposure, the print shouldbe developed in subdued tungsten light.Slide the print, emulsion side down, into atray of water at 70°F to 80°F (21°C to 27°C).Allow it to float without agitation. Changethe water after about 5 minutes, when it hasbecome cloudy. Transfer the print to a trayof fresh water or remove the print andchange the water in the tray, then return theprint to the tray. For the full range of tones,development should be complete in about 30minutes. You can tell it is complete when thehighlight areas are clear. If developmentseems to be going too slowly due to over-exposure or the use of too much pigment,raise the temperature of the water to 100°F(38°C). If a print is underexposed, you canuse additional layers of exposure to build upthe image density. Overexposure or too


much heat can harden the emulsion, makingit impossible to wash off. The emulsion of anextremely underexposed image might floatoff the paper during development. If theemulsion flakes off, it was applied toothickly.

Forced Development

A soft brush and/or a directed stream ofwater (from a hose, graduate, or atomizer)can be used to manipulate the image. Theseforced development methods diminishsubtle print detail but permit the use of morepigment in the emulsion, increasing the con-trast and density of the image. The amountof pressure applied by the brush or stream ofwater determines the abrasive effect. Theprint may be removed from the tray of water,placed on a piece of Plexiglas for manipula-tion, and then returned to the tray to finishthe development process. When develop-ment is complete, hang the print to dry.

Multiple Printing

After a single exposure, most gum imageslook flat and weak, lacking color saturationand a sense of visual depth. Multiple print-ing adds contrast to the shadow areas, canextend the overall tonal range, and can givethe image an appearance of greater depth. Inbasic multiple printing, the dried image isrecoated and re-exposed with the same neg-ative in register. This can be repeated numer-ous times. Gum printing can be successfullycombined with cyanotypes for heightenedcolor and contrast or with posterization negatives.

RegistrationA simple way to register the print is to markall four corners of the negative on the paperwith a soft lead pencil. Variations in multi-ple printing include printing negatives withdifferent densities, using color-separationnegatives, and using entirely different nega-tives, printing out of registration, and chang-ing the pigment.

For more accurate registration, tape apiece of heavy paper along one edge of thenegative. Sandwich the negative and paper(emulsion to emulsion) together. Use a stan-dard hole punch to make a hole in two of thecorner edges of the paper and the base sheet.Attach registration buttons, available at agraphic arts store, to the support board. Fit the negative and base sheet into the reg-istration buttons. This will perfectly registerthe negative and paper each time it isrecoated.

Clearing

After all the printing operations are finished,a yellow or orange stain may be visible. Thismay be cleared in a 5 percent solution ofpotassium metabisulfite or sodium bisulfite.Immerse the print in the clearing bath for 2 to 5 minutes, wash it for 15 minutes, anddry it.

ELECTROSTATIC PROCESSES: COPY MACHINES

Copy machines provide the imagemakerwith another opportunity to experiment

Figure 10.4 To make visible the power and magic of this special place,Taylor first made a cyanotype exposure on Arches 140-pound watercolorpaper. He then did a second exposure with gum bichromate to add color,richness, and texture. The image was finished with layers of mixedmedia, such as acrylic, chalk pastel, watercolor, and colored pencil. Theedges of the paper were hand-torn to enhance the primitive feel of theprint.

© Brian Taylor. The Great Pyramids, 1985. Cyanotype, gum bichromate,and mixed-media print. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Original in color.


with technological advances originally designed for business use. They enable the photographer to combine electronic,manual, and mechanical processes in thecreation of new images.

Black-and-White Copiers

Black-and-white copy machines are veryaccessible and less expensive to use thantheir color counterparts. They provide agood starting point for conducting experi-ments with copiers. You can apply many of the things you learn on these machines to work on a color copier. The quality ofimage reproduction varies widely dependingon the type of system used. Generally, continuous-tone images lose a great amountof detail when copied. Some systems pro-vide a special screen, which can be used toimprove the copy delivered from a full-toneimage. Graphic images tend to work wellwith most machines.

All the black-and-white copiers allow theimagemaker to alter the density of the print.Some accept a variety of paper stocks,including different colors. Most machinesmake enlargements and reductions at fixedpercentages of the original. Others permityou to make more than one copy on the samepiece of paper; thus multiple exposure com-binations are possible.

The black-and-white copiers rely on anumber of different systems to form a com-pleted copy print. Older systems thatrequired a special chemically treated paperto create an image offer the least in terms ofimage permanence. The systems using anelectrostatically charged toner that can forman image on any type of paper, includingacid-free rag paper, provide the most stablecopy print.

Color Copiers

Color copiers are widely available and artistsare using them to explore their morecomplex imaging functions. Color copiersuse the subtractive colors (magenta, yellow,and cyan). Each color is separated from the original through an internal filteringunit. The image is then reproduced withtoners (pigments) made up of thermoplastic

powders that are electronically fused ontothe paper, making a permanent image.Copiers that use toners do not require a spe-cially treated paper and therefore can befused onto a variety of artist’s papers.

The original color copiers worked like asimple camera, using a lens to take a pictureof the document to be copied. It produced avery flat and limited field of focus thatextended only about one-quarter to one-halfinch above the copier glass. Current colorcopiers are digital (see next section). Colorcopiers provide many printmaking options,including the following:

• Rapid and consistent duplication and production

• Ready conversion of three-dimensionalobjects into flat printouts

• Manipulation of colors and contrast(many can produce a monochrome copy)

• Image enlargements and reductions

• Printing on many different supports, suchas archival artist’s paper, acetate, andsilicon transfer sheets (which can beironed onto paper or fabric)

An added virtue is that the pigments usedto form the image are stable and provide along print life. The rapid feedback of thisprocess enables instant correction andfurther interaction of the printmaker withthe materials and processes. Prints made onartist’s paper can be hand-colored withpencils, dyes, inks, or watercolors. Individ-ual prints can be connected with one anotherto form a larger mosaic of images.

Digital Color CopiersDigital color copiers have a scanner (seeChapter 13) that reads the image to be copiedand converts it into digital signals that arethen sent to a raster image processor or RIP.The RIP converts color files into printinginstructions that are transmitted to a laserprinter capable of delivering color copies ofup to 64 gradations per color. Like the origi-nal optical copier, digital color copiers usethe subtractive color system, but in additionto magenta, yellow, and cyan, these copiersalso use black. The black enables thesemachines to reproduce colors more accu-rately and to provide a greater sense of depth.


Digital color copiers have features that can be used with an image editing unit.While digital copiers typically do not offernoticeably higher quality than opticalcopiers, they do offer a greater range of features including:

• Programmable color balance memory

• Sharpness control to accentuate or softendetail

• Enlargement or reduction feature thatpermits a subject to be stretched orsqueezed to fit a specific space

• Slanting control to set the horizontal andvertical copying ratios separately and posi-tion the original at a variety of angles

• Multipage enlarger that divides the imageinto multiple sections that can be printedin sequence and assembled into a singlepiece

• Color conversion mode that lets youchange the color of an original or a speci-fied portion of the original

• An image composition key that lets youcombine original color materials withblack-and-white text

• An area designation that lets you frame,blank out, or segment the image

• Shifting modes that allow the image to bereduced and moved to any position on thepage

• The ability to make a color copy from anegative as well as a slide

• The ability to connect the copier to a com-puter network


Books

Barnier, John Ed. Coming into Focus: A Step-by-Step Guide to Alternative PhotographicPrinting Processes. San Francisco, CA:Chronicle Publishing Company, 2000.

Blacklow, Laura. New Dimensions in PhotoImaging. Second Ed. Boston, MA: FocalPress, 1995.

Crawford, William. The Keepers of Light: AHistory and Working Guide to Early Pho-tographic Processes. Dobbs Ferry, NY:Morgan and Morgan, 1980.

Figure 10.5 Artist and high school art teacher Pat Bacon began using aphotocopier to produce images to compensate for a less than ideal schoolgroup darkroom. Bacon prints each of the students’ images as a high-contrast 8 ¥ 10 inch photograph. Then each photograph was copied,finished, and pieced together as a quilt would be. Finishing involvedcoating the surface of the paper with a layer of Golden’s Polymer Mediumand allowing it to thoroughly dry. This top layer becomes a transparentworkable surface that is flexible, durable, and easy to repair. Betweenlayers of polymer medium and Golden’s UV varnish Bacon applies paint,stains, and dyes. This method allows the work to be very portablebetween school, studio, and unorthodox installation sites. Bacon says,“The piece is a testament to my frustrations as an educator with the lackof educational response to social change.”

© Pat Bacon. Students and Desks (detail), 1991. Electrostatic print withmixed media. 50 ¥ 48 inches; overall size 50 ¥ 192 inches. Original in color.

Farber, Richard. Historic PhotographicProcesses: A Guide to Creating HandmadePhotographic Images. NY: Allworth Press,1998.

Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Color Photogra-phy. Third Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill,1997.

Nettles, Bea. Breaking the Rules: A PhotoMedia Cookbook. Third Ed. Urbana, IL:Prairie Book Arts Center, 1992.

Reeve, Catharine, and Marilyn Sward. TheNew Photography: A Guide to NewImages, Processes, and Display Tech-niques for Photographers. Cambridge, MA:Da Capo Press 1987.

Scopick, David. The Gum Bichromate Book:Non-Silver Methods for PhotographicPrintmaking. Second Ed. Boston, MA:Focal Press 1991.

Ware, Mike. Cyanotype: The History,Science, and Art of Photographic Printingin Prussian Blue. London: ScienceMuseum and the National Museum ofPhotography, Film, and Television, 1999.

Periodicals

The World Journal of Post-Factory Photogra-phy, Judy Seigel, editor, 61 Morton Street,New York, NY 10014.

Other Sources

Bostick & Sullivan, P.O. Box 2155, Van Nuys,CA 91404 (catalog of materials for plat-inum printing).

Chicago Albumen Works, Front Street,Housatonic, MA 01236 (a line of productsincluding a gelatin chloride printing-outpaper).

Fisher Scientific, 2000 Park Lane, Pittsburgh,PA 15230.

The Palladio Company, P.O. Box 28, Cambridge, MA (precoated platinum-palladium papers and UV exposure units).

Photographers’ Formulary, P.O. Box 950,Condon, MT 59826-0950.

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOME WIDELY USED PROCESSED 179

11Altering PhotographicConcepts: Expansion

of the Lexicon

HAND-ALTERED WORK

The hand altering of photographic imagesbegan soon after the daguerreotype processwas made public in 1839 to compensate forthe latter’s inability to record color. By thebeginning of the twentieth century hand-altered work was popular with the foremostPictorialists such as Edward Steichen, Frank Eugene, and Gertrude Käsebier whoseimages often resembled drawings, litho-graphs, and paintings. They used it to showthat photography was more than an auto-matic mechanical process and could be controlled and manipulated with the sameexpressive intent as traditional art forms.Today hand-altered processes are not donefor compensation or imitation but to expandthe boundaries of the photographic medium.Hand alteration enables photographers tobring into existence concepts, dreams, andfeelings that cannot be achieved throughstandard photographic methods, therebyproviding a bridge that can meaningfullyunite ideas, materials, practice, and vision.

To grasp the ever-changing cultural dia-logue, a photographer has to be ready toseize time’s wonders. Generally this does notcome easy. Being an artist entails making along-term commitment to aesthetic and tech-nical training in what French writer and theoretician Roland Barthes dubbed “thekitchen of meaning,” where one willinglytoils to realize a bountiful visual roux. Hand-altered work allows photographers to

prolong their interaction with the process,thereby redefining the temporal architectureof the image. This shift in time enables themoment of exposure to act as a beginningrather than as an ending of imagemaking.These flexible hand techniques can expandthe consciousness of a photographer andgive rise to an extended sense of reality thatcan articulate both an objective exterior anda subjective interior view of a subject. Hand-altered work can demonstrate how photog-raphy is an elastic process of discovery andinvention and not just a fixed body of tech-nical data that is frozen at the moment ofexposure. Hand-altered work may commin-gle at the juncture of what is real and whatmight be real, reminding us that the invisi-ble and the intangible are as important aswhat we see in concrete reality. Suchprocesses encourage an artistic and intellec-tual rethinking of the action between amatter-based and a mind-based interpreta-tion of a subject.

Hitting Resistance

Hand alteration is a way to expand the photographic lexicon and is not meant toreplace or threaten traditional modes ofworking. When hand-altering work, take thefreedom to push and pull the ideas andmaterials until resistance is felt. Push on thewalls of familiarity, but learn to stop beforeresistance turns into chaos. When one hits

ALTERING PHOTOGRAPHIC CONCEPTS 181

resistance to new ideas and methods, it indi-cates you are entering uncharted waters.There are no guides, instructions, or maps tooffer direction. You are on your own. Thisenables you to know how far you can stretchthe medium and yourself. Maintain a recordof your experiments so the results can beduplicated and your knowledge shared.Keep in mind what Picasso said: “The eyesof an artist are open to a superior reality.”

Since there are fewer standards in hand-altered work than in conventional methods,how does one find satisfaction? Your mindwill quit circling and say yes to what hasbeen created. During the act of making theremay even be a dynamic haptic interchangebetween the artist and the materials, whichphysically culminates at completion. This iswhen you know it is time to cease working.Your own character is now intertwined withthe piece. As the photograph is transformed,so are the photographer and potentialviewers.

Doing the Opposite

Much of this book has been devoted to providing known pathways for the expres-sive photographic imagemaker. As soon asyou have gained control over the medium andtools and are able to express what you desire,it is time to avoid getting bogged down by toomany rules. Pretend to have a spiritual Dop-pelgänger, an apparitional double or counter-part, who does the opposite of what younormally do. Too much knowledge can be asinhibiting as too little. Doing the oppositekeeps one from being too complacent andjudgmental. Reaching into the unknown isone way to grasp new possibilities. Keep anotebook of new ideas for future reference.

Try not to become smug with what youalready know. Education is a continuousprocess of waking up and focusing yourattention on the subject at hand. It meansgiving in to possibilities and allowing your-self the opportunity to see what may nothave been apparent or visible when youbegan the process.

The Insecurity of the New

When something new is created, it bringswith it a sense of insecurity. This is because

the new is not identifiable with our dailyfamiliar world. Such insecurity occurs whenyou are able to leave the beaten path and notyield to the comfort of habit, imitation, ortrend. The new often produces much resent-ment because it entails throwing over a pre-vious set of working conventions. Havingblind faith in the ways of the past can leadto mediocrity. The new forces one to con-front the past, discard its illusions, make corrections, and move forward in differentdirections.

Figure 11.1 This is an example of how Barrow uses the Polaroid SX-70for note taking when working on an idea that does not conform toconventional working practice. The visual notes, including images madeoff a video monitor, are scattered across the photogram in an attempt todiscover meaning that is simultaneously clearer and more ambiguous.When a satisfactory composition is achieved, the SX-70 prints are stapledin place. Color and text are added with spray lacquer paints.

© Thomas Barrow. Sexual Ecology, 1986. Gelatin silver print with stapledPolaroid SX-70 prints and spray lacquer paints. 26 ¥ 25 inches. Courtesyof Andrew Smith Gallery, Santa Fe. Original in color.


Not all new images and working methodswill take you to the final destination youseek. Often the act of doing something for thefirst time helps to uncover what will ulti-mately bring new structure to a vision. Stayfocused on the process of image makingitself, that vital interplay between alternativeconfigurations and passions, rather than fix-ating on a particular form of closure. Eachoutcome can then be both a transitoryhypothesis and a declaration of the will toknow. One of the beauties of art is that it canrelinquish a closed system in which there isonly one right way to do something in favorof an open approach that allows multiplecorrect answers to a question. Hand-alteringwork animates the imagemaker to feel free totransform the ingredients of imagination andphysical existence into a collection of previ-ously unseen appearances and structures. In“The Legend of the Sleepers,” Danilo Kissums up this idea: “Oh, who can dividedreams from reality, day from night, nightfrom dawn, memory from illusion.”

This chapter covers some key aspects ofhand-altered work by dividing it into the following working methods: cameralessimages, camera-based photographs, dark-room-generated pictures, and postdarkroomwork.


Barrett, Terry. Criticizing Photographs: AnIntroduction to Understanding Images.Third Ed. Mountain View, CA: MayfieldPublishing, 1999.

Grundberg, Andy. Crisis of the Real, Writingson Photograph, 1974–1989. New York:Aperture Foundation, 1999.

Hughes, Robert. The Shock of the New.Second Ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1991.

PHOTOGRAMS

A photogram is a cameraless, lensless imagemade by placing two- or three-dimensionalobjects directly on top of light-sensitivematerial and then exposing it. Conceptually,the photogram is entirely different from traditional camera images based on outerreality in which the photographer starts witheverything and eliminates or subtracts any-

thing that is not wanted in the frame (aprocess of subtractive composition). Whenmaking a photogram, the imagemaker beginswith nothing except a blank piece of paper,like a painter approaching an empty canvas,and adds the necessary ingredients to makethe final piece (a process of additive composition).

The photogram plays with a viewer’sexpectations of what a photograph is sup-posed to look like. Although it appears onthe surface to be a photograph, there is asense of ambiguity and mystery, as theviewer attempts to understand the reality ofthe image.

The light source used to make the expo-sure is often angled or moving rather thanperpendicular to and stationary with thelight-sensitive material. When the image isdeveloped, no exposure effects will bevisible where an opaque object was com-pletely covering the light-sensitive emul-sion. What is created is a silhouette of theobject when translucent or transparentobjects are placed on the emulsion. Partialshadowing occurs under opaque objects thatare not in complete contact with the emul-sion creating a wide assortment of tones.Any area left uncovered will get themaximum exposure and hence be blackwithout any discernible detail.

The early pioneers in search of a practicalphotographic process were Johann Schulzein 1727, Thomas Wedgwood and HumphryDavy in 1799, and William Henry Fox Talbotfrom 1834 through the mid-1840s. All ofthem worked with cameraless images, estab-lishing it as the earliest means of makinglight-sensitive pictures. The technique didnot see much application until ChristianSchad, a Dadaist painter, revived it in 1918to create abstract images that he calledSchadographs. Within a short time, Man Raycountered with his Rayographs. In Berlinduring the 1920s, László Moholy-Nagy fol-lowed suit with what we now refer to as photograms. The contributions of these threeimagemakers helped to perfect and reestab-lish the photogram in the twentieth century.

What to Print On

Photograms can be made on any type oflight-sensitive material. Black-and-white


paper is a good place to begin experimenta-tion. One can then move on to color paperand other materials such as cloth. Black-and-white paper is convenient and familiar, andit can be handled under normal safelightconditions. This makes it easier to arrangethe objects in the composition.

Careful consideration must be given to thechoice of objects used in making a photo-gram. The selection of materials is limitless.Go beyond the hackneyed approach of takingsome coins and keys out of your pocket orpurse. Consider using natural objects such asfeathers, flowers, grass, leaves, plants, rocks,and sand. Try putting raw eggs or oil in aziplock bag to make fluid compositions.Objects such as glass and stencils offer addi-tional avenues to pursue. If you do not findwhat you need, make it yourself. Startsimply, and as you master the working tech-nique, increase the complexity of thearrangements. Ink applied on a thin piece ofglass or acetate and then overlaid on thepaper and exposed can widen your field ofideas. Also try combining natural, human-made, homemade, opaque, translucent, and transparent objects with ink to form acomposition.

Exposure Methods

Although the easiest way to make an expo-sure is by using the enlarger or room light asa source, it also offers the least in terms ofvisual variety in the final print. To increasethe range of visual effects, use anothersource of exposure, such as an electronicflash or a small desk light with a flexibleneck. Using a fractional power setting on theflash or very low-wattage bulbs (15 watts)will produce longer exposure times and thusprovide more opportunity for manipulation.Fluorescent tubes will deliver a more dif-fused and softer image than a reflector bulbor flash. Using a light source at differentangles to the paper will produce a widerange of results. Varying the intensity of thelight or the distance of the light from thepaper during exposure will help to create awider range of tonality in the final print.

Another method is to use a penlight. Wrapopaque paper around the penlight to act as acrude aperture-control device, thus enablingyou to have more precise control over the

intensity and direction of the light. The pen-light can be used like a drawing instrumentto emphasize specific areas of exposure. Italso may be attached to a string and swungabove and around the paper to produceunusual exposure effects.

Rather than making a single exposure fromone source, try a series of brief exposuresthat combine different angles and lightsources. Also try moving as well as station-ary exposures.

For repeatable results, without ruining thearrangement of objects, place a piece of glasson spacers above the printing surface. Theglass should be slightly bigger than the paperbeing printed. Blocks of wood or 21/4 inchfilm take-up reels can be used for spacers.Arrange the objects on the glass rather thandirectly on the paper. Define the exact print-ing area beneath the glass by using tape or achina marker to indicate where the cornersof the paper should be positioned. After theobjects are composed on the glass, turn offthe white light and slide the photographicpaper under the glass, lining it up with thecorner marks. Before making the exposure,remove the spacers and carefully lower theglass on top of the paper. Be careful not todisturb any of the arranged items. Nowexpose the paper. If the exposure is madewith the glass still up on spacers, the finalimage will be softer and less sharp.

Basic Steps to Produce a Photogram

You can begin to create a photogram underwhite light conditions:

1. Put a piece of glass or clear Plexiglas, alittle larger than the paper being printedon, up on spacers.

2. Define the exact printing area under theglass by making marks with tape or agrease marker to indicate where thecorners of the paper should be placed.

3. Use your collection of source materials tocreate a composition on the glass itself.

Now continue the process under safelightconditions:

4. Place the light-sensitive material underthe glass, lining it up with the previouslymarked corner positions.


5. Carefully lower the glass or Plexiglas fromthe spacers.

6. Expose the paper. A working exposurerange can be determined by making a teststrip. Place a piece of unexposed paperunder the glass. Hold or place the lightsource at the distance it will be used tomake the exposure. Make a series of three- to five-second exposures, just asyou would when making a regular print.Process the paper and select the desiredtime and density combination.

7. Process following normal procedures.

Photogram Combinations

The color of the completed image can bechanged through toning (see Chapter 8).After the print has dried, additional alter-ations are possible by drawing or painting onthe image. Photograms can be produced oncolor negative and positive materials. Theyalso can be combined with other photo-graphic methods. For instance, try combin-ing a camera-made image with a cameralessone. Try rephotographing the photogram andcombining it with another cameraless image.Magazine pictures also can be combinedwith other cameraless materials. Remember,magazines are a print-through technique,and both sides of the page will be visible.

Experimentation with the choice ofobjects, sources of exposure, different typesof light-sensitive materials, and postdark-room techniques is necessary to discover thepossibilities photograms have to offer.


Neususs, Floris M., Thomas Barrow, andCharles Hagen (Eds.). Experimental Vis-ion: The Evolution of the Photogram Since1919. Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart Pub-lishers, 1994.

CLICHÉ-VERRE

Cliché-verre, drawing on glass, is anothercameraless method used to produce a photo-graphic image. Three English artists andengravers, John and William Havell and J.T.Wilmore, invented the technique. They dis-played prints from their process in March1839, making it one of the earliest supple-mental methods to be derived from theinvention of photography. In the originalprocess, an opaque varnish was applied to apiece of glass and allowed to dry. Then aneedle was used to etch an image throughthe varnish. The etched piece of glass wasused as a negative and contact printed ontolight-sensitive paper to make a repeatableimage.

In the early 1850s, Adalbert Cuvelier mod-ified the process by etching on glass collo-dion plates that were intentionally fogged by

Figure 11.2 To produce her photograms Young folds pieces of photo-graphic paper before development and uses a small flashlight to exposethem. Her process reveals the undulations of the paper and becomes arepresentation of nothing more than the process of making the image.Young explains the motivation for her image this way: “If photography isa representation of something, what happens if you literally take away theobject? Can I still maintain a trace of the world? To what extent can youmake a photograph out of nothing that actually exists?”

© Cynthia Young. Untitled, 1997. Gelatin silver print. 42 ¥ 42 inches.


light. Cuvelier introduced his method toartist Jean-Baptiste Corot, who used it as ameans of producing fast and inexpensiveeditions of monochrome prints. Corot’ssuccess with cliché-verre caused many otherartists of the French Barbizon School tofollow suit. Thus the 1850s marked thisprocess’s high point in popularity.

There was only sporadic interest in cliché-verre during the first six decades of the twen-tieth century. Man Ray, László Moholy-Nagy,Francis Bruggiere, Henry Holmes Smith, andFrederick Sommer carried out experiments.In the United States, the process experienceda small revival during the late 1960s. Sincethen only a few imagemakers have used it,making it ripe for new exploration.

Making a Cliché-Verre

Obtain a piece of clean, clear glass that is alittle larger than the size of the final print. 8¥ 10 inches is a good minimum size; any-thing smaller makes it difficult to see whatis being etched on the glass. Have the edgesground smooth to avoid glass cuts. Paint theglass with an opaque paint or varnish. Matteblack spray paint also can be used. After the paint has dried, use a stylus (a sharp,pointed instrument such as an X-Acto knife,a heavy needle, a razor blade, or even a pieceof rock or bone) to etch through the paintedcoating to the clear glass.

When the etching is finished, bring theglass into the darkroom. Under safelight con-ditions, lay it on top of a piece of unexposedblack-and-white photographic paper. Make aprint following normal working methods. Asin photograms, try using different sources oflight at a variety of angles to alter the look ofthe final image. The thickness of the glasswill influence the clarity and sharpness ofthe final print. Thinner glass gives a shar-per image. Generally, glass provides thesmoothest and most concise line quality ofany of the support materials.

Alternative Method 1: Color

Traditionally, cliché-verre was a black-and-white technique, but color paper may beused. By dialing in various color filter packs,

one can produce a wide variety of coloreffects. Try multiple exposures using differ-ent filter packs and varying the type of lightused for making the exposures.

Alternative Method 2: Paint Substitutes

Other media besides paint and varnish canbe used to opaque the glass. One method isto “smoke” the glass by holding it over thechimney of a lighted kerosene lamp. Frederick Sommer used a smoked-glass tech-nique very effectively in the 1960s. HenryHolmes Smith poured Karo corn syrup onglass, then photographed it and made dye-transfer color prints from the camera images.Opaque and translucent inks can be appliedinstead of paint, and printer’s inks may berolled onto the support surface.

Alternative Method 3: Glass Substitutes

Sheet film that has been exposed to whitelight and developed to its maximum densitycan be used in place of the opaque glasssupport. Film has the advantage of not beingbreakable and can also be put in the enlarger,so cliché-verre prints can be produced invarious sizes. Generally, etching sheet filmwill produce a rougher and more ragged linequality than that achieved from a piece ofetched painted glass. Acetate also can beused in place of glass or film. It can be pur-chased already opaque, or it may be paintedor inked.

Combining Methods

Here are some additional combinations toconsider:

• Scratch directly into the emulsion of acamera-made negative and then make aprint.

• Combine the cliché-verre with a camera-made negative.

• Use ink and scratching with a camera-made image.


• Do not opaque the glass or acetate com-pletely. Etch only the opaque portion anduse the remaining clear area to incorporatea camera image or photogram.

• Collect images from newspapers and magazines. Under safelight conditions,position them directly on top of the light-sensitive material, cover it with glass, and make an exposure. Remember, theywill be reversed, and both sides of theimage will print. Try opaquing andetching part of the glass in concert withthis method.

• Use a liquid emulsion such as LuminosSilverprint Emulsion or Liquid Light toproduce a cliché-verre on other porousmaterials such as fabric or clay.


Glassman, Elizabeth, and Marilyn F. Sym-mes. Cliché-verre: Hand-Drawn, Light-Painted, A Survey of the Medium from1839 to the Present. Detroit: Detroit Insti-tute of Arts, 1980.

EXTENDED CAMERA EXPOSURES

When the majority of people begin to under-take photography, they have the “1/125second mentality.” They believe the photog-rapher’s job is to capture the subject by freezing it and removing it from the flow of time. By simply extending the amount oftime the camera’s shutter is open, however,an entirely new range of images can come into existence. This additional time also can provide an opportunity for the photogra-pher to increase the interaction with thesubject and in turn engage viewers for longerperiods.

Equipment

You need a camera with a B (bulb) or T (time)setting to make extended time exposures.With the B setting, you hold the shutter inthe open position for the entire exposure.With the T setting, you press the shutterrelease once to open the shutter and thenpress it again at the end of the exposure toclose it. The camera is usually attached to asturdy tripod. The shutter can be fired bymeans of a cable release with a locking setscrew, which permits hands-off exposures.This reduces the chances of blurred imagesdue to camera movement and vibrations. A sensitive hand-held exposure meter can be useful because some built-in camerameters do not read available darkness withaccuracy.

For maximum steadiness, use a sturdytripod and do not raise the center columnany more than is necessary. A heavy weightcan be hung from the center column as aballast. Sandbagging the legs of the tripodalso makes it less prone to movement. Closethe shutter if the camera is shaken andresume the exposure after the disturbancehas passed.

Acting as a Shutter

Hold a piece of black matte cardboard closeto the front of the lens. When you are ready to end the exposure, place the card-board in front of the lens and then close the shutter (using a cable release) to helpreduce recording any camera jiggle on the

Figure 11.3 Using one of the alternative cliché-verre methods, Feldsteinsubstituted sheet film in place of a glass support. He developed 4 ¥ 5 inchfilm in Dektol under white light until it was completely black. Then hemade the image by scratching, etching, cutting, tearing, and sanding thefilm. When the work on the film was complete, he put it into an enlargerto make a large-scale print.

© Peter Feldstein. #11–88, 1988. Gelatin silver print. 30 ¥ 40 inches.


film. This is important when using a singlelens reflex (SLR) camera body whose mirrorflips back down at the end of the exposure.This technique also can be used to permitchanges in aperture and focus during theexposure. If the camera should be jarredduring any of these procedures, allow it tosettle down before removing the cardboardfrom in front of the lens and continuing theexposure.

Adjusting the Aperture

Varying the length of exposure time drasti-cally affects the final outcome of the image.Opening the lens to a wide aperture dimin-ishes the depth of field and delivers theshortest exposure time. Closing down thelens to a small aperture increases the depthof field and gives longer exposures. Closingdown the lens also allows for changes infocus and aperture. The extended exposuretime permits you to work with additionalsources of light, such as a strobe or flashlight,during the course of a single exposure.

Where to Start

Begin with a negative film having an ISO ofabout 100. Stop the lens down three f-stopsfrom its maximum aperture. Bracket all theexposures (one f-stop under and up to threef-stops over in full f-stop increments). Keep awritten record to compare with the results somore accurate exposures can be obtainedwith less bracketing in the future. Bracketingcan always be useful, as the different lengthsof time affect how the scene is recorded.Bracketing also is helpful in learning how tocompensate for probable reciprocity failure,which is likely to accompany long exposures.

Reciprocity failure occurs with very briefor very long exposures. Each film has its ownreciprocity failure characteristics, losingeffective speed at different exposure levelsand at different rates. A typical negative film of ISO 100 might need one-third f-stopmore exposure if the indicated exposure is 1 second, one-half f-stop more time at 10seconds, and one full f-stop at 100 seconds.This correction can be made by using eitherthe lens aperture or shutter speed control.With color film, reciprocity failure also

produces a shift in the color balance. Forexact times and filter corrections of specificfilms, consult the manufacturer’s reciprocityfailure guide.

Most of the latest cameras rely on batterypower to operate their shutters. Shooting a 36-exposure roll with minute-long timescan drain a battery’s power (button cells aremore susceptible than AA alkalines or 6-voltlithium cells). Some of these electroniccameras offer a mechanical B setting. If youare not sure whether your camera has thisfeature, set the shutter to B, remove the bat-teries, depress the shutter release, and see if

Figure 11.4 By taking advantage of cameravision, it is possible for the photographer torecord a subject in a way not visible to thehuman eye. To make this extended timeexposure (about 10 minutes at f-11), Kennamounted his 35mm camera, equipped with a 17mm lens, on a tripod. The long exposureintroduces a sense of passing time anddirectional movement not found in a conven-tional photograph. The print was toned withsepia and selenium to add to the mood ofmystery and create visual contrast.

© Michael Kenna. Painswick Graveyard,Gloucestershire, England, 1987. Gelatin silverprint. 6 ¥ 9 inches.


the shutter opens. If the camera does nothave a mechanical B setting, take a fresh setof backup batteries, just in case the ones inthe camera fail during the session.

Using Neutral Density Filters

When we contemplate long exposures, wetend to think of low-light situations, such asearly evening, night, or inclement weather.One way to extend the amount of exposuretime in any situation is to use a neutraldensity (ND) filter. An ND filter blocks equalamounts of all the visible wavelengths ofwhite light. Such filters are available invarious strengths, which will reduce theamount of light reaching the film by one,two, or four f-stops. ND filters may be usedin tandem (one attached to the other) toreduce the intensity of the light even further.

Flash/Flashlight Techniques

A flash can be used to illuminate parts of ascene. Large areas can be “painted” withmultiple flash exposures. With the cameraon a tripod and the lens open, a persondressed in dark clothes can walk within thescene and fire the flash to illuminate specificitems or to light a large space. A flash alsocan be combined with other techniques. Forinstance, one can focus on one area of ascene and illuminate it with a flash, thenshift the focus to another area in the compo-sition and use the flash to light it. Coloredgels can be used to alter the color relation-ships within a scene.

A flashlight also may be used to illu-minate the subject. Start with a subject in a darkened room. Put the camera on a tripod and set the aperture to f-8 or f-11. Usethe B or T setting to open the shutter. Begin painting the subject with the flash-light, using a broad, sweeping motion. Do not point the light into the camera’s lens.When you are done painting, close theshutter.

As you gain experience, you will be readyto tackle more complicated situations, such as working outside at night. Whendoing this, wear dark, nonreflective clothesso you may walk around within the scenewithout being recorded on film. Since it is

impossible to know exactly what the finaleffect will be, make a series of exposuresvarying the intensity of the light and the typeof hand gestures used in applying it. Somegestures may be smooth and continuous;others may be short and choppy. Try dancingaround, running, hopping, jumping, orwaving with the light. You can have funexperimenting.

Figure 11.5 To make this light drawing. Lebeworked in a darkened room (the ambient lightwas below the film’s sensitivity threshold) andwore dark clothing. The camera, mounted on atripod, was set to B and left open as Lebewalked around using a small flashlight to makethe exposure. When this was done, the subjectwas exposed with a quartz photolight. Theresulting print was painted with watercolors.This series was made after the artist lost severalpeople to the AIDS epidemic. What the photog-rapher first thought were frivolous picturescame to express his experience of AIDS anddeath. The light became a life-affirming spirit,while the vase represented the body or a funeralurn.

© David Lebe. Scribble, #19, 1987. Gelatin silverprint with watercolor. 20 ¥ 16 inches. Originalin color.


POSTCAMERA TECHNIQUES: IN SEARCH OF LOST TIME

The traditional photographic concepts ofmotion, space, and time can be altered in thedarkroom as well as in the camera and canhave the effect of building additional spansof time (experiences) back into a photograph.The methods discussed allow for alternativepotentialities to be amplified, embellished,and expounded. Some techniques allow theimagemaker to mobilize and secure connec-tions between formal artifice and disorder.Others permit the weaving of a simultaneousweb of complex associations, a rich tangle of cross-stitching that can reveal an alterna-tive temporality of a subject and demon-

strate that the past, present, and future are aproduct synthesized by the memories ofphotographers and viewers. All these ap-proaches can yield new insights into asubject and make the overall visual accountricher and more thought provoking.

Painting the Print with Light

You can re-expose the light-sensitive print-ing material with a controlled source of lightafter the initial print is exposed or while it isdeveloping. This can be achieved with asmall penlight. Wrap a piece of opaque paperaround the penlight so it extends a fewinches beyond the body of the light source.

Figure 11.6 Starting with an image that incorporated a three-dimensional paper sculpture byartist Edward Collier, a Wonder Woman comic, and a 3-D postcard of Monument Valley, AZ, Hirschrelied on post-camera darkroom methods to complete his theme. He expressionistically painted thephotograph with light to add a strong sense of haptic emotion and volatility. This was done toconvey the absurdity and fear of growing up in a Cold War era when the U.S. and Russian foreignpolicy was one of mutually assured atomic destruction.

© Robert Hirsch. Nuclear War?! . . . There Goes My Career!, 1983. Toned gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20inches.


Secure it to the penlight body with tape. Thispaper blinder will act as an aperture tocontrol the amount of light. Pinch the openend of the paper together to control the intensity and shape of the light source. Fiberoptics also can be attached to the end of thepenlight for tighter control over the light.

Working ProcedureCorrectly expose the image on black-and-white paper. Place a red filter beneath theenlarging lens. Since black-and-white paperis not sensitive to red light, the red filterenables you to turn on the enlarger and seethe projected image without affecting thepaper. Open the lens to its maximum aperture. Turn on the enlarger and projectthrough the red filter. This allows you to seewhere to draw with the penlight. Begindrawing with the light. You can cover spe-cific areas of the print with opaque materi-als to prevent re-exposure.

It is also possible to draw with the light asthe image begins to appear in the developer.This can produce a grayer line quality or apartial Sabattier effect.

Moving the Fine Focus

If you move the fine-focus control on theenlarger during the exposure, the image willexpand and/or contract. Start by giving theprint two-thirds of its correct exposure. Thenbegin to move the fine-focus control and givethe print the remaining one-third of its time.For example, if the normal exposure time is12 seconds, give the print its first exposureof 8 seconds and the remaining 4 secondswhile moving the fine focus. It may be nec-essary to stop down the lens and increase theoverall exposure so there is more time avail-able to manipulate the fine-focus control.

The final outcome is determined by thefollowing:

• The ratio of the normal exposure to themoving exposure

• The speed at which the fine focus is moved

• How long the moving exposure is left atany one point

• Whether the fine focus is used to expandor contract the image

• When the moving exposure is made (Dif-ferent effects will be produced dependingon whether the fine focus is moved before,in the middle of, or at the end of thenormal exposure.)

MULTIPLE-EXPOSURE METHODS

Multiple exposures can be carried out in thecamera or in the darkroom.

Multiple Exposures in the Camera

To make more than a single exposure in thecamera on one piece of film, begin with acontrolled situation having a dark back-ground. One must use a camera that has adouble-exposure capability (see the camera’smanual for specific instructions on how tocarry out this procedure). Use one source of illumination to light the subject. Put thecamera on a tripod, focus, and then figure theexposure for each frame based on the totalnumber of exposures planned for that frame.Generally, the individual exposures aredetermined by dividing the overall exposuretime by the total number of exposures. Forinstance, if the overall exposure for the sceneis f-8 at 1/60 second, the time for two expo-

Figure 11.7 By moving the enlarger’s fine focus knob during exposure,Hirsch was able to amplify the main figure’s sense of movement. Maskingthe central figure and subtly painting the area around him with lightfurther enhanced this illusion. The overall effect disturbs traditionalnotions about landscape photography, dismantles the concepts of the“decisive moment,” ignores conventional print values while expandingthe image out of the normal boundaries of the photographic frame.

© Robert Hirsch. Running on the Craters of the Moon, 1985. Toned gelatinsilver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Collection of Dr. Philip Perryman.


sures on one frame would be f-8 at 1/125second each. This tends to work well if theilluminated subject(s) overlap. If there is nooverlap and a dark background is used, thecorrect exposure would be f-8 at 1/60 secondfor each exposure. Be prepared to do sometesting. To speed up the testing process, tryusing Polaroid materials.

VariationsYou can change the amount of time given tothe separate exposures within each frame byaltering the f-stop or shutter speed. This canproduce images of varying intensities anddegrees of motion within the composition.Changing the f-stop will introduce differ-ences in the amount of depth of field fromone exposure to the next. Altering theshutter speed can produce both blurred andsharp images in a single frame. Movingobjects around within the composition cancreate a ghostly half-presence in the picture.Altering the position of the camera can helpyou avoid building up the image on oneplace on the film. Start simply, bracket yourexposures, and work your way into morecomplex situations.

Using a Masking FilterA masking filter, which exposes only half theframe at a time, can be used to make a singleimage from two separate halves. You can buythis filter or make it by cutting a semicircu-lar piece of opaque material to fit into aseries-type filter holder designed for the sizeof the lens being used.

The following is a basic guide for using amasking filter with an SLR camera.

1. Place the masking filter on the cameralens. Compose and normally expose halfthe frame.

2. Wind the shutter without advancing the film.

3. Rotate the masking filter so the first halfof the image that was exposed is notmasked off.

4. With the second half of the frame now inview, compose and expose the secondhalf normally.

5. After this second exposure, advance thefilm to the next frame.

Generally, allow each image to cross thecenterline of the frame (mask) and comeabout one-third of the way into the blocked

area. This can help make the blend line lessnoticeable. The major problem with thistechnique is that it is often easy to see theline where the two images meet. Extra carein dodging and burning when making theprint can make this less noticeable.

An intriguing variation is to make a maskthat has a number of doors, each of whichcan be opened for individual exposure.These doors may be of different shapes andsizes. The composition can be rearrangedand relighted for each exposure.

Multiple Exposure in the Darkroom

There are a variety of ways to accomplishmultiple exposure in the darkroom. The

Figure 11.8 Northrup’s in-camera multiple exposures were made with ahomemade mask placed in front of the lens. The homemade maskconsists of a matte board cut into shapes and put up in front of thecamera on a glass frame. Pieces are taken out one at a time, viewableareas are exposed, and each piece is put back in registration. Movingobjects between exposures creates a cubistic sense of time and space.

© Michael Northrup. Mad Donna, 1995. Chromogenic color print. 20 ¥ 24inches. Original in color.


simplest method of altering the perception of time and space within a compositioninvolves exposing a single negative morethan once on a piece of light-sensitive material. There are many variations on thisprocedure.

1. Enlarge or reduce the image each time anew exposure is made. Allow the expo-sures to overlap and intermingle to formnew images within the image.

2. Use different exposure times to createvariety in image density.

3. Move the fine-focus control during someof the exposures.

4. Print only selected portions of the negative.

5. Combine this with other techniques suchas cliché-verre or photograms.

6. Sandwich the negative with other nega-tives or with transparent materials.

7. Combine the negative with a positive(transparency) image.

8. Print from more than one negative.

Combination PrintingCombination printing is when two or morenegatives are printed on a single piece oflight-sensitive material to make the finalimage. Combination printing is not a con-temporary innovation, but was originallydevised to be used with the collodion wet-plate process in the mid-1850s to overcomethe slowness of the film’s emulsion and itsinability to record certain parts of the spec-trum. The technique was popularized inEngland by Oscar Rejlander and HenryPeach Robinson, and peaked by the 1880s.As technical improvements such as pan-chromatic emulsions and flexible roll filmbecame available, combination printing was no longer necessary, and its practicerapidly declined. The process experienced a major rebirth in the 1960s with the imagesand teaching of Jerry Uelsmann. He used this precomputer technique in a surrealisticmanner to juxtapose objects for which there was no correlation in the ordinaryworld.

Before the widespread use of digitalimagemaking, combination printing was away to make a composite of images by

photographic means. Although the com-puter’s ability to amalgamate images isunparalleled, not all imagemakers are aban-doning combination printing. In an onlineexhibition of his work, Uelsmann addressedwhy he still creates certain images in thedarkroom. “While I am interested in thesecomputer options, I still have a basic love ofthe darkroom and the alchemy it embraces.In terms of the creative process, I find thatthe overwhelming number of options offeredby the computer creates a decision-makingquagmire.”

Combination printing can be carried outby switching negatives in a single enlarger or by moving the light-sensitive materialfrom one enlarger and easel to another, eachhaving been set up to project a differentimage. If more than one enlarger is available,most people find the second method easierto use.

Multi-Enlarger Combination PrintingA simple combination print can be made byblending two images, each of which is set upfor projection in a different enlarger andeasel. This can be accomplished by follow-ing these guidelines.

1. Look through your contact sheets and findtwo images to combine. In the beginning,it is helpful to select images that have aclear horizontal or vertical dividing line.This will simplify the blending process.

2. Place each image in a different enlarger.

3. Size and focus the images. Allow them tooverlap slightly.

4. Put a piece of plain white paper in thefirst easel. Use a marker to indicate theplacement of the major objects and wherethe blending line will be.

5. Move this paper to the second easel andline up the second image and blendingline with the indicated marks.

6. Make a test strip to determine the correctexposure for each enlarger.

7. Place the light-sensitive material in thefirst enlarger and make the exposure,using an opaque board to block the expo-sure around the blending line. Keep theboard moving and allow some of theexposure to cross the blending line sothere is no visible joining line.


8. Transfer the light-sensitive material to thesecond easel. Expose the second negative,using the opaque board in the samemanner as in step 7 to block the first exposure.

9. Expect to carry out this procedure anumber of times until you master moving

the board to get a seamless blend.Patience and craftsmanship are neces-sary to successfully create this illusion.“Fantasy abandoned by reason producesimpossible monsters; united with her, sheis the mother of the arts and the origin oftheir marvels” (Goya).

Figure 11.9 Uelsmann is the contemporary master of the multi-enlarger method of combination printing. Before enteringthe darkroom, he ponders his contact sheets, which make up his visual diary of things seen and experienced with thecamera. This helps him to seek out fresh and innovative juxtapositions that expand the possibilities of the initial subjectmatter. He attempts to synthesize and reconstruct images to challenge the inherent believability of the photograph. All theinformation is there, yet the mystery remains. Uelsmann says that his greatest joy comes from amazing himself.

© Jerry N. Uelsmann. Untitled, 1986. Gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches.


Opaque Printing MasksPrinting masks can be used to block expo-sure to different areas of the light-sensitivematerial. The masks must be carefully cut toavoid making an outline around each areawhere the exposure was blocked.

A multiple opaque mask can be used witha single negative. In this case, a mask is madethe same size as the final print. The mask iscut into various shapes corresponding tothose in the image. One section of the maskis removed, and an exposure is made. Thissection is then replaced, and another isremoved and exposed. The process is con-tinued until all the sections have receivedexposure. The amount of exposure can bevaried from section to section to create dif-ferent density effects. Numbering the sec-tions can help you keep track of what youhave done.


Uelsmann, Jerry N., with essay by JohnAmes. Uelsmann: Process and Perception.Gainesville, FL: University of FloridaPress, 1985.

FABRICATION: MAKING THINGSHAPPEN FOR THE CAMERA

The original impetus for photography was tofulfill the desire for a practical and automaticmethod of capturing images from the naturaland visible world. Throughout photogra-phy’s first 160 years, the majority of pictureswere primarily of people, places, and things.Many current imagemakers want to expandthe photographic lexicon to comment oninternal realities.

One of the means photographers haveused to express their inner concerns is fab-rication (see front cover). In the photo-graphic sense, fabrication is the creation of anew reality, one that cannot be naturallyfound in the visible world. To accomplishthis goal, the photographer constructs,devises, or invents an assemblage of materi-als. The techniques and methods used oftenexplore and question the nature of photog-raphy, photographic time, and how it is

used. Such work propels the photographerand the viewer to become more aware of theartificiality of photographic reality by posingquestions such as: What makes up reality?What is a photograph? Why is appearanceconstantly taken for truth? Where and howdoes a photograph obtain its meaning? Doour representations correspond to reality?Could the world be different from the waywe represent it?

In Connections to the World: The BasicConcepts of Philosophy, Arthur Danto states, “Philosophy is the effort to under-stand the relationships between subjects,representations and reality.” The tech-niques photographers use to probe thesequestions and relationships include the following:

• Constructing environments to reflectambitions, dreams, fantasies, and socialcommentaries

• Combining images and text by using typesetting, press type, rubber stamps,and handwritten messages that appear onor around the photograph

• Creating three-dimensional photographicimages by means such as painting emul-sions on a variety of surfaces, cutting upimages and hanging them from objects,sewing and stuffing cloth that has beentreated with a photo-sensitive emulsion,or making freestanding floor screens basedon classic Oriental models

Sequences

Another aspect of fabrication involvesdeparting from the traditional use of only asingle image to convey a message. Cinematicseeing presents a series of images in whicheach frame modifies the sense of photo-graphic time and space of the frame beforeand after it. This interaction between framesdelivers additional information, thus en-abling the audience to witness a differentpoint of view or a new episode that canenhance their understanding of the subject.This technique can be accomplished directlyin the camera using previsualization meth-ods or created from prints using postdark-


room procedures. Some methods that havebeen used to explore cinematic imagemakingfollow.

• The sequence is a group of imagesdesigned to function as a group ratherthan individually. Typically, sequencestell stories (although they do not have to be empirically narrative in nature),present numerous points of view, andprovide information over an extendedvisual time period. Sequences can bemade in the camera or put together usingprints. They are often presented in a bookformat to encourage intimate viewingwhereby meaning is built up page by page.A classic example of this strategy is RobertFrank’s The Americans (1959).

• The grid, an evenly spaced grating frame-work of crossing parallel lines (like a tick-tack-toe board), has been used both at the moment of exposure and during print-making to enclose and analyze an image.The grid breaks down an image into sep-arate units while still containing it as aunified form.

• A modified form of the grid involves usinga specially constructed easel that hasindividually hinged doors that may beopened and closed. This permits a single image to be broken down into sep-arate quadrants, each of which can receivedifferent exposure times. The overalleffect in a single image can be fractured by light to create separate units within the whole.

• The contact sheet sequence combinesaspects of the in-camera sequence and thegrid. A scene is visualized in its entirety,but photographed as individual segments.When these separate frames are laid outand contact printed, they create a singleunified picture.

• Using joiners, the practice of photograph-ing a scene in individual parts and thenfitting these together to form one image,was a method that painter David Hockneyperfected during the 1980s. The imagesmay be printed at the same size (asHockney did) or cut into different sizes orshapes and arranged and attached inplace.


Hoy, Anne H. Fabrications: Staged, Alteredand Appropriated Photographs. NewYork: Abbeville Press, 1987.

Figure 11.10 Metzker, not satisfied with the single image aesthetic, hasexperimented with multiple-image constructions. Here the stacked imagesuse the interrelationship of the frames for content interpretation andvisual contrast.

© Ray K. Metzker. Untitled, 1969. Gelatin silver print. 8 ¥ 10 inches.Courtesy of Laurence Miller Gallery, New York.


COMPOSITE VARIATIONS

The Collage

A photographic collage is produced whencut and torn pieces from one or more photographs are combined on a commonsupport. A photographic collage may in-clude images from magazines and newspa-pers; a combination of colored paper,wallpaper, or fabric; natural materials suchas sand, grass, flowers, and leaves; and three-dimensional objects. No attempt is made todeny that the image is an assemblage created from a variety of source materials. It

Figure 11.11 In an attempt to overcome his frustration with traditional portraiture’s limited point of view, Levy constructeda photographic grid consisting of 20 individual images. Made with a 4 ¥ 5 inch camera for precision of detail, these imagesscan the architecture and sense of time in the subject’s living and working environment. They are printed together to formthe illusion of glancing through a window at a snapshot of an event that may consist of fragmented views made monthsapart. The images explore and challenge our perceptive process by testing the limits of discontinuity in space and time thatour brains will accept in reading an image. The self-reflective elements attest to the collaborative relationship between thephotographer and the subject. The final print was made on variable-contrast paper so that each negative could be masked togive the correct contrast and exposure.

© Stu Levy. Artist’s Proof and Consequences or What It’s Really Like, 1988. Gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 25 inches.

is not rephotographed and is itself the finalproduct.

The Montage

A montage follows the same basic rules asthose used in making a collage. The majordifference is that the final collection of ma-terials is rephotographed. The making of this new negative allows the end product tobe transformed back into a photographicprint, from which additional copies may be produced. Sometimes the imagemaker


attempts to hide the source of the variousimages and materials in an effort to presenta new, seamless photographic, as opposed todigital, rendition that will make people ask,“How can that be?” Great fun, innovation,and provocation are possible by juxtaposingpeople, places, and things that would other-wise not be seen together.

Making a Collage or Montage

You will need the following materials toassemble a collage or montage.

• A large collection of source images andmaterials

• A support print, board, or other materialfor a base. This background material maybe a piece of matte board or a photograph.Generally, photographs having open,uncluttered areas offer a good startingpoint. The support should be large enoughto allow plenty of room within which youcan maneuver; 16 ¥ 20 inches is usually agood size to begin with.

• Sharp scissors

• A sharp X-Acto knife (a number 11 bladeis good)

• Adhesive glue or dry-mount tissue (if permanence is a concern, use an archivalglue)

• Spotting colors and a fine sable brush(number 0)

• Fine-tip felt pens in various shades of grayand black

• A tacking iron and dry-mount press (if drymounting is planned)

Following is a basic working guide forconstructing a collage or montage.

1. Spread out all the source materials youare considering using. Do not be stingy.

2. Try a variety of arrangements and juxta-positions on the background support.

3. After you have made a preliminary selec-tion, trim the source materials down totheir approximate final size. If you areusing dry mounting, tack the dry-mounttissue to the back of each selection so itwill adhere properly after final trimming.

Figure 11.12 Angel uses collage to explore her experience as a cancersurvivor and the process of healing both physically and emotionally.Angel tears photographs and collages them on 8-ply museum board usingacrylic gel medium as an adhesive. “The tactile process of actuallypiecing together photographs is metaphorical as they represent thepiecing together and layering of the experiences that comprise my life andhow cancer defined it.”

© Catherine Angel. Lamentations, 1995. Gelatin silver print with mixedmedia. 24 ¥ 20 inches. Courtesy of Photo-Eye Gallery, Santa Fe. Originalin color.

4. Trim materials to their final size. For thesmoothest finish, use sharp scissors tomake long, continuous, beveled cuts. Use the X-Acto knife only when cutscannot be made with scissors. Cuttingwith a blade tends to produce a morejagged edge.


5. Using the appropriate gray or black felt-tip pens, color the edges of the trimmedmaterials so they match each other andthe support board. An edge that is toodark will be just as noticeable as one thatis white.

6. Attach the trimmed, shaded pieces to thebackground support with glue or dry-mount tissue.

7. Add shadows with diluted spotting colorsif desired.

CopyingIf you are making a montage, the assembledwork can be copied outside in clear, directsunlight. Place the work on a clean, flatsurface. The sunlight should be striking it at a 30- to 45-degree angle. Photograph thework with a 35mm camera, ideally equippedwith a macro lens to provide maximum flat-ness of field and sharpness. If you do nothave access to a macro lens, you can use a50mm lens instead. It will easily fill theframe of a 16 ¥ 20 inch piece; even an 11 ¥14 inch work should fill the frame. Stop thelens down to f-8 or f-11 to ensure good depthof field. For maximum detail and minimumgrain, use a slow, fine-grain film such as

Figure 11.13 The use of photomontage enables Taylor to express histhoughts, which do not exist to be photographed, in a concrete manner.The finished pieces are purely photographic. Color changes are achievedwith selectively applied sepia toner, and drawn lines are added byscratching on the negative. There is no attempt to make a seamlessmontage. The edges of the prints are torn to allow the viewer to discoverand explore the process used to produce the new reality.

© Brian Taylor. When California Goes, 1985. Gelatin silver prints. 11 ¥ 14inches. Original in color.

Figure 11.14 Lê’s photo weavings came out of an early fascination with Western art. As a refugeefrom Vietnam and not being able to speak English, Lê spent a lot of his childhood in the librarylooking at art books. Lê combines the iconography of Eastern and Western cultures in a paperweaving style based on that of his aunt’s grassmat weavings. Depending on the content of the imagebeing constructed, Lê adjusts his weaving process to highlight certain aspects of the subject whilekeeping others hidden. (See Color Plate 4.)

© Dinh Q. Lê. From Zero to First Generation, 1997. Woven chromogenic color prints and linentape. 291/4 ¥ 571/2 inches. Courtesy of CEPA Gallery, Buffalo, NY. Original in color.


Kodak Technical Pan Film for black-and-white or Fujicolor Superia Reala for color.Determine the proper exposure by readingan 18 percent gray card in front of the work.Do not meter directly from the work, or youmay get a faulty reading.

The work may also be copied indoors.Tack or tape the piece to a wall. Set up twolights at 45-degree angles to the work. Usinga gray card, measure the light falling on thework from each lamp, making sure each iscasting even illumination across the piece.Then place the gray card in front of the workand take a meter reading off it with bothlights on. For the sharpest results, use alarge-format camera to copy the work. Col-lages also may be copied on a black-and-white or color electronic copy machine.


Golding, Stephen. Photomontage: A Step-by-Step Guide to Building Pictures. Rockport,MA: Rockport Publishers, 1997.

Photo-Based Installations

Photo-based installations can comprisearrangements of images, objects, sound, and text that are designed to function as asingle work. Installations provide viewerswith the experience of being in and sur-rounded by the work, and often feature videoand sound components to produce a moreintense sensory realization. Precedents forinstallations can be found in the Pop Art eraof the late 1950s and 1960s, such as AllanKaprow’s “sets” for “Happenings” or RedGroom’s theatrical environments such asRuckus Manhattan. Most installations areunsalable and generally are exhibited anddismantled, leaving only photographic doc-umentation of their existence.

PROCESSING MANIPULATION:RETICULATION

Reticulation is the wrinkling of the filmemulsion into a weblike pattern or texture.Normally this is viewed as a processingmistake caused by differences in the tem-perature of the film’s developing solutions.Until the 1950s, reticulation was not an

unusual occurrence. Contemporary filmsvery rarely suffer from this problem becauseof improvements in emulsion making, suchas the use of improved hardeners. It can,however, be purposely induced for visualeffect. Reticulation can literally dissolve thecamera-based reality and replace it with amanipulated reality in which line, shape,and space are distorted and rearranged onthe film’s surface.

Reticulation can be accomplished throughtwo basic methods. One way is to createextreme differences in temperature betweenthe processing steps during film develop-ment. The other method is to induce it chem-ically after the film has been developed.

In the first method the film is developed atan elevated temperature (90°F or 32°C), thenput in a very cold stop bath followed by awarm fixer. After this, the film is frozenbefore it is given a final hot wash. Even withthese extremes, the hardener built into manymodern films makes reticulation difficult ifnot impossible to accomplish.

Figure 11.15 Apicella-Hitchcock and McClave do collaborativeinstallations to have control over the context and environment of theirwork. In an installation viewers must navigate through and around objectsin space. In doing so the images and objects making up the installationinteract with each other in unexpected ways, creating the possibility forthe viewer to see things anew.

© Stephen Apicella-Hitchcock and Brian McClave. Steps Towards anUnderstanding of a Severed Human Head, 1999. Gelatin silver prints(assorted sizes), evidence bags, tags, forms, vitrines, 2 sets of clothing,books, two video monitors, time lapse surveillance camera, deconstructedPolaroid camera, clock, receipts and assorted ephemera. Dimensionsvariable. Original in color.


With the second method, the film is re-ticulated by chemical means, which givesthe advantage of working with normallyprocessed film (even film that is a couple of years old can work). It also enables direct observation and interaction with theprocess, allowing you to stop the reticulationwhen you see fit. This chemical methodworks with most black-and-white films.

Simple Chemical Reticulation

Sodium carbonate can be used to producesimple random reticulation. No two filmsseem to react to it in the same way. Evennegatives on the same strip of film can re-spond differently, making this processhighly unpredictable. Kodak’s TRI-X is onefilm that works well with this technique.Using a medium- or large-format negativeallows you to readily observe the process.

As mentioned earlier, previously pro-cessed film may be used, which can beuseful for testing. The older the film is, theharder its emulsion surface tends to be, thusincreasing the time it takes for reticulation totake place and also limiting its effects. Bestresults are achieved with freshly processedfilm.

The following guidelines are provided forchemical reticulation.

1. Start with a completely processed anddried negative.

2. Prepare the reticulation solution by com-bining 30 grams of sodium carbonate with500 milliliters of water at 140°F to 150°F(60°C to 65°C). This solution has a usefultemperature range of 105°F to 160°F (40°Cto 71°C). As the temperature goes down,the action of the solution becomes slower.If the temperature gets too high, it willruin the film’s plastic base. You can main-tain the temperature with the use of a hotplate.

3. Place the film directly in the hot solution,which is held in a clear glass jar or a smalltray. For easy handling, attach a paperclip through a sprocket hole to individualframes of 35mm film before placing themin a clean baby food jar filled with solu-tion. Take care not to let the film come incontact with the walls of the jar, or

uneven reticulation will result. Someworkers prefer the tray process. Tape thefilm, emulsion side up, to a slightly largerpiece of thin Plexiglas or glass and placein a tray. This technique makes observa-tion and manipulation easier, and it pro-vides a solid horizontal support. Thismethod permits extending the time in thesolution, which increases the effect andallows other visual distortion such asveiling effects to take place. Veiling iscaused by the physical breakdown of theemulsion as it begins to dissolve and foldup. Be careful not to leave the film in thesolution too long, or the emulsion willcompletely slide off its base. One canpush the loose emulsion around with abrush or a very thin stream of water tocreate other effects.

4. When the film is placed in the solution, theprotective gelatin layer will dissolve andrise to the surface. Allow the film toremain in the solution for 5 to 20 minutes,with occasional agitation. Reticulationmay begin within 45 seconds. The firststages will produce a fine-texturedpattern.As time passes, the pattern should becomelarger and more exaggerated. The processmay not take as long with 35mm film aswith a 6 ¥ 7cm format. This is because thepattern will be more evident when the 35mm film is enlarged to the same size as the6 ¥ 7cm film. If the process is allowed togo too far, the pattern will become moreimportant than the original subject.

5. When the desired result is obtained,remove the film from the solution. A pairof tweezers can be helpful when dealingwith unattached pieces of film. Wash it incool running water for 10 minutes, thenhang it up to dry.

Water Reticulation

Some films that have not been fixed with anacid hardener can be reticulated in water.Put the freshly processed film, fixed onlywith a nonhardening fixer, in plain water at 150°F (65°C) and allow it to sit until thewater cools to room temperature. Thismethod will produce a much finer, softerpattern than that induced with sodium car-bonate.


Masking

Specific areas of a negative can be maskedwith Luminos Fotomask or rubber cement toprevent reticulation (see Chapter 8). Use afine brush to apply the mask directly on theemulsion (dull) side of the film and let it dry.Then immerse the film in the reticulatingsolution. There may be some slight reticula-tion around the edges of the mask, depend-ing on the length of time the film is in thesolution. After the film has been washed anddried, the mask can be removed withmasking tape or with your finger. Film maybe masked, partially reticulated, washed anddried, remasked, and further reticulated tocreate a variety of patterns within a singleimage.

HAND-COLORING

Hand-coloring lets the imagemaker voyagebeyond the technical limitations of the pho-tographic process to change the reality of ascene. Synthetic color can be applied to alterthe mood, eliminate the unnecessary, andadd space and time that were not present atthe moment of exposure. This technique canhelp bridge the gap between the inner/subjective and outer/objective realities byenabling imagemakers to control the color ofthe external world with their imaginations.

Materials for Adding Color

A wide array of materials and processes canbe used to apply color to a photograph. Somewidely used coloring materials includeacrylic paint, colored pencils, dyes (bothfabric and food), enamel paint, markingpens, Marshall’s Photo-Oil Colors, oil paint,photographic retouching colors, photo-graphic toners (see Chapter 8), and water-colors.

Solvent-Based MaterialsThese materials can be divided into fourbasic groups: lacquer based, oil based, waterbased, and miscellaneous.

• Lacquer-based paint is usually sprayedfrom a can or airbrush (see the section onairbrushing later in this chapter).

• Oil-based materials are among the mostcommon and easy-to-use coloring agents.Quality artist oil paints can be applied toalmost any photographic surface. Beforepainting, a fine coat of turpentine is generally applied to the print surface witha cotton ball. Marshall Photo-Oils andPencils are available in complete kits withdirections for their application. Oil-basedmaterials produce soft, subtle colors.Blending large areas of color is easy withoils. Since oils are slow drying, you canfix mistakes with cotton and turpentine.

• Water-based materials, such as acrylicpaint, certain concentrated dye tonerssuch as Edwal photographic retouchingcolors, and watercolors, are consideredadditive coloring agents. They can beapplied straight or mixed to form newcolors on a palette. Overall coloring agentsare considered to be toners and arecovered in Chapter 8. Nonacrylic water-based coloring agents like watercolorsaffect the print surface in the same manneras conventional spotting. The color pene-trates the surface and becomes a perma-nent part of the image. Mistakes cannot beerased as with oils but must be paintedover. Consequently, more care, skill, andforethought are required.

• You can create both intense and subtlecolor effects with water-based materials,depending on how much water is used todilute the coloring agent. Since thesematerials do not sit on the print surface,as do oil-based materials, colors tend toappear brighter, clearer, and more intense.When covering large areas, water-basedmaterials must be applied rapidly andsmoothly if you do not want brush strokesto be evident in the final image. Dipping a brush in diluted Photo-Flo or lightlywetting the areas to be colored with aclean cotton ball and fresh water canreduce the likelihood of streaking.

• Acrylics are somewhat different fromother water-based materials. Acrylics re-side on the surface of the print and so tendto appear brighter and more opaque. Ifthese qualities are not problematic, it canbe easier to work with acrylics than withwatercolors because they are slower todry. Thus, they can be removed while stillwet using cotton and water.


• Miscellaneous materials refers to un-conventional materials, such as beets,coffee, or tea, which may be used to add color.

Combining Coloring AgentsColoring agents can be combined, as long as you keep in mind the old adage about oil and water not mixing. Remember thatlacquer and oil do not adhere well to water-based materials and that water-based agentsdo not adhere well to lacquer and oil-basedmaterials.

PermanenceThe permanence of all additive coloringagents depends on the following factors:

• The keeping properties of the specific col-oring agents

• The type and condition of the surfacebeing painted

• The levels of exposure to UV light

• Maintenance of proper display andstorage conditions, including moderatetemperatures and medium to low relativehumidity

General Guidelines for Hand-Coloring

The following guidelines provide a startingpoint for applying additive colors to a pho-tographic print.

1. Begin with a dry, processed, well-washedprint. Most workers prefer a mattesurface, but a glossy surface also can be used.

2. Gather together all the needed materials,including the coloring agents and appli-cators. Colors can be applied with varioussizes of good-quality brushes, Q-Tips,cotton balls, lintless cloth such as Photo-Wipes, or small sponges. A mixingpalette, water or another solvent, andwhite paper on which you can test mixedcolors are required. In addition, yourwork area should have an adjustable,high-quality light source.

3. Read all the manufacturer’s instructionsand follow all safety procedures as out-lined in Chapter 2.

4. Start practicing the technique with throw-away prints.

5. The final results depend on a combina-tion of application, print surface, type of coloring agent, temperature, andhumidity.

As you become more familiar with thematerials and procedures, begin to deviatefrom the given modes of application. Tryhand-coloring on fabric and nonsilver emul-sions or combining the procedure withtoning and masking. Hand-coloring is ahighly individualistic process, so be adven-turous and experiment. Do not be afraid tomake mistakes. The ability to make mean-ingful photographs often comes through anintellectual and/or spiritual instinct thatmastery of technique and hours of practicehave liberated.

AIRBRUSHING

The airbrush, invented in 1882, is a smallspray gun capable of delivering a precisecombination of fluid (ink, dye, or paint) andair to a specific surface location. It is a ver-satile tool for those interested in photo-graphic retouching of a completed image.

Types of Airbrushes

There are three general types of airbrushes:dual-action internal mix, single-action inter-nal mix, and single-action external mix.Dual action refers to the way the airbrush istriggered (push the trigger down for air andback for color). This procedure permits theoperator to change the line width and alterthe value of opaqueness of the fluid withouthaving to stop and make adjustments. Forall-around versatility, a dual-action airbrushis a good choice.

When the trigger is depressed on a single-action airbrush, a preset amount of fluid issprayed. The only way to control the amountsprayed is by turning the needle adjustmentscrew when the airbrush is not in use. If uni-formity of fluid application is critical, asingle-action brush is a wise choice.

Internal mix means that the air and fluidare blended inside the head assembly. Inter-nal mixing produces a very smooth and thor-


oughly atomized fine-dot spray offering theprecision and detail usually required forsmaller works such as photographs.

External mix means that the air and fluidare mixed outside the airbrush head or fluidassembly. It produces a coarser, larger-dotspray than does internal mixing. Externalmix brushes are generally used for sprayinglarger areas.

Head Assemblies

Airbrushes also can have different headassemblies (for internal mix) or fluid assem-blies (for external mix) which can bechanged depending on the type of linequality desired and the viscosity (thickness)of the fluid being sprayed. There are threebasic head types: fine, medium, and heavy.Internal-mix assemblies always provide finerline quality than external fluid assemblies,even when they are equipped with a similar-size head.

A fine head, which has the smallestopening, is used for extra-fine detail work.An internal mix can deliver line quality fromthe thickness of a pencil line to about 1 inch.An external mix is capable of making a lineonly as small as about 1/8 inch wide. It isintended to be used with fluids having a lowviscosity, such as dyes, inks, gouaches, verythin acrylics, and watercolors.

A medium head is intended for detailwork and can produce a line from 1/16 inchfor the internal mix or 1/4 inch for the exter-nal mix to 11/2 inches for both. A mediumhead will spray about twice the amount offluid as the fine. It can handle more viscousmaterials, such as thinned acrylics, hobby-type enamels, and lacquers.

A heavy head has the biggest opening,delivering a spray line of 1/8 inch for theinternal, 1/2 inch for the external, and 2inches for both. Heavy heads spray aboutfour times the amount of fluid as fine heads.They are designed for fluids having a highviscosity, such as acrylics, ceramic glazes,oil paints, and automotive paints.

Fluid Containers

Many airbrushes come equipped with asmall cup, 1/16 to 1/8 ounce, for holding the

paint. These are too small for larger jobs, sospecially designed jars with capacities of 3/4ounce to 2 ounces can be attached to the air-brush. These extend the spraying rangewithout the user’s having to stop to remix thepaint or refill the cup.

Figure 11.16 An artist and environmentalist, Warpinski’s images reflecther reverence for the Western landscape and concerns that she has aboutthe intimate connections to the land that much of contemporary land-scape photography often neglects. Warpinski’s mixed media collages arebased on her field notebooks of the West, weaving together images of theland with references to geology, biology, botany, geography, anthropology,gender, history, and literature. This series, Field Notebooks, containshand-manipulated black-and-white photographs that are combined withfrottage (photocopier solvent transfers), rubber stamp relief prints,cellophane tape lifts, and drawing with graphite, colored pencils, anderasers.

© Terry Warpinski. Light Danced Through the Ferns, 1999. Mixed mediacollage. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Original in color.


Selecting the Right Equipment

Select an airbrush based on its intendedapplication. A dual-action, internal-mix,fine-line unit with optional bottle containersis appropriate for most photographic uses.This combination provides the precision and versatility required for most operationsinvolving the airbrushing of photographs.

Air Supply Sources and Accessories

The airbrush requires a steady, clean, andreliable source of dry, pressurized air. Thiscan be obtained from canned air (propel-lant), such as Badger Propel, Paasche’s airpropellant, or from a compressor. Canned

air, available at art supply stores, is conve-nient and initially less expensive, but it canrun out unexpectedly at inopportune times.If airbrushing is going to be more than anoccasional activity, consider investing in acompressor. Air compressors are availablefrom airbrush manufacturers or at discounthardware and homecenter stores. Get onewith a regulator that permits adjustment ofthe air pressure in pounds per square inch(psi). A regulator offering a pressure range of10 to 100 psi is excellent for airbrushingphotographs. The regulator also allows addi-tional control over the intensity of the sprayand the pattern it produces.

The airbrush must have a flexible hoserunning from the source of air to the brush.A lightweight vinyl hose can be used with acanned propellant, but a heavy-duty braidedhose should be used with a compressor. Aten-foot hose is recommended, as it pro-vides greater flexibility of movement whilespraying.

A filter/extractor can be attached to thecompressor to remove moisture and impuri-ties from the air delivered to the brush. Thisis especially useful in humid climates.

Your Work Area

A drafting table with an adjustable-angle topprovides an effective work surface. The tableand the entire work area, including wallsand floor, need to be protected from the airbrush spray fallout. Newspapers or dropcloths will do the job.

Prints can be pinned or taped at thecorners to the work surface. They also maybe attached with double-sided tape on thebackside of the print.

Safety

Airbrushing should take place in a well-ventilated area. A work area with an exhaustfan is ideal. Since the spray is extremely fine,you should wear a double-cartridge respira-tor for protection. Bearded operators may notbe completely protected because most respi-rators do not provide a tight fit over facialhair. Thin fabric masks do not offer adequateprotection. Do not eat, drink, or smoke whileairbrushing. Avoid putting your fingers in

Figure 11.17 Farber uses photography tomanipulate information from the real world insuch a way that it makes the viewer questionwhat is being seen. Layering is used to createvisual ambiguity, tension, and enigmaticsurfaces. In this work, the image of Babe Ruthwas appropriated and rephotographed on 20 ¥24 inch Polaroid material. The print wasselectively masked and painted with a mixtureof Rhoplex, gel, and acrylic paints. The maskswere then removed, and these areas also werepainted.

© Dennis Farber. Baseball Abstract, 1988.Polaroid with acrylic paint. 20 ¥ 24 inches.Original in color.


your mouth while working, and wash yourhands and fingernails thoroughly when youare done. Follow all other safety guidelinesprovided in Chapter 2.

Basic Airbrush Operation

Most airbrushes have the same basic operat-ing procedures, but read the instruction bookthat comes with the airbrush for details.

1. Attach the air hose to the air supply (com-pressor or canned propellant), thenconnect the air hose to the airbrush.

2. If the air supply is regulated, set it to abeginning operating pressure of 30 psi.The normal working range is 15 to 50 psi.

3. Put the medium (such as paint) into theairbrush jar. The medium needs to bethin, about as thick as you would use ifyou were applying it with a brush. Screwon the jar top with the airbrush adapterand attach the entire unit to the brush.

4. If you are using a compressor, turn it on.Hold the airbrush perpendicular to thework surface. Press the trigger whileeasing it slightly backward to spray thedesired amount of medium. For close-upwork, reduce the amount of air pressure.Increasing the air pressure or the distancebetween the brush and the work willprovide a wider spray pattern.

5. For best results, use a constant, steadymotion. Start the motion before pressingthe trigger. Then press the trigger, keepingthe motion steady. Release the triggerwhen done, continuing to follow throughwith the motion. Uneven airbrushmotion, known as arching, will result inan uneven application of the medium.

6. The most common problem beginnershave is runs and sags, which result fromholding the airbrush too close to the worksurface, holding the brush still or movingit too slowly, or forgetting to release thetrigger at the end of the stroke.

Mixing the Medium

A number of premixed, ready-to-use opaqueairbrush colors are available from companiessuch as Badger and Paasche. These are con-

venient and easy to use but expensive.Mixing your own medium offers the greatestversatility and is more cost-effective. A goodsable brush, number 4 to 7, to mix themedium is desirable. Inexpensive brushescan lose their bristles and clog the airbrush.Most media must be thinned, or they willclog the airbrush. Mixing can be done in thespraying jar. The medium’s consistencyshould tint the brush but not color it solidly.The medium should stick to the sides of thejar but should not thickly color its sides.

Here is a beginning guide to thinningvarious media:

• 1 part water to 1 part watercolor

• 1 part water to 1 part nonclogging ink

• 7 parts water to 1 part acrylic

• 1 part enamel thinner to 1 part enamel

Note that acrylics dry very rapidly, sospraying needs to be almost continuous, orclogging will result. If you have to stop for ashort time, dip the head assembly in a jar ofclean water to prevent clogging.

As soon as you have finished with onecolor, spray clean water or solvent, depend-ing on the medium used, through the air-brush until all the color is out.

Practice

Before attempting to airbrush any completedwork, practice operating the brush. Most air-brushes come with instructions containingbasic exercises to get you acquainted withhow the brush works. If the airbrush does nothave these exercises, go to the library and geta book on basic airbrush technique. Theseexercises can be carried out on scrap paperor board. Once you have mastered these tech-niques, move on to practicing on unwantedprints. When you have built up your confi-dence, try your hand at a good print.

Masking

Masks made of paper, board, acetate, or com-mercial frisket material can be used tocontrol the exact placement of the sprayedmedium. Masks may be cut to any shape or pattern. Handmade masks are held in


place with tape or a weight so the atomizedmedium does not get under the maskedareas. Whenever you are using a mask, sprayover the edge of it, not under it, to avoidunderspray. Positive and reverse stencils canbe used to repeat designs or letters.

Cleanup and Maintenance

When you have completed the work, cleanthe airbrush and paint jar thoroughly withwater or solvent. The majority of airbrushproblems are caused by failure to clean allthe equipment properly. Follow the instruc-tion guide for specific details on how toclean and maintain your airbrush.

Canned Spray Paint

A rough idea of what you can do with an airbrush can be learned by experimenting

with different-colored canned spray paints.Follow all the general airbrush working andsafety procedures. Canned spray paint pro-vides a much wider field of spray and is notsuggested for fine detail work. Canned spraypaint and an airbrush can be combined. Just follow the guidelines provided in thissection for combining media.

Since airbrushing is a postdarkroom activ-ity, it can be used with any photographicprintmaking method. To master airbrushingyou must be willing to perform the taskrepeatedly. Opportunity abounds with theairbrush. See what you can do.


Following are some of the major airbrushmanufacturers:

Badger Air-Brush Company, 9128 WestBelmont Avenue, Franklin Park, IL 60131(equipment, paint, supplies, educationalbooks, and videos).

Paasche Airbrush Company, 7440 WestLawrence Avenue, Harwood Heights, IL60656 (equipment, paint, supplies, andbooks).

TRANSFERS AND STENCILS

A wide variety of transfer processes permitan image to be transferred to another receiv-ing surface. Transfers offer a fast, inexpen-sive, and fun way to work with your imagesor those from other sources like magazines.Transfers will be reversed (like a mirrorimage), so all lettering will be backwards.There will also be a shift in color. One cantransfer more than one image to a singlereceiving surface, creating a collage ofimages. Most methods are experimental and can be done without the use of a print-ing press.

Stencils can be used in place of imagesand the material used to form the new imageis only limited by one’s imagination. Sten-cils can be cut by hand using an X-Acto knifeand a sharp blade, or commercially by a sign-making or graphic arts company. Paint,ink, or other materials can be applied to avariety of surfaces through the stencil’sopenings.

Figure 11.18 Airbrushing allows the expressionistic application ofsynthetic colors to evoke mood and to eliminate unwanted detail in orderto direct the viewer’s attention to specific areas of the composition.Postmodern strategies of irony and satire prevail as artifice for com-mentary on American dilemmas that include alienation, popular myths,sexual identity, and social fictions. Unadorned text is provided to furnishclues for additional meaning. (See Color Plate 5.)

© Robert Hirsch. Anywhere I Hang Myself Is Home, 1992. Toned gelatinsilver print with mixed media. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Original in color. Courtesyof CEPA Gallery, Buffalo, NY.


Transfer Materials

Materials needed for transfers vary, but thereare some that are useful for all processes.These include:

1. A burnishing tool. “Bone folders” areideal; however, any blunt-edged tool suchas a butter knife, a clay burnishing tool, ametal or wooden spoon, or a soft leadpencil can work.

2. A receiving surface. Ideally a smooth,absorbent material such as printmakingpaper; however, cloth and other materialscan be used if they have a fine, tightweave. Textured surfaces may also workbut deliver less detail.

3. Large cotton balls and/or soft brush.

4. Appropriate solvent. Because solventsvary in their ability to dissolve inks oneneeds to experiment, starting with water,the least toxic solvent available. If thisproves unsatisfactory use mineral spirits(paint thinner). If this does not work,move up to acetone, or “Goof-Off,” avail-able in hardware stores. These solventsevaporate rapidly. Transparent gels usedfor diluting oil-based silkscreen ink aregenerally very effective. Gels penetratethe paper, readily loosen the print image,and evaporate more slowly than liquidsolvents. Silkscreen bases are available atart stores and commercial print supplycompanies. All these solvents containvolatile ingredients and can pose poten-tial health hazards. Read the warninglabels with each product. Work only in a well-ventilated area and follow allgeneral safety rules (see Chapter 2).

Magazine Transfers (Petroleum Ink Bases)

Images from freshly printed, clay-coated,slick magazines work best. Test with waterand if pigment dissolves, use water to makethe transfer (see section on inkjet transfers).

Lay receiving material face up on a hard,smooth surface. Position the image to betransferred face down and use masking tapeto secure one edge only, so that the paper canbe folded back to expose its image withoutshifting its position. Generously apply the

solvent chosen with a cotton ball or brush tothe face of the image. Quickly lay the coatedmagazine image back in contact with thereceiving surface, and apply hard and evenpressure with a burnishing tool to transferthe dissolved ink.

Each tool will yield a different result. Trya combination of tools for a variety of effects.Periodically check the results by lifting onecorner of the magazine image up andinspecting the receiving base. When themagazine image dries and will not transferany more ink, add more solvent to the image.Repeat this process until the image has beentransferred. Be patient. This procedure cantake up to 15 minutes. If you have access toa printing press it can be used instead of thehand burnishing.

Figure 11.19 Abeles informs us that “The Presidential CommemorativeSmog Plates are portraits of U.S. Presidents from McKinley to Bush(senior) created from particulate matter (smog) in the polluted air. Thestencil images are cut from transparent or opaque materials, and placedover dinner plates that were placed on a rooftop for varying lengths oftime (from four to forty days), depending on the extent of their violationor apathy toward the distressed environment. Upon removal of thestencil, the Presidents’ visages in smog are revealed, accompanied by theirhistorical quotes about the environment and business. The darker theimage, the worse their environmental record.” The Roosevelt quote reads“We must maintain for our civilization the adequate material basiswithout which that civilization can not exist.” 12-3-07. The Reagan quotesays “A tree’s a tree. How many more do you need to look at?” 3/12/66.Abeles created the process for the first Smog Collector in 1987.

© Kim Abeles. Theodore Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan, from the seriesPresidential Commemorative Smog Plates, 1992. Smog on porcelain withgold enamel. 10 inch diameter. Courtesy of Art Resources Transfer, NewYork. Original in color.


Newspaper Transfers (Petroleum Ink Base)

Newspapers transfer unpredictably, which istheir charm if one wants a distorted image.If you want something more predictable,copy (Xerox) or scan and laser-print thenewspaper image (see next section).

Lay receiving material face up on a hard,smooth surface. Trim (if desired) and posi-tion the image to be transferred face down.Tape in place if desired, or simply hold inplace while working. Lightly saturate acotton ball with solvent, then blot the cottonball on paper towels until damp (if it’s wetit will cause the ink to run). With hand pres-sure, apply the damp cotton ball to the backof the newspaper in circular motions untilthe paper becomes transparent. You cancheck the progress of your transfer by liftinga corner and peeking. Replenish solvent asneeded. If too much of the newsprint comesoff on the cotton ball, try using a thin slip sheet between the cotton ball and thenewspaper.

Black-and-White Copier, Laser-Printed,and Inkjet Transfers

A black-and-white image (made with a dry-toner copier or digital laser-printer) can betransferred onto another surface using astrong solvent. The method is identical tothe newspaper transfer, previously men-tioned, except that you will not need a slipsheet. A citrus-oil solvent may work onfreshly printed images.

The advantage of the digital laser-print isthat the image can be “flipped” prior tooutput and transfer, resulting in correct left-to-right orientation.

Inkjet prints can be transferred using plainwater.

Color Copier or Laser-Printed TransfersColor copiers used to have inks that readilytransferred with solvents. This is now currently a rarity, but you may still find anold machine that will allow you to do this. One can experiment as the industry is always changing. Failing direct transfers,decal papers or Lazertran paper is an alternative.

Water or Vegetable-Based Color Print TransfersCommon small- and large-format digitalprinters use inks or dyes that can be trans-ferred using plain water, water-based trans-parent silkscreen gels, or even acrylic gels. The most archival results begin withpigment-based prints. Patience and experi-mentation will be required. Density of ink,variations between printer hardware, inkjetpaper, and receiving paper will result in dra-matically differing results.

Many people have success using a print-ing press to transfer the image because it canquickly apply a large amount of even andintense pressure. The procedure relies ondevising a way to evenly dampen the inkjetprint and/or receiving paper. Generally,printing paper (made for hand lithography orintaglio) is soaked for 20–30 minutes, thenblotted between two large clean towels (anda rolling pin) until damp, not soaking wet. Itis then quickly placed on the printing press,the color inkjet print is laid face-down on thedamp paper, covered with a clean thin sheetof flexible plastic (such as Lexan or polycar-bonate), and quickly run through the press.The transfer is then checked, and if theimage needs more dampening to release, thiscan be applied by using a spray bottle, adampened sponge, or damp blotting paper.The variables are many, and experimenta-tion will be required.

Decal PapersMost copiers and digital printers have manufacturer-recommended clear “decal” ortransfer papers for use with their machines—be sure the decal paper is compatible or itcould ruin the machine. These are often“ironed” on with heat, and therefore appli-cation is limited. The results can be quitedetailed; however, the clear plastic of thedecal remains on the surface, even in areaswhere there is no image.

Lazertran Transfer ProductsLazertran Limited makes transfer papers forcolor copiers and laser printers. After out-putting the digital file or color copy ontoLazertran paper, the image is trimmed andsoaked briefly in water. This releases theimage from its backing paper, and it can beapplied onto paper, canvas, ceramics, tiles,glass, metal, plaster, plastic, or wood. Unlike


of contact paper often used inside kitchencabinets. It is not photographic contact-printing paper.

Select a clay-coated magazine picture.Remove the backing from the transparentcontact paper and stick it onto the front ofthe magazine image. Burnish the clearcontact paper well with a blunt edged tool.This will remove all bubbles and trans-fer the ink onto the adhesive layer of thecontact paper.

Soak the adhered image and clear contactpaper in hot water until the paper backing of the image dissolves enough to be removedwith a small sponge or your finger. Whenthis step is complete, only the ink transferwill remain on the contact paper. Hang

Figure 11.20 In this ongoing series, Henderson playfully pairs different images against abackground of male and female chromosomes to engage viewers in speculation about the nature ofgender. The grid-like presentation of between 60 and 100 works recalls the authority of a naturalhistory museum, while it explores and layers the role of science and culture in shaping self-knowledge of the body and visualization of its intricacies. (See Color Plate 6.)

© Adele Henderson. #55 (detail), from the series Normal Male/Normal Female, 1998. Print onpaper, Plexiglas, wax, white shellac, wood frame and one or more of the following: engraved andinked lines, litho ink transfers, hand painting in oil, asphaltum, or Lazertran transfer. 71/2 ¥ 91/2inches. Original in color.

decals that are ironed on, Lazertran’s makersclaim that it can be fused to bond perma-nently with a number of surfaces. They alsomake an iron-on transfer for silk and othersheer fabrics. Lazertran “Etch” is a differentproduct made for transferring digital orphoto images onto metal intaglio plates thatare subsequently etched in acid and printed.For details contact: Lazertran Limited, 6508th Avenue, New Hyde Park, NY 11040.

Transparent Contact Paper Transfers

Clay-coated magazine pictures can be trans-ferred by using transparent contact paperwith an adhesive backing. This is the type


the image up to dry. To protect the dry imageand make it easier to handle, place a new piece of clear contact paper on the non-laminated side of the dried image andburnish it.

Aside from making a final piece withcontact paper, you can use contact papertransfers for the following:

• Print them on light-sensitive material toget a negative image.

• Contact print them on a piece of film tomake a negative from which prints can be made.

• Put them in a slide mount and projectthem.

• Use them in a copy machine that can makeprints from slides.

Flexible Transfers

A clay-coated casein paper image may betransferred to an acrylic medium to delivera flexible transparent transfer.

Select an image that has been printed on aclay-coated paper. Using a soft, wide brush,coat the front side of the printed image withacrylic gloss painting medium. Apply theacrylic medium quickly, in only one direc-tion, and allow it to dry. Then apply it againin another direction and allow it to dry. Con-tinue repeating this process until you haveat least eight layers of medium.

Soak the coated image in hot water untilthe magazine picture dissolves and can bepeeled off, leaving only the printer’s ink inthe acrylic medium. Hang the image up todry. The acrylic medium will be white whenit is wet, but it should become transparentafter it dries.

The acrylic medium is flexible and can beshaped and stretched for many applicationsin which a regular transfer would not work.Warm the medium with a hair dryer beforeattempting to re-form it, or it may break. Re-application of the acrylic may be needed ifit begins to tear or get too thin. Place it facedown on a piece of glass and begin workingit from the edges to form a new shape. Theflexible transfer can be stretched aroundthree-dimensional objects or be stitched,stuffed, and attached to other support bases.

Polaroid Image Transfers

Images formed on Polaroid instant print filmcan be transferred to another receivingsurface, such as artist paper, 4 ¥ 5 or 8 ¥ 10inch sheets of black-and-white or color film.These surfaces work well and provide animage large enough for viewing. To transferan image from a piece of Polaroid print film to paper or another surface, follow these steps:

1. Normally expose a sheet of 4 ¥ 5 inchPolaroid film.

2. Before pulling the print through therollers, soak the receiving sheet in water(100°F/38°C) for about 1 minute. Removethe receiving sheet and use a hard rolleror squeegee to eliminate the excess water.Quickly proceed to step 3.

3. As soon as the film is pulled through theprocessing rollers, cut off the ends of thefilm packet with a pair of scissors. Thisprevents the receiving paper from gettingbrown stains that result from excessPolaroid developer.

4. Separate the positive and the negativeimages. This step should be done be-tween 10 and 15 seconds after step 3.Before 10 seconds the print may becomefogged by light, and after 15 seconds thedyes begin to migrate to the receivingsheet.

5. Immediately apply the negative image(face down) on the new receiving supportmaterial. Using a brayer, roll the negative,with medium pressure, 4 to 6 times in thesame direction. The quality and look of atransfer depends on the porosity of thereceiving material. The negative imagemay be transferred to artists’ paper, a pho-tographic print, another Polaroid print, oreven back to the positive from which itwas originally removed.

6. Keep the negative warm and allow it tostay in place for two minutes beforeremoving it from the receiving base. Sep-arate the negative and support base beforethey dry, or you risk the likelihood oftearing the support base when youremove the negative.



Grey, Christopher, and Gwen Lute. Photog-rapher’s Guide to Polaroid Transfer.Amherst, NY: Amherst Media, 1999.

Thormod Carr, Kathleen. Polaroid Transfers:A Complete Visual Guide to CreatingImage and Emulsion Transfers. New York:Amphoto Books, 1997.

Polaroid Emulsion Transfer

Emulsion transfer is a process for removingand transferring the top image layer ofPolaroid ER films (Types 108, 669, 59, 559,809) or Polacolor 64 Tungsten, onto anothersupport surface. European imagemakersbegan experimenting with the processduring the 1980s, but it did not gain entranceinto American photographic practice untilthe 1990s. Basically, an exposed sheet ofPolaroid ER film is submerged in hot wateruntil the emulsion can be separated from itspaper support and then transferred ontoanother surface such as ceramics, fabric,glass, metal, and wood. Three-dimensionalsurfaces also can be used. The processremoves the image from its normal contextand destroys the traditional frame, whileadding a sense of movement and elements of the third dimension into the image. Thefollowing steps are provided as a portal tothis nontraditional process.

The Emulsion Transfer ProcessEmulsion transfers can be made onto anyclean, smooth surface, including glass orsheet metal. Fabric support should bestretched and mounted because folds in thematerial can produce cracking when theemulsion dries. The emulsion can be trans-ferred in sections by tearing it with yournails or cutting it while it is soaking. Theprint can also be cut into pieces before itsfirst submersion. All steps may be carriedout under normal room light.

1. Expose and process Polaroid Type 669,59, 559, or 809 film and let it dry for 8 to24 hours or force-dry with a hair dryer.Besides using a camera, exposures can bemade onto positive transparency film andprojected onto Polaroid ER. This can bedone with the Polaprinter, the Vivitar

slide printer, the Daylab II, a colorheadenlarger, or a copystand.

2. Cover the backside of the print withplastic contact paper or with a coat ofspray paint and allow to dry. This willprevent the back coat of the print fromdissolving during the submergingprocess. Trim the white borders of theprint if you do not want them to transfer.

3. Fill one tray, larger than the print, with 160°F (71°C) water. Fill a second traywith cold water. Place a sheet of acetateor Mylar on the bottom of the cold water tray.

Figure 11.21 Transfer printing is an easy, fast, and fun method ofworking with found images. Hock made this piece from SX-70 imagespeeled apart during development. The backing was then adhered to apaper support. In this series, appropriated scientific images of primatesand insects are juxtaposed. Visual contrast is created by combining cool-and warm-colored images within the composition.

© Rick McKee Hock. Codex (Natural History) #17, 1986. Altered PolaroidSX-70 images on paper. 20 ¥ 22 inches. Courtesy of the HallmarkCollection, Inc. Original in color.

If transferring onto watercolor paper,use a foam brush to moisten (but do notsoak) the paper with room temperaturewater. Put the paper on a clean, smoothpiece of glass and squeegee it onto thesurface, taking care to remove all bubblesand wrinkles.

4. Submerge the print face up in the tray ofhot water for 4 minutes with agitation.The water should be allowed to cool.Using tongs, remove the print from thehot water and place it in the tray of cold water.

5. While the print is under the cold water,lightly massage the emulsion with apushing motion from the edges of theprint toward the center. Slowly and care-fully lift the emulsion and peel it awayfrom its paper support base. Keep theemulsion that is being released from itssupport under the water. Now reverse theimage (so it will not appear backwardswhen transferred) by bringing the emul-sion back over itself (like turning down abed sheet). Leave the emulsion floating inthe water and dispose of the papersupport. Hard water can make the emul-sion difficult to remove. If this is aproblem, try using bottled spring water.

6. Take hold of two corners of the floatingemulsion with your fingers and clamp iton the bottom of the tray. Holding theemulsion, lift the acetate in and out of thewater several times to stretch the imageand remove the wrinkles. Repeat this onall four sides, always holding the top twocorners. After it is stretched, you candunk the image to purposely let the watercurl and fold it. When you are satisfiedwith the image, remove it from the waterand place it on your transfer surface,making sure the acetate or carrying mate-rial is on top.

7. Using your fingers to manipulate theimage, carefully remove the acetate.

8. Smooth and straighten the image until itlooks the way you want it to look. At this

point the emulsion can also be resub-merged in and out of cold water toperform additional manipulations. Whenyour manipulations are complete, roll theimage with a soft rubber brayer from the middle outward. Begin using only theweight of the roller and graduallyincrease the pressure after all the airbubbles and excess water have beenremoved. Generally the operation is con-sidered complete when all the foldsappear to be pressed down. However,other rubbing tools and techniques maybe used to achieve different effects.

9. Hang to dry. Transfer may be flattened ina warm dry-mount press. For added sta-bility, protect from UV exposure.

Additional Sources of Information

Technical Assistance and BooksPolaroid provides toll-free telephone techni-cal assistance at 800-225-1618, Mondaythrough Friday, 8 A.M. to 8 P.M. (EasternTime). Polaroid also offers Polaroid 35mmInstant Slide System: A User’s Manual byLester Lefkowitz, which provides in-depthtechnical information; Instant Projects byRobert Baker and Barbara London, whichcontains a wealth of ideas and informationon using their instant materials; and Step ByStep (covering emulsion and image trans-fer and SX-70/Time-Zero manipulation).Write Polaroid Corporation, 575 TechnologySquare, Cambridge, MA 02139.

EquipmentFour Designs, 9444 Irondale Ave., Chats-worth, CA 91311, and Graphic Center, P.O.Box 818, Ventura, CA 93002, are sources for used SX-70s and customized film backs. Four Designs Company will convertold Polaroid 110A/B roll film cameras to use the new pack films. NPC Corpora-tion, 1238 Chestnut St., Newton Falls, MA02164, makes an SX-70 back for the MamiyaRB-67.


12 Photography andComputers

WHAT IS A DIGITAL COMPUTER?

A digital computer is an electronic devicedesigned to store and process information,such as text or an image, as a set of instruc-tions known as binary code and display it ona screen. This binary code is analogous to alight switch that operates in two states—“on” and “off”—represented by the digits 1and 0. This code allows a digital image to beeasily manipulated and stored.

WHAT IS A DIGITAL IMAGE?

We are familiar with the adage that “historyrepeats itself.” This saying may refer toactual events or may be applied to howpeople react when confronted with a newexperience. During photography’s infancy,the French symbolist poet Charles Baude-laire dismissed the medium as “foreign toart,” referring to it as a “material science”which required none of the skill or vision ofpainting. For centuries, painting was con-sidered the preeminent method of producingimages. The invention of photographythreatened artists’ livelihoods and publicperceptions about how pictures were madeand understood. Although photography hasmade great strides in being accepted as alegitimate art form, critiques similar toBaudelaire’s have been raised about digitalimaging. As in the beginnings of photogra-phy, the emphasis in digital imaging has

largely been as a tool to replicate old waysof working rather than as an independent artform with its own unique characteristics,such as the capability of combining media.Entering the second decade of artistic andpublic computer imaging, we find that justas it took time for photography to discoverits syntax so too is the native language ofdigital imaging just being uncovered.

Although electronic images can look likeanalog silver-based photographs, they areintrinsically different. Not only does a digitalimage exist as numerical information but it is also encoded with new questions about therole and intent of the imagemaker, the verac-ity of the image, and the craft of the image-maker. These are not new issues and theyhave been part of an ongoing dialog aboutimagemaking for hundreds of years. Just asphotography changed the purpose of paint-ing, electronic image manipulation has per-manently altered the role of photography.Imagemakers are not only using the computerto modify images and create virtual scenes,but are coming full circle and making digitalnegatives for analog printing processes. Onechange is that artists are no longer limitingthemselves to either analog or digital modesof making, but are freely moving back andforth between these modes of working toachieve their desired results. As photogra-phy’s role as a system of representation ofphysical existence shifts, so must its formervocabulary be reexamined. A new strength ofthe medium is its ability to assemble theoutcome as an act of the artist’s imagination.


A BRIEF HISTORY OF DIGITALIMAGES: 1960 TO 1998

Before the 1990s, computers were known for their ability to process numbers andwords. A comparison of the development ofelectronic imagery to photographic imagesreveals that in both methods it was necessaryfor early imagemakers to be scientists as wellas artists. The rate of technological innova-tion limited the types of images that couldbe produced. Bursts of creativity followedtechnical innovation, but a true aestheticrequired time for visual experimentation andreflection. Hindsight allows us to look at thepioneering images of William Henry FoxTalbot, Nadar, and Julia Margaret Cameronand see how their vision paved the way forfuture imagemakers. Since there was no tradition for early photographers to use as a foundation, most looked to the establishedmedia of drawing and painting for inspira-tion. They made pictures that overlaid a tem-plate that imitated their rules and traditions,but a few innovators recognized the particu-lar characteristics of the camera’s vision,took risks, and made images that wereuniquely photographic.

A photographic fable relates that on seeing his first daguerreotype the Frenchpainter Paul Delaroche allegedly declared,“From today painting is dead!” The ascen-dance of digital imaging has some latter-day“chicken-little types” crying that photo-graphy is finished. Painting is still with us,but has changed and expanded its role in amyriad of ways since the advent of pho-tography. Analogously, photography willcontinue to exist but the photographs oftomorrow may look as foreign to today’sviewers as a Jackson Pollock abstract expres-sionist canvas would look to a painter ofmelodramatic history scenes like Delaroche.The good news is that digital imaging offersphotography the chance to reinvent itselfand begin in new directions without throw-ing its past into the wastebin of history.

The Start of the Digital Revolution

An article in the March 1949 issue ofPopular Mechanics predicted that in thefuture computers would have only 1,000vacuum tubes and weigh no more than one

and a half tons. This prophecy was based on the ENIAC computer, the first fully elec-tronic digital computer built in 1946 at theUniversity of Pennsylvania. ENIAC weighed30 tons and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes,which burned out at an average of one everyseven minutes.

Ben F. Laposky made the first electronicimage in 1950. His piece, Oscillon Number

Figure 12.1 “In The Shower Bath of thePatriarchs, a psychogeography of Buffalo, NewYork, our objective was to destabilize thespectacle so that viewers no longer desiredreceived media images, but instead were movedto autonomously invent new desires.” Nickardand Wallace work from the texts of Frenchessayist and anti-art movement leader GuyDebord to critique how the commodification ofconsumer capitalism and technology has led toalienation and has reduced people to voyeurs.While the series critiques the saturation of thesocial environment with manufactured images,Nickard and Wallace explain that while art itselfremains incapable of changing the world, it cansubstantially contribute to changing the con-sciousness and drives of the people who arethemselves capable of changing the world.

© Gary Nickard and Patty Wallace. Culture Isthe Inversion of Life, from the series TheShower Bath of the Patriarchs, 1999.Electrostatic print. 54 ¥ 36 inches. Original incolor.

PHOTOGRAPHY AND COMPUTERS 215

Four—Electron Abstraction, was an analogwave pattern photographed from an oscillo-scope. In 1957, Russell A. Kirsch and col-leagues, working at the National Bureau ofStandards in Gaithersburg, Maryland, con-structed a simple mechanical drum scannerand used it to trace variations in intensityover the surfaces of photographs. They con-verted the resulting signals into arrays of 176¥ 176 binary digits. This data was then fedinto a SEAC 1500 word memory computer,which made line drawings. For the first time patterns of light and shade became elec-tronically processable digital information.These experiments, like the first photogra-phic images, were primarily concerned withdeveloping a new technology rather than artmaking.

From Vacuum Tubes to Transistors:1960 to 1980

In the early 1960s, scientists at Boeing Corporation coined the term “computergraphics.” By 1964, NASA scientists wereusing digital image-processing techniques toimprove photographs of the moon’s surfacethat had been sent back to earth by theRanger 7 spacecraft. At this time com-puters were as big as rooms and were the sole domain of the government, military, andlarge corporations. The development of thetransistor and miniaturized circuit in the late1950s made it feasible to reduce a room-size computer to a silicon chip the size of a pea.

For the digital imaging pioneers access tocomputers was limited and computer timewas expensive and scarce. Artists needed tobe programmers or work closely with a pro-grammer to create images with a computer.The first computer images were based onwork that could be created using a computerlanguage consisting of algorithms developedfor mathematics and science. Artists workedblind because they were unable to see theirwork until it was outputted. Each image wasmapped out in advance. The instructionsthat made up the image were punched intopaper computer cards that could fill severalshoeboxes and then fed into a computer oneat a time. Usually program mistakes were notdiscovered until after all the cards had beenput into the computer, which meant the

process had to be redone. Since early print-out devices were plotters, large Etch-a-Sketch–like machines that could not drawcurves, images were composed of lines andbroken curves and were generally black-and-white. Experimentation was essential inearly electronic imaging and often combinedartistic and scientific goals. Geometricshapes dominated the visual language of thework and compositions were frequentlymade up of rotated and scaled copies.

Moore’s Law

In 1965, Gordon Moore, cofounder ofIntel Corporation, made one of the mostprophetic statements of the computer age.He forecasted that along with decreasingprices for hardware, about every year and a half it would be possible to buy, forthe same amount of money, a computerthat is twice as fast as one purchased 18months before. Moore based his pre-diction on the belief that the transistordensity of semiconductor chips woulddouble roughly every 18 months, makingcomputers cheaper and faster. If air travelhad developed like computers did, itwould now be possible to fly from NewYork to California in 12 seconds for 50 cents.

The Emergence of Computer-Generated Images

In Postmodern Currents (1997) MargotLovejoy describes the first wave of technicalinnovations that fostered computer art from1965 to 1975. In 1963, Ivan Sutherlanddeveloped Sketchpad, a program designed tocreate graphic images directly on a displayscreen. Sketchpad pioneered the fundamen-tal concepts of graphical computing, whichinclude memory devices to store objects, thecapability to zoom in and out on the display,and the ability to make perfect lines, corners,and joints as well as the capacity to stretchand curve lines. Sketchpad was the first trulyinteractive computer graphics system thatallowed users to draw lines and shapes onthe screen and manipulate them with a lightpen. For the first time artists had a means tointeract with a computer.


The 1970s saw the introduction of the mini-computer and the personal com-puter, which permitted an individual towork outside of the office. In 1970, XeroxCorporation put together a research team at their Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). In the following years this group of sci-entists developed graphical user interfaces,the first commercial mouse, bit-mapped dis-plays, object-oriented programming, andlaser printing, and also laid the groundworkfor what was to become the Internet. Theadoption of computers by design firms even-tually led to the development of graphicssoftware.

Homebrew Computer Club

In the 1970s, personal computers becameavailable as kits and eventually as systems.For early computer users there was nosupport infrastructure to answer technicalquestions or to share information. A numberof clubs formed around universities to fillthis need. The Homebrew Computer Club,which met near the Stanford Universitycampus, was one such group. The clubbrought together people in the high-tech industry, hobbyists, and students andgave them access to computers and a forumto share information. In 1975, Homebrewmember Steve Wozniak brought a circuitboard he constructed to a meeting. Friendand fellow Homebrew member Steve Jobswas impressed and proposed a partner-ship that would become the Apple Com-puter Company. Working out of Wozniak’sgarage, the Apple computer was thousandsof dollars less expensive than the IBM main-frame computers. More important, thesecond-generation Apple II computer hadcolor graphics capabilities that were supe-rior to mainframe computers and hadspreadsheet software for the business com-munity. It also featured art applications thatincluded graphics plotting, a 3-D graphicssystem, and Apple World, a program thatallowed the creation and display of 3-D linedrawings of objects that could be rotated andzoomed in on. The union of art, business,and home applications had been forged. Bythe end of the 1980s, personal computerswere powerful enough to run software thatwas previously available only to dedicated

computer systems, systems designed tospecifically complete a single task.

During the 1980s, computer graphicsstarted to become a common catchphrase asother computer manufacturers marketedtheir own personal computers. This com-petition significantly reduced costs andallowed individuals to obtain a sufficientlysophisticated machine for home, office, andstudio use. Computers also began to appearin schools. This produced a surge in thenumber and diversity of computer users and a parallel interest among manufacturersin developing equipment and softwarespecifically for artists. With many obstaclesremoved, artists commenced using this newtechnology. The transition came so easily tosome artists that they began to adopt thecomputer as their primary working tool. Bythe end of the 1980s, books, magazines, andexhibitions of computer art and digitalimaging began to appear.

The 1990s and the Internet

The origins of the Internet and the WorldWide Web (WWW) can be traced to 1957when Russia launched Sputnik, the first suc-cessful manmade satellite. In a Cold Warresponse, President Dwight D. Eisenhowerformed the Advanced Research ProjectsAgency (ARPA), consisting of some ofAmerica’s top scientists, who developed asuccessful satellite in only 18 months. Thisteam focused on creating a military researchand command and control network thatcould survive a nuclear strike. They deviseda decentralized network of computers thatwere spread across the United States so thatif any cities in the country were attacked, themilitary could launch a nuclear counterat-tack. The initial network was constructed in1969 and linked four universities: the Uni-versity of California at Los Angeles, StanfordResearch Institute, University of Californiaat Santa Barbara, and University of Utah.Three years later the first e-mail program wascreated to allow electronic communicationamong this group. And so the Internet cameinto existence.

For the next twenty years the Internetremained a system of text and e-mail. In1989, computer scientist Tim Berners-Leepublished the paper “HyperText and CERN.”


The following year he developed the hyper-text graphical user interface browser andeditor and made up the name “World WideWeb” (WWW) for the program. In 1993, MarcAndreesen, a graduate student at the Uni-versity of Illinois, created the first graphicalbrowser known as Mosaic. A browser is aprogram that permits you to navigate on theWWW by reading and displaying Internetfiles and Web pages. It does this by combin-ing the existing Internet framework with themultimedia applications made available byhypertext and the WWW. In 1992 there were300,000 host computers connected to theInternet with only 26 reasonably reliableWWW servers; by 1994 there were 1,500 registered servers. That year also marks thecommercial use of the WWW as a businessconduit to the general public when PizzaHut accepted its first order for a mushroomand pepperoni with extra cheese pizza overthe Net.

By 2000 the Nielsen/NetRating reportedthat about 150 million people in the UnitedStates have access to the Internet at home,up 32 percent from the year before. And theaverage home user spends about 10 hoursonline each month, up from little more than8 hours a year ago.

In 1974, artist Nam June Paik displayedCollage, a 1944 Life magazine advertise-ment promoting television as the symbol ofpostwar prosperity. Below the image wastext that asked: “How long will it be beforeall American homes have a television set?”Paik attached additional text asking, “Howlong will it be before all American artistshave their own television channels?” Cur-rently there are millions of Web sites on the WWW, each capable of displayingimages, text, video, and sound, and thenumber is growing daily. The answer toPaik’s question is now just a click or voicecommand away.

WHY THE COMPUTER?

As a camera converts a three-dimensionalsubject into a two-dimensional representa-tion, the computer seamlessly combines dif-ferent media into a virtual representation,which retains the qualities of some mediaand eliminates the characteristics of others.Any task that can be done with a camera,

paintbrush, or drafting tools can be done ona computer.

The computer is a powerful device forexperimenting with ideas and design. Butthe computer is not always the best way toproduce an image. Images stored on silver-based film still contain more informationthan most digital media does. Presently few digital media can compete with film interms of cost, archival keeping qualities, andeconomical storage. If no significant imagemanipulation is being planned, the wisestcourse of action may be to continue usingsilver-based methods.

Electronic Imaging: Digital Cameras

Electronic still photographs made theirpublic debut in the 1960s with the NASA

Figure 12.2 Taylor uses her Website (www.maggietaylor.com) to display,promote, and describe her images. Beginning as a collection of individualobjects and backgrounds, Taylor scans her images using a flatbed scannerinstead of a traditional camera. She assembles the images in layers usingPhotoShop® and prints the final image onto watercolor paper using an Irisprinter. “My desire is for the viewer to experience a convergence offactual memory and fictional daydream similar to my own internal dialogin creating this work.”

© Maggie Taylor. Home Again, 1999. Iris inkjet print. 15 ¥ 15 inches.


space and lunar landing images. Now elec-tronic and computer technology is utilizedin most amateur and professional photo-graphic cameras to carry out functions fromfocusing to determining flash-fill. The arrivalof affordable consumer equipment in the late1990s, capable of producing photo-qualityimages, made digital cameras viable replace-

ments for film-based models. This shiftbegan in 1986, when Canon introduced itsfirst fully integrated professional still videocamera system (SVC). The camera wasslightly larger than an equivalent autofocus35mm SLR camera and used a floppy diskinstead of film to electronically record eachexposure. The disks could store 50 field-quality (low-resolution) or 25 high-resolu-tion images. Resolution is the granularity ofthe display or output and is usually pre-sented in dots per inch (dpi) and pitch (thewidth of the dots).

Today most camera manufacturers pro-duce digital cameras. Digital cameras, likevideo cameras, use a charge-coupled device(CCD) to translate brightness (the intensity ofreflected light) into electronic signals. Thecamera’s internal converter then digitizes thesignals and the picture information is savedon electronic storage media or can be sentdirectly to a computer connected to thecamera.

Although an SVC may resemble a film-based camera, there are major differencesthat can significantly affect the nature of theimage. The CCD sensors in many digitalcameras can capture a wider range of colorsthan color films. Colors such as blues, darkgreens, or fluorescent colors, which are difficult to accurately capture on film, arerecorded and reproduced more accurately ona CCD. The CCD cells in digital camerasmake it possible to photograph in extremelylow light without a tripod or additional artificial light. Digital cameras also haveenhanced telephoto capabilities. Since thesize of the cell area receiving the imagesignal is much smaller than a typical 35mmnegative, a 50mm lens for a regular 35mmcamera has the approximate effect of a 200mm telephoto lens. This quadrupling (4¥)effect drastically reduces the cost of tele-photo power.

The output resolution of CCDs, which iscomparable to edge sharpness or detail in afilm image, is determined by the number oflight-sensitive pixels that convert light intoelectrons in the camera’s image sensor. Apixel or picture element is one of the tinypoints of light that make up the image on a computer or television screen. The greaterthe number of pixels—that is, the smallerand closer together they are—the higher theresolution. Film is still superior to CCD-

Figure 12.3 The advantages of using a digital camera include theconvenience of a reusable film supply and the ability of getting instantfeedback after taking a picture. To create this scene, Georgiou photo-graphed a mountain scene made out of cut construction paper in thestudio with a digital camera. The captured image was stored on a smartmedia card inside the camera, transferred to a computer, and manipulatedin PhotoShop. The final work was printed on an Epson inkjet printerusing Epson inkjet paper. Conceptually, such work raises the issue ofwhat makes up photographic reality and truth in the digital era. (SeeColor Plate 7.)

© Tyrone Georgiou. Sunrise Paper Mountain, 2000. Variable-sized digitalfile.


captured images in its ability to deliver highimage quality. High-resolution 35mm colorslide film can contain 20 million pixels of information. Current consumer-qualitydigital cameras have a resolution of about2,048 ¥ 1,536 pixels, which produces animage of approximately 3.3 million pixels or3.3 megapixels in size (a megapixel equals amillion pixels). Professional digital camerabacks currently make images of about 2,048¥ 3,072 pixels that produce an image approx-imately 6.3 megapixels in size. The resolu-tion quality of digital cameras is improvingat a rapid rate, and in the near future should surpass film in image quality andcost-effectiveness.

Digital Manipulation

Using a digital camera to take a traditionalpicture does not take advantage of themedium’s inherent strengths. It is the con-struction and ease of alteration that separatethe digital image from the conventional pho-tograph. When we look at digital images,some of the things we take in are these differences.

The camera and the computer are medi-ated ways of seeing. Historically, the camerawas assigned the role of an automatic neutralobserver that made no subjective assertions.Its job was to act as a stand-in and reportwhat you would have seen had you beenthere yourself. The digital image does not act in this capacity. On the contrary, theinformed viewer knows that the digitalimage is predicated on fabrication, whichcan come from a multitude of sources. Thischanges the role of the photographer fromthat of a witness to that of an informationdesigner.

At the beginning of the twentieth century,psychiatrist Sigmund Freud sparked a para-digm shift in how human behavior could beunderstood with his The Interpretation ofDreams (1900) and techniques like free asso-ciation, which allowed material repressed in the unconscious to emerge to consciousrecognition. During the 1920s and 1930s,surrealist artists such as Salvador Dali, MaxErnst, and René Magritte reacted to theseideas and began to incorporate them intotheir work. Among their practices, theseartists distorted time, scale, and perspec-

tive while juxtaposing everyday objects inunusual contexts. In these images viewersare pressed to forge connections they wouldnot normally make. Many computer artistsare now reacting to how technology is chang-ing our culture. By bending and blendingdifferent types of media and altering thecontext and/or content of images, theseartists prompt viewers to make associationsthat are normally not possible or that are dif-ficult to produce with traditional photo-graphic methods.

The Defining of an Aesthetic

The computer provides a junction be-tween photography, video, animation, illus-tration, painting, sound, and music in a waythat changes the viewer’s response to eachseparate medium. As computers becomemore omnipresent, the way that people see,think, and work will change and their reac-tion to computer-generated images will alsoshift. What was strange and fascinating fiveyears ago may now seem mundane. Theforging of an aesthetic involves the discoveryof a medium’s advantages and limitations,understanding how the public interprets andunderstands the medium, and how thesefactors work together.

Although the paths of traditional anddigital media are linked, they ask funda-mentally different critical questions thatrequire a new digital aesthetic. Just as pho-tography changed how the world was seenand the role of art and the artist, the com-puter’s ability to integrate diverse media isonce again altering those definitions.

As a digital aesthetic develops, the notionof craft as well as the knowledge and skillthe maker brings to the physical nature of thework is being redefined. In digital work theprocesses once considered as craft can appear to be appropriated by the machine.This may be the computer’s greatest assetand also a source of criticism that can splitdigital work from the traditional dialogue ofart.

Some people still naively consider the computer a magic box that can makethem instant artists. It is necessary to under-stand that computers work by human direc-tion and do not accomplish tasks on theirown. Without human guidance the computer


will apply a preprogrammed set of solutionsto every problem. Each decision that artistsallow computers to make can take themfurther away from the creative imagemak-ing equation. Even on a computer, worth-while images usually take time, effort, and thought. The computer is just anotherdevice in the artist’s tool kit. As with ahammer, you have to get the proper size andtype for the job and then learn how best to hold it and what, where, and when tostrike.

The Computer and Popular Reality

The first time digital image manipulationcame to public attention was in February1982 when National Geographic magazinerepositioned one of the Great Pyramids atGiza to make a horizontal image fit its vertical cover format. Although the editorsclaimed they did not intend to alter theunderlying meaning of the subject, theirfailure to acknowledge that the image hadbeen reworked upset readers who placed

Figure 12.4 Tobia comments that, “Like physicists, photographers work with the space/timecontinuum. They isolate points in space and moments in time, recording their notations on framesof film or in electronic chips.” Eastern State Penitentiary demonstrates this concept by creating a360-degree view of the Eastern State Penitentiary, which was designed in 1827 as a model forreforming prisoners. The now-closed penitentiary was photographed from its central guard towerand 22 separate images were composed in PhotoShop to produce this circular panorama.

© Blaise Tobia. Eastern State Penitentiary, from the series Model of Models, 1997. Iris inkjet print.32 ¥ 32 inches. Original in color.


their trust in National Geographic to de-liver what they considered to be classicallyaccurate photographic representations. Thisretroactive repositioning cut the photographfrom the tethers of Henri Cartier-Bresson’s“decisive moment” in which a subject isfrozen at a peak of visual drama. Now animage could time travel and not be anchoredto a specific space or time. The decisivemoment of the future may not be when thepicture was made, but when it was modified.A new role of many photographers will be toprovide the raw visual material from whicha new class of image designers will constructthe final content.

In 1988, Life magazine displayed the capa-bilities of digital manipulation by making anonexistent political event appear to be areality. This was done by taking three dif-ferent photographs made by three differentphotographers at three different times andlocations. The photographs were of U.S. Pres-ident Ronald Reagan, Israeli Prime MinisterYitzhak Shamir, and Palestine LiberationOrganization chairman Yasser Arafat. Theseimages were used to create a new second-generation original composite of the threeleaders in an apparently friendly get-together.The image conveyed the idea that peace wasat hand. Looking at the finished composite inLife, the average reader would have had noway of knowing that this was a fictional eventif Life had not clearly spelled it out in the textaccompanying the picture. As a result ofthese incidents, the public began to questionthe authority and veracity of the images thatappear in newspapers and magazines.

DIGITAL ETHICS AND COPYRIGHT

The outright manipulation of photographicimages can be traced back to the dawn ofphotography with Hippolyte Bayard’s Self-Portrait as a Drowned Man, 1840, which wasa metaphor of his lack of recognition for hisphotographic discoveries. Before the wide-spread use of computers the average viewerhad an unwavering trust in photographs asaccurate representations of reality. Althoughimage manipulation has been common inadvertising during the twentieth century,most people accepted it as an illustration ofan idea or fantasy and not as a fact. Eventhough newspapers published photographs

that were modified through framing andcropping, readers had confidence that theirlocal publisher could be trusted to bringthem a true representation of the event beingpictured. Digital editing permits multiplesources to be seamlessly combined and dis-penses with a master matrix. This has causedpeople to question the truth of photographi-cally based images and has produced a crisisof what is real.

The ethical lines of electronic manipula-tion have just begun to be drawn and thecredibility of the photographic image in jour-nalism has forever been changed. Issues ofownership and control of images are stillgoverned by existing copyright laws. Legally,ideas, procedures, or methods, cannot becopyrighted—only a fixed or tangible form ofexpression is protected by copyright. Gener-ally one can assume that if an appropriatedimage is so far removed from the originalthat it is unrecognizable, then the new imageis not an infringement of copyright law.

Since October 31, 1988, images no longerneed a copyright notice to have copyrightprotection. Copyright applies to both pub-lished and unpublished works. The 1976Copyright Act gives the copyright owner theexclusive rights to reproduce and display thework publicly. According to federal law, the copyright owner has the exclusive rightto reproduce or modify the work and has theright to exclude others from using the work.In addition, certain one-of-a-kind visual artsand numbered limited editions of 200 orfewer copies have additional moral rights inwhich rights of attribution and integrity areassured. The right of attribution requires thatartists are correctly identified with their worksand that works created by others are notattributed to them. The right of integrity alsoallows artists to protect their works againstdestruction and modifications that are detri-mental to their honor or reputation. Even ifthe artwork is sold the artist maintains moralrights over the work. For further informa-tion, request Circular 96, Section 201.25,“Visual Arts Registry,” from the Library ofCongress, Copyright Office, 101 Independ-ence Ave. S.E., Washington, D.C. 20540.

Photographers have spent the last fewdecades fighting to define and protect thelegal status of the photographic image. Withphotographic images created in the UnitedStates, copyright generally belongs to the


person who pressed the shutter. In some sit-uations, such as with many photojournalists,the image may belong to the newspaper orclient who paid for its production (known aswork for hire). During the 1990s, photogra-phers, editors, and publishers have beendebating the issues of electronic manipula-tion of images and creating guidelines gov-erning their use. Professional groups such as the National Press Photographers Associ-ation (NPPA), the Society of ProfessionalJournalists, and the Associated Press haveincluded statements about image manipula-tion in their member’s code of ethics.

Even after these codes of ethics wereagreed on, manipulated images appearing in newspapers and magazines continued tocause controversy. In June 1994, Time maga-zine placed a darkened image of accusedmurderer O.J. Simpson on the cover with theheadline “An American Tragedy.” The mag-azine’s detractors said that Time had dark-ened his face to make him appear moremenacing and also imply a racist subtext.This was not the first time Time had alteredthe cover photograph of their magazine. TheSeptember 29, 1975, cover of Time showed a

recently arrested Patricia Hearst with theheadline “Apprehended.” The image wastaken from a mug shot, but the shadowsaround her eyes were darkened and lapelswere added to her collarless smock (thechanges to Hearst’s photograph were madewithout the use of a computer).

On the positive side, digital imaging hasbrought more people of varied backgroundsinto imagemaking, thus expanding creativepossibilities, offering more varied culturalviewpoints, and a wider variety of outcomes.Commercially, pictures are more accessibleand affordable. Stock picture agencies suchas Corbis/Bettmann Archive use CD-ROMsand Web pages to store and disseminate digitized images which can be retrieved orsent directly to a client for inspection andapproval. Generally these images are firstsent to the client in a low-resolution mode.These images are not suitable for reproduc-tion or have an embedded watermark thatcannot be removed from the image untilpayment is made to the agency; oncepayment is arranged, high-resolution imagescan be directly downloaded and used.

Photography is making a momentous tech-nical leap from a chemical process to anelectronic one. As technology evolves, so dothe ethics and rules of imagemaking. Themajority of photographers will have to adaptor be left behind.

CREATING DIGITAL IMAGES

Although programmers attempt to simulatea tactile experience with programs that repli-cate an airbrush, paintbrush, or pencil, theyare still virtual imitations which responddifferently than material tools. One problemnew digital imagemakers encounter is theinability to apply their real-world intuitionto the computer-made image. When workingwith any new tool, the operator mustdevelop a set of intuitive actions based oninteraction with the machine, and the com-puter is no exception.

Unlike its fixed analog cousin, the digitalimage is intangible because information on acomputer is never truly in a permanent state.Due to its immateriality the computer imageis in a constant state of flux, waiting to bechanged on command. Only the printed

Table 12.1 Policies Regarding Image Manipula-tion in Journalism

“As journalists, we believe the guiding principleof our profession is accuracy; therefore, we believe it is wrong to alter the content of aphotograph in any way that deceives the public.We believe photojournalistic guidelines for fairand accurate reporting should be the criteria for judging what may be done electronically to aphotograph. Altering the editorial content of aphotograph, in any degree, is a breach of theethical standards recognized by the NPPA.”

—Revised by the NPPA Board ofDirectors on July 3, 1991

“Never distort news photos or video throughdigital manipulation of content beyond imageenhancement for clarity; montages and photoillustrations should be labeled.”

—The Society of ProfessionalJournalists Code of Ethics

“The newspaper should guard againstinaccuracies, carelessness, bias or distortionthrough emphasis, omission or technologicalmanipulation.”

—Associated Press Managing Editors Code ofEthics, Revised and Adopted 1995


image can be thought of as being in a fixed form.

Image Resolution

A computer, like film, offers a variety of res-olutions for different applications. Filmswith an ISO of 50 deliver finer grain thanfilms having an ISO of 400, but there is atradeoff; the lower ISO films require morelight, slower shutter speeds, and maybe atripod. When working with a digital imageyou exchange image quality for speed andhard drive space. Large, high-resolutionimages require additional processing timeand more hard drive space. Every computer-generated image contains a fixed number ofpixels, which are measured in pixel heightand pixel width in a Cartesian coordinatesystem. A Cartesian system mathematicallyrepresents the relative position of points ina plane or in space in coordinates that locatea point on an X, Y plane which permits geometric questions to be mechanisticallyresolved. The total number of pixels is partof the equation that determines the file size,or the amount of data, in the image.

How the Screen ApproximatesResolution

The average monitor has a resolution of 72 to 78 pixels per inch (ppi). Image resolu-tion, along with the size and setting of themonitor, determine how large an imageappears on-screen. A basic 13-inch monitordisplays 640 pixels horizontally and 480pixels vertically. Larger 17-, 19-, and 21-inchmonitors can be set to display a greaternumber of pixels, for example, from thebasic 640 by 480 pixels, where the pixelsmay appear large, to 1,600 by 1,200 pixels,at which setting the pixels will appear small.Regardless of the resolution of the image, themonitor will not show a resolution greaterthan 72 or 78ppi. Most image processingprograms will describe the size of an imagein terms of a ratio displayed in the title boxat the top of the screen. A ratio of 1 :2 meanseach screen pixel equals two image pixels.Although two images may appear as thesame size on the screen, their resolution and

therefore their relative size may be different,making cutting and pasting difficult.

Pixels, Lines, and Dots

The building blocks of the digital image,picture elements (pixels) are arranged as agrid on a monitor. Pixels create an image ina very different way than do the dots in ahalftone image or the grains of silver in ablack-and-white photograph. Like the indi-vidual tiles in a mosaic, each pixel is actu-ally a solid color value that the computercreates when it converts an analog imageinto screen pixels in a process called raster-ization. Each pixel contains complete infor-mation about hue, lightness, and saturationof a particular point of an image. The morepixels that comprise an image the finer theimage will appear and the larger the file sizewill be.

A common point of confusion is to usepixels per inch (ppi) and dots per inch (dpi)interchangeably. When an image is out-putted, the printer can only use dots of inkor toner on a printed page (see Chapter 13).The number of dots per inch (dpi) that anoutput device produces is proportional to,but not the same as, the number of pixelsthat make up an image on-screen.

Lines Per Inch

Lines per inch (lpi) refers to the resolutionused in printing. When images are printedthey are screened. Traditionally this wasdone by laying a transparent halftone screenmade up of a dot pattern over film beforeexposing it. This reduced the continuous-tone image to a series of differently sizeddots that could then be printed with textusing a single color ink. The dots werearranged in rows or lines, and the term lpireferred to the number of lines per inch. The higher the lpi, the smoother the shadeslook. Most images are now screened using an imagesetter, but the principle remains the same. An imagesetter is a high-qualityprinter, usually found at a professionalservice bureau, that can output on film orphotographic paper at resolutions of 2,400dpi or higher (see Chapter 13).


Stochastic Screening

Stochastic screening involves creating dotson film using randomizing software. Thissoftware uses a series of mathematical for-mulas to randomly distribute the dots thatmake up a printed image under a fixed set ofparameters defined by the image. Imagesprinted using stochastic screening moreclosely resemble continuous-tone originals.Since the dots making up the image are ran-domly distributed (like the grains of silver in film) moiré patterns are eliminated andgreater image detail and smoother tonal gra-dations are possible. With the moiré patternproblem solved, almost any number andcombination of colors can be used to createimages. Finally, stochastic image electronicfiles can be smaller than conventional files,taking up less storage space and still yield-ing similar results.

Stochastic programs have been in use foryears, but require a great deal of computermemory and processing power. This tech-

nology has become more practical withtoday’s more affordable and powerful com-puters.

Bit Depth

Color on a computer is dependent on thenumber of bits (the smallest unit of informa-tion on a computer) available to describe thecolor and shade of each pixel on the screen.Bit depth refers to the number of bits used todefine a pixel’s color shade. The greater thenumber of bits (2 4, 8, 16, 24, or 32) thegreater the number of colors and tones acomputer can simulate.

Bit depth is governed by a special set ofmemory chips, called video RAM or VRAM,which is dedicated to displaying text andgraphics. If a computer does not haveenough VRAM to display a particular colorit can perform a function called dithering.Dithering is only possible if the softwarepermits it and the user selects it. By placing

Figure 12.5 Lopez uses the nineteenth-century portrait and landscape, and digital media tocommunicate her interpretation of the human experience. “By extracting people from their originalcontext and then placing them into fabricated landscapes, I hope to retell a story of their being, onethat allows the images to acquire a life of their own.” Although Lopez is inspired by her personalexperience, she uses images of unknown sitters to tell the story, suggesting that the family album ispart of a collective memory. (See Color Plate 8.)

© Martina A. Lopez. Revolutions in Time 1, 1994. Dye destruction print. 30 ¥ 50 inches. Courtesy ofSchneider Gallery, Chicago. Original in color.


different-colored pixels next to one anotherthe computer can produce up to 5,000 colors in a way that is similar to CMYK(cyan, magenta, yellow, black) printers. On a monitor these images often produce anoticeable moiré pattern, which can be distracting.

True Color

The minimum requirement to provide rea-sonably natural looking color reproductionof complex images is 8 bit. True color, some-times known as 24-bit color, allows thereproduction of up to 16,777,216 possiblecolors, well beyond the range of human per-ception. Many computers offer a 32-bit colormode that is actually 24-bit color with an 8-bit alpha channel. The extra 8-bit (1 byte)alpha channel is used for additional controland special effects information.

Gamma Correction

“It didn’t look that way on my computer!”This may sound familiar if you have everlooked at an image made on one computerand viewed on another. The change is morepronounced with images made on differ-ent systems (PC, Mac, or Silicon GraphicsSystems). In the early days of television itwas discovered that the television tubes didnot produce a light intensity that was pro-portional to the input voltage. Since earlytelevision cameras produced output voltageproportional to subject intensity, scenesoften looked too dark in the mid-tones. Even-tually television standards were applied tothe camera signal to correct for the nonlin-ear gamma of television sets. Computer mon-itors also have a nonlinear response to thevoltage sent to the monitor and the intensity

that it produces. Images that appear correcton one brand of display screen might havemid-tones that are too bright or colors thathave shifted on a different brand or model.This is due to the difference in each display’sgamma. A common symptom of uncorrectedgamma is the appearance of dark red flesh-tones on Caucasian subjects.

Standards for the television industry wereestablished almost forty years ago, but it was only in 1993 that a common set of colorstandards was created for computers by theInternational Color Consortium (a group ofcomputer hardware and software manufac-turers). Some computer systems and dis-plays contain instructions in their hardwarethat correct for monitor gamma. However,these values do not completely compensatefor gamma but only partially compensate toproduce a gamma that closely matches theresponse of a particular default printer. Animage gamma correction is necessary toaccurately control brightness and color.

COLOR CONVERSION/COLOR MATCHING

Color management has been a difficult issueto reconcile in desktop printing. Light trans-mitted from a monitor is perceived dif-ferently than light reflected from paper. Theintensity is varied, and the colors have a dif-ferent saturation. To compound these diffi-culties, diverse imaging devices like displayscreens, printers, and scanners each use dif-ferent colors to create images. Monitors andscanners use the additive colors of red,green, and blue (known as RGB) while print-ers use the subtractive colors of cyan,magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). As aresult, they are only capable of producing orreproducing color within a specific rangeand cannot exactly reproduce each other’scolors. Since each device uses differentcolors, gamma must be corrected and colorsmust be converted from one color system toanother. Color conversion and color match-ing are processes of shifting the colors(usually on the monitor) to ensure that theyremain faithful from one device to another.Computer operating systems (the programthat runs the computer) now include colormanagement programs to assist in colormatching, but to get the most accurate color

Table 12.2 Bit Depth and the Number of Possi-ble Colors

Bit Depth Number of Possible Colors

1 2 shades (black-and-white)2 4 shades of black-and-white4 16 shades of black-and-white8 256 colors

16 65,536 colors24 16.7 million colors32 16.7 million colors


the computer must be calibrated by the user.Software and hardware are available thatcontain profiles of monitors and outputdevices and procedures that guide the userin calibrating the computer system.

Color Systems

Depending on the type of machine andmonitor, and the amount of video memory orVRAM (see section on memory) available, itis possible to manipulate millions of colorson the computer. Image processing programsallow color manipulation in several distinctways, the most important being the RGBsetting. All video monitors represent colorby displaying minute RGB bars. Other on-screen colors are computer simulations orapproximations of these color schemes. Inaddition to color, images can be produced asa gray scale, which produces 256 shades ofgray, or images that are purely black-and-white (see the section on Raster/Bit-MappedSoftware).

RGBAll monitors use an additive color system inwhich red, green, and blue (RGB) are added

to make white. Any combination of the lightprimaries will always produce a lighterresult. 24-bit color is really made up of red,green, and blue with 8 bits devoted to each,creating 256 different levels for each color.The secondary and intermediate levels arecreated by mixing combinations of RGB thatresult in 16.7 million possible combinations.

HSB, HSL, or HSVIn painting, a palette is a physical surfacewhere an artist mixes colors before applyingthem to a support which has traditionallybeen canvas. Digital imaging software has itsown set of virtual palettes. One of these ishue, saturation, and brightness (the termsluma or value can be used interchangeablywith brightness). HSB is a mode that allowsyou to directly adjust the hue, saturation,and brightness by inputting specific valuesor through a graphical representation of acolor wheel. Hue values are often graphed ona circle with pure red as 0 degrees. The otherprimary and secondary colors are located at60-degree increments from red. Saturation(defining the extent to which a color is a mixture of white) and brightness areexpressed in terms of percentage values on arange of 0 to 100.

Figure 12.6 Image files moved between computer platforms may result in images that look “offcolor.” Working with the color profiles and color spaces in PhotoShop allows Hallman to maintainthe color values of images generated on a Macintosh when they are transferred to a PC for large-format inkjet output. Hallman’s work combines the images of idealized suburban homes with theuniform of the business suit to explore masculinity, home and work life, and power. The computerscreen acts as the proscenium for this work, fusing photography’s articulation of reality with thefluid pixel technology of transformation. (See Color Plate 9.)

© Gary Hallman. Karoshi Corona, 1996. Pigmented inkjet on rag paper. 48 ¥ 24 inches. Original incolor.


CMYKProcess colors cyan, magenta, yellow, andblack (CMYK) are the ink colors used inprinting presses, inkjet printers, and allother dye- or pigment-based output devices.Values in CMYK mode are expressed as per-centages (0–100) of intensity of these pig-ments. When switching from RGB to CMYKthe computer often dulls the screen colors tosimulate a subtractive print.

Indexed ColorWhen an image is converted to indexed colorthe imaging program builds a color lookuptable based on a palette of 256 colors (8 bitsper pixel). In this table every pixel is assigneda color number. This allows all pixels withthe same number to be changed at the sametime by altering only a single variable. If acolor in the original image does not appear inthe table, the program matches the color tothe next closest color in the table. Usingindexed color lets you reduce the file size ofan image, but limits the range of imagemanipulation and editing that is possible.

MEMORY

RAM

When a program is begun, its contents are loaded into the primary memory of thecomputer, also known as Random AccessMemory (RAM). RAM is for temporarystorage of information and program exe-cution. All data, information, and instruc-tions the computer needs to perform its tasks are stored and sent to be processed ina series of solid-state memory chips. Easilyexpanded, the amount of RAM in a computerdirectly affects its capabilities and perfor-mance. RAM is volatile, meaning that datain it will disappear if power is interrupted,hence the need to frequently save work inprogress.

Many computers and programs allow the use of virtual memory, in which the com-puter uses the hard disk as RAM. Virtualmemory allows computer systems to uselarge programs and open files that will not totally fit into RAM. This process isextremely slow when compared to using realRAM.

ROM

Permanently installed in the computer, ReadOnly Memory (ROM) contains the most basicoperating instructions for the computer.ROM is nonvolatile and is used to holdinstructions that are needed quickly and thatmust not be lost during power outages, suchas instructions for starting the computer anddrawing objects on a screen.

Hard Disk

The hard disk is designed for long-term orpermanent storage of information such asapplications and files and is larger butslower than RAM. Since image files are oftenlarger than the available RAM, some soft-ware applications create a “scratch disk” onthe hard drive to temporarily store infor-mation. The program shuffles informationfrom this hard disk (the scratch disk) intoRAM, where it is processed. This enables theprogram to complete complex operationsand functions such as undo and preview.The scratch disk can take up to twenty timesas much space as the original image becauseit stores several different versions of theimage. However, the computer’s hard diskmust have enough free space to accommo-date these temporary files.

How Much Memory Do I Need?

Most software applications include mini-mum memory requirements in their printedmaterial. However, more memory may berequired to effectively run a program. It isprudent to research programs before pur-chasing them and make sure your machinehas enough memory to run a program. Thisis critical when working with more than oneprogram open at a time. One major factor thathas made specific computer models ineffi-cient is their inability to add more RAM.

SOFTWARE

Without instructions about what to do, acomputer is a blank slate. Software can bedivided into two main types: system soft-ware (operating system) and application


software (programs). System software, suchas Windows®, Mac OS®, or Linux®, providesthe basic instructions that determine every-thing from how images and text appear onthe screen to what kinds of programs can berun. Application software includes all theprograms that enable you to accomplishtasks such as creating images, word process-ing, doing your taxes, and sending e-mail.

Images created on a computer do not haveto be photo-based. The software program’sown internal tools, coupled with devicessuch as graphic tablets, let you simulate theeffects of other media as well as createunique digital images. Since computers aredependent on the instructions contained insoftware applications to carry out their functions, a variety of software programsmay be needed at different stages in theimagemaking process to achieve the desiredresults.

Imaging applications can be classifiedunder the following categories: animation,draw, interactive multimedia authoring orscripting, image processing, page layout,paint, 3-D modeling and rendering, andvideo editing. Some software applicationsspecialize in one of these areas, and others

combine two or more feature categories. Cur-rently there is no single consumer applica-tion software capable of performing all ofthese functions well. A single applicationcan provide adequate tools for an imagingproject, but it is often necessary to combinethe strengths and tools of other software tocreate desired effects.

Raster/Bit-Mapped Software

Most programs that process photo-based pictures operate with raster (bit-mapped)images. Raster or bit-mapped images aremade up of a mosaic of color squares(pixels). The advantage of the bit-mappedimage is its ability to be edited pixel bypixel. Pixel-based images are created bypainting programs such as Adobe Photo-Shop® and Corel Photo Paint®. Photo-basedor raster image programs do not keep indi-vidual objects as separate entities. Itemsmust be applied to a layer, at which time anyalteration will affect surrounding areas,replacing data or leaving holes. Increasingthe size of an image increases the number ofpixels, spreading out data. Reducing the size

Figure 12.7 The artist team MANUAL uses various software programs to create their images. InOlympia, MANUAL scanned a stereo pair of 6 ¥ 7 cm negatives taken in a redwood forest and thenreduced one of the images to a pattern using the mosaic filter in PhotoShop. An iris flower formwas constructed in the 3D modeling program form•Z and then rendered as a virtual stereo pair ofirises. The surface texture of the iris was derived from the crosscut grain of an actual redwood log.MANUAL plays with the contrast between the materialistic view of nature as pure resource and thehyperreal view of the virtual world, which ignores an exhausted, degraded nature and favors theseduction of electronic screen-based systems. (See Color Plate 10.)

© MANUAL (Suzanne Bloom and Ed Hill). Olympia, 1999. Iris inkjet print. 17 ¥ 351/4 inches.Courtesy the Moody Gallery, Houston, TX. Original in color.


of an image eliminates pixels and mayreduce image quality. File sizes for raster/bit-mapped images can be very large comparedto vector-based images, depending on theresolution (ppi) and the number of colors inan image.

Vector Graphics Software

Vector graphics (object-oriented) programsoffer a wide range of options for manipulat-ing lines and polygons. Designed for draftingand illustration purposes, vector softwaresuch as Macromedia Freehand® and AdobeIllustrator® are not ideally suited for photo-realistic images. Using a series of vectors,areas of color can be created by mapping outan area to create a shape such as a line,square, or circle. Vector graphics programstreat objects as separate entities that can becolored, stacked, resized, or moved withoutaffecting the background or any other object.Fonts are drawn with vectors so they can bescaled and colored with ease. File sizes forvector images are small because a large areaof color can be described by defining a setnumber of points that create a shape and coloring it.

MAJOR FILE TYPES

It is essential to know how to store informa-tion, and different file types are best suitedfor specific applications. The following arethe major file codes that allow the com-puter’s finder to identify the nature of a par-ticular file.

TIFF

An acronym for Tagged Image File Format,TIFFs are currently the standard in thegraphics field. Known as an interchangeformat, it is usually easily opened on anyplatform (Mac or PC) and is considered oneof the most versatile file formats for storingdata and exchanging images between appli-cation programs without losing information.TIFF files offer several compression optionsthat may inhibit a file’s ability to be openedby other platforms and can cause a loss inimage quality.

PICT

Encoded in the Macintosh’s native graphicslanguage, PICT is the default file format forimages on a Macintosh and can also beopened on the PC platform. This file type canhold separate raster and vector layers andeasily crosses the border between raster andvector image programs. PICT files may not bethe best file format to use in graphics appli-cations because they are prone to corruptionand are interpreted by some software appli-cations as color separations. The originalPICT format developed by Apple Computerin 1984 supported 8 colors, but the currentversion handles 32-bit (16 million plus)colors.

EPS

Short for Encapsulated PostScript, EPS fileswere designed for saving high-resolutionillustrations on Adobe software. The EPSformat is a vector file that can also contain

Figure 12.8 “These images are part of a family series which has focusedon my younger sister and first cousin. I am both illustrating metaphors ofmy own coming-of-age story while interpreting theirs. Digital processeshave allowed me to pair different times and generations in ways whichaptly realize themes of self-awareness, inherited constructs of femininity,and emerging adult strength.” Harper combines multiple scanned imagesusing a program called Live Picture that allows her to work with verylarge files. After all the layers are flattened and the color is calibrated, theimages are saved as TIFF files and sent to a digital photographic printer.

© Jessica Todd Harper. Dad and Becky. 1999. Chromogenic color printfrom digital file. 30 ¥ 40 inches. Original in color.


raster information. The format uses the Post-Script page description language, a pro-gramming language optimized for printinghigh-quality graphics and text, to draw animage. EPS files are difficult or impossible toalter. EPS files normally include a small,low-resolution TIFF or PICT image (depend-ing on the computer) that serves as a graphicrepresentation of the image as it will appearon a printed page.

EPS files can contain both images and text,but they rely on the fonts installed on thecomputer. In order to display or print asdesigned, the same fonts must be installed onthe computer that will be opening the EPS fileas were on the computer that created the file.If you are using a service bureau, they musthave the same fonts on their system beforethey output the file or you can save or embedfonts in the EPS file when you first save it.

Raw

Raw files are straight binary files with infor-mation pertaining only to one color. Rawfiles can be difficult to work with and maydestroy data if not correctly configured.Their main advantage is their ability to openup many unknown file types.

PSD

A program-specific format created by Adobefor PhotoShop, the PSD format can store 1-, 8-, 24-, and 32-bit images. This file typewill allow multiple image layers and can becompressed. Images may also be stored asCMYK or RGB data.

Program-specific file types are nativeformats, written to be opened by a specificsoftware program, that contain the maxi-mum amount of information pertaining to animage. Several times larger than similar files,certain operations can only be conducted ona file saved in its native format. To changethe file type to a non-native format, theimage must be streamlined, layers com-bined, and certain formatting informationeliminated.

Compression Algorithms

Compression algorithms, a set of programinstructions, allow the user to compact or

segment a large file into smaller pieces thatcan more easily fit onto storage media. Thereare many types of file compression schemes;some cause files to lose information, otherscompress files without sacrificing informa-tion. Before using any type of compressionsoftware, be sure you know how it will affectyour image.

No Loss CompressionThese programs create an archive of aselected file in which the informationdescribing the item is converted to a formthat takes up less space. When the file isused again it must be uncompressed, aprocess that returns the file to its originalstate. There are a number of these softwareapplications, such as Zip, Compact-Pro® andStuffit®, and each has its own advantages anddisadvantages.

JPEG CompressionThe Joint Photographic Experts Group(JPEG) is a 24-bit color and 8-bit gray scalelossy compression, meaning that a com-pressed image will not be the same as it wasbefore compression. JPEG refers to a group ofcompression algorithms, not to a specific fileformat. The JPEG algorithm takes the redun-dancy out of an image by manipulating tonalvalues. This compression technique mathe-matically represents similar tones and filtersout an image’s high-frequency informationas a way of saving space. JPEG offers severalchoices governing compression size andquality. Repeated compression will causerapid degradation of image quality. For bestresults compress an image only once.

GIF 89AGraphics Interchange Format (GIF) hasbecome the most common compressionmethod for graphics on the World Wide Web. GIF compression does not recordinformation about each individual pixel of an image. Instead it records the infor-mation about a pixel, then how many pixelsof the same color follow. GIF images must be converted to index color, and GIF works best on images with relatively large areas of solid colors. GIF compression is lossless,meaning that all data is restored when the image is opened. The GIF 89A format canbe used for animation effects and allows one color to be specified as transparent. GIFscan also be interlaced so that the image


becomes progressively clearer during down-loads, thus allowing users to see somethingbefore the entire image has been transferred.

STORAGE MEDIA

In addition to hard drives, there are expand-able and portable devices that can aid in the storage and transfer of information. Inthe 1970s and early 1980s, the 51/4 inchfloppy disk and the smaller 31/2 inch diskwere the standards for storing files. Each 51/4inch disk held 400 to 800 kilobytes (KB), andthe 31/2 inch disk stored 1.4 megabytes (MBor 1,433KB) of information. In that era aword processing file might require 8KB, soit was possible to keep a software applica-tion and a small number of files on a singlefloppy. Today an image file can easily need20MB, which would require most high-quality images to be spread out on multipledisks to be moved. Floppy disks are also notthe most reliable storage medium and are notrecommended for long-term storage of data. New storage devices are continually beingdeveloped and improved. The followinghave made a major impact on the digitalmedium.

Magnetic Media

Floppies, Iomega Zip disks, and Imation’s120MB SuperDisk, among other storagedevices, all use high-density magnetic mediasimilar to that found in audiotapes. Newerand larger devices use enhanced read/writeheads designed to increase disk capacity.Iomega’s Zip and Zip 250 drives which hold100MB and 250MB, respectively, havebecome the standard for sharing and archiv-ing files.

Magnetic media are not an ideal choice for reliability and long-term data storage asmagnetic tape breaks down from exposure to air, heat, and humidity. Research on thelongevity of magnetic media predicts anaverage life span of about 5 to 10 years undernormal storage conditions.

CD ROM

Currently compact disk read only memory(CD-ROM) disks hold over 650MB of data

and are the industry standard for the com-mercial distribution of software and largeamounts of data. CD-ROM writers (CD-R) are available for one-time imprinting of disks where data cannot be altered onceimprinted. Newer CD-ROM writers (CD-RW)can write to a single disk up to 99 times. CDs

Figure 12.9 The Card-Plate Series is composed of 14 prints, each ofwhich contains 10 to 25 individual “cards” arranged in a grid. Each cardis composed of multiple images from the artist’s own digitized photo-graphs, drawings, old found photographs, and computer-generated objectscreated and rendered in 3D. The images, created in a variety of softwareprograms, are assembled in PhotoShop and are kept in up to 20 separatelayers so they can be adjusted and manipulated separately. This type ofwork can create images with very large file sizes. Recordable CD-ROMsare a convenient way to move and store large images.

© Paul Berger. Card-Plate Series, 1998/1999. Iris inkjet print. 30 ¥ 22inches. Original in color.


are one of the most archival means for savingdata and allow files to be copied with ease.CD-R and CD-RW have now become popularmedia for low-volume publishing and distri-bution of data, as well as mass storage andlong-term archiving.

The use of a permanent-marking pen towrite on the CD label is not recommendedbecause the solvent in the pen may penetratethe label and protective layer causing dete-rioration in the layers that contain the digitalinformation.

Magneto Optical

Through the use of a laser, magneto optical(MO) or erasable optical drives can store databy changing the polarity of small portions ofthe disk. These storage devices, with capac-ity up to 1.3 gigabytes (GB), have the advan-tage of being rewriteable and archival.Optical media are susceptible to damagefrom high humidity, rapid and extreme tem-perature fluctuations, and contaminationfrom airborne pollution, but MOs are notsusceptible to magnetic fields or read/writehead crashes, and do not deteriorate likemagnetic media. An MO disk may be the bestchoice for people concerned with archivalstorage. Some optical disk manufacturerspromise life spans of up to 100 years whileothers estimate a more modest life span of at least 30 years. The MO disk is the onlydigital medium considered by some con-servators to begin to address the issues ofarchival standards. Media longevity of this length may be a moot point for mostpeople, since the current disks will mostlikely outlast the software and computersystems capable of reading and displayinginformation recorded on them. Until anarchival digital standard is created that canbe read by a machine a hundred years in thefuture, proper analog storage still reignssupreme.

DVD

A DVD (digital video disc) and a CD look thesame, but a DVD’s storage capacity is at leastsix to seven times greater than a CD’s. Asingle DVD can store between 4.7 gigabytesin a single-layer disc, or up to 17GB in a

double-sided disk. This storage capacity isachieved by using both sides of the disk andby storing two layers of data on each side.DVDs have become popular for playingmovies with very high-quality video andaudio (two to three times greater than with aVCR tape). DVD Read Write (RW) drives arestill too expensive for the consumer market,making them an impractical storage solutionfor most users, but prices will likely fall andtheir use will increase.

DIGITAL POSSIBILITIES: COMPUTERAS MULTIMEDIA PLATFORM

The Moving Image

In 1824, the English scholar Peter MarkRoget wrote “The Persistence of Vision withRegard to Moving Objects.” The paperdescribed how the human eye retains animage for a fraction of a second longer thanthe image is actually present. Roget’s findingled to the development of motion pictures.Moving images address time in a differentway than a still image does. With video theviewer tends to be involved within the flowof events, while the still image is an ab-straction or distillation of a subject that calls for a more concentrated viewing and interpretation.

Computer programs generally handlemoving images in two ways: as cell anima-tion programs as in Macromedia Director®,or as nonlinear video editing programs as inAdobe Premier® and Apple Final Cut Pro®.Most of these programs use a timeline orscore that allows the user to jump from onepoint in the video or animation to another,make cuts, and move clips.

Cell animation programs, which are vec-tor drawing programs, manipulate discreteobjects and create the illusion of motion byshowing sequential frames with incrementalmotion. In a vector or object-oriented graph-ics program an image is made up of individ-ual, mathematically defined objects, ratherthan a collection of bits. The cell elementscan be independently controlled, allowingthe background to remain stationary whileobjects in the foreground display motion.

The assembling and editing of videoimages on a computer is known as nonlinearvideo. Software packages edit sound and


video by creating fragments called clips.These clips can be manipulated and saved ascomputer files such as QuickTime® on theMacintosh platform or AVI (Audio VideoInterleave) on Windows. A clip of video canbe combined with sound, previewed, andaltered. Incorporating a series of compres-sion schemes, QuickTime movies allowmoving images and sound (time-based data)to be created, stored, and viewed. Quick-Time movies keep the sound properly syn-chronized with the picture, compensatingfor the speed of the computer. With theadvent of programs like QuickTime, photog-raphy is no longer about a fraction of asecond and a particular segment of space,but becomes a compendium of sights andsounds.

The Still Image

Still images can be integrated into a multi-media format. PhotoShop is the softwareprogram by which all other still imagingmanipulation programs are judged. It is reg-ularly updated and therefore it is desirableto obtain the most current version and itsmanual for the latest working instructions.

The Three-Dimensional Image

Three-dimensional modeling programs arevector drawing programs that have theability to render an object and simulate theeffects of light. The completed object can beviewed from any angle and direction. Three-dimensional modeling programs are oftencoupled with an animation component,which allows the piece to be presented as a movie.

HYPERTEXT AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB

Despite the Internet’s recent emergence as amedium, more than one-half of all Ameri-cans already have some access to the Inter-net. There is no way to determine the exactnumber of Internet users, but according tothe Reuter’s News Agency the number ofactive Internet users will climb to 350million by 2003. The Internet has affected

the way business, commerce, entertainment,publishing, and personal communication areconducted, and all occupations are affectedby computers and computer-mediated com-munication.

Figure 12.10 Pfahl looked to the eighteenth-century British guidebooksof the picturesque movement for inspiration and instruction on creatingthis image. Traveling to locations described in the guidebook The Searchfor the Picturesque by Malcolm Andrews, Pfahl created his own variationof the picturesque landscape described in the book. Pfahl photographedwith a 4 ¥ 5 inch camera and scanned the resulting images into a com-puter and manipulated them to simulate the appearance of a picturesqueperiod watercolor drawing. Pfahl also inserted a row of enlarged pixelsthat span the length of the image to draw attention to its computer-assisted construction. This device prevents these images from becoming a twentieth-century realization of the picturesque ideal. (See Color Plate 11.)

© John Pfahl. Airey Force, Lake District, England. 1995/1997. Iris inkjetprint. 161/2 ¥ 13 inches. Courtesy of Nina Freudenheim Gallery, Buffalo.Original in color.

More artists and scholars are using theWeb to share their artwork or information.Some artists see the Web as a burgeoning artform or a new type of artists’ book whilecertain teachers view it as a new site forlearning and research. Artistic Websitesallow makers to conduct an extended dialogue with viewers. The digital artists’Website book takes that dialogue one stepfurther by including elements of perfor-mance through images, sound, text, andvideo. Engaging Websites get viewers to par-ticipate by making choices that alter contentor determine the outcome of a work and canbe modified with each viewing. Web pagescan be created using any word processingprogram that can write HTML code (see nextsection). Other programs are designedspecifically for designing Web pages andallow the user to work more intuitively.

The basic elements of every Web page aredescribed next.

HTML

HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is asimple generic language used to create platform-independent pages on the WorldWide Web. HTML can be read and madeviewable on your computer monitor by aWeb browser running on any machine oroperating system.

Links

A link is either a line of text or an image thatthe user may click on to go somewhere elseon the Web. Links enable you to “turn thepages” of a Website, tie in multiple docu-ments, and reference Websites in other partsof the Internet.

Images

Images destined for the Web can be createdusing any image-based software applicationor may be scanned from a photograph orother artwork. For images to be viewed onthe Web they must be converted to a formatthe browser can read such as JPEG or GIF.

THE END OF THE WET DARKROOM?

The reasons for using any process should beembedded in the context and purpose of thework. Any method, including silver-basedphotography, will continue to be used as longas imagemakers find it a meaningful methodof expression. In the future, economic andenvironmental pressures may make tradi-tional silver-based film hard to find, but bythen the technology and the audience alsowill have changed. The quality and variety ofdigital images will continue to increase, andas this occurs the digital image will becomemore embedded in our daily lives.

Digital data is a prelude to a much largerchange in consciousness. It marks a shiftfrom the continuum of the Newtonian modelto that of the quantum world of discretepackets of energy. Analog photography canbe considered in Newtonian terms, which


Figure 12.11 Beginning with a traditional photograph, Towery digitizes,manipulates, and outputs his images on a large digital plotter usingarchival inks. Mounted onto canvas or plywood, the images are treatedwith polyurethane or shellac to protect the surface of the inkjet print fromthe encaustic, oil paints, and mixed media he uses. “The technique stemsfrom a frustration with the purely digital creative process,” Toweryexplains. “The lack of physical interaction with the pieces prompted thisextension of the creative process back into the more traditional painterlyprocess. The combination of traditional painting techniques and digitalprocesses is liberating and exhilarating. You might say they are post-photographic.”

© Terry Towery. Akimboish, from the series Figurative Decay, 1999. Inkjetprint with oil paint, charcoal, rust, encaustic, and shellac mounted oncanvas. 30 ¥ 40 inches. Original in color.

record the visible world. Digital imagingtakes us into an ambiguous quantum uni-verse where the observer becomes part of theoutcome, distance is imaginary, and proba-bility is the only sure thing.

Existence becomes both actual and fantas-tical, with photographers able to forge linksamong people, events, and objects that do noteven exist in the Newtonian world. Photog-raphers will no longer just stop time but willfragment, manipulate, and synthesize it inways that will make our previous worldviewinadequate. Photography will be less rigidand objective and more flexible and subjec-tive. This offers the potential to increase thepossibilities of imagining and understandingthe world in new and different points of viewfrom that of the mechanical age.


BooksAker, Sharon Zardetto, et al. The Macintosh

Bible. Seventh Ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, 1998.

Bosdogianni, Panagiota. Image Processing:The Fundamentals. New York: John Wiley& Sons, 1999.

Grotta, Daniel, and Sally Weiner. DigitalImaging for Visual Artists. New York:Windcrest/McGraw-Hill, 1994.

Lovejoy, Margot. Postmodern Currents, Artand Artists in the Age of Electronic Media.Second Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren-tice Hall, 1997.

Mitchell, William J. The Reconfigured Eye: Visual Truth in the Post-PhotographicEra. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1994.

Ritchin, Fred. In Our Own Image: TheComing Revolution in Photography.Second Ed. New York: Aperture Founda-tion, 1999.

Spalter, Anne Morgan. The Computer in theVisual Arts. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1999.

Weibel, Peter and Timothy Druckery.Net_condition: Art and Global Media.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.

Weinman, Lynda. PhotoShop 5.5/Image-Ready 2.0 Hands-On Training. Berkeley,CA: Peachpit Press, 2000.

WHAT IS A DIGITAL COMPUTER? 235

13Digital Input and Output

WHAT IS DIGITAL IMAGING?

This chapter addresses the major practicalfunctions of digital imaging such as the capturing of images and different outputoptions. It does not discuss the vast andvolatile area of specific tools used by indi-vidual software programs. Some of the topicsin this chapter assume basic knowledge ofsoftware programs like Adobe PhotoShop®.This text gives some basic instructions onhow to open specific menus in the program,but is not designed for novice users. As inthe rest of the text, the reader is expected to have a solid working knowledge of aprogram before undertaking a digital project.

During the 1990s, computers and theirusers made large economic, technical, andtheoretical strides. As computers becameless expensive, faster, and easier to use, theybegan appearing in more businesses andhomes. Computers also became a regularfeature of the artists’ studio. As artists gainedexperience they no longer had to start fromzero on the learning curve with every newsoftware program version. Instead they wereable to accomplish more tasks in less timeand devote additional energy to thinkingabout just what this thing called digitalimaging is. Many talented artists were ableto take their working concept or vision andfind the digital means to achieve their goals.By the late 1990s, some of these artists wereapproaching digital imaging with an outlookof integration. They no longer saw digital

imaging solely as a segregated category, butas one of many applications that could alsobe combined with analog methods to achievetheir vision realizations.

INPUT AND OUTPUT

In analog photography a poorly exposed orimproperly developed negative will producean image with inferior contrast, detail, andtones. So too in digital imaging, the qualityof the initial capture or scan determines thecharacteristics of the final image. This nextsection will help you to get the highestquality from your images.

Digital Cameras

Digital cameras are the most direct methodof capturing images for digital manipulationor printing. Combining the mechanics ofcameras and the technology of scanners, digitally captured images may be stored ona disk within the camera and later trans-ferred to a computer, or the camera may bedirectly connected to a computer and theimage transferred as the picture is taken.Exposure times in digital cameras can varyfrom a fraction of a second to severalminutes, but depending on the camera andthe lighting conditions, the effects of a longexposure to capture movement or light mayproduce different results in digital cameras

DIGITAL INPUT AND OUTPUT 237

as opposed to film cameras. Digital camerascome in two styles: the all-in-one digitalcamera or the scanning back. Both of thesedevices use charged-coupled device (CCD)technology to capture still images just asflatbed and transparency scanners do. Scan-ning backs connect to traditional large- andmedium-format cameras, taking the place offilm. The camera makes the exposure and thescanning back converts the image into digital data.

Using a digital camera to take a traditionalphotograph does not take full advantage ofdigital imaging’s inherent strengths. It is theway the image is made and the ease withwhich alterations to it can be accomplishedthat separate digital imaging from analogphotography. These differences are takeninto consideration when we view, evaluate,and give meaning to digital images.

Video Capture

Internal video cards and other externaldevices can convert a video signal to aformat that the computer can process. Thesedevices can capture (grab) images frombroadcast television or videotape. As theindividual video image is only on the screenfor a moment and does not need to be of high resolution, screen capture images will

also generally be low resolution. The excep-tion to this rule is digital video (DV).FireWire (also referred to as IEEE 1394) wasoriginally developed by Apple Computer as an extremely high-speed input/outputdevice for connecting peripherals to a com-puter. FireWire allows high-quality capture,editing, and playback of video from DVdevices such as a digital camcorder or digital camera without the use of an expen-sive video capture card. Older analog-only equipment can be connected using a con-verter. Since 1995, digital video camcordershave been made with tiny DV/FireWire connectors.

Using a capture technique, imagemakerscan use video cameras to collect originalmaterial. Specially designed video capturecameras (often called array cameras) arecapable of producing higher-resolutionimages. Although commercially broadcastedimages are copyrighted, artists interested incommenting on popular culture and themedia often use these images (see the sectionin Chapter 12 on copyright).

Scanners

Scanners are input devices that take infor-mation from printed or photographic mate-rials in a manner similar to that of a

Figure 13.1 Georgiou combined a scanned NASA image with live capture video images on anAmiga computer. The images portray common household items such as electrical outlets or twist tiesto examine how contemporary values become archaeology by succeeding generations.

© Tyrone Georgiou. Untitled Lunar Landscape Composite from the series Discovery, 1993. Variable-sized digital file.


photocopier. Light is reflected off (orthrough) an image or object and is inter-preted by light sensors. Color scanners usered, green, and blue (RGB) filters to read animage in single or multiple passes. Althoughthe detail captured by scanners is excellent,most scans need to be corrected to adjustcolor or contrast, or to crop an image.

Flatbed ScannersFlatbed scanners, capable of digitizingimages in a variety of resolutions, are themost common way to digitize a document.Flatbed scanners use a CCD, similar to thosein digital cameras, that captures lightreflected from the original scene and storesthat light as RGB pixels. These devices allowthe user to preview the image and make corrections in color balance and contrast be-fore scanning. Although designed to digitizeprints, some flatbed scanners have adaptersfor the scanning transparencies. This adapterprovides a light source behind the trans-parency that enables the scanner to see theimage.

Transparency ScannersTransparency or film scanners allow you toscan 35mm to 4 ¥ 5 inch film. By transmit-ting light through an image, these dedicatedtransparency scanners (they cannot scan flatart) are designed to capture the minutedetails of film. Using CCD technology, atransparency scanner typically produceshigh-resolution output of between 2,400 and4,800ppi. These devices usually cost morethan flatbed scanners, but are designed totreat transparent media with greater preci-sion and care than do flatbed scanners with transparency adapters. High-end trans-parency scanners have improved and arebeginning to come close to the quality ofdrum scanners (see the following section).

Drum ScannersDrum scanners were the first electronicdevices to digitize images and they are cur-rently the most precise way to digitize flatmedia. Instead of using a CCD, as do flatbedand film scanners, drum scanners have a setof three Photo Multiplier Tubes (PMTs)which are more accurate than scanners thatrely on CCDs. Drum scanners are sensitive to a wider dynamic range (the tones thescanner can record) and can sense the

extremely light or dark tones that CCDswould register as only black or white. Duringscanning the image is read on a glass drumwhile being spun at several thousand revo-lutions per minute. As the drum spins it isslowly advanced past the three PMTs, whichregister information on the three primaryscanning colors (RGB) one row of pixels at a time. These high-end scanners work withboth prints and transparencies and can scancolor and black-and-white originals at highresolutions (4,000+dpi). The resolution of adrum scanner is determined by the precisionof its optics and mechanics, whereas the res-olution of a flatbed scanner is dependent onthe density of the optical cells in the CCDsensing array. Another important distinctionis that drum scanners can achieve theirhighest resolution over the entire area of thedrum whereas flatbed scanners achieve theirhighest resolution only in a centrally locatedarea of the scanning bed.

Oil Mounting High-resolution drum scansmake any defects in original transparenciesmore visible. At high magnifications, minorscratches, lint, pits, and surface imperfec-tions become very apparent. In oil mountinga liquid conducts dirt away from the filmand saturates dust particles so they becomealmost transparent and do not refract light.It will also help reduce Newton rings,rainbow-like patterns that are caused by the interference effect of light reflectingwithin the extremely small space betweenthe highly polished glass drum and thetransparency.

Many prepress shops offer oil mountingwith scratched or very high-level enlarge-ments. The transparency is mounted be-tween the drum and a sheet of clear acetatesandwiched in a clear silicone oil that hasthe same refractive index as the film basematerial. The silicone fills scratches anddefects in the transparency so that they donot show in the scan and prevent Newtonrings from forming. Mounting oils and gelscan flatten the contrast of images, which willhave to be corrected after the scan. Becausethe scanner and the transparency must bothbe cleaned after the scan, not all prepressshops offer oil mounting.

Scanner Resolution: Optical ResolutionOptical resolution refers to the physicalnumber of pixels per inch (ppi) the scanner


can sample. This is measured, like a grid, bythe number of pixels captured on the hori-zontal and the vertical axes of the scannerbed. The horizontal axis is determined bythe light-sensing diode’s sensitivity and pre-cision. The vertical axis is determined by thespeed at which the scan head moves.

A scanner that has an optical resolution of600 ¥ 1,200ppi contains an array of CCDoptical cells that are spaced 1/600 inch apart horizontally. During scanning the CCDarray is moved down the length of the bedwith a stepping motor. In this case, the scan-ning motor can stop vertically in 1/1,200-inch steps. The actual resolution of thisimage is really the smaller of the twonumbers (600ppi). More detail doesn’t resultfrom scanning more frequently in only one direction. If the user selects a resolu-tion higher than 600ppi the software will interpolate the image to create the greaterresolution.

Interpolated or Enhanced ResolutionInterpolated resolution is software-enhancedresolution. Unlike optical resolution, whichmeasures how many pixels the scanner actu-ally samples, interpolated resolution addspixels to an image through a series of pro-grammed assumptions. Using mathematicalalgorithms, scanning software generatesadditional pixels in between each pair ofoptically scanned pixels. These additionalpixels are approximations based on knownvalues of the scanned pixels. Interpolatedresolution approximations do not add more detail than optical resolution does and the process, except in the instance ofline art, usually diminishes the quality of the scan.

Scanning Basics

HalftonesAs discussed in Chapter 12, pixels on a com-puter monitor create an image in a differentway than the dots in a halftone image orgrains of silver in a black-and-white photo-graph. Most printing devices have a problemin reproducing continuous-tone imagesbecause they can only create individual dotson paper or film. In a process known ashalftoning a printing device, such as aninkjet, laser printer, or imagesetter, produces

shades other than black, white, or solidcolors by printing dots in clusters that havewhite space between them. To simulatevarious tones, the clusters vary in size withlarge clusters forming darker tones andsmaller clusters, with more white spacebetween dots, creating lighter tones.

What Resolution to Scan?Knowing at what resolution to scan yourimages requires that you first know theoutput resolution of the device you are usingto produce your negatives (or prints) as wellas the scale of the image. Halftoned imagesdo not use all of the pixels available to createan image. Depending on the tonality of theimage, the halftoning process eliminates half or more of the available information inthe original image. The rule of thumb forprints that will be output as halftones is to use twice the resolution of the halftonescreen.

Images that are going to printed at a largerscale than the original should be scanned at

Figure 13.2 Selter uses a flatbed scanner instead of a camera to createimages that examine the relationship between technology and animals.For this image, Selter placed animals on a flatbed scanner and performeda scan at 200 pixels per inch (ppi). The combination of the movinganimals and the moving scanner bar results in a unique pattern of motionthat Selter says describes “the essence” of that animal. “I began to see thateach kind of animal [scanned] produced a pattern somehow typical of itstype of locomotion.”

© Carol Selter. Chicks, 1997. Chromogenic color print. 161/2 ¥ 23 inches.Original in color.


a higher resolution. For example, if you aregoing to print an image at 200 percent of itsoriginal size on a desktop color printer, andwant it to have 200 lines per inch (lpi) reso-lution, you will need to scan at 400lpi. Alter-

natively, if you will be printing at 50 percentof its original size, you only need to scan at100lpi.

Exposure: The Curve ToolMost imaging software has a curves functionthat allows the user to simultaneouslycontrol density, boost the contrast betweencolors, and balance color. Curves can also beused to adjust an image to a specific output

Figure 13.4 Nettles’ autobiographicalphotographs deal with the poetic impact ofcertain landscapes on her life, and how theseplaces remain in her memory, resurfacing atunexpected moments. Nettles creates linotronic(imagesetter) film negatives of her images whichshe contact prints on Luminos 16 ¥ 20 inchcharcoal paper. The number of gray tones a half-toning device such as an imagesetter producesis limited by the maximum number of dots perinch (dpi) an output device can produce.Imagesetters measure output in lines per inch(lpi), which refers to the frequency of thescreening pattern in a halftone. The lower thelpi, the coarser the look of the image. Nettlesoutputs her images at 150 lines per inch(equivalent to 2,400 dots per inch), whichproduces a full 256 shades of gray.

© Bea Nettles. Geometry, from the series ReturnTrips, 1999. Gelatin silver print. 16 ¥ 20 inches.

Figure 13.3 Using a computer, Itagaki combines the traditional with themodern, bringing together Eastern and Western culture. “In contemporaryJapan, tradition and technology co-exist side by side in everyday life,often in startling juxtaposition. Geishas wearing elaborate kimonos teachbusinessmen how to use the Internet in Kyoto. A high-speed bullet-trainwhizzes past a rice paddy where farmers in straw hats tend to theircrops.” To produce large images with fine detail Itagaki scans his imageswith drum and film scanners. Once the images are scanned they arecombined in Adobe PhotoShop. He then produces a 4 ¥ 5 inch negativeusing a film recorder so the images can be printed on chromogenic colorpaper. (See Color Plate 12.)

© Yoshio Itagaki. Mushroom Hiroshi meets John Wayne in Cyberspace,1996. Digital file. 40 ¥ 30 inches. Original in color.


device. Set up as a graph, the horizontal axisof the curves tool represents input levels andthe vertical axis represents output levels. Byadding points to the line that stretches fromthe lower left-hand corner (where both inputand output are 0) to the upper right-handcorner, you can change the brightness ofindividual color channels (RGB or CMYK) oralter all channels simultaneously to adjusttonal balance.

What makes the curves adjustment espe-cially powerful is the ability to load and savecurves that you have created in the past orload curves that were created by anotherimagemaker. Using curves created by an-other imagemaker can be an important learning tool that allows you to see howother imagemakers have corrected for thedichotomy between the way images appearon a monitor and the way they appear whenoutputted. Individual curves have beencreated by imagemakers that adjust theimage to print out on a variety of machinesand processes including inkjet, gelatinsilver, and platinum prints. For more infor-mation on preparing images, see MakingDigital Negatives for Contact Printing by DanBurkholder.

SharpeningMost images that have been scanned havethe tendency to look soft and need to besharpened. The unsharp mask or sharpenfilter can sharpen the image by increasingthe contrast between adjacent pixels. Thisfilter allows the imagemaker to adjust thesharpening of the image according to threevariables: amount, radius, and threshold.

• Amount is like a volume control, deter-mining how much darker and lighter theedge borders become.

• Radius controls how far from each pixelthe program will look for tone differences.Radius values that are too high can causehalos around objects.

• Threshold specifies how far apart adjacenttonal values have to be (values of 0–255) before the unsharp mask effect is applied. Low values have a greater effectbecause fewer areas are excluded. Higherthreshold values exclude areas of lowercontrast.

OUTPUT DEVICES: PRESENTING THEDIGITAL IMAGE

Film Recorders

Film recorders take a digital image and down-load it onto ordinary color or black-and-whitephotographic film, allowing the images to behandled as a traditional photograph or com-bined with other imaging techniques. Thebasic components of film recorders are a flat-faced cathode ray tube (CRT); a color filterwheel with red, green, blue, and neutralfilters; a lens to focus the image; and a filmtransport with a shutter to expose the com-puter-generated images. The lens and type ofCRT used in film recorders allows a broadrange of colors to be produced. Most filmrecorders support between 4,000- and 8,000-line resolution. High-end digital film re-

Figure 13.5 As an Indian born in Kuwait and living in the UnitedStates, Thomas feels that he is in a continuous cultural negotiation withthe dominant culture around him. “I am drawn to those places whereborders (both physical and psychological) exist in culture, art, and myconstructed identity; I choose to investigate these from the interstices.”After scanning his images Thomas adjusts their levels, hue, andsaturation. If colors are too dark or light or the mid-tones are weak, thelevels adjustment allows him to adjust brightness and contrast, and color-correct an image. Using a graph called a histogram, the level controlsallow Thomas to add or subtract light, dark, and mid-tones to an image.In the histogram pixels of the same tonality are stacked on top of eachother, and arranged from black on the left, to white on the right. Imageswith a normal contrast range will have a histogram that extends from fullblack on the left, to full white on the right.

© Prince V. Thomas. After Dark Skin, White Mask, from the seriesInterstitial Spaces, 1999. Chromogenic color print. 211/2 ¥ 32 inches.Original in color.


corders electronically compensate for thecolor shift that occurs when an image from aCRT is scanned onto a piece of film.

Imagesetters

A laser imagesetter is an output devicedesigned for the graphic arts industry tocreate film that is used to expose printingplates. Imagesetters cannot produce continu-ous tones—that is, they are unable to make

a pixel different shades of gray. Instead theycreate an electronic version of the traditionalhalftone screen by applying an electronic dotpattern to the electronic image. The halftonecreated by the imagesetter is made with arecorder laser beam focused on a point ofsilver-based negative film or paper. Whenthe paper or film is developed, the areaexposed by the laser beam is black. Mostimagesetters found in service bureaus arecapable of producing films with resolution ofbetween 900dpi and 4,800dpi. Imagesetterscan output film and images on photographicpapers from 81/2 ¥ 11 to 12 ¥ 18 inches. Image-setter negatives printed at 3,600dpi to 4,800dpi are comparable to traditionally pro-duced negatives and are ideal for creatingnegatives for contact printing.

Thermal Printing

Dye sublimation printers produce photo-realistic continuous-tone images with RGB,CMYK, and gray scale images using the sub-limation process. Sublimation is the scien-tific term for a process in which solids areconverted into a gas without going throughan intervening liquid phase. Instead of inksor toner the sublimation process uses soliddyes contained in a ribbon made of a plasticfilm. A thermal print head, consisting ofthousands of heating elements, capable ofproducing 256 precise temperature varia-tions, moves across the transfer ribbon,turning the dye into a gas and transferring itonto a piece of specially coated paper. Thehotter the temperature of the heating ele-ments, the more dye is transferred to thepaper and the more intense the color satura-tion. The colors in a dye sublimation printare not laid side by side as in a halftoneprocess, but are blended to create a continuous-tone print. Depending on thetype of dye sublimation printer, supportmaterial (paper base), and storage condi-tions, these prints can last between one andten years before fading is noticeable.

Printing with Ink: Types of Inkjets

Inkjet printers, as the name implies, work byspraying minute amounts of cyan, magenta,yellow, or black ink onto a page. As with

Figure 13.6 “Fascinated with the enigma of abnormality, I combineparts of different faces and bodies to create characters with peculiarappearances. I look for physical expressions that reveal a sense of truthabout my character’s state of mind and being. I often create children andadolescents because they exist in a state of disingenuous grace andinnocence that evokes compassion and sympathy in the viewer.” Aftermanipulating and collaging his images Johan outputs his file to a 4 ¥ 5inch film recorder that produces traditional 4 ¥ 5 photographic negativefilm. “I can print the negatives in a traditional darkroom at various sizesusing Ilford fiber-based photographic paper and tone them using BergSepia Toner. This gives me archival prints and a photographic grain andquality that contributes to a deceptive sense of familiarity and nostalgiathat contradicts the general expectations of most computer-manipulatedimagery.”

© Simen Johan. Untitled #73, 1999. Toned gelatin silver print. 19 ¥ 19inches.


all plain-paper printers, better-quality paperwill yield higher-quality images. Inkjetprints are impermanent and can, withoutprotection, fade within a few months. In thepast few years companies such as Lyson Ltd., Luminos, and Ilford have produced pig-mented inks for inkjet printers that havebeen tested to last (without noticeablefading) up to 75 years or more on specificpapers. Epson claims a print life of 100 yearsif displayed indoors and under glass. Allprint stability will vary depending on atmos-pheric, display, and humidity conditions aswell as light intensity.

Thermal InkjetThe most popular consumer desktop print-ers use thermal inkjet printing to produceimages. Only certain types of ink may beused in these devices. Inside the print car-tridge, ink is super-heated to about 400°F. Asthe ink heats up it begins to turn into vapor,which expands and explodes to force ultra-fine droplets of ink out of the print head’snozzles and onto the paper. This process isrepeated thousands of times per second.Thermal inkjet cartridges contain both theink supply and the print head.

Piezoelectric ProcessThe piezoelectric process does not utilizeheat, but instead an electrical charge isapplied to a small piezo crystal inside theprint head. When a current is applied tothese crystals, they change shape andsqueeze the ink chamber, expelling ink fromthe nozzle tip. Because heat is not used,printers with piezoelectric print heads canuse more archival pigmented and solvent-based ink formulations. These devices alsoproduce very fine drop sizes, producing highresolutions.

Iris PrintersSimilar to an inkjet printer, Iris prints areproduced by spraying fine dots of CMYK inkonto paper. Created on a spinning drum,these gallery-quality prints can be made ona variety of archival materials that willaccept ink. Designed for direct digital proof-ing for the printing industry, Iris machinescan print images as large as 34 ¥ 46 inches.The original inks used in these devices werenot intended to be archival, but recentlycompanies such as Nash Editions that spe-

cialize in making artists’ prints have led theeffort to create more archival dye-based inksfor the Iris printer. Currently, depending onthe types of inks and paper, Iris images havea life span ranging from as little as one to twoyears to decades.

Resolution on an inkjet printer is noteasily defined. An inkjet printer with a res-olution of 1,400lpi may not produce as fine a print as a dye-sublimation printer at300dpi. Depending on the printer, each pixelcan be printed as a single spot of color or asa cluster of many smaller spots of color. Forinkjet printers, the accuracy with which thisis done and the size of the ink drops deter-mine the quality of the print. What makesIris printers so desirable is their ability toproduce up to 32 different-sized dots on a

Figure 13.7 Concern with permanence led Parker to send her images toNash Editions, the world’s first fine art digital printmaking studio. Run bymusician and photographer Graham Nash, Nash Editions was one of thefirst commercial printers to address the fading and deterioration of inkjetprints. Parker describes digital imaging as still being in a primitive state.“Now that there is freedom to create almost anything, the question iswhat to create? Often people are so busy playing with the new toys thatthe result is a game of ‘see how many filters or how many separate imagescan comprise one picture.’ Play is necessary to art, but so are ideas.”

© Olivia Parker. Within and Without, 1999. Nash Digital inkjet (Iris) print.28.4 ¥ 29.8 inches. Courtesy of Robert Klein Gallery. Original in color.


page, giving them an effective resolutioncomparable to an 1,800lpi printer.

Permanence of InkjetPermanent inks are made from pigments,and nonpermanent inks are usually madewith dyes. Dyes are made up of organicmaterials and are more susceptible to fadingthan are pigments made from inorganic sub-stances. Most of the cyan, magenta, andyellow inkjet inks sold for the consumermarket are dye-based and will fade in a rela-tively short time.

The type of paper an inkjet image isprinted on plays a major role in determiningthe brightness, color saturation, density, inkdrying properties, tone, and image perma-nence. Fully pigmented inks used withmatched photo papers have been extensivelytested by Henry Wilhelm’s Imaging Researchand have been shown to last more than 100years (some more than 200 years) beforenoticeable fading will occur when displayed

Figure 13.8 Nagatani refers to his inkjet prints as giclée as a way toshow that he uses state-of-the-art archival materials, inks, and coatings inhis digital work. Dealing with issues of history, archaeology, and how thephotograph is recognized as a window on the real, Nagatani explores the elements of archaeological evidence and questions how scientificdiscourse and the photographic record claim to hold the truth. In thisseries of images Nagatani is constructing an alternate reading of the past,and alternative stratigraphy of truth and illusion.

© Patrick Nagatani. BMW, Chetro Ketl Kiva, Chaco Canyon, NM, U.S.A.,1997/1998. Giclée (Nash Editions) print. 321/2 ¥ 421/2 inches. Original in color.

under glass in typical indoor display condi-tions. These results are only valid with theinks and matched papers; using one withoutthe other can produce images that will beginfading within years or even months of print-ing. Inks used in inkjet printers, being water-based, remain water-soluble after drying,making them vulnerable to moisture. PrintGuard, made by Lyson, is a clear, spray-on lacquer that provides a water-resistantcoating and can greatly reduce the fading ofmagenta inks, which are the most fugitiveand most susceptible to UV light. However,Print Guard should not be used with laserand dye-sublimation prints since it containsan isopropanol solvent that will cause theseprints to run.

Some inkjet printers employ a six-ink sys-tem that uses diluted, low-density magentaand cyan inks along with full-concentrationcyan, magenta, yellow, and black inks. Thisallows a greater number of dots to be laiddown in the mid-tones and highlights of an image, enhancing smoothness of tonesand color saturation while reducing visibledots in the highlights. However, with certain papers the six-ink systems providetwo to three times less image stability than do four-ink printers using the sameinks.

GicléeGiclée is French for “squirt” and has becomesynonymous with inkjet. Some imagemakersand art dealers who are looking for a term as a reference to fine art printing on inkjetprinters have chosen to call their work giclée.Many of these imagemakers use archivalpapers and inks or matched ink and papers,but the use of this term is not regulated andcan be used for prints that have a potentiallife span of either months or centuries.

Lightjet and Lambda Prints

Some digital imagemakers wish to manipu-late their images on a computer but they also want to produce a print on photographicpaper. In the past these imagemakers had touse a film recorder to produce a negative andthen go into the darkroom to produce a print.Durst has developed the Lambda printer andCymbolic Sciences has made the LightJetdigital printer, both of which are capable of


producing images on traditional color papersusing RA-4 wet-chemistry processing. Themachines are capable of producing 50-inch-wide images directly from a digital file onphotographic paper using a three-laser (RGB)imaging device. Each system produces a continuous-tone image at up to 400dpi, andbecause it uses standard photographic paperand does not use halftone dots, it producesimages with an equivalent inkjet printer resolution of 4,000dpi.

Toner/Electrostatic Printing

Using a laser beam to charge a photoelectricdrum, laser printers utilize colored toners ina CMYK halftone process to make an elec-trostatic image. When the charged toner isattracted to the drum, it is transferred to thepaper and sealed by a hot fuser roller. Laser prints produce black-and-white andcolor prints of photocopier quality (seeChapter 10).

Service Bureaus

Service bureaus, prepress shops, and somecopy centers will scan images and downloadthem onto paper, film, or disk. The quality of

the output will depend on the skill of theoperators as well as the type and maintenanceof equipment. Many of the high-end devicesthat are capable of producing negatives forphotographic printing such as imagesetters,film recorders, or Iris printers are availableonly through service bureaus.

Working with a Service BureauIt is important to remember that servicebureaus exist to serve the offset printingindustry and may not be willing to take theextra time to create negatives to the exactingstandards of photographic imagemakers.Being flexible and friendly can help ingetting the machine operators to produceyour negatives or images the way you wantthem. Most of the staff in these establish-ments will gladly tell you the capabilities oftheir machines and their specific require-ments for file formats and storage media.Before visiting a service bureau to output anegative you should know the followinginformation:

• Medium (output) and size: Do you needoutput by imagesetter or film recorder?Imagesetters are best suited for large nega-tive output (81/2 ¥ 11 up to 11 ¥ 17 inches).Film recorders can print onto 35mm up to4 ¥ 5 inch film.

Figure 13.9 Continuing their investigation of the struggle between nature, culture, and tech-nology, MANUAL explores the gap between representations of idealized landscapes and therecorded evidence of human ambivalence toward the land. “The masculine arm on the right pullsthe curtain aside to reveal nature, but the two figures within the scene are more interested intelecommunications and archeological musings than the realities of their surroundings.” MANUALcomposited image material in PhotoShop from multiple 6 ¥ 17cm and 6 ¥ 7cm negatives andcomputer-generated elements such as the obelisk topped by a sphere and two large simulated rockswhich have been rendered in the software programs form•Z and Bryce 3D, respectively.

© MANUAL (Suzanne Bloom and Ed Hill). The Well: Scene 1, 2000. Lambda producedchromogenic color print. 253/4 ¥ 78 inches. Courtesy the Moody Gallery, Houston, TX. Original in color.


• Software: The service bureau should havethe most recent version of the softwareyou are using. In some circumstances themachine operator may need to open yourfile to make adjustments before printing.

• Resolution: For film recorders 4,000 linesis the standard resolution for 35mm slideswhile 8,000- and 16,000-line resolutionare used for 21/4 and 4 ¥ 5 inch film sizes.Ask for the highest resolution possibleand tell the operator that the image isintended for photographic enlargement.For imagesetters ask for 3,600dpi or thehighest resolution possible.

• Screening (halftoning): If it is available,ask for stochastic rather than halftonednegatives (see Chapter 12, Stochastic

Figure 13.10 Stephen Marc’s montages are constructed from photographs, images from the familyarchives, found antique photos, articles placed directly on the scanner, and objects created in thecomputer. Working closely with his service bureau, Marc has negatives or transparencies of hisimage created and printed. “Working digitally provides me with a creative way to extend myautobiographical/African diaspora exploration.” Marc’s images are held together by rich patternsmade with sections of photographs or found objects. “The patterns are used to unite familyimagery, relics, and memorabilia in much the same manner as household shrines such as storyquilts, wall hangings, displays under the glass of coffee tables and dressers, and other domesticassemblages and installations.” (See Color Plate 13.)

© Stephen Marc. Untitled, from the series Soul Searching, 1997. Dye destruction print. Variable-sized digital file. Original in color.

Screening). For photographic-quality im-ages the lines per screen should be be-tween 130lpi for stochastic negatives at 2,400dpi output and 300lpi for a half-toned image at 3,600dpi output. Remem-ber that stochastic negatives do notrequire as large line a screen as halftonednegatives.

• Negative or positive image: Most photo-graphic applications will require a nega-tive. If you have already reversed yourimage in your imaging program inform themachine operator that you have done so.

• Emulsion: Imagesetters can print on eitherside of the film. For most applications youwill want to print with the emulsion sidedown.


COMBINING DIGITAL ANDTRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES

One of the most important innovations in thedigital revolution that came at the end of the 1990s was the development of inexpen-sive, high-quality inkjet printers. In someinstances these devices make it possible togo from exposure to final print withoutentering a darkroom. One of the main advantages to producing digital negatives is the elimination of masking, dodging, andburning during exposure. By using trans-parency film or paper to produce digitalinkjet negatives, imagemakers can fine-tunetheir negatives not only to the image, butalso to the individual process.

Inkjet Transparency: Film or Paper

For the first decade in the history of photog-raphy (before the introduction of the wet-plate process) the paper calotype was theonly negative material in general use. Withnonsilver processes that require exposure byUV light, paper is again the medium ofchoice. The plastic base of most inkjet trans-parency material is suitable for silver-basedimages, but it blocks some of the UV light,making it less suitable for nonsilver print-ing. Like the early calotype printers, digitalimagemakers can use wax, mineral oil, orcanola oil to make the paper negatives moretransparent (after they go through theprinter). It is also possible to print on a filmbase such as large-format Kodak TRI-X filmor Ilford HP5PLUS that has been fixedwithout hardener and washed.

Waxing Paper NegativesFollowing are several materials and methodsfor making paper negatives more translu-cent:

• Paraffin wax can be brought just to themelting point in a double boiler, an elec-tric pan, or on a shallow cooking sheet.The back of the negative can be quicklyplaced on top of the wax and removed.The excess wax can be squeegeed off (anold credit card works well).

• Paper negatives can also be more trans-parent by ironing paraffin wax on the backof the paper between blotter sheets.

Figure 13.11 Referred to as “foto-projections” Goldring’s images depictan Eastern and Western dream that appears to the viewer in the form ofan apparition in a small fishing village on the southern coast of Sri Lanka.The images are produced by projecting fragments of slides onto a drawingand rephotographing the projections as layers on the surface of thedrawing, thereby melding graphic and photographic information. Goldringuses a scanner to help her create each mask, deriving specifications fromthe original drawing. In this way she isolates small areas of each slide,which, when projected, correspond precisely to the drawing. The foto-projections are then printed in the darkroom. “Although the role thecomputer plays in this process is completely invisible, it nonetheless iscritical to the end results.” (See Color Plate 14.)

© Nancy Goldring. At Sea, Io, 1996. Dye destruction print. 30 ¥ 40 inches.Original in color.

• Mineral, peanut, safflower, and sunfloweroil can be used to make paper moretranslucent. Oil can be applied to theimage using a cotton ball and the excesscan be blotted off using paper towels.

Keep the exposure to heat to a minimumas it can cause accelerated fading in inkjetprints.

Colored Negatives for Monochrome Prints

One of the difficulties with using an inkjetprinter to create a negative is the inherentdifference between the physical density ofgrains of silver (used in analog negativematerials) and ink. Silver is able to blockvisible and UV light from reaching a photo-


sensitive surface, but building up enoughdensity with ink to produce the same effectcan leave a puddle of ink on the negative.Toner from a laser printer has the physicaldensity appropriate for a photographic neg-ative. The problem is that the resolution ofmost laser printers is low compared to high-quality inkjet printers, which have theability to produce a stochastic dot patternand to microweave, a form of computer-gen-erated feathering using inks.

The advantage inkjet printers have is theability to use color. The primary advantageis that printing with colored ink provides a smoother dot pattern than printing with only black ink. The second advantage comes from the fact that most silver-basedprinting materials are not sensitive to theorange and red part of the spectrum. A spotof ink on an inkjet negative does not have to block all of the light hitting it, it just has to block the blue portion of the spec-trum. Tinting a photograph so that the high-lights and the mid-tones are the color of yoursafelight (or other color of your choosing)will produce spectral density that allowsyou to control both contrast and exposure.Experimentation is essential to find the hue

that will provide the desired contrast withyour individual printer, on a specific print-ing material, and using a particular type of ink.

Colorizing Desktop NegativesA gray scale image can be colorized by firstconverting the image to RGB color. Thenselect the appropriate color using the colorpallet or by clicking the foreground colorchooser. Be sure to choose a tone within thegamut of your printer (an out-of-gamut colorwill not print properly). The overall tone ofthe image can be changed in PhotoShop bygoing to the Edit menu and selecting Fill.Under the Contents window select Fore-ground Color, and under the Blendingwindow set the Opacity at 100% and modeto Color.

For platinum and palladium inkjet nega-tives, using CMYK poses a different set ofproblems. Cyan is transparent and magentais only slightly responsive to platinum andpalladium emulsions, leaving black andyellow inks as the only ones that will act asan effective light resist. To create a digitalimage that will print with only yellow andblack, change the mode of the image to

Figure 13.12 To create his large-scale cyanotypes Renfrow had to overcome several logisticaldifficulties. One of the challenges was making large negatives to be contact printed. After deter-mining the size of the work, Renfrow used a computer to scan and alter the original 35mmnegatives using PhotoShop. The finished image was exported to Adobe Pagemaker and, using thetile option, individual transparency pages were assembled to make the large negative. An exposurewas made in direct sunlight in a series of about 20 separate exposures of 9 minutes each. (See ColorPlate 15.)

© Robert Renfrow. The Shroud of Tucson, 1999. Cyanotype on fabric. 43 ¥ 96 inches. Original incolor.


duotone. As a starting point select 100percent black as one color and 50 percentyellow as the second color.

Making Desktop Negatives

1. Scan a negative or produce an originalwork on a computer. The file size of thescanned image (scaled to the same size asthe final print) should be twice the reso-lution of the printed image. Remember:Most scanned images should be sharp-ened using “Unsharp Masking” in Photo-Shop, by going to Filters, selectingSharpen, then Unsharp Mask.

2. Manipulate or edit a positive image asdesired and adjust the contrast to thelevel desired in the final print. Some

imagemakers add extra room above theirimage for a photographic step tablet to aid them in their printing or as a referencein creating their own image adjustmentcurves.

3. Apply a contrast correction curve. Photo-graphic film and photographic emul-sions have a nonlinear response to light.Human eyes and computers (and bydefault your printer) have a linear re-sponse to light. To compensate for thisyou must adjust the image to the way theemulsion “sees.” This is referred to as the emulsion’s characteristic curve (alsoknown as the transfer function). Imagingprograms such as PhotoShop have a wayto adjust for the characteristic curve of anemulsion (see Table 13.1). In PhotoShopadjustments to the tonality of the image

Figure 13.13 Nakagawa tells us that by “Using the PhotoShop, I paste images I have photo-graphed onto the drive-in screen, a major American icon and symbol of the ‘good life,’ or onto thebillboard, upholder of the American lifestyle. I begin with black-and-white photographs that Isubtly color enhance to create nostalgic exteriors. The colors I use for these exterior spaces are duo-tones that allude to a sense of past. It is within these exteriors that I interject images ontobillboards/drive-in theater screens that call attention to iconic images of American society, therebycreating quiet landscapes that are interrupted by harsh realities. By changing the context of familiarimagery to Americans, the viewer becomes an observer and is asked to question the ideology of theAmerican Dream.” (See Color Plate 16.)

© Osamu James Nakagawa. Godzilla and White Trailer Home, 1996. Chromogenic color print. 261/2 ¥40 inches. Original in color.


can be created, saved, and loaded, witheither the Adjust Curves or Transfer Func-tions tools. Curves made with one toolcan be loaded and applied to the other.The Adjust Curves tool (in PhotoShopunder Image Æ Adjust Æ Curves) can beused to visually alter the image, while theTransfer Functions tool allows an image-maker to enter specific numerical valuesfor thirteen points on the curve. TheTransfer Function, accessed through PageSetup, controls the way the printerdeposits ink on the printed image. Thesechanges will not be visible on the monitorand will have no effect on the image itselfbut will be applied when the image isprinted. The Adjust Curves tool changesthe way images look on the screen andhow they are printed.

4. Invert the image. In PhotoShop, underImage Æ Adjust Æ Invert.

5. Colorize the inverted image. Choosing the best color for colorizing negativesrequires testing. To test for an appropriatecolor, create a colored step tablet (seebelow) and print it on your inkjet printer.Contact print the step tablet and print it on your photosensitive paper. Choosethe shade on the step tablet that createsthe first clean white on your print and

colorize your image with that color. For consistent results use the same printer, type of paper, and photographicmaterials.

6. Print out the negative on the inkjetprinter. Print your negatives using colorinks, even if they are black-and-white.Use the printer settings for photo-qualityglossy film or the setting on your printer

Table 13.1 Creating an Adjustment Curve

By creating a duplicate of the emulsion’s curveyou can adjust the negative in the oppositedirection, bringing the nonlinear response of the emulsion and linear response of the printerinto sync.

1. Create a colorized test image consisting of anegative image and large step tablet with atleast 13 steps. Save it as “Image A” and printit out with your inkjet printer onto yourintended negative material.

2. Save a copy of the test image file and label it“Image B” (File Æ Save a Copy). You willneed to use this as reference in Step 7.

3. Make a contact print from the printednegative. Through testing, determine theproper exposure to get an absolute white andabsolute black. Keep processing notes onpaper, developer, and timing of your print.

4. Go back to your computer and open Image Aand convert it to a positive image (Image ÆAdjust Æ Invert). Open the Curves dialog box(Image Æ Adjust Æ Curves).

5. Compare the image from your contact printto the image on the screen (Image A). Takinginto account the differences between thescreen image and the printed image, changethe values needed to make Image A look likethe print on photographic emulsion. Clickingon the line of the graph will add points tothe graph. Dragging downwards on any pointwill lighten the print, and dragging upwardswill darken it.

6. Apply the curve by clicking OK. Convert theimage back to a negative (Image Æ Adjust ÆInvert).

7. Open the file Image B and place it next toImage A on the monitor.

8. Reopen the Curves dialog box in Image Aand adjust the screen image so that it lookslike Image B (see step 5).

9. When the two images look alike, save thecurve (in the Curves dialogue box). Theresulting curve can now be loaded at anytime and used to print other images using thesame methods and materials. It may benecessary to repeat this procedure severaltimes to achieve the proper curve adjustment.

Creating a Step Tablet

A gray scale step tablet can easily becreated in PhotoShop. Using the rectan-gular marquee, select an area on theborder of the image where you want thetablet to be created. Fill the selected areausing a black-to-white gradient with thegradient tool. Posterize the tablet usingthe Image Æ Adjust Æ Posterize menu.The number of levels selected will deter-mine the number of steps in the tablet. Toproduce a colorized step tablet, changethe mode to CMYK color and repeat theprocedure for creating a gray scale steptablet using red (95 percent yellow, 95percent magenta, 0 percent cyan, and 0percent black) as a starting point for theforeground color and white as the back-ground color. Other colors can be testedand used as the foreground color toproduce different results.

that will deliver the best-quality output.The printer setting for inkjet transparencywas intended to prevent dot gain and thepuddling of ink on the less-absorbentsurface of transparencies. The inkjettransparency setting will provide a lowerresolution output than other settingsintended for paper output.

7. Contact print an image (using the samematerial and printer settings used to cali-brate your negatives) onto your photo-graphic material just like any other negative in a contact-printer frame. Nega-tives made on paper will be noticeablyslower to print, the paper texture will bemore evident, and the image will begrainier than a negative made on trans-parency materials. Depending on thematerials, it is probable that the inkjetnegative will change slightly over time.The advantage of digital negatives is thatyou can print a new copy of the negativein the future.

Multiple Exposure Printing

Sometimes you cannot get the desired tonesfrom the negative. For years the printingindustry has tackled this problem withduotone printing. By using two inks insteadof one, printers have been able to reproducetones and colors that lie outside the achiev-able range of conventional printing. By creating multiple digital negatives, photo-graphic imagemakers can further control thecontrast in the highlights, mid-tones, andshadows of their images. This control can beachieved by altering different negatives ofthe same subject and printing them one afteranother in register. High-quality inkjet print-ers use a random (stochastic) dot pattern thateliminates the possibility of moiré patternsbeing formed by the different negatives.With multiple exposure printing each nega-tive adds to the density of the other nega-tives. By creating a mixture of high- andlow-contrast negatives, imagemakers can


Figure 13.14 Doug and Mike Starn turned to digital printmaking to achieve something they couldnot realize photographically, the appearance of real light in the sky and a black void in the treesthat appears to reach for the light. The team scanned the negative into the computer and usedPhotoShop to create two slightly different files of the same negative, printing one on paper andthen hand-coating it several times with wax. The other file was printed onto tissue paper, registeredexactly with the hand-waxed paper print, and coated with encaustic. The encaustic surface wasthen carved and manipulated.

© Doug and Mike Starn. Blot Out the Sun, 1998–2000. Inkjet print. Lysonic inks, bleached beeswax,encaustic, Thai mulberry paper, lens tissue paper. 84 ¥ 132 inches.

expose for highlights and shadows sepa-rately (without burning or dodging). Byapplying different curves to different ver-sions of a negative, images can take on aneven richness not possible with a single negative.

Basic Steps for Multiple Exposure Printing1. Create negatives with extra room on one

of the edges for registration pinholes.

2. Using the negative as a guide, tape regis-tration pins to the printing surface. Alignthe photosensitive paper to the nega-tive and tape the paper to the printingsurface. Place the first negative in theprinting frame, using registration pins toguide its placement, and expose the firstnegative.

3. Without moving the photosensitivepaper, remove the first negative, place thesecond negative down on the registrationpins, and make the second exposure.Repeat this step for each negative printed.

4. Process the print normally.

THE FUTURE OF DIGITALIMAGEMAKING AND THEEXPRESSIVE IMAGEMAKER

We live in a society in which the averagecouple spends 30 percent more time workingthan their parents did. As expectations forproductivity continue to rise, speed andmultitasking become an essential part ofdaily life. This makes the allure of digitalimaging sexy and slightly dangerous. It is

fast, efficient, and exciting, but its futurepotential in the arts is still largely unknown.During this period of chaotic transition wemust be careful not to confuse the sense ofachieving something new with that of justusing the latest technology. It is the creativedrive coupled with an inquisitive and ques-tioning mind that can lead to truly authen-tic work. The French poet and filmmakerJean Cocteau summed this premise up whenhe said the role of exceptional art is to“Astound me!”


Adobe Creative Team. Adobe PhotoShop 5.5Classroom in a Book. San Jose, CA: AdobePress, 1999.

Ang, Tom. Silver Pixels: An Introduction tothe Digital Darkroom. New York, NY:Amphoto Books, 2000.

Bouton, Gary David, Barbara MancusoBouton, and Gary Kubicek. Inside AdobePhotoShop 5.5. Indianapolis, IN: NewRiders Publishing, 2000.

Burkholder, Dan. Making Digital Negativesfor Contact Printing. Second Ed. Carrollton, TX: Bladed Iris Press, 1999.

Davies, Adrian. The Digital Imaging A-Z.Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1998.

Davies, Adrian, and Phil Fennessy. DigitalImaging for Photographers. Third Ed.Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1998.

Evening, Martin. Adobe PhotoShop 5.5 forPhotographers. Boston, MA: Focal Press,2000.


Abeles, Kim, 15, 207Abrasion-tone process, 8Accelerator, 63, 105, 108Accu Lab Company scales, 56Acid content of paper, 158Acids, safety procedures for, 58Action Catcher camera, 149Activation process, papers for, 84, 93, 94Acufine (developer), 63, 67Acutance, 61, 64Adams, Ansel, 6, 7, 17, 81, 83Adamson, Robert, 3Adrian, Kathleen, 99Advanced Photo System (APS) camera, 150Aesthetic, defining digital, 219–220Afga products

14 formula, 73108 formula, 115120 formula, 115–116123 formula, 116Brovira-Speed, 116Metol, 56Neutol WA, 85Portriga Rapid, 116, 134Rodinal, 63, 65

Ag-Plus, 101Agitation, 106Air drying, 98, 99Airbrushing, 202–206

accessories, 204canned spray paint and, 206cleanup and maintenance, 206definition, 202equipment selection, 204fluid containers, 203head assemblies, 203masking, 205–206mixing the medium, 205operation, basic, 205practice, 205safety, 204–205types, 202–203work area, 204

Alkali, heightening developer effect with,63, 67, 105, 108

Allergies, contact, 23Alpa Roto 60/70, 147

Amidol developer, 61, 71–72, 104, 105formula, 117

Ammonium dichromate sensitizer formula,174

Analog printmaking, 81–102printing equipment, 84–92printing materials, special, 99–102printing materials, standard, 92–99process, 81–84processing for permanence, 102

Analytical Reagent (AR), 57, 160Andreesen, Marc, 217Angel, Catherine, 135, 197Angle of view, expanding, 143–145Ansco 120 developer, 111Ansco 130 developer, 105, 117Antistatic devices, 91Aperture, adjusting, 187Apicella-Hitchcock, Stephen, 199Apochromatic (APO), 87Apple Computer, 216, 229Archival processing. See PermanenceArgus Stereo camera, 151Atkin, Anna, 159Audience for your work, importance of, 13

Bacon, Francis, 18, 19Bacon, Pat, 178Baden, Karl, 110Bagton, 155Bailey, Jonathan, 127, 134Barrow, Thomas, 128, 181Barthes, Roland, 180Baryta, 92Baudelaire, Charles, 213Bayard, Hippolyte, 220Beauty and truth issues relevance, 13–14Becoming a photographer, 11–12Benzotriazole restrainer, 75, 105Berger, Paul, 231Berners-Lee, Tim, 216–217Bias in photography, 3Bit depth, 224–225Black-and-white copiers, 208Black-and-white film developers, 60–80

acutance, 61categories of, 66

components and characteristics of, 62–65factors in selecting, 64–65, 80fog, 62formulas and their applications, 71–80grain, 61image characteristics of film, 61–62keeping qualities of, 64liquid versus powder, 65–66paper versus, 103postdevelopment processes, 68–71resolution, 61silver-based films during exposure and

processing, 60–61storage containers, 64types of, 66–67

Black-and-white films. See also Special-usefilms

reversing, 49–50toning, 135–136

Black-and-white paper developers, 103–119applications and characteristics, 109–115components of silver print developers,

103–106contrast control, 108–109exhausted developers, 115formulas, 109–119matching developer and paper, 109nonrecommended developers, 114–115paper versus film, 103processing factors, 106–107reduction potential, 105

Black-and-white slides, uses for, 49Bleaching of dyed prints, 134Bloom, Suzanne, 228, 245Blue toners, 130–131Bly, Robert, 63Bromide papers, 106Brown toners, 123–130Bruggiere, Francis, 185Brush, Gloria DeFilipps, 150Bullis, Larry, 142Burkholder, Dan, 241Burson, Nancy, 14Byrd, Jeffrey, 121, 132

Callier effect, 84, 85Calotype, 3, 47, 247

Index

254 INDEX

Camerasangle of view expansion, 143–145components of, 137defined, 137–138Diana, 127, 135, 138–140digital, 217–219, 236–237disposable, 143electronic imaging, 8–9, 149half-frame, 150Holga, 138, 139obsolete, 149panoramic, 145–147pinhole, 140–142plastic, why choose, 139–140Polaroid camera systems, 181role of, 137–138scale model, 149–150sequence, 147–149special use, 149–150stereoscopic, 150–153stroboscopic photography and, 153–154toy, 138–140, 149underwater equipment and protection,

154–156Cameron, Julia Margret, 214Campbell, Kathleen, 79Camus, Albert, 1, 13Canned air, 92Canned spray paint, 206Canon Demi half-frame camera, 151Canon still video camera (SVC) system, 218Carling, Richard, 14Carpal tunnel syndrome, 25Cartesian coordinate system, 223Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 221Cases, hard, 155Catechol (pyrocatechin) formula, 119CD ROM (compact disk read only memory),

231–232Charge-coupled device (CCD), 218, 238, 239Chemical reticulation, 200Chemical sensitivities, 23Chemicals

classification of, 57disposal and safety, 57efflorescent, 56hygroscopic, 56mixing, 58obtaining, 56–57preparing formulas and, 56–58scales for weighing, 54, 55–56sources of supply, 57storage, 57temperature and, 58weighing, 57–58

Chemistry disposal, 23–25Chloride and chlorobromide papers, 106Chlorobromide papers, 106, 134Chromium Intensifier, 69–70Chromogenic film differences, 60Chrysotype, 163, 166Classic cameras, film for, 50–51Cleaning materials for negatives, 91–92Clearing baths, 170, 176Cliché-verre, 184–186Coating paper with a rod, 169Coburn, Alvin Langdon, 5Cocteau, Jean, 252Cold and hot press paper, 158Cold light, 85, 95Cold-tone papers, developers for, 109Collage, 196, 197–199

Collier, Edward, 189Collodion process, 3Color copiers, 177–178, 208Color management on computers, 225–227Color print transfers, 208Color systems, 226–227Colored dyes, toning with, 133–134Coloring by hand, 201–202Colorizing desktop negatives, 248–249Colors of paper, 94Combination printing, 3–4, 172, 184, 192Combining digital and traditional

techniques, 247–252Commercial chemical classification, 57Comparison print, use of, 123Composite variations, 196–199Computer defined, 213Computer usage and safety, 25Computers, photography and, 213–235. See

also Digital imagingaesthetic, defining, 219–220bit depth, 224–225color management, 225–227creating images, 222–225digital cameras, 217–219digital computer defined, 213digital image defined, 213emergence of computer-generated images,

215–216ethics and copyright, 221–222file types, major, 229–231hardware, 227history of, 214–217lines per inch (lpi), 223manipulation, digital, 219memory, 227as multimedia platform, 232–233pixels, 218, 219, 223, 227, 228, 229, 230,

238, 239resolution, 223software, 227–229storage media, 231–232

Concepts, altering photographic, 180–212Condenser system of illumination on

enlarger, 65, 84, 85Conner, Linda, 63Contact continuous-tone negative, 39Contact-printing process. See Platinum

printing processContemporary photography and role of

theory, 20Contact sheets, 83Contrast

controlling during development, 108–109high-contrast developer, 34lowering, 169paper grades and characteristics of, 95raising, 168–169variable-contrast development, 111–113variable-contrast papers, 95–96

Contrast control, 39, 49–50, 168–169Copy machines, 176–178Copyright and ethics, digital, 221–222Corbis/Bettmann Archives, 222Corot, Jean-Baptiste, 185Crane, Barbara, 144Critics and critique role, 19Cunningham, Imogen, 6Curve tool of scanners, 240–241Cuvelier, Adalbert, 184Cyan, magenta, yellow, black (CMYK), 225,

227

Cyanotype process, 8, 159–163attractions of, chief, 159emulsion, applying, 161exposure, 161–162formulas, 160, 161, 162modern, 160–161oxidation solution, 162paper choosing, 160printing, 160processing, 162safety, 159, 161sample, 248sensitizer making, 160toning, 162–163working of, 159

Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mandé, 2Daguerreotype process, 2, 3, 180, 214Dali, Salvadór, 219Danielson, Deborah, 24Danto, Arthur, 194Darkroom, 83

multiple exposure in, 191–194question of end of wet darkroom, 234–

235Davidhazy, Andrew, 152Davis, Phil, 143Davy, Humphry, 182Dawson, Robert, 6Death of Naturalistic Photography, The

(Emerson), 4Debord, Guy, 214Decal paper, 208Demachy, Robert, 4Derivative process, photography as, 2Derrida, Jacques, 20Desktop negatives, making, 249–251Developer(s). See also Black-and-white film

developers; Black-and-white paperdevelopers

chrysotype, 166exhausted, 115fine-grain, 66–67formulas and applications, 71–80high-contrast, 34Ilford PAN F PLUS and, 37kallitype, 158for Kodak Recording film, 34for Kodak Technical Pan film, 36Kodalith, 43liquid versus powder chemistry, 65–66nonrecommended, 114–115paper versus film, 103platinum process, 170selecting, basic factors in, 64–65

Developing agent(s), 56, 62–63, 103–105Developing-out papers, 103Development. See specific filmsDevelopment time. See also specific films

Ilford Delta 3200 film, 46Ilford SFX film, 33infrared film, 32T-MAX P3200 film, 45

Diafine, 67Diana camera, 127, 135, 138–140Dichroic fog, 34Diffusion system of illumination on enlarger,

65, 84–85Digital aesthetic defining, 219–220Digital cameras, 217–219, 236–237Digital color copiers, 177–178Digital ethics and copyright, 221–222

INDEX 255

Digital imagescreating, 222–225defined, 213history of, brief, 214–217revolution start for, 214, 215

Digital imaging, 8–9. See also Computers,photography and

basic computer concepts and terminologycategories, 229combining traditional techniques with,

247–252defined, 236disadvantages of, 14–15future of, 252output devices, 241–246presenting, 241–246scanners, 237–239scanning basics, 239–241silver-based imagemaking versus, 14video capture, 237

Digital manipulation, 219Digital printers, 208Digital process, paper negatives using, 48Digitalization’s effect on photography, 14Direct positive papers, 99–100Dirt and flare, 87Disposable cameras, 143Dithering, 224DiVola, John, 101Dorlands Wax Medium, 98Double-density effect, 94Dr. Beers Variable-Contrast Formula, 111,

112, 118, 119Drum scanners, 238, 240Dry-down effect, 107Dugdale, John, 162Duncan, Isadora, 1Dupe Film, 37–40Duratrans, 79Dust, 42DVD (digital video/versatile disc), 232Dye sublimation printers, 242Dyes, toning with colored, 133–134

Easels, 89Edge burning, methods of, 107Edgerton, Harold, 153Edwal products

FG-7, 63, 65, 66, 80Liquid Orthazite, 105, 113, 114No-Scratch, 92T.S.T. (Twelve-Sixteen-Twenty), 113

Einstein, Albert, 1, 2Electronic imaging, 8–9, 149, 217–220Electrostatic processes, 176–178Elon. See Metol and Metol developersEmerson, Peter Henry, 4, 6, 159, 166Empathy for photographs, 13Emulsions, 92

bromide, 92, 93characteristics, 92cyanotype, 161for gum bichromate process, 173, 174–

175liquid, 100Luminos Silverprint, 101–102palladium, 172platinum, 168, 169reticulation and, 69, 199–201safety, 159speed of, 92

Emulsion side of film, determining, 38

Encapsulated PostScript (EPS) files, 229–230Enlarged continuous-tone negative, 38–39Enlarged litho positive, making, 42–43Enlargers, 38, 84–87

dichroic color types, 96illumination, 84–85lenses, 86–87negative carriers, 85–86size, 84

Enlarging meters, 91Erf, Greg, 112Ethics and copyright, digital, 221–222Ethol blue (developer), 67Ethol LPD, 110, 121Eugene, Frank, 5, 180Evans, Frederick H., 167Exposure

for black-and-white slides, 49cyanotypes, 161–162Dupe Film, 38extended camera, 186–188gum bichromate process, 175Ilford Delta 3200 Professional, 44–45Ilford PAN F PLUS ultra-fine grain black-

and-white film, 37IR film, 31–32Kodak Recording film, 33–34Kodak Technical Pan film, 35Kodak T-MAX P3200 film, 44–45Kodak TRI-X in Dektol, 34, 35multiple, 190–194, 251–252photograms, 183scanning and, 240–241Vandyke brownprint, 164

Eye strain, 25

Fabrication, 194–195Faller, Marion, 148Farber, Dennis, 204Farmer’s Reducer, 34, 70, 71, 134Feldstein, Peter, 186Feresten, Peter Helmes, 68Ferrotyping, 98Fiber-based papers, 92–93Field flatness, 86Film. See also Ilford products; Kodak

products; Polaroid instant films;Special-use films and processing

characteristics of, 27for classic cameras, 50–51high speed, 43–47image characteristics of, 27infrared, 37–40photographer and, 27–28presoaking, 28red sensitivity, 32–33reversing black-and-white film, 49–50selection of, 27–28storage, 29washing, 29

Film processing. See also specific types offilms; Special-use films andprocessing

dupe film, 39general working procedures for, 28–30IR film, 32Kodak Recording film, 34for permanence, 51, 52

Film recorders, 241–242Filters, 31, 33

for IR film, 31masking, 191

neutral density (ND), 34, 188Polycontrast, 94red, 31, 33, 35safelight, 42, 43, 49, 87–89Wratten, 31, 32, 33

Fine-grain developers, 66–67Finishing, print, 98FireWire, 237Fish, Alida, 116Fixer, 29, 122, 199

disposing of, 24Flash/flashlight

IR film techniques, 32techniques, 108, 188

Flatbed scanners, 238Flexible transfers, 210Focal length of enlarging lenses, 86–87Focus shift, 87, 190Focusing

with Ilford SFX 200 film, 33with IR film, 30–31

Focusing devices, 89Fog, 62, 63, 64, 67, 70, 75, 76, 105, 123,

161Formulas

altering, 109contrast and alteration of, 168–169cyanotype, 160cyanotype oxidation solution, 162equipment, basic, 54–56film developer formulas and their

applications, 71–80gum bichromate process, 174kallitype, 164, 165, 166modified palladium emulsion solution 3

and 3A, 172percentage solutions, 58platinum clearing bath, 170platinum developer, 170platinum emulsion, 168prepared versus mixing your own, 54preparing own, 54–59reasons to mix your own, 54temperature, 58

Frampton, Hollis, 148Frank, Robert, 195Freud, Sigmond, 219Friedman, James, 80, 83Fuji

GX 617 camera, 146Superia Reala film, 199

Full-frame fish-eyes (FFF), 144Future of digital imagemaking and

expressive imagemaker, 252

Galilean finders, 155Gamblin Cold Wax, 98Gamma correction, 225Georgliou, Tyrone, 218, 237Germany, Robin Dru, 78Giclée, 244Glass coating rods, making your own, 169Globoscope, 147Glycin developer(s), 62, 72, 104, 105, 108,

117Gold Chloride Toner, 55Goldring, Nancy, 247Grades of paper, 95Grain, 61, 65Graph-Check sequence camera, 149Green toners, 131–132Group f/64 and the Zone System, 6–8

256 INDEX

Gum bichromate process, 4, 172–176clearing, 176coating paper, 175development, 175–176disadvantages of, 173emulsion, 173, 174–175exposure, 175gum solution, 174multiple printing, 176paper, 173pigments, 110reasons for making, 172sensitizer, 174

Gum dichromate emulsion formula, 174Gum printing, 4, 8Gum solution, 174

Half-frame cameras, 150Halftone scanning, 239Hallman, Gary, 226Hand-altered work, 180–182

airbrushing, 202–206cliché-verre, 184–186composite variations, 196–199extended camera exposures, 186–188fabrication, 194–195hand-coloring, 201–202hitting resistance, 180–181multiple-exposure methods, 190–194photograms, 182–184postcamera techniques, 189–190reticulation, 199–201transfers and stencils, 206–212

Hand-coloring, 201–202Hard cases, 155Hard disk, 227Hardener, acid, 200Hardware, computer, 227Harp, Steve, 151Harper, Jessica Todd, 229Hasselblad XPan camera, 146Havell, John and William, 184Heinecken, Robert, 8Henderson, Adele, 209Herschel, Sir John, 159, 163, 166High-contrast developer, 115High-contrast litho films, 40–43High-energy developers, 67High speed films, 43–47Hill, David Octavius, 3Hill, Ed, 228, 245Hirsch, Edwin, 12Hirsch, Robert, 19, 27, 35, 43, 87, 113, 149,

189, 190, 206History

sense of, 9–10why study, 18

Hock, Rick McKee, 211Hockney, David, 195Hofkin, Ann Ginsburgh, 30Holga camera, 138–140Hoone, Jeffrey, 19Horizon 202 camera, 145Hubbard, Kitty, 100Hue, saturation, and brightness (HSB), 226Hulcherama, 147Hulcher sequence cameras, 147–148Hunter, Frank, 55, 77Hydroquinone developers, 62, 63, 66, 72,

103–104, 106, 109Hypertext and World Wide Web, 233–234HyperText Markup Language (HTML),

234

Hypo, 29, 61, 165clearing solution, 39, 121

Ilford productsBromophen, 110Delta 3200 Professional film, 43–47FP-4 film, 65HP5PLUS, 247ID-9 formula, 72ID-13, 67, 72ID-60 formula, 72ID-62 formula, 75ID-68 formula, 76ID-72 formula, 76ID-78 formula, 117Ilfordbrom, 126Microphen formula, 30, 63, 75Multigrade papers, 85, 114, 120, 124, 125,

126Ortho +, 43PAN F PLUS ultra-fine grain black-and-

white film, 37SFX 200, 32–33

Imagesetters, 242Image stability, enhancing, 39Images destined for the Web, 234Images versus language, 13Imaging applications categories, computer,

229Indexed color, 227Infrared (IR) film, 30

Kodak High Speed Infrared film 2481 and4143, 30–32

Inkjet printers, 208, 242–244Inkjet transparency, 247Input devices, 236–241Instant film advantage, 51–52Intensification, 69–70International Color Consortium, 225Internet and 1990s, 216–217Interpolated resolution, 239Iris printers, 243–244Itagaki, Yoshio, 240

Jachna, Joseph D., 96Jarrell, Randall, 17, 19Jobs, Steve, 216Johan, Simen, 242Johnson, Keith, 65, 146Joiners, 195Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

compression, 230

Kallitype clearing solution formula, 166Kallitype Fix Formula, 166Kallitype process, 163, 165–166, 167Kaprow, Allan, 199Käsebier, Gertrude, 5, 180Keiley, Joseph, 5, 72Kenna, Michael, 187Kirsch, Russell A., 8, 215Kis, Danilo, 182Klett, Mark, 90Kodak products

1A safelight filter, 42, 43Anti-Fog No. 1, 64Azo, 134Balanced Alkali, 63, 67–68, 77Blue Toner T-26, 130–131Brown Toner, 11, 124, 125, 131D-1/Pyro ABC formula, 76–77D-8, 67D-11, 43, 67

D-19, 67, 73D-23, 64, 66, 67, 68, 72, 73, 167D-25, 67, 72, 73D-52, 110–111, 120, 124, 134D-72, 70, 109–110D-76, 66, 70, 74, 79D-82 formula, 75D-85, 72Dektol, 5, 34–35, 39, 41, 43, 109–110, 112,

116, 120, 124, 140, 141, 186Direct Positive Film Developing Outfit, 49,

50DK-50 formula, 73Ektaflo, Type 2, 111Ektagraphic HC Slide Film, 40, 43Ektamatic Processors and paper, 94Ektamatic SC papers, 94Ektonol, 111Elon. See Metol and Metol developersGold Protective Solution GP-1, 130Gold Toner T-21, 124, 129–130Hardener F-5a formula, 128HC-110, 63, 65, 66High Speed Infrared Film 2481 and 4143,

30–32Hypo Alum Sepia Toner T-1a, 124,

126–127, 128Hypo Clearing Agent or Perma-Wash,

69IA safelight filter (red), 42, 88Liquid Hardener, 122, 127Max Panoramic camera, 143MAX Waterproof camera, 143Microdol-X, 67, 68, 70OA safelight filter, 49, 87OC filter, 87Ortho Film 6556 Type 3, 43Panalure paper, 87, 99Photo-Flo, 39, 49, 115, 133Polycontrast paper, 124Polyfiber Paper, 132Polymax Fine Art paper, 125Polymax T, 110Polysulfide Toner T-8, 124, 125, 128Poly-Toner, 123, 124, 125Professional B/W Duplicating Film SO-

132, 37–40, 86Projection Positive Paper, 99R-4a and R-4b, 70, 71Rapid Selenium Toner, 30, 124, 134Recording Film, 33–34Selectol, 110–111Selectol-Soft, 111, 112, 120Sepia Toner, 125, 126, 127, 131Sulfide Sepia Toner T-7a, 124, 125,

127–128Technical Pan Film, 35–37, 49, 76, 89,

199Technidol Liquid, 36T-MAX 100 Professional Film, 49, 50, 147,

167T-MAX developers, 45, 65, 68–69T-MAX P3200 Professional Film, 43–47T-MAX RS Developer and Replenisher,

68–69TRI-X, 34–35, 51, 55, 67, 68, 69, 77, 79,

200, 247T-20 Dye Toner formula, 135XTOL, 79–80

Kodalith Developer, 43, 72Kodalith Liquid Developer, 67Kodalith Ortho Film Type, 3, 40, 42, 43Kodalith Super RT, 41, 42, 114

INDEX 257

Lambda prints, 244–245Landscapes, Technical Pan Film and, 36Lantern slides, 49Laposky, Ben F., 214–215Laser imagesetter, 242Laser printed transfers, 208–209Lawless, Liam, 166Lazertran transfer products, 208, 209Lê, Dinh Q., 9, 10, 198Lebe, David, 115, 188LeClear, Thomas, 3Le Gray, Gustave, 3Lenses

compatibility with given format size, 86in Diana camera, 139enlarging, 86–87plano-convex, 84

Lenticular screen cameras, 151–152Levy, Stu, 196Lewis, Paul, 79Life magazine, 221Lifts. See Transfer printingLight and photographs, 15Light table, 83Lightjet printer, 244–245Lilac to purple-brown tones (cyanotype),

163Linhof Technorama 617 S III and 612

cameras, 146Linked Ring Society, 167Liquid developers, 65–66Liquid emulsions, 100Liquid Light, 100–101, 102, 111Liquid versus powder chemistry, 65–66Litho films

continuous tones from, 43high-contrast, 40–43

Litho negative, making, 43Litho positive, making, 42–43Local contrast controls, 108–109Lopez, Martina A., 224Lovejoy, Margot, 215Luminos products

Charcoal R Warmtone paper, 124, 240Classic Warmtone paper, 114Fotomask, 132, 201Photographic Linen, 102Silverprint Emulsion, 101–102, 186

Mach, Ernst, 153Magazine transfers, 207Magic lanterns, 49Magnetic media, 231Magneto optical (MO), 232Magritte, René, 219Manipulation

digital, 219, 221–222processing, 199–201

Marc, Stephen, 74, 246Marley, Etienne-Jules, 138Maskell, Alfred, 4Masking, 4, 201, 205–206Masking filter, using, 191Masks, opaque printing, 194McClave, Brian, 199McDonald’s Retouching Spray, 48McJunkin, James, 33Mead, Jerry, 98Meares, Lorran, 151Mechanical timers, 109Memory, computer, 227Meters, enlarging, 91Methylaminophenol, 56

Metol and Metol developers, 56, 62, 63, 66,72–75, 106, 109

Metol-hydroquinone developers, 73–75,103–104, 106

Metzker, Ray K., 8, 195Mixing equipment, 56Modica, Andrea, 174Moholy-Nagy, László, 182, 185Monochrome prints, color negatives for,

248–249Montage, 196–199Mood, 16Moore, Gordon, 215Mordant dye toners, 121Mortar and pestle, 56Mortensen, William, 8Motor drives, 148Motormarine I and II underwater cameras,

155Movie camera, 16mm, 148–149MQ developer, 62, 66, 72, 73Multienlarger combination printing, 192–193Multiple-exposure methods, 190–194,

251–252Multiple printing, 176Multitoned prints, 133Mural and postcard paper, 96–97, 98MYTOL, 79–80

Nagatani, Patrick, 2, 244Nakagawa, Osamu James, 85, 249Nash, Graham, 243National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA) and digitalimaging, 8, 217, 237

National Geographic, 220Naturalistic Photography (Emerson), 4, 6Negative carriers on enlarger, 85–86Negative curl, 86Negative pop, 86Negatives

cleaning materials, 91–92color negatives for monochrome prints,

248–249continuous-tone, 38–39, 43for desktop, making, 249–251one-step enlarged, 50paper, 47–48, 247, 248for platinum printing, 167–168in printmaking, 81scratches, 92

Nègre, Charles, 3Nelson Gold Toner. See Kodak products,

Gold Toner T-21Nettles, Bea, 8, 240Neutral density (ND) filters, 34Neutral-tone papers, brown tones on, 124Newspaper transfers, 208Newton rings, 86, 238Nguyen-Duy, Pipo, 125Nichol, W.W.J., 163Nickard, Gary, 214Nietzsche, Friedrich, 83Nikonos underwater cameras, 154Nimslo stereo camera, 151Nishika stereo camera, 152Normal developer, 66Northrup, Michael, 191Noskowiak, Sonya, 6Notebooks, keeping, 29, 92, 181

Ohaus Scale Corporation, 55Oil-based materials for hand coloring, 201

Opaque printing masks, 194Optical resolution, 238–239Orthochromatic films. See Dupe Film; High-

contrast litho filmsOxidation solution, cyanotype, 162

Paik, Nam June, 217Painting print with light, 189–190Palladium printing process, 159, 166–167,

172Panchromatic film, 30, 31, 32, 192

high speed film, 43–47Ilford SFX 200, 32–33Kodak Recording Film, 33–34

Panchromatic papers, 87, 88, 99Panoramic cameras, 145–147Panoramic mosaic working technique, 147Paper(s)

about, 158–159acid content, 158for activation and stabilization process,

93–94cold and hot press, 158cold-tone, 109colors of, 94contrast characteristics of, 95current, 98cyanotype, 160developing-out, 103direct positive, 99–100fiber-based, 92–93grades of, 95for gum bichromate process, 173, 175panchromatic, 87, 88, 99for platinum printing, 168presoaking, 173resin-coated (RC), 48, 93sizing, 158–159surface and texture, 94–95types of, 92–93variable-contrast, 95–96warm-tone, 109wet strength, 158

Paper negatives, waxing, 247, 248Paper negatives and positives, 47–48Paraffin wax, 247Paraminophenol/Rodinal developers, 78–79ParkeHarrison, Robert, 97Parker, Olivia, 243Pelican equipment cases, 155Pentax Auto 110 camera, 150Percentage solutions, 58Permanence

of additive coloring agents, 202of inkjet printers, 244processing black-and-white film for, 51, 52processing prints for, 102

Pfahl, John, 233pH and pH scale, 58–59, 63, 105, 106Pharmaceutical chemical classification, 57Phenidone developers, 62, 63, 72, 75–76, 79,

104Photech Scale Model CameraPhoto Multiplier Tubes (PMTs), 238Photo-Aquatint, 4, 172Photo-Flo, 39, 49, 115, 133Photogenic drawing, 47Photograms, 134, 182–184Photographers

artistic subject matter, 15–16becoming, 11–12earning a living, 20film and, 27–28

258 INDEX

Photographers (Cont.)making a difference, 17mood and, 15–16skills importance, 17trouble with how to use subject, 16–17truth and beauty issues relevance, 13–14what they do, 12who are, 11

Photographic printmaking, ideas and historythat affect, 1–21

Photographsas a conversation, 1determining meaning of, 13explaining your, 18–19having sense of history, 9–10importance of making your own, 17knowledge amount and making, 18reactions to, 1roles played by, 10–11what makes them interesting, 13why we make, 1–21

Photography. See also Computers,photography and

bias and, 3as derivative process, 2digitalization’s effect on, 14history of, why study, 18importance of, 12–13language of, 2–3roles of, 10–11

Photo-Secessionists, 5, 167Photo-Wipes, 29, 34, 92Picasso, Pablo, 5, 181PICT files, 229Pictol. See Metol and Metol developersPictorialists, 4, 167, 172, 180Piezoelectric printing process, 243Pigments, 173–174Pinhole camera, 140–142Pinkel, Sheila, 47Pioneer WEA-Marine-housing, 155Pixels, 218, 219, 223, 227, 228, 229, 230,

238, 239Plano-convex lenses, 84Plating, 68Platinotype, 166Platinum printing process, 159, 166–172Polacolor transfers, 211Polarizer, 31Polaroid instant film(s), 51–52, 211

ER, 211Positive and Negative (P/N) Film, 11, 52,

144, 151Polaroid transfers

emulsion, 210–212image, 210

Polycontrast filters, 94Portraits, technical pan film and, 36–37Positives, paper, 47–48Postcamera techniques, 189–190Postdevelopment processes, 68–71Postvisualization, 8POTA developer, 76Potassium bromide restrainer, 64, 67, 75,

105, 109Potassium metabisulfite, 64, 78Pouncy, John, 172Powder developers, 65, 66Power winders, 148PQ developer, 62, 72, 75Practical chemical classification, 57Prejudices of photographer, 3Preservatives, 63–64, 105Presoaking of film, 28, 39

Presoaking paper, 173Previsualization, straight photography and,

5–8Print finishing, 98Print flashing, 108Print Guard, 244Printing materials, 92–102Printing-out processes (P.O.P.), 167Printing with ink, 242–244Printmaker, what makes a good, 82–84Printmaking

analog, 81–102color copier options for, 177–178combination printing, 3–4, 192cyanotype, 160early modifications, 3–5equipment, 84–92ideas affecting, 2–3materials, 92–102modern approaches in, 5–9Pictorialists, 4processing prints for permanence, 102process of, 81–84styles in, 82

Processing, digital. See also Filmprocessing

Processing manipulation, 199–201Proust, Marcel, 18, 102, 157PSD files, 230Pyro ABC developer, 64, 76–77, 104Pyro developers, 62, 64, 76–78Pyrocatechin (catechol), 76, 119Pyrocatechin Compensating Developer

formula, 77–78Pyrogallol. See Pyro developersPyro-Metol-Kodak Balanced Alkali formula,

77

QuickTime, 233

Random access memory (RAM), 224, 227Raster/bit-mapped software, 228–229Raw files, computer, 230Ray, Man, 2, 182, 185Rayographs, 182Read only memory (ROM), 227Realism, 2–3Rectilinear wide-angle lenses, 144Red, green, and blue (RGB) and computers,

225, 226, 238Red-brown tones, 163Red filters, 31, 33, 35Red sensitivity film, 32–33Red toners, 131Reduction, 70–71Reduction potential, 105Registration, 176Rejlander, Oscar Gustave, 4, 192Renfrow, Robert, 248Renner, Eric, 141Replacement toners, 120–121Replenishment of developer, 68–69Resin-coated (RC) papers, 48, 92, 93Resolution, 61, 223, 238–240Restrainers, 64, 105Reticulation, 69, 199–201Retouching of litho film, 43Retouching spray, 48Reversing black-and-white film, 49–50Rhodol, 56Roberts, Holly, 12Robinson, Henry Peach, 4, 192Rockland

Ag-Plus, 101

Fabric Emulsion Sensitizer FA-1, 101Print Tint, 101

Rodinal developers, 78–79Roget, Peter Mark, 232Roll cameras, 145, 146Round-Shot 35 camera, 145Ruskin, John, 20

Sabattier effect, 114Safelights, 76, 87–89, 99, 183

applications, 88filters, 42, 43, 49guidelines, 88, 89testing, 88and variable-contrast papers, 95white light versus, 107

Safety, 22–26airbrushing, 204–205allergies and chemical sensitivities,

contact, 23break taking, 25carpal tunnel syndrome, 25with chemicals, 57chemistry, disposing of, 23–25with cyanotype process, 159, 161ELF/VLF, 25eye strain, 25fixer disposal, 24lower back problem, 25procedures for, basic, 22–23protecting yourself and your computer, 25septic systems, 24–25surge protection, 25with toners, 123

Santayana, George, 14Satter’s Tundra cases, 155Scale model camera, 149–150Scales for weighing chemicals, 54, 55–56Scanners, 237–239Scanning basics, 239–241Schad, Christian, 182Schadrographs, 182Schramm, Robert W., 5, 166Schuluze, Johann, 182Scratches, dealing with, 92Seeley, J., 40Selective toning, 105, 132–133Selenium intensification process, 69Selter, Carol, 239Sensitizers, 159, 160, 166, 174Septic system and disposing of chemistry,

24–25Sequences, fabrication of, 194–195Sequence cameras, 147–149Service bureaus, 245–246Sharpening scanned images, 241Sheridan, Sonia Landy, 9Sherman, Cindy, 16Silver-based films, processing steps for,

60–61Silver-based imagemaking versus digital

imaging, 14Silver halide crystals, 64, 66, 68, 92, 105Silver intensifier, 69–70Single-image sequences, 148–14916mm movie camera, 148–149Sizing of paper, 158–159, 173Sketchpad, 215Skills, importance of, 17Slides

lantern, 49uses for black-and-white slides, 49

Sloan, Jennifer, 93Smith, Henry Holmes, 185

INDEX 259

Smith, Michael A., 104Sodium carbonate, 105, 108

Kodak TRI-X and, 35reticulation and, 200

Sodium hyposulfite. See HypoSoftware, computer, 227–229Solarizing developer (Solarol), 114, 115Sommer, Frederick, 185Special-purpose developers, 67Special-use cameras, 149–150Special-use films and processing, 27–53

for classic cameras, 50–51Dupe Film, 37–40high-contrast litho films, 40–43Ilford Pan F Plus ultra-fine grain black-

and-white film, 37Ilford SFX 200, 32–33Kodak High Speed Infrared Film 2481 and

4143, 30–32Kodak Professional B/W Duplicating film

SO-132, 37–40Kodak Recording Film, 33–34Kodak Technical Pan film, 35–37Kodak TRI-X, 34–35paper negatives and positives, 47–48Polaroid instant films, 51–52processing black-and-white film for

permanence, 51reversing black-and-white film, 49–50selection of film, 27–28

Split-toning, 134–135Spoons, 56SpoTone, 98Spotting, 171–172Spray paint, canned, 206Sprint Quicksilver, 110Stabilization process, papers for, 92, 94Starn, Doug and Mike, 11, 126, 251Staticmaster, 91Steichen, Edward, 5, 180Steiglitz, Alfred, 5, 6, 72, 83Stencils. See Transfer printingStep tablet, creating a, 250Stereo cameras, 151, 152Stereoscopic photography, 150–153Stochastic screening, 224, 248, 251Stock developer, use of, 108Stone, Jim, 43, 51Stop bath, 29, 34, 35, 59, 60, 68, 108, 122,

199Storage

containers, 56of chemicals and films, 33media, 231–232

Straight dye toners, 121Straight photography

arrival of, 5beginnings of, 4and previsualization, 5–8questioning virtues of, 157

Straight style of printmaking, 4, 5Strand, Paul, 5, 6, 82Stroboscopic photography, 153–154Student, qualities of a good, 20Studying images of others, 18Styles in printmaking, 82Stylistic approaches for transmitting

photographic information, 17Submersible bags, 155Sudek, Josef, 82Superadditivity, 62Surface of papers, 94–95Sutherland, Ivan, 215

Swing-lens cameras, 145–146Synthetic coloring, 201–202

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), 229Talbot, William Henry Fox, 3, 15, 47, 83,

162, 166, 182, 214Taylor, Brian, 176, 198Taylor, Maggie, 217Teacher, qualities of a good, 20Technical chemical classification, 57Technidol Liquid, 36Temperature, 29, 30, 58, 106Texture of papers, 94–95Thermal printing, 242Thinning various media, beginning guide,

20535mm camera

conversion to pinhole camera, 142panoramic effects with, 145, 147power winders and motor drives on, 148stereo effects with, 152stroboscopic effects with, 153–154

Thomas, Prince V., 241Three-dimensional modeling programs, 233360-degree camera, 145, 147Through-the-lens (TTL) metering systems,

31, 154Tice, George, 7Time and developers, 106Time, space, and scale, exploring

relationships of, 18Timers, 89–90, 109Tobia, Blaise, 220Toners

basic types of, 120–121blue, 130–131brown, 123–130categories of, 120electrostatic printing, 245Gold Chloride, 55green, 131–132mordant dye, 121Rapid Selenium Toner, 39, 50red, 131replacement, 120–121reuse of, 123straight dye, 121working procedures for, 123

Toning for visual effects, 120–136. See alsoToners

of cyanotype, 162–163multitoned prints, 133paper and developer selection, 134printing and development, 122processing controls, 120processing steps for, 121–123types of toners, basic, 120–121variations, 132–136washing and, 122–123working procedures for, 123working technique, 133

Towery, Terry, 234Tracey, Andrée, 2Traditional and digital techniques combined,

247–252Transfer printing, 206–212

black-and-white copier, laser printer, andinkjet, 208–209

flexible, 210magazines, 207materials, 207newspaper, 208Polaroid emulsion, 211–212

Polaroid image, 210transparent contact paper, 209–210

Transparency scanners, 238Transparent contact paper transfers, 209–

210Trays, 90–91, 123Trilogy 3D 100 stereo camera, 152Truth and beauty issues relevance, 13–14Two-solution development, 67, 108

Uelsmann, Jerry N., 4, 8, 192, 193Underwater equipment and protection,

154–156U.S. customary weights and metric

equivalents, 59

Valentino, John, 41, 107Van Cleef, June, 118Van Dyke, Willard, 6Vandyke brownprint process, 163–165Variable-contrast development, 111–113Variable-contrast papers, 95–96Vector graphics software, 229Vegetable-based color print transfers, 208Velázquez, Diego, 19Verichrome Pan film, 50Video capture devices, 237Violet-black tones, 163Visualization. See Previsualization

Wallace, Patty, 214Wang, Sam, 143Ware process, 160–161Warm-tone developers, 115–117Warm-tone papers

brown tones on, 124developers for, 109

Warpinksi, Terry, 203Water-based color print transfers, 208Water-based materials for hand coloring,

201Water-bath development, 67Water in developers, 105–106, 108Water reticulation, 200Waxing paper negatives, 247Waxing the print, 98Weatherproof versus waterproof cameras,

155Wedgwood, Thomas, 182Wessner, Robyn, 140Weston, Brett, 104Weston, Edward, 5, 6, 76, 82, 104Wet strength of paper, 158Wet-plate process, 3Wheatstone, Sir Charles, 150Whewell, William, 83White, Clarence, 5White, Minor, 7Widelux camera, 145Wilhelm’s Imaging Research, 244Willis, William, 166Wilmore, J.T., 184Wood, John, 8, 9Wozniak, Steve, 216Wratten filters, 31, 32, 33

XTOL, 79–80

Yashica Samurai sequence camera, 149Young, Cynthia, 184

Zerostat gun, 91–92Zone System and Group f/64, 6–8, 81

Plate 1 © Kathleen Campbell. Rational Being,from the series Modern Theology or a Universe of Our Own Creation, 1996. Color Duratrans andmixed media. Light box installation. 4 ¥ 5 feet.

Plate 2 © Alida Fish.Walking withPygmalion, #8, 1998. 20 ¥ 16 inches. Tonedgelatin silver print.Courtesy ofSchmidt/Dean Gallery,Philadelphia, PA.

Plate 4 © Dinh Q. Lê. From Zero to First Generation, 1997. Woven chromogenic color prints andlinen tape. 291/4 ¥ 571/2 inches. Courtesy of CEPA Gallery, Buffalo, NY.

Plate 3 © Jeffrey Byrd. Listening for Falling Debris, 1991. Toned gelatin silver prints with mixedmedia. 75 ¥ 137 ¥ 3 inches.

Plate 5 © Robert Hirsch. Anywhere I Hang Myself Is Home, 1992. Toned gelatin silver print withmixed media. 16 ¥ 20 inches. Courtesy of CEPA Gallery, Buffalo, NY.

Plate 6 © Adele Henderson. #55 (detail), from the series Normal Male/Normal Female, 1998.Print on paper, Plexiglas, wax, white shellac, wood frame, and one or more of the following:engraved and inked lines, litho ink transfers, hand painting in oil, asphaltum, or Lazertran transfer. 71/2 ¥ 91/2 inches.

Plate 7 © Tyrone Georgiou. Sunrise PaperMountain, 2000. Variable-sized digital file.

Plate 8 © Martina A.Lopez. Revolutionsin Time 1, 1994. Dyedestruction print. 30 ¥50 inches. Courtesy ofSchneider Gallery,Chicago, IL.

Plate 9 © Gary Hallman. Karoshi Corona, 1996. Pigmented inkjet on rag paper. 48 ¥ 24 inches.

Plate 10 © MANUAL (Suzanne Bloom and Ed Hill). Olympia, 1999. Iris inkjet print. 17 ¥ 351/4 inches. Courtesy of theMoody Gallery, Houston, TX.

Plate 11 © John Pfahl. Airey Force, Lake District,England, 1995/1997. Iris inkjet print. 161/2 ¥ 13inches. Courtesy of Nina Freudenheim Gallery, Buffalo, NY.

Plate 12 © Yoshio Itagaki. Mushroom Hiroshi Meets JohnWayne in Cyberspace, 1996. Digital file. 40 ¥ 30 inches.

Plate 13 © Stephen Marc. Untitled, from the series Soul Searching, 1997. Dye destruction print.Variable-sized digital file.

Plate 14 © Nancy Goldring. At Sea, Io, 1996. Dye destruction print. 30 ¥ 40 inches.

Plate 15 © Robert Renfrow. The Shroud of Tucson, 1999. Cyanotype on fabric. 43 ¥ 96 inches.

Plate 16 © Osamu James Nakagawa. Godzilla and White Trailer Home, 1996. Chromogenic colorprint. 261/2 ¥ 40 inches.