Philosophy 150 : Day 6Philosophy 150 : Day 6Informal Fallacies - Part 2Informal Fallacies - Part 2

Copyright 2006 Julian Cole/ Makoto SuzukiCopyright 2006 Julian Cole/ Makoto Suzuki

Aims for Day 6Aims for Day 6

Discuss 8 further informal fallacies. Discuss 8 further informal fallacies. – I will ask you where in each sample I will ask you where in each sample

argument the fallacy in question is argument the fallacy in question is committed.committed.

These informal fallacies belong to the These informal fallacies belong to the category of category of fallacies of relevancefallacies of relevance because they direct themselves not to because they direct themselves not to the issue at hand, but to making moves the issue at hand, but to making moves irrelevant to establishing the conclusion. irrelevant to establishing the conclusion.

Sample ArgumentSample Argument((Ignoratio ElenchiIgnoratio Elenchi)) Grade school children these days Grade school children these days

can neither read nor write.can neither read nor write.

Clearly, prayer should be returned Clearly, prayer should be returned to the classroom.to the classroom.

Missing the Point Missing the Point ((Ignoratio ElenchiIgnoratio Elenchi))

The fallacy of missing the point is committed The fallacy of missing the point is committed when the premises might provide support when the premises might provide support for for aa conclusion, but not the conclusion of conclusion, but not the conclusion of the argument being offered.the argument being offered.

Be careful with this fallacy. Many people are Be careful with this fallacy. Many people are mislead by a more colloquial use of the mislead by a more colloquial use of the phrase missing the point (merely “not phrase missing the point (merely “not getting it”). This is NOT what the fallacy of getting it”). This is NOT what the fallacy of missing the point means.missing the point means.

A Caution on Missing A Caution on Missing the Pointthe Point

““Missing the point” is actually another Missing the point” is actually another general name for fallacies of relevance.general name for fallacies of relevance.

We will see particular fallacies of We will see particular fallacies of relevance below. relevance below. In the following and in In the following and in the exam, we will apply the phrase the exam, we will apply the phrase “missing the point” to fallacies of “missing the point” to fallacies of relevance that do not fall under any one of relevance that do not fall under any one of the more specific kinds discussed below.the more specific kinds discussed below.

Ad HominemAd Hominem Abusive - Abusive - ExampleExample You argue that abortion You argue that abortion

should be illegal, but I should be illegal, but I disagree because you are disagree because you are stupid.stupid.

Al, you argue that global Al, you argue that global warming is real. But I do not warming is real. But I do not believe you because you are believe you because you are boring.boring.

Ad HominemAd Hominem Circumstantial - Circumstantial - ExamplesExamples

I’m not amazed that your mechanic I’m not amazed that your mechanic says a complete engine overhaul is says a complete engine overhaul is recommendable. Do you know how recommendable. Do you know how much money he stands to make from much money he stands to make from that?that?

““Well he would say that, wouldn’t Well he would say that, wouldn’t he? We should ignore what he says.”he? We should ignore what he says.”

Ad HominemAd Hominem Tu Quoque: ExamplesTu Quoque: Examples Mr. Bentham has argued that we should stop Mr. Bentham has argued that we should stop

hunting because it kills animals with great pain. hunting because it kills animals with great pain. But we can safely disregard his argument. He But we can safely disregard his argument. He eats meat everyday.eats meat everyday.

My parents criticizes me for skipping school and My parents criticizes me for skipping school and partying around. But I know they did the same partying around. But I know they did the same thing when they were college students. So it is thing when they were college students. So it is OK to continue what’s I am doing.OK to continue what’s I am doing.

The Army has discharged the female soldier for The Army has discharged the female soldier for having posed nude for Playboy. But the Army’s having posed nude for Playboy. But the Army’s stalls sell Playboy to the soldiers. So the Army’s stalls sell Playboy to the soldiers. So the Army’s judgment of dismissal is mistaken.judgment of dismissal is mistaken.

Fallacious Arguments against Fallacious Arguments against the Person (the Person (Ad HominemAd Hominem))

This fallacy is committed only when one tries This fallacy is committed only when one tries to to refuterefute another’s view in a certain way. another’s view in a certain way.

The fallacy of argument against the person is The fallacy of argument against the person is committed when one committed when one attempts to refuteattempts to refute another’s viewanother’s view by attacking that personby attacking that person rather than criticizing the view itself.rather than criticizing the view itself.

This fallacy confusesThis fallacy confuses– the credibility of a viewthe credibility of a viewwithwith– the credibility of the person who holds itthe credibility of the person who holds it. .

Three Types of Arguments Three Types of Arguments against the Personagainst the Person

Ad HominemAd Hominem abusive – arguments against someone’s abusive – arguments against someone’s character or ability. character or ability.

Ad HominemAd Hominem circumstantial – arguments against circumstantial – arguments against someone on the basis of their circumstances, e.g., job, someone on the basis of their circumstances, e.g., job, political affiliation, religion, nationality, or associates political affiliation, religion, nationality, or associates (unpopular family, friend, ally etc.).(unpopular family, friend, ally etc.).

Ad Hominem tu quoqueAd Hominem tu quoque – arguments that the person – arguments that the person arguing against a position is associated with the very arguing against a position is associated with the very position being attacked or something just as bad, i.e., position being attacked or something just as bad, i.e.,

accusing someone of being hypocriticalaccusing someone of being hypocritical.. (The Latin (The Latin phrase “phrase “tu quoquetu quoque” means “you, too”.)” means “you, too”.)

Mere Criticism of a Mere Criticism of a Person NOT an Person NOT an Ad Ad hominemhominem Fallacy Fallacy

To criticize someone, for example, by calling him a To criticize someone, for example, by calling him a hypocrite, is not itself a (hypocrite, is not itself a (Ad HominemAd Hominem) fallacy) fallacy..

But if you then say or imply that his view or But if you then say or imply that his view or argument is mistaken, you commit the fallacy.argument is mistaken, you commit the fallacy.

You commit the fallacy when you confuse the You commit the fallacy when you confuse the criticism of a person with the criticism of his view.criticism of a person with the criticism of his view.– Why? Because calling someone “immoral”, Why? Because calling someone “immoral”,

“hypocrite” etc. does not refute his position.“hypocrite” etc. does not refute his position.– A person who murders someone might hold that A person who murders someone might hold that

we should not kill. He is immoral and hypocritical, we should not kill. He is immoral and hypocritical, but his position is probably correct.but his position is probably correct.

A Caution on Argument A Caution on Argument against the Personagainst the Person

Most arguments against the person provide Most arguments against the person provide no evidence against the opponent’s view, so no evidence against the opponent’s view, so they are fallacious.they are fallacious.

However, occasionally an argument against However, occasionally an argument against the person provides evidence that some the person provides evidence that some premise of the opponent’s argument is premise of the opponent’s argument is mistaken. In such a case, the argument mistaken. In such a case, the argument against person casts doubt on the opponent’s against person casts doubt on the opponent’s argument and is NOT fallacious.argument and is NOT fallacious.

Is this case a fallacy? -1-Is this case a fallacy? -1- Ex.: Suppose a politician argues that he is honest, Ex.: Suppose a politician argues that he is honest,

so people should vote for him. A critic counters that so people should vote for him. A critic counters that he is dishonest based on the observations that he he is dishonest based on the observations that he has concealed his bad records, and has distorted has concealed his bad records, and has distorted the data unfavorable to his policy. the data unfavorable to his policy.

Does the critic commit a fallacy? Does the critic commit a fallacy? The critic criticizes the personality of the arguer The critic criticizes the personality of the arguer

(the politician), but it is not a fallacy.(the politician), but it is not a fallacy. Why? Because the critic’s argument provides Why? Because the critic’s argument provides

evidence against the plausibility of the politician’s evidence against the plausibility of the politician’s premise relating his personalitypremise relating his personality (“he is honest”), (“he is honest”), and hence of his argument. and hence of his argument.

Is this case a fallacy? -2-Is this case a fallacy? -2- A prosecutor argued that the defendant is guilty of A prosecutor argued that the defendant is guilty of

murder based on a witness’ testimony. The defense murder based on a witness’ testimony. The defense lawyer attacked the trustworthiness of the witness by lawyer attacked the trustworthiness of the witness by providing the evidences of his past perjury, the evidence providing the evidences of his past perjury, the evidence of his potential benefit from lying, and the evidence that of his potential benefit from lying, and the evidence that his memory is unreliable.his memory is unreliable.

This is not a case of fallacy though the lawyer criticizes This is not a case of fallacy though the lawyer criticizes the personality of witness. Why? the personality of witness. Why?

The lawyer’s argument casts doubt on the prosecutor’s The lawyer’s argument casts doubt on the prosecutor’s argument by providing evidence that he is such a argument by providing evidence that he is such a untrustworthy guy that his testimony may well be false.untrustworthy guy that his testimony may well be false.

The credibility of one’s The credibility of one’s testimonytestimony depends on the depends on the trustworthiness of him or her as its source. Thus, attack trustworthiness of him or her as its source. Thus, attack against the trustworthiness is not a fallacy if testimony is against the trustworthiness is not a fallacy if testimony is a premise of the argument. a premise of the argument.

Sample Arguments (Sample Arguments (Ad Ad PopulumPopulum)) A recruitment billboard whose caption A recruitment billboard whose caption

runs:runs:The Few, the Proud, the The Few, the Proud, the

Marines.Marines. Dean N to an unconvinced faculty:Dean N to an unconvinced faculty:

We have to institute this new curriculum We have to institute this new curriculum if we are going to meet the challenge of if we are going to meet the challenge of the future. I just don’t understand why the future. I just don’t understand why you are dragging your feet against our you are dragging your feet against our attempts to improve our programs here.attempts to improve our programs here.

Appeal to Emotion Appeal to Emotion ((Ad PopulumAd Populum)) The fallacy of appeal to emotion is The fallacy of appeal to emotion is

committed when one tries to make a committed when one tries to make a conclusion or action look true [false] or conclusion or action look true [false] or good [bad] by associating it with good [bad] by associating it with something irrelevant but emotionally something irrelevant but emotionally appealing “to the people” he or she is appealing “to the people” he or she is talking to. talking to.

Appeal to Pity - Appeal to Pity - ExamplesExamples

Members of the jury, I realize there is a good deal of Members of the jury, I realize there is a good deal of evidence that these two brothers killed their parents. But evidence that these two brothers killed their parents. But these kids are now orphans. They have no one to take these kids are now orphans. They have no one to take care of them. They must now face the cruel world alone. care of them. They must now face the cruel world alone. Surely they are not guilty of these heinous crimes.Surely they are not guilty of these heinous crimes.

Please don’t fail me. I know I failed all the exams, but Please don’t fail me. I know I failed all the exams, but you don’t understand how difficult this quarter has been you don’t understand how difficult this quarter has been for me. My girlfriend dumped me, my roommate gave for me. My girlfriend dumped me, my roommate gave me smallpox, my moped has two flat tires, and the Jerry me smallpox, my moped has two flat tires, and the Jerry Springer show turned me down for the episode called Springer show turned me down for the episode called “Guys you wouldn’t let you dead dog date.” “Guys you wouldn’t let you dead dog date.”

Appeal to Pity Appeal to Pity ((Ad MisericordiamAd Misericordiam)) The fallacy of appeal to pity is a special The fallacy of appeal to pity is a special

case of appeal to emotion where the case of appeal to emotion where the emotion appealed to is pity.emotion appealed to is pity.

That is, it is committed when one tries That is, it is committed when one tries to make a conclusion or act appear true to make a conclusion or act appear true [false] or good [bad] by merely evoking [false] or good [bad] by merely evoking pity in the audience. pity in the audience.

Sample ArgumentsSample Arguments((Ad BaculumAd Baculum))

A Professor to his class: I know you’re going to A Professor to his class: I know you’re going to find all of my jokes funny. In the past, all of those find all of my jokes funny. In the past, all of those who haven’t laughed have failed the course.who haven’t laughed have failed the course.

Dear Dean Schmitz: I hope that the application I Dear Dean Schmitz: I hope that the application I sent to your Admission Office will be processed sent to your Admission Office will be processed quickly because my Dad, a steady contributor to quickly because my Dad, a steady contributor to your great university, is anxious to send you his $ your great university, is anxious to send you his $ 1,000,000 donation this year again. I also hope 1,000,000 donation this year again. I also hope you agree that the notice I received indicating you agree that the notice I received indicating that I was not admitted must be an error. After that I was not admitted must be an error. After all, Elizabeth is a fairly common name.all, Elizabeth is a fairly common name.

Appeal to Force (Appeal to Force (Ad Ad BaculumBaculum))

The fallacy of appeal to force is committed when one The fallacy of appeal to force is committed when one uses threat, intimidation with force, or the fear of the uses threat, intimidation with force, or the fear of the audience to motivate them to believe or act in a desired audience to motivate them to believe or act in a desired way. way.

Appeals to force are closely related to appeals to Appeals to force are closely related to appeals to emotion. For they often appeal to the emotion of fear to emotion. For they often appeal to the emotion of fear to motivate people.motivate people.

Even if an argument appeals to the audience’s concern Even if an argument appeals to the audience’s concern or self-interest, it is not enough to be an instance of or self-interest, it is not enough to be an instance of appeal to force. appeal to force. If it is neither threatening nor fearful, If it is neither threatening nor fearful, the argument rather belongs to the broader category of the argument rather belongs to the broader category of appeal to emotionappeal to emotion..

Caution 1 on Appeal to Emotion, Caution 1 on Appeal to Emotion, Pity & ForcePity & ForceConsider these arguments:Consider these arguments: Frank has six hungry children to feed, and his wife Frank has six hungry children to feed, and his wife

desperately needs an operation to save her sight. It is desperately needs an operation to save her sight. It is very charitable of Henry to lend $ 10,000 to Frank.very charitable of Henry to lend $ 10,000 to Frank.

A doctor to Frank’s wife: If you do not have an A doctor to Frank’s wife: If you do not have an operation now, you will lose sight within a year. So operation now, you will lose sight within a year. So you should have an operation immediately.you should have an operation immediately.

Do these arguments commit a fallacy?Do these arguments commit a fallacy? No, even though they include emotionally No, even though they include emotionally

appealing, pitiful or threatening/fearful phrases. appealing, pitiful or threatening/fearful phrases. Caution 1: If phrases are Caution 1: If phrases are relevantrelevant to establishing the to establishing the

conclusions, the arguments including them are NOT conclusions, the arguments including them are NOT the fallacies of appeal to emotion, pity or force.the fallacies of appeal to emotion, pity or force.

Caution 2 on Appeal to Caution 2 on Appeal to Emotion, Pity & ForceEmotion, Pity & Force An instance of appeal to pity is also a An instance of appeal to pity is also a

case of appeal to emotion. An instance case of appeal to emotion. An instance of appeal to force is also a case of appeal of appeal to force is also a case of appeal to emotion if it appeals to the fear of the to emotion if it appeals to the fear of the audience.audience.

However, in the exam or in the logbook However, in the exam or in the logbook of fallacies, you should be maximally of fallacies, you should be maximally specific: that is, you should choose the specific: that is, you should choose the name “appeal to pity” or “appeal to name “appeal to pity” or “appeal to force” when you face such an instance.force” when you face such an instance.

Sample ArgumentSample Argument (Straw Man)(Straw Man) Mr. Rankin has just given his Mr. Rankin has just given his

arguments against affirmative action for arguments against affirmative action for women. It seems that what he is saying women. It seems that what he is saying is that women should stay out of the is that women should stay out of the work place altogether. Just keep them work place altogether. Just keep them barefoot and pregnant. That’s what barefoot and pregnant. That’s what Rankin wants. Well, I think we are all Rankin wants. Well, I think we are all smart enough to reject that argument.smart enough to reject that argument.

Straw ManStraw Man

The fallacy of creating a straw man is committed The fallacy of creating a straw man is committed when an arguer distorts an opponent’s when an arguer distorts an opponent’s argument, demolishes the distorted argument, argument, demolishes the distorted argument, and then concludes that the opponent’s (real) and then concludes that the opponent’s (real) argument has been demolished.argument has been demolished.– It is named for the practice of training soldiers by It is named for the practice of training soldiers by

having them attack straw men.having them attack straw men. Once again, be careful not to be confused by Once again, be careful not to be confused by

colloquial usage (ex. calling a rough draft for colloquial usage (ex. calling a rough draft for submission “straw man”).submission “straw man”).

The Final WarningThe Final Warning

If you deliberately use fallacies to If you deliberately use fallacies to convince people of whatever you want convince people of whatever you want

them to believe,them to believe,

because you do not care about truth but because you do not care about truth but just pretend to do so,just pretend to do so,

you are you are bullshittersbullshitters..

Now try Exercises.Now try Exercises.

First MidtermFirst Midterm The exam on Monday will be in six parts:The exam on Monday will be in six parts: Part 1: Recognizing arguments, explanations and Part 1: Recognizing arguments, explanations and

non-argumentsnon-arguments Part 2: Reconstructing arguments in standard Part 2: Reconstructing arguments in standard

form (including the reconstruction of one form (including the reconstruction of one extended argument)extended argument)

Part 3: Supplying missing premisesPart 3: Supplying missing premises Part 4: The nature of arguments: valid/invalidPart 4: The nature of arguments: valid/invalid Part 5: Validity and soundnessPart 5: Validity and soundness Part 6: Questions about DefinitionsPart 6: Questions about Definitions Part 7: Informal fallaciesPart 7: Informal fallacies

How to prepare for the 1How to prepare for the 1stst midtermmidterm Since the questions in the exam resemble the Since the questions in the exam resemble the

exercises and assignment, try them again.exercises and assignment, try them again.

– The correct answers have been uploaded.The correct answers have been uploaded.

– Don’t forget to check out the Don’t forget to check out the Exercise on Validity and SoundnessExercise on Validity and Soundness. .

• As to the exercises for Day 5 and Day 6, copy As to the exercises for Day 5 and Day 6, copy both, cut them into strips and mix them so that both, cut them into strips and mix them so that you are in the position to name one out of 18 you are in the position to name one out of 18 fallacies.fallacies.

• You might want to check out Midterm Optional You might want to check out Midterm Optional Materials on our carmen webpage.Materials on our carmen webpage.

If you have troubleIf you have trouble

1.1. If you have trouble in solving the questions If you have trouble in solving the questions or explaining why the correct answers are or explaining why the correct answers are correct, go back to the relevant part of the correct, go back to the relevant part of the course packet.course packet.

2.2. If your trouble persists, contact me. You If your trouble persists, contact me. You may send an e-mail to my address (may send an e-mail to my address (suzuki.42@osu.edusuzuki.42@osu.edu). Or you may come to see ). Or you may come to see me during an extra office hour on me during an extra office hour on F & M, F & M, 12:00-14:00 pm in 214 University Hall12:00-14:00 pm in 214 University Hall..