pharmacognosy

PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy

For the students of Pharmacy Technicians

(Category-B)

Compiled BySyed Bilal Hussain

LecturerLahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

Under Supervision of

Dr. Shehla AkbarM.Phil (Pharmacognosy)

Assistant ProfessorLahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Dedication

To

Prof. Dr. Naim Anwar Muzaffar “The Father of Pharmacy”

Whose Dedications Toward Pharmacy Education Are Priceless.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Acknowledgement

I am very grateful to Ch. Muhammad Shamoon, Secretary, Punjab Pharmacy Council, Lahore, who give

me honor to compile PHARMACOGNOSY Book for the students of Pharmacy Technician.

I am very thankful to my teachers Dr. Shehla Akbar who generously contributed their time and efforts to

help me make this book as accurate and useful as possible.

Special thanks to Hafiz Muhammad Zubair & Haroon Shahzad and Dr. Sara for providing help in

composing and proof reading of the text.

Syed Bilal HussainLecturer

Lahore College of Pharmaceutical Sciences

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Contents

PHARMACOGNOSY 9

INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 9

CRUDE DRUGS 11

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 11

Alphabetical Method 11

Morphological Method 11

Taxonomical Method 11

Pharmacological Method 12

Chemical Method 12

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT 12

Leaves 12

Leaflets 13

Stems 13

Flowers 13

Fruit 14

Pulp 14

Seeds 14

Roots 15

Bark 15

Wood 15

Bulb 16

Rhizomes 16

Herb 16

Medicinal Herb 16

Essential Oil (volatile oils) 17

Fatty Oil (non-volatile vegetable oils) 17

Gum 17

Resins 17

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 18

Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation 18

Microscopic Evaluation 18

Chemical Evaluation 19

Physical Evaluation 19

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Biological Evaluation 19

INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY 20

ALLERGY 20

Definition 20

Allergen 21

Types of Allergen 21

Inhalants 21

Contactants 21

Ingestants 21

Injectants 21

Sings & Symptoms of Allergy 22

TYPES OF ALLERGY 22

Environmental Allergy 22

Airborne particles 22

Pollen Allergy 23

Insect bites and Stings 23

Physical & Psychometric Allergy 23

Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis) 23

Cytotoxic Allergy 23

Delayed Hypersensitivity Allergy 23

MEDICAL CASE HISTORY 23

General Examination Includes… 23

Vital Signs 24

Clinical Examination Includes… 24

Investigation 24

SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY 24

Scratch Test for Allergy 25

Patch Tests (contact allergy testing) 25

Intradermal Test 25

THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION 25

GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE 25

METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY 26

Avoidance 26

Vaccinations 27

Pharmacological Methods of Treatment in Allergy 27

ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES) 28

Definitions 28

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Difference Between Enzymes & Catalyst 28

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 28

Catalytic Property 29

Enzymatic Property 29

Solubility 29

pH 29

Temperature 29

Specificity 29

Protein Nature 30

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 30

Oxidoreductases 30

Transferases 30

Hydrolases 31

Lyases 31

Isomerases 31

Ligases 31

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES 31

BROMELAIN 33

PAPAIN 34

SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS 35

Difference Between Extraction and Chromatography 35

CHROMATOGRAPHY 35

Applications of Chromatography 35

Stationary phase 36

Mobile Phase 36

Rf value 36

STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 36

Ascending Chromatography 37

Descending Chromatography 37

Circular or Radial Chromatography 37

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 37

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 37

Stationary Phase in Paper Chromatography 37

Mobile Phase in Paper Chromatography 37

Procedure of Paper Chromatography 37

Styles of Paper Chromatography 38

Application of Paper Chromatography 38

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PHARMACOGNOSY

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) 38

Stationary Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 38

Mobile Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 38

Procedure of Thin layer Chromatography 39

Styles of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 39

Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 39

COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY 40

Stationary Phase in Column Chromatography 40

Mobile Phase Column Chromatography 40

Procedure of Column Chromatography 40

Application of Column Chromatography 40

EXTRACTION 41

Extraction Definition 41

Theory of Extraction 41

Manstrum 41

Marc 41

EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS 42

Infusion 42

Procedure for Infusion Extraction 42

Decoction 42

Procedure for Decoction Extraction 43

Maceration 43

Procedure for Maceration Extraction 43

Multiple Maceration 43

Procedure for Double Maceration 43

Percolation 44

Procedure for Percolation Extraction 44

Continuous Hot Extraction 44

POISONOUS PLANTS 45

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY 45

Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants 45

Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa 46

Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth 47

Plants Causing intestinal Motility 49

PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES 50

PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES 51

CYANOGENETIC PLANTS 53

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PHARMACOGNOSY

GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS

54

Glycosides Containing Plant 54

Alkaloids 54

Volatile Oils (essential oils) 54

Resins and Resin Combination 54

Carbohydrates 54

Tannins 54

Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes) 54

GLYCOSIDES 54

Medically Important Glycoside Containing Plants 55

ALKALOIDS 56

Medically Important Alkaloids Containing Plants 56

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS) 57

Medically Important Volatile Containing Plants 57

RESINS 58

Medically Important Resins Producing Plants 58

CARBOHYDRATES 59

Medically Important Carbohydrates Containing Plants 59

TANNINS 59

Medically Important Tannins Containing Plants 60

FIXED OILS 60

Medically Important Fixed Oils Containing Plants 60

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PHARMACOGNOSY

PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural

sources.

The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines

Pharmacognosy as “the study of the physical, chemical,

biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug

substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources.”

INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY

The word “Pharmacognosy” is derived from the Greek words Pharmakon (drug) and gnosis or

(knowledge). The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian physician

Schmidt in 1811. Originally during the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century

“Pharmacognosy” was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with drugs in their

crude, or unprepared, form.

Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin used for

medicine. Although most Pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived from

plants other types of organisms are also regarded as Pharmacognostically interesting in

particular various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.) and recently various marine

organisms.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY

The Pharmacognosy has played an important role in the

development of various departments of the science.

Pharmacognosy gives a sound knowledge of the vegetable

drugs under botany and animal drugs under zoology.

It also includes plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant

pathology, and plant genetics, by this knowledge one can

improve the cultivation methods for both medicinal and aromatic plants.

Nowadays phytochemistry (plant chemistry) has undergone the significant improvement. This

includes a variety of substances that are accumulated by plants and synthesized by plants.

A vital contribution to the advancement of natural and physical science

This has done by the advanced technologies of cultivation, purification, identification

(characterization) of pharmaceuticals from nature. Concepts of biochemistry and chemical

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PHARMACOGNOSY

engineering help in the improvement of collection, processing and storage technologies of

pharmaceuticals. It also gives knowledge of chemotaxonomy, biogenic pathways for the

formation of acute ingredients.

A vital link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry

Newly detected plant drugs are converting into medicine as purified Phytochemicals.

Pharmacognosy is essential for the evolution of new medicines because crude drugs are used

for the preparation of sources of therapeutically active metabolites.

In short Pharmacognosy is an important link between pharmaceuticals and basic science as well

as ayurvedic and allopathic system of medicines. So Pharmacognosy is a science of active

principles of crude drugs and which can be help in dispensing, formulating, and manufacturing

of dosage forms.

In other way the complete knowledge of Pharmacognosy will help in the recent trend that is in

industries, as a research tools and in new drug delivery systems, and all the departments of

pharmaceuticals and one can improve the healthcare facilities across the world.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

CRUDE DRUGS

A crude drug is any naturally, occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic

sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the

diagnosis, cure treatment or prevention of disease in man or other animals. Or

Crude drugs are vegetable or animal drugs that consist of natural substances that have

undergone only the process of collection & drying.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.

1. Alphabetical Method

2. Morphological Method

3. Taxonomical Method

4. Pharmacological Method

5. Chemical Method

ALPHABETICAL METHOD

In this method drugs are classified according to initial letter of their names e.g.

Acacia Belladonna Camphor

Datura Ephedra Fennel

Books follow this method

European Pharmacopoeia (EP)

British Pharmacopoeia (BP)

MORPHOLOGICAL METHOD

In this method drugs are classified according to their part used e.g.

Roots Drugs Leaf Drugs Bark Drugs Seeds Drugs

Glycyrriza Senna Cinchona Coffee Beens


Pharmacognosy by Wallis

TAXONOMICAL METHOD

In this method, drugs are classified according to their distinguishing characteristics (i.e.

Families) e.g.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Family Umbelliferae: Funnel, Caraway

Family Labiatae: Thyme, Peppermint.


Pharmacognosy by Trease &Evans

PHARMACOLOGICAL METHOD

In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects e.g.

Analgesic Drugs: Aconite, opium

Diuretic Drugs: Salvia, Ocimum


Pharmacology by Lippincott

CHEMICAL METHOD

In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents e.g.

Members of Family Umbelliferae contain Volatile Oils

Members of Family Solanaceae contain Alkaloids


Pharmacognosy by Tyler

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT

LEAVES

Flattened structures of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that are attached to a stem

are called leaves.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

LEAFLETS

One segment of a compound leaf is called leaflet

STEMS

Stems do many things. Support the upper parts of plants, They act like the plant's plumbing

system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the

leaves to other plant parts. All plants have stems. Stems grow up into the air and towards the

light. The leaves and flowers are on the stems.

FLOWERS

A flower is the reproductive structure found in plants. The flowers of plants have always been

popular in traditional medicine. Examples include clove and chamomile flowers.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

FRUIT

A "fruit" is the seed-bearing part of a plant; Fruits have been heavily used for medicinal

purposes. Dried whole fruits or portions of fruits can be used. Many members of the carrot family

have fruits that are used in medicine including fennel fruit and anise.

PULP

The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.

SEEDS

A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with

some stored food. The seeds of many plants are used for their medicinal properties. Seeds may

be contained within a fruit or are sometimes used on their own.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

ROOTS

The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground,

conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers. The

fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes. Roots may be solid (ginseng), fibrous

(stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s claw).

BARK

The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above the wood.

Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark. Examples of bark used

for medicinal properties are quinine bark, oak bark.

WOOD

The hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the plant is called wood. Thick stems

or the wood of trees or shrubs are used for medicinal properties.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

BULB

A bulb is defined as a fleshy structure comprised of numerous layers of leaf bases otherwise

known as bulb scales. Onion species and garlic bulbs are popular for medicinal uses.

RHIZOMES

A rhizome is defined as a fleshy or woody elongated stem that usually grows horizontally below

the ground. Rhizomes often produce leaves above the ground and roots into the ground.

Several medicinal plants are used primarily for their rhizomes including: ginger, wild columbine,

and bloodroot.

HERB

Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate climates usually

dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb) by the end of the

growing season.

MEDICINAL HERB

A medicinal herb is different from botanic term “herb”. It refers to any plants used for medicinal

purposes.

For example, a medicinal herb can be a real herbal plant, a shrub (bush), other woody plant, or

a fungus. The used part may be the seeds, berries, leaves, barks, roots, fruits, or other parts of

a plants, or mushroom, which may be considered "herbs" in medicinal use.

ESSENTIAL OIL (VOLATILE OILS)

These are defined as volatile oils that are generally extracted from plants using a steam

distillation process and have essence (smell). Examples include camphor and peppermint oil.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

FATTY OIL (NON-VOLATILE VEGETABLE OILS)

These are defined as non-volatile vegetable oils that are pressed from the seeds or fruits of

plants and are insoluble in water and leave a spot on paper after drying. Examples of fatty oils

used in medicine are castor oil, olive oil, and safflower oil.

GUM

Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-soluble and are

in part digestible by humans.

RESINS

Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in water. They

are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include frankincense, myrrh,

and mastic.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Identification of drug and determination of its quality and purity is called Evaluation of Drug.

Following method are frequently employed for the determination of quality and purity of Crude

Drugs.

1. Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation

2. Microscopic Evaluation

3. Chemical Evaluation

4. Physical Evaluation

5. Biological Evaluation

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OR MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION

It means evaluation of drug by the organs of sense (skin, eye, tongue,

nose and ear) or macroscopic evaluation and it includes evaluation of

drugs by color, odour, taste, size, shape and special feature, like

touch, texture etc.

For example

Color means external color which varies from white to

brownish black are important diagnostic characters.

General appearance (external marking) of the weight of a crude drug often indicates

whether it is likely to comply with prescribed standard

Taste is specific type of sensation felt by epithelial layer of tongue. It may be acidic

(sour), saline (salt like), saccharin (sweetish), bitter or tasteless (possessing no taste).

Aromatic odor of umbelliferous fruits and sweet taste of liquorices are the examples of

this type of evaluation

Odor of drug depends upon the type and quality of odorous principles (volatile oils)

present.

MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION

It involves detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to identify

the organized drugs by their known histological characters. It is mostly used

for qualitative evaluation of organized crude drugs in entire and powder

forms with help of microscope.

Using microscope detecting various cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata,

starch granules, calcium oxalate crystals and aleurone grains are some of important parameters

which play important role in identification of certain crude drug.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

CHEMICAL EVALUATION

Most of drugs have definite chemical constituents to which their biological or pharmacological

activity is attributed. Qualitative chemical test are used to identify certain

drug or to test their purity.

The isolation, purification, identification of active constituents is based on

chemical methods of evaluation. These qualitative chemical tests are useful in identification of

chemical constituents and detection of adulteration.

PHYSICAL EVALUATION

Physical constants are sometimes taken into consideration to evaluate certain drugs. These

include moisture content, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive, melting point, viscosity and

solubility in different solvents. All these physical properties are useful in identification and

detection of constituents present in plant.

BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION

Some drugs have specific biological and pharmacological activity which is utilized for their

evaluation. Actually this activity is due to specific type of constituents present in the plant

extract.

For evaluation the experiments were carried out on both intact and isolated organs of living

animals. With the help of bioassays (testing the drugs on living animals), strength of drug in its

preparation can also be evaluated.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY

ALLERGY

DEFINITION

According to British immunological society the allergy can be

defined as…

“Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to foreign

particles usually a protein to which a specific individual is

exposed.” OR

“An allergy is sensitivity to a normally harmless substance one that does not bother most

people.

Allergies are abnormal immune system reactions to things that are typically harmless to most

people. When you're allergic to something, your immune system mistakenly believes that this

substance is harmful to your body. (Substances that cause allergic reactions, such as certain

foods, dust, plant pollen, or medicines, are known as allergens.)

In an attempt to protect the body, the immune system produces IgE antibodies to that allergen.

Those antibodies then cause certain cells in the body to release chemicals into the bloodstream,

one of which is histamine.

The histamine then acts on the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, skin, or gastrointestinal tract and

causes the symptoms of the allergic reaction. Future exposure to that same allergen will trigger

this antibody response again. This means that every time you come into contact with that

allergen, you'll have an allergic reaction.

Allergic reactions can be mild, like a runny nose, or they can be severe, like difficulty breathing.

An asthma attack, for example, is often an allergic reaction to something that is breathed into

the lungs by a person who is susceptible.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

ALLERGEN

An allergen is any substance (antigen) that is recognized harmful

by the immune system and causes an allergic reaction. The

allergen can be a food, dust particles, drug, insect venom, or mold

spores, as well as pollen. Allergic people often have sensitivity to

more than one substance”.

TYPES OF ALLERGEN

There are four categories of allergens

1. Inhalants

2. Contactants

3. Ingestants

4. Injectants

INHALANTS

These allergens affect the body when they come in contact with the lungs or membranes of the

nostrils. Pollen is the most common inhaled allergen, including such substances as dust, pollen,

feathers, and animal dander.

CONTACTANTS

Allergens that come in contact with your skin and produce a reaction, such as the rash and

itching are called contactant allergens e.g. cosmetics, detergents, fabrics, and dyes.

INGESTANTS

Ingestant allergens are those that are swallowed. A variety of foods and medications can act as

ingestant allergens. Common ingestant allergens are milk, eggs, peanuts, chocolate etc.

INJECTANTS

Injectant allergens are substances that penetrate the skin, such as insect venom and drugs that

are injected.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

SINGS & SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY

Common Symptoms

Affected Organ Symptom

Nose Swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)

Sinuses Allergic sinusitis

Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis)

Airways

Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea,

sometimes outright attacks of asthma, in severe cases the airway

constricts due to swelling known as laryngeal edema

EarsFeeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing due to the lack

of eustachian tube drainage.

Skin Rashes, eczema and hives (urticaria)

Gastrointestinal

tractAbdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea

TYPES OF ALLERGY

Environmental Allergy

Physical & Psychometric Allergy

Anaphylactic Allergy (Anaphylaxis)

Cytotoxic Allergy

Delayed Hypersensitivity Reaction

ENVIRONMENTAL ALLERGY

Environmental allergy refers to any allergy to pollen, dust, animal dander, smoke etc. Allergic

rhinitis, asthma are common types of reactions to these allergens.

Environmental allergies happen when your body's immune system overreacts to a substance in

the environment. Antibodies in your immune system identify the substance as dangerous even

though it's often not.

AIRBORNE PARTICLES

These are the most common allergens. Examples of airborne particles that can cause allergies

are dust, animal dander and pollen from grass, ragweed, and trees.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

POLLEN ALLERGY

Pollen (male sex cells of the plant) is small, light, dry protein particles produced by trees,

grasses, flowers etc that may be spread by the wind. Pollen is a potent stimulator of allergic

responses. It enters into the nose and in other parts of the respiratory tract causing irritation and

histamine reactions.

INSECT BITES AND STINGS

The venom (poison) in insect bites and stings can cause allergic reactions, and can be severe

PHYSICAL & PSYCHOMETRIC ALLERGY

The primary cause of physical & psychometric allergy is problematic shocks of tissue, cold

water, high or low temperature, extreme anger, sorrow, jealousy, depression, mania & anxiety

are mainly.

ANAPHYLACTIC ALLERGY (ANAPHYLAXIS)

Anaphylaxis is a serious, life-threatening allergic response that is marked by swelling, rashes,

lowered blood pressure, and dilated blood vessels. In severe cases, a person will go into shock.

If it is not treated immediately, it can be fatal. Common causes include insect bites, stings,

foods, and medications.

CYTOTOXIC ALLERGY

This is due to toxic material of allergen when it is ingested by our body. It produces lgG in

response to allergen.

DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITY ALLERGY

Delayed hypersensitivity is a major mechanism of defense against various intracellular

pathogens. Delayed Hypersensitivity Allergy reaction takes two to three days to develop. Unlike

the other types, it is not antibody mediated but rather is a type of cell-mediated response. In

these types of Allergy T-Lymphocytes releases which trigger a series of inflammation reactions.

MEDICAL CASE HISTORY

To determine the circumstances surrounding the patient’s allergy,

doctor must record all details regarding the allergic attacks,

including data on the type of occupation and the familial

background.

GENERAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…

Name and sex

Marital status

Chief complaint

Present illness

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Age

Date of first attack

Place

Time

Mode of onset

Seasonal Variation

Duration

VITAL SIGNS

Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the severity of

allergy can be diagnose.

B.P

Temperature

Breathing Rate

Pulse Rate

Cardiac output

Heart Rate

CLINICAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…

Respiratory tract

Cardiovascular System

GIT

Urinary Tract

Reproductive Systems

INVESTIGATION

Investigational tests includes scratch test, patch test, intradermal test etc

SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY

Skin testing for allergies is used to identify the substances that are causing your allergy

symptoms. It is often performed by applying an extract of an allergen to your skin, scratching or

pricking the skin to allow exposure, and then evaluating the skin's reaction. It may also be done

by injecting the allergen under the skin, or by applying it to a patch that is worn on the skin for a

specified period of time.

Types of skin tests for allergy

The procedure varies depending on what type of allergy skin test you are having. The three

main types of skin tests are

1. Scratch Test

2. Intradermal Test

3. Patch Test

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PHARMACOGNOSY

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PHARMACOGNOSY

SCRATCH TEST FOR ALLERGY

This test involves placing a small amount of suspected allergy

causing substance on the skin (usually fore-arm, upper arm or the

back) and scratching or pricking the skin so that the allergen is

introduced under the skin surface. The skin is observed closely for

signs of a reaction, which are usually swelling and redness. The

results of this test can be obtained with in 20 minutes.

PATCH TESTS (CONTACT ALLERGY TESTING)

In patch test, an allergen is applied to a patch, which is then placed

on your skin. This type of test can detect delayed allergic reactions.

It's generally done to see whether a particular substance is causing

allergic skin irritation or not.

INTRADERMAL TEST

Intradermal allergy testing is another method of skin testing to help

determine whether an individual is allergic to a specific allergen.

The test involves injection of a small amount of the suspected

allergen under the surface of the skin. After about 20 minutes the

area is examined for a reaction at the site of injection. A typical

reaction looks like a small rash with swelling and redness.

THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION

Normally, a person's immune system clearly distinguishes between harmful and harmless

foreign bodies and it reacts only to harmful bodies like various pathogenic bacteria and virus.

When immune system fails to recognize harmless bodies as "harmless" it reacts to them and

produces various symptoms in the form of allergic manifestations.

GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE

When an allergen enters our body, the IgE are produced.

Then IgE & Mast cell form a complex.

On re-exposure Allergen binds with this complex.

As a result the mast cell bursts and releases histamine.

This histamine produces allergic symptoms such as redness, swelling, heat, itching etc.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY

AVOIDANCE

In some cases, like food allergies, avoiding the allergen is a life-saving necessity. That's

because, unlike allergies to airborne particles that can be treated with shots or medications, the

only way to treat food allergies is to avoid the allergen entirely. For example, people who are

allergic to peanuts should avoid not only peanuts, but also any food that might contain even tiny

traces of them.

Avoidance can help protect people against non-food or chemical allergens, too. In fact, for some

people, eliminating exposure to an allergen is enough to prevent allergy symptoms and they

don't need to take medicines or go through other allergy treatments.

Here are some things that can help you avoid airborne allergens:

Keep family pets out of certain rooms, like your bedroom, and bathe them if necessary.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Remove carpets from your room (hard floor surfaces don't collect dust as much as

carpets do).

Clean frequently

Use special covers to seal pillows and mattresses if you're allergic to dust mites.

If you're allergic to pollen, keep windows closed when pollen season's at its peak,

change your clothing after being outdoors and don't mow (plant cutting or grass cutting)

lawns.

If you're allergic to mold, avoid damp areas, such as basements, and keep bathrooms

and other mold-prone areas clean and dry.

VACCINATIONS

After the confirmation of specific Allergy type & kind of allergen a specific vaccine is injested to

the patient & he/she remain save from the attack of this particular allergy for specific period of

time.

PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY

In pharmacological interventions usually Histamine blocking agents e.g. cetrizine Levocetrizine

etc are used. If the Allergy is infectious than suitable antibiotic can be added.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES)

DEFINITIONS

Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms.

Enzymes are important group of bio-molecules synthesized by the

living cells. They are catalysts of biological systems, colloidal,

thermo-labile and protein in nature.

Catalysts

A catalyst is an agent, which in minute amount increases the velocity of a reaction without

appearing in the final product of the reaction.

Substrates

Substances on which enzymes act to convert them into products are called substrates.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENZYMES & CATALYST

Enzymes Catalysts

All the enzymes are organic

substances

Enzymes mostly destroyed

during the reaction

Enzymes are more specific in

Nature

Enzymes are very complex in

Nature

Speed of the enzyme reaction

does not depend on the

concentration

All the catalysts are inorganic

substances

Catalysts are not destroyed in the

chemical reaction

Catalysts are non-specific in

Nature

Catalysts are very simple

compounds or substances

Speed of catalyst reaction will

depends upon the concentration

of catalyst

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

Catalytic property

Enzymatic property

Solubility

pH

Temperature

- 29 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Specificity

Protein nature

CATALYTIC PROPERTY

Small amount of enzyme can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in biological reactions.

ENZYMATIC PROPERTY

The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate increases

up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.

SOLUBILITY

Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes ca precipitate in

concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, Tricholoro Acitic Acid.

PH

Acid:

Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g Trypsin. At acidic pH, it will destroy,

(Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very important for proper

digestion of food).

Base:

Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will destroy.

TEMPERATURE

Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 o C to 40o C.

At 0 o C inactive

At 10 o C to 20 o C very little active

At 35 o C to 40 o C max. Active

At 50 o C inactive

At 60 o C destroy

In solid condition, it may be stable up to 100 o C.

SPECIFICITY

Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the substrates that

are involved in these reactions.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

PROTEIN NATURE

In general with the exception of “Riboizymes, which are few RNA molecules with enzymatic

activities” all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES

Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix “ase” to the name of the substrate, e.g.

enzymes acting on “nucleic acid” are known as “nuclease”. Even-though few exceptions such as

Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use. Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive

forms and called as Proenzymes or Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen.

There are six main classes of enzymes

1. Oxidoreductases

2. Transferases

3. Hydrolases

4. Lyases

5. Isomerases

6. Ligases

(Catch word to remember the classes of enzymes: OTH-LIL)

OXIDOREDUCTASES

These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase, Lactate

dehydrogenase.

Examples…

Oxidases

Reductases

TRANSFERASES

Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group)

from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor).

For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase.

AX + B → A + BX

In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is often a

coenzyme.

There are many types of transferases, some important are

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Transaminases

Phosphotransferases

Transmethylases

Transpeptideases

HYDROLASES

These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g Pepsin, Trypsin

They have many subgroups some important are

Carbohydrases

Aminohydrolases

Lipids Hydrolyzing Enzymes

LYASES

Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g. Histidine

Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase.

ISOMERASES

Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase.

LIGASES

Enzymes involved in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine

Synthetase.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions.

Decrease in activation energy

Digestion

Cheese making

Sweetener

As detergent

As drug

For cancer treatment

Curing of diseases

Blood clotting

Alcoholic beverages

Meat tenderizing

Decrease in Activation Energy

Enzymes decrease activation energy.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Digestion

Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and non-diffusible

molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin, Lipase, Amylase.

Cheese Making

Enzymes are also used in the manufacturing of cheese.

Sweetener

Some enzymes are used as sweetener,

e.g. Sucrose (glucosidase enzyme) Glucose + Fructose

Glucose is 72% sweeter while fructose is 132% sweeter than sucrose.

As Detergent

Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as detergent, e.g.

Proteases

As Drug

Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.

For cancer Treatment

Some enzymes are used for cancer treatment, e.g. L. Asparginase

Curing of Diseases

Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and jaundice, for

heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain Kinases are used.

Blood Clotting

Enzymes also cause blood clotting by protein thrombin.

Alcoholic Beverages

Amylase is used in manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.

Meat Tenderizing

Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of digestion.

- 33 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

- 34 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

BROMELAIN

Bromelain belongs to a group of a protein digesting enzymes obtained

commercially from the fruit or stem of pineapple plant that helps digest

protein when taken with food. However, When taken without food (that

is, with plain water on an otherwise empty stomach), bromelain have

natural antihistamine properties and as such is believed to help support

the normal function of the respiratory tract.

Sources of Bromelain

Bromelain is an enzyme derived from the stems of pineapples

Color

Yellowish-white to tan powder

Solubility

Readily soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents such as acetone, ether, ethanol and

methanol.

Molecular Weight

Approximately 33,000

Uses

Bromelain a potential anti-inflammatory agent

It is used as a supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and edema

It is widely used in leather factory

It is used in the production of protein

Along with papain, bromelain is one of the most popular substances to use for meat

tenderizing.

Bromelain can prevent aggregation of human blood platelets in vivo and in vitro.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

PAPAIN

Papain, enzyme present in the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya

plant that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins by hydrolysis (addition

of a water molecule).

Source

It is obtained from the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya plant

Color

It has amorphous light whitish color powder

Solubility

It is easily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone

Molecular Weight

The pure crystalline enzyme, papain, has a molecular weight of 21000

Uses

Papain is used in biochemical research involving the analysis of proteins

Tenderizing of meat

Clarification of beverages (soft and hard drinks)

Papain is used in enzyme-action cleansing agents for soft contact lenses

It is used to remove the protein molecules

It is also used in toothpastes and cosmetics and in preparations of various remedies for

indigestion, ulcers, fever, and swelling

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PHARMACOGNOSY

SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS

Medicinal plant contains number of constituents located in different concentration in different

parts of it. The plants are also very complex in nature and method for separation and isolation

depending on it. Various steps are involved in the isolation of chemical constituents.

Extraction is the most important first step for isolation of any compound. The solvent used for

the extraction is based on the polarity of the active constituent. Different solvent systems are

available to extract the bioactive compound from natural products.

Once extract is prepared, separation techniques e.g. chromatography is used for further

separation of the active constituents.

Chromatography and extraction are two most common processes used to isolate or separate

the plant constituents; we will discuss these two processes in detail.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRACTION AND CHROMATOGRAPHY

Extraction

The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.

Chromatography

The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different compounds is separated

on the basis of their relative polarity difference.

APPLICATIONS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

The fundamental applications of Chromatography are following.

It is involve in the separation of different protein molecule.

It is also involve in the separation of different pharmaceutical chemicals.

Chromatography is also used to separate different tissue and biological fluids.

It is also an important techniques used in analysis of medicines.

Environmental Protection Agencies use chromatography to test drinking water and to

monitor air quality

Ion exchange chromatography separates compounds based on net surface charge

- 37 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

STATIONARY PHASE

The phase or components of Chromatographic procedure that are non-mobile phase or fixed is

known as stationary phase.

For example

Chromatography paper

Tale

Mg-oxide

Al-oxide

Activated charcoal

MOBILE PHASE

This is the phase or components of Chromatography procedure which has ability to move e.g.

solvent used in paper Chromatography.

The most popular mobile phase is used Chromatography are…

Petroleum ether

Propanol

Ethanol

Acetone

RF VALUE

The retention factor, Rf, is a quantitative indication of how far a particular compound travels in a

particular solvent. If the Rf value for the unknown compound is close or the same as the Rf

value for the known compound then the two compounds are most likely similar or identical.

We can say that, Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any substances to the

distance covered by the Mobile Phase/ Solvent

Rf = Distance covered by substance / Distance covered by solvent

STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. Ascending Chromatography

2. Descending Chromatography

3. Circular or Radial Chromatography

- 38 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

ASCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY

In ascending Chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the components of

mixture are separated in the form of spot.

DESCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY

In descending Chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The compounds of

mixture separated in the form of spots.

CIRCULAR OR RADIAL CHROMATOGRAPHY

In circular Chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the different

compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. Paper Chromatography

2. Thin Layer Chromatography

3. Column Chromatography

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Paper Chromatography is one of the most common types of

chromatography. It uses a strip of paper as the stationary phase.

Capillary action is used to pull the solvents up through the paper and

separate the solutes.

STATIONARY PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper

Chromatography.

MOBILE PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

PROCEDURE OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. First of all we will take Chromatographic paper and cut it down according to the style of

Chromatography e.g. redial , ascending, or descending

2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom sides in case of descending

the line is drown on upper of Chromatographic paper. The line is called baseline. The

distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied into mobile

phase in a Chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the components of sample

will separate and finally Rf value of each component is calculated.

4. In case of radial Chromatography the sample is applied in the center and thread has

been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move under the papillary action

and components of sample will separate in the form or rings finally Rf value of all the

components is calculated.

STYLES OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

Ascending Chromatography

Descending Chromatography

Redial Chromatography

APPLICATION OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

It is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API)

It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given compound

It is used in the identification of poison

It is used in the analysis of different medicine

It is used in the separation of different body tissue

It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

Thin-layer Chromatography uses an absorbent material on

flat glass or plastic plates.

STATIONARY PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase.

MOBILE PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY


- 40 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

PROCEDURE OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

First of all we will take special thin layer chromatographic paper coated with the

absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g. radial, circular

ascending descending

In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side which case of

descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line is called

baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5 cm.

After drying the plate, the sample is applied in the center of baseline and the plate

enclosed into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time, the

components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each component is

calculated.

STYLES OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

Ascending Chromatography

Descending Chromatography

Redial Chromatography

APPLICATION OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

This is a simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic compound

Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of

fibers.

Determination of the components a plant contains

Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water

Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics sciences

Identifying compounds present in a given substance

Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals

- 41 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

In column chromatography, the stationary phase, a

solid adsorbent, is placed in a vertical glass

(usually) column. The mobile phase, a liquid, is

added to the top and flows down through the

column by either gravity or external pressure.

STATIONARY PHASE IN COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

The stationary phase or adsorbent in column

chromatography is a solid. The most common stationary phase for column chromatography is

silica gel, alumina, cellulose powder has often been used.

MOBILE PHASE COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY


PROCEDURE OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter from 50mm

and a height of 50cm to 1m with a tap at the bottom. The stationary phase is a powdered

adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column. The mixture to be analyzed is loaded on

top of this column.

The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the leaded column. The solvent flows down the

column causing the components of the mixture to distribute between the powdered adsorbent

and the solvent thus separating the components of the mixture so that as the solvent flows out

of the bottom of the column some components elute with early collections and other

components elute with late fractions.

APPLICATION OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines

It is used in the Analysis of medicine

It is used for the purification of water & other organic solvents in pharmaceutical industry

It is used in the separation of different body tissue

- 42 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

EXTRACTION

Extraction is a very common laboratory procedure used when isolating or purifying a product.

Plants contain a broad range of bioactive compounds such as lipids; Phytochemicals,

pharmaceutics, flavors, fragrances and pigments.

Extraction Techniques are used to obtain such valuable natural compounds from plants for

commercialization.

EXTRACTION DEFINITION

Separation of medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert

components by using selective solvents is called extraction procedures. Or

It is the specialized type procedure that involves the separation of different compounds on the

basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible solvent. OR

The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active pharmaceutical

ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant origin).

THEORY OF EXTRACTION

Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these are very much

common on all types of extraction.

Suitable size reduction of crude drug

Selection of suitable solvent

Penetration of solvent into the crude drug

The cell should be at right position to collect to solution

Supply of appropriate heat

Separation of solvent from marc

Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug

MANSTRUM

Any liquid that is used for extractions procedure is called manstrum.

MARC

The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.

- 43 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS

1. Infusion

2. Decoction

3. Maceration

4. Percolation

5. Digestion

6. Continuous Hot Extraction

INFUSION

Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant material in a

solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent

over time.

This process or technique is usually used for soft nature of drug. The extracts that are

formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours, so it is recommended to

use these kinds of extracts freshly.

A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes (herbal tea) are prepared in the

same way. Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly used as herbal remedies.

Coffee can also be made through infusion, but is more often made through percolation.

PROCEDURE FOR INFUSION EXTRACTION

First of all the nature of the drug is checked

If the nature of the drug is soft, no need to cut or crush it into pieces

if drug has little harder, then cut or crush it in to pieces

place the drug into the infusion pot

Now heat the manstrum up to 200c to 250c

Pour the hot manstrum on the drug and allow to settle for 15 minutes or according to the

requirement

Finally filter it and the extract is ready to use

DECOCTION

It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or coarse

particles. Drugs are together boiled with water for certain are given period of time then cooled

and filtered. Decoction preparation always used freshly because their half life is about 24 hours.

- 44 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Decoctions are suitable for roots, barks, large seeds & berries, and other dense material, or for

lighter materials where maximum extraction is required of constituents (such as tannins) that are

stable to heat.

PROCEDURE FOR DECOCTION EXTRACTION

Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as manstrum.

The drug that is selected for decoction procedure should be hard.

The drug should be in powder or coarse particles form

Put the entire drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the manstrum on the drug.

Heat the drug and manstrum mixture to boil.

After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the mixture to cool

down.

After the cooling phase filter the mixture.

The filter mixture is now ready to use as an extract.

MACERATION

This method requires prolong time. In this method drug is powdered and cover up in the porous

cloth then it is dipped in the manstrum for 2 to 14 days as required.

PROCEDURE FOR MACERATION EXTRACTION

Drugs are triturate to fine powders

Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.

Select suitable manstrum

After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the manstrum for 2 to 14

days.

The pouch is removed after the definite time

Finally adjust the volume of extraction as required.

MULTIPLE MACERATION

Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as far as its accuracy is concern.

The basic aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to manstrum.

In multiple maceration, we prefer the alcohol as manstrum on other manstrum like wise water.

PROCEDURE FOR DOUBLE MACERATION

Drugs are triturate to fine powders

Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.

- 45 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Select suitable manstrum

The manstrum is divided into two portions A and B

The crude drug pouch is dipped into manstrum A for specific period of time. After that

time the manstrum A is separated and preserved the marc.

The marc is again dipped into the manstrum B for specific period of time

After that time the marc is pressed and manstrum B is separated

Mixed the manstrum A and B and adjust the volume.

PERCOLATION

It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed in a porous vessel

known as percolator and manstrum is allowed to pass through the communicated drug. The

extract that we obtained from the percolation and procedure is called percolate. The percolation

procedure can be properly explained under following heading.

PROCEDURE FOR PERCOLATION EXTRACTION

The drug should be of suitable size, it will enhance the surface area of drug and the

movement of manstrum becomes slow.

The solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the specified

manstrum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well closed container

Then drug is packed in percolator and the top of the percolator is closed

Additional manstrum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass

mixture is allowed to macerate (soften or become softened by soaking in a liquid) in the

closed percolator for 24 h

The outlet of the percolator then is opened and collect the extraction

Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the required volume

CONTINUOUS HOT EXTRACTION

In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Manstrum is placed in

lower flask. A reflex condenser is placed at the upper portion. When heat is applied to the

manstrum it converts itself into vapors. These vapors are condensed by reflux condenser. The

drops of manstrum tickle down in the drug chamber and purified extract is obtained from

collection point.

- 46 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

POISONOUS PLANTS

(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PAKISTAN)

There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. Theses plants

have the ability to produce some harmful and long-term effects on the human body.

These poisonous plants can be classified as

Plants Causing GIT Toxicity

Plants Causing CNS Toxicity

Plants Causing CVS Toxicity

Cyanogenetic Plants

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY

1. Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants

Arisaema triphyllum

Colocasia esculenta

2. Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa

Narcissus tazetta

Amaryllis

3. Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth

Datura stramonium

Atropa belladonna

4. Plants Causing Intestinal Motility

Conium maculatum

Nicotiana tobaccum

MOUTH OR ORAL CAVITY TOXIC PLANTS

Name of Plants: Arisaema triphyllum, Colocasia esculenta

Family: Araceae

- 47 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Habitat: sindh, Gilgit, Swat, Ayubia and Nathiagli

Toxicology

The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity toxicity occur is calcium oxalate.

Symptoms

Intense burning sensation

Mouth less of sensation

Dermatitis

Blister on tongue

Increase salivation

Loss of voice is also reported

Colocasia esculenta

Arisaema triphyllum

PLANTS TOXIC TO GASTRIC MUCOSA

Name of Plants: Narcissus tazetta, Amaryllis

Family: Amaryllidaceae

Habitat: Gilgit, Swat Wally Punjab, Sindh

- 48 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Toxicology

There are various alkaloids in these plants that cause multiple symptoms

Symptoms

Inflammation and burning sensation

of mouth

Gastritis

Headache

Increase salivation nasal secretion

Narcissus tazetta

Amaryllis

PLANTS CAUSING DRYNESS OF MOUTH

Name of Plants: Datura stramonium

Family: Solanaceae

Habitat: swat, Gilgit, chitral, muree and Kashmir.

Toxicology

- 49 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly hyoscine and

hyocyamine if any human ingested there raw plants they can cause toxicity

If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by some animal and their meat is used by human

can caused toxicity

Symptoms

Dryness of mouth

Dyspnea

Fatigue

Eye sight weakness

Muscular weakness

Datura stramonium

Name of Plants: Atropa belladonna

Family: Solanceae

Habitat: Muree, Hazara, Nansehra, and Chitral

Toxicology

The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa belladonna is atropine.

Symptoms

Dryness of mouth

Muscular relaxation

Fever

Nausea

Vomiting

Atropa belladonna

- 50 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

PLANTS CAUSING INTESTINAL MOTILITY

Name of Plants: Conium maculatum

Family: Umbelliferae

Habitat: Hazara, Abottabad, and hills of muree and Chitral

Toxicology

There are many alkaloids present in Conium maculatum that cause multiple symptoms

Symptoms

Increase the intestinal motility

Paralysis of motor Nerve ending

Paralysis of spinal card

Respiratory Depression

Drowsiness

Conium maculatum

Name of Plants: Nicotiana tobaccum

Family: Solanaceae

Habitat: it is widely available in rural sindh, Punjab and N.W.F.P.

Toxicology

There are mainly alkaloids available in Nicotiana tobaccum. But the most effective is nicotine.

Symptoms

Enhance the motility of intestine

Diarrhea

- 51 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Nicotiana tobaccum

PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES

1. Digitalis purpurea

2. Digitalis lanata

3. Nerium indicum

Name of Plants: Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Habitat: Hazara, Azad Kashmir

Toxicology

These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the most active are Digoxin, Digitoxin

and Gitoxin.

Symptoms

Ventricular tachycardia

Vomiting

Sinus arrhythmia

shortness of breath

Drowsiness

Fatigue

- 52 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Digitalis purpurea

Name of Plants: Nerium indicum

Family: Apocynaceae

Habitat: Muree, Chitral and Azad Kashmir

Toxicology

Roots, barks and seeds contain toxins the most active are “nerodine” and karabin.

Symptoms

Hypertension

Cardiac arrhythmia

Ventricular tacky cardia

Increase impulse rate

Nausea

Vomiting

Chest pain

Nerium indicum

PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES

1. Cannabis sativa

2. Cicuta virosa

- 53 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Name of Plants: Cannabis sativa

Family: Cannabinaceae/ Moraceae

Habitat: it is widely available in NWFP and Punjab

Toxicology

The glandular trichomes of Cannabis sativa is secreted a resin which usually a waste material

called as Narcotic resin.

Symptoms

Shrinkage of mouth

Dryness of mouth

Dry cough

Constipation

Depression

The addict person will not enjoy the

color of life

Vomiting

Headache

Hallucination

Cannabis sativa

Name of Plants: Cicuta virosa


Habitat: hilly area of Azad Kashmir

Toxicology

In Cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called cicutoxin is a slightly alcoholic in

nature the barks of the Cicuta virosa is more toxic then the seeds and leaves of this plant.

Symptoms

Depression

Tremor

Respiratory depression which

ultimately leads to respiratory failure

Increase salivation

- 54 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

Nausea Vomiting

Cicuta virosa

CYANOGENETIC PLANTS

Name of Plants: Manihot esculenta

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Habitat

It is easily available in the forests of Northern area

Toxicology

There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on the living

systems

Symptoms

Convulsion

Muscular weakness

Liver damage

Vomiting

Manihot esculenta

- 55 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS

GLYCOSIDES CONTAINING PLANT

1. Cassia angustifolia

2. Cassia fistula

3. Aloe barbadensis

4. Urginea maritima

ALKALOIDS

1. Rauwolfia serpentina

2. Catharanthus roseus

3. Ephedra sinica

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)

1. Foeniculum vulgare

2. Carum carvi

3. Curcuma longa

RESINS AND RESIN COMBINATION

1. Citrullus colocynthis

2. Styrax benzoin

CARBOHYDRATES

1. Acacia senegal

2. Astragalus gummifer

TANNINS

1. Acacia catechu

2. Quercus infectoria

LIPIDS (FIXED OILS, FATS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS WAXES)

1. Prunus amygdalus

2. Aloe barbadensis

GLYCOSIDES

Glycosides are a class of molecules in which, a sugar molecule is bonded to a "non-sugar"

molecule. Glycosides play important role in our lives. Many plants store medicinally important

- 56 -

PHARMACOGNOSY

chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. The non-sugar portion contains the biochemically

active properties of medical interest. Once the glycoside is split into its two components (sugar

and non-sugar parts), the non-sugar component is now free to exert its chemical effects on the

body.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT GLYCOSIDE CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Cassia angustifolia

2. Cassia fistula

3. Aloe barbadensis

4. Urginea maritima

Botanical Name: Cassia angustifolia

Drug: Senna, Senna is a natural medicine containing Sennosides that are derived from the

leaves of the Senna plant.

Chemical Class: Glycoside

Family: Leguminosae

Chemical Constituent: Sennosides

Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, Laxative, Senna is also used for weight loss.

Botanical Name: Cassia fistula

Drug: Cassia


Family: Leguminosae

Chemical Constituent: Sennosides

Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, the fruit pulp is considered a purgative

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis

Drug: Aloe


Family: Liliaceae

Chemical Constituent: Aloin

Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, speed up the process of healing to burns and other wounds,

moisturizes and softens your skin

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Botanical Name: Urginea maritima

Drug: Squill


Family: Liliaceae

Chemical Constituent: Scillaridin-A

Medicinal Uses: Diuretic, Anti-emetic, Squill is a cardio tonic similar to digitalis. It also has been

used in hair tonics to treat dandruff

ALKALOIDS

Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms. The

name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing base and

organic compounds.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT ALKALOIDS CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Rauwolfia serpentina

2. Catharanthus roseus

3. Ephedra sinica

Botanical Name: Rauvolfia serpentina

Drug: Rauwolfia

Chemical Class: Alkaloids

Family: Apocynaceae

Chemical Constituent: Reserpine

Medicinal Uses: Alkaloids present in this plant reduce blood pressure, depress activity of the

central nervous system and act as hypnotics and Sedative.

Botanical Name: Catharanthus roseus

Drug: Catharanthus


Family: Apocynaceae

Chemical Constituent: Vinblastine and Vincristine

Medicinal Uses: Anti Cancer, the leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is used

for the treatment of diabetes.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Botanical Name: Ephedra sinica

Drug: Ephedra


Family: Ephedraceae

Chemical Constituent: Ephedrine

Medicinal Uses: Anti asthmatic, Bronchodilator. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a

performance-enhancing drug. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in

combination with aspirin and caffeine.

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS)

Volatile oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds

(fragrance) from plants. Volatile oils are also known as Essential oils.

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Essential oils have

been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils

range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT VOLATILE CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Foeniculum vulgare

2. Carum carvi

3. Curcuma longa

Botanical Name: Foeniculum vulgare

Drug: Fennel

Chemical Class: Volatile oil


Chemical Constituent: Fenchone

Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

Botanical Name: Carum carvi

Drug: Caraway



Chemical Constituent: Limonene

Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Botanical Name: Curcuma longa

Drug: Curcuma


Family: Zingiberaceae

Chemical Constituent: Curcumin

Medicinal Uses: Anti inflammatory, Use in jaundice, Use in gall stones

RESINS

A natural or synthetic organic compound, consisting of non-crystalline, solid, viscous liquid

substance or mixture. Natural resins are usually transparent or translucent yellow to brown and

can melt and burn.

The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of volatile fluid

terpenes, with lesser components of dissolved non-volatile solids which make resin thick and

sticky.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT RESINS PRODUCING PLANTS

1. Citrullus colocynthis

2. Styrax benzoin

Botanical Name: Citrullus colocynthis

Drug: Colocynth


Family: Cucurbitaceae

Chemical Constituent: corocynthix, peciten phosphate

Medicinal Uses: Cathartic

Botanical Name: Styrax benzoin

Drug: Benzoin


Family: Styraceae

Chemical Constituent: Coniferyl benzoate

Medicinal Uses: Antiseptic, Expectorant

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PHARMACOGNOSY

CARBOHYDRATES

A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon (C),

hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms.

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the

storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in

plants).

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT CARBOHYDRATES CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Acacia senegal

2. Astragalus gummifer

Botanical Name: Acacia senegal

Drug: Acacia Gum

Chemical Class: Carbohydrate

Family: Leguminosae

Chemical Constituent: Arabic acid

Medicinal Uses: Acacia gum is used as a demulcent (a substance that relieves irritation of the

mucous membranes in the mouth by forming a protective film). It is used topically for healing

wounds and has been shown to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. It is also used as a binding

agent.

Botanical Name: Astragalus gummifer

Drug: Tragacanth

Chemical Class: carbohydrate

Family: Leguminosae

Chemical Constituent: Tragacanthin

Medicinal Uses: Tragacanth has been used for constipation; Modern pharmaceutical uses

include an adhesive agent for pills and tablets, and for emulsifying oil droplets in lotions, creams

and pastes. Its superior water absorbing qualities make it an excellent thickening agent.

TANNINS

Any of a class of yellowish or brownish solid compounds found in many plants and used as

tanning agents, mordents, or medical astringents.

(Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals to produce leather)

(A mordant is a substance used to set dyes on fabrics or tissue)

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PHARMACOGNOSY

(An astringent substance is a chemical compound that tends to shrink or constrict body tissues)

The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a role

in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth regulation.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT TANNINS CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Acacia catechu

2. Quercus infectoria

Botanical Name: Acacia catechu

Drug: Catechu

Chemical Class: Tannin

Family: Leguminosae

Chemical Constituent: Catechin

Medicinal Uses: Catechu is used in traditional medicine for sore throats and diarrhea; it is also

used as anti-inflammatory, anti-diuretic. It enhance digestion and curing skin disorders.

Botanical Name: Quercus infectoria

Drug: Nut gall

Chemical Class: Tannin

Family: Fagaceae

Chemical Constituent: Gallic acid

Medicinal Uses: Nut gall extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed additives,

dyes and inks manufacturing.

FIXED OILS

Non-volatile oils especially fatty oils of vegetable origin are called fixed oils. Fixed oils do not

evaporate like essential oil and are often called carrier oils.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FIXED OILS CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Prunus amygdalus

2. Aloe barbadensis

Drug: Almond

Botanical Name: Prunus amygdalus

Chemical Class: Lipids (Fixed oil)

Family: Rosaceae

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PHARMACOGNOSY

Chemical Constituent: Sphingolipid

Medicinal Uses: Regulation of cholesterol, Immune System Strength, Anti-Inflammation,

Regulation of blood pressure, Prevention of cancer

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis

Drug: Aloe vera

Chemical Class: Lipids (fixed oil)

Family: Asphodelaceae

Chemical Constituent: Saponins & salicylic acid

Medicinal Uses: Used for moisturizing skin, it is used in creams & lotions, It is a well known

healing and soothing agent for damaged and dry skin, It is soothing and healing for burns skin

irritations.

Course Outlines

PHARMACOGNOSY (WRITTEN)

Paper 3 Part-1 (100) Marks

1. Introduction and scope of Pharmacognosy

2. Classification of crude drugs.

3. Terminology used in Pharmacognosy.

4. Evaluation of crude drugs i.e. organoleptic, physical, chemical and biological.

5. Introduction, case history, skin test, treatment and mechanism of allergy.

6. Enzymes obtained from plant source (Phyto-enzymes)

7. General introductions of poisonous plants with special reference to Pakistan.

8. Separation and isolation of plant constitutions. An introduction to chromatography and

chromatographic techniques e.g.

a) Column chromatography

b) Paper chromatography

c) Thin layer chromatography

9. Introduction to extraction and extraction techniques.

10. General introduction, classification and medicinal uses of important plants containing:

a) Glycosides

b) Alkaloids

c) Volatile oils (essential oils)

d) Resins and Resin combination

e) Carbohydrates

f) Tannins

g) Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes)

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pharmacognosy

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