p.giammalvo phdthesis 2008

Is project management a profession? If yes, where does it fit in and if not, what is it?

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Strategy, Programme & Project Management

June, 2003 to August 2007

by

Paul D. Giammalvo CDT, PMP, CCE, MScPM, PhD Candidate

[email protected]

ESC-Lille University

Under the Supervision of Professor Christophe N. BREDILLET

PhD, D.Sc., MBA, Ingénieur EC Lille, CPD IPMA Level A, PRINCE2 Practitioner, CCE

Professor of Strategy, Programme & Project Management Dean Postgraduate Programmes

ESC Lille – Lille School of Management

Avenue Willy Brandt 59777 Euralille – France

Phone: +33 3 20 21 59 72/73 – Fax: +33 3 20 21 59 74

Email: [email protected]

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Table of contents

List of exhibits viii List of tables vix List of figures x Acknowledgments xii Declaration xiii Abstract xiv

CHAPTER 1

Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Context of the study 2 1.3 The nature of the problem 3 1.4 Statement of the research problem 4 1.5 The objectives of the study 5 1.6 Methodology 6

1.6.1 Research design overview 1.6.2 Professions used for benchmarking 1.6.3 Project phases

1.7 Stakeholder analysis 15 1.7.1 Stakeholder meetings/discussions 1.7.2 Consumers 1.7.3 Society 1.7.4 Professional organizations 1.7.5 Employers 1.7.6 Academics/institutions of higher learning 1.7.7 Consultants 1.7.8 Practitioners

1.8 The significance of the study 22 1.9 Definitions of the key terms 23 1.10 Organization of the thesis 30

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CHAPTER 2

Literature review and preliminary research 33 2.1 Introduction: Considering the nature of professions 33 2.2 The concept of a profession: An historical and semantic perspective 34

2.2.1 The concept of professional project managers in the professions 2.2.2 Evolution of the concept of professionalism 2.2.3 Researching words and their meanings 2.2.4 General and dictionary definitions

2.3 The concept of a profession: Legal definitions 51 2.3.1 Legal definitions 2.3.2 Fiduciary responsibility defined and explained 2.3.3 ‘Legal no man’s land’ in defining a profession

2.4 The concept of a profession: Sociological definitions 66 2.4.1 Sociological definitions 2.4.2 Sociological models

2.5 The concept of a profession: Economic definitions 72 2.6 The concept of a profession: Semantic definitions 74

2.6.1 Semantic definitions 2.6.2 Equitable estoppel as a special case definition

2.7 Definitions summarized 79

CHAPTER 3A

Case study 1: Construction project management 85 Introduction to the case studies 85 3A.1 Case Study 1: Construction project management 86

3A.1.1 The concept of construction project management (CM) 3A.1.2 History of construction project management 3A.1.3 Construction project management: Is it a profession?

3A.2 Summary of case study 1: Construction project management 120 3A.3 Recommendations to improve the standing 121 3A.4 Summary 126

CHAPTER 3B

Case study 2: Commercial airline piloting 127 3B.1 Commercial airline pilot: A project manager? 127 3B.2 Comparison and preliminary evaluation:

Commercial aircraft pilot 154 3B.2.1 Cruciality: Need is important/need is immediate 3B.2.2 Dénouement: Practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively

quickly 3B.2.3 Long period of training including higher education 3B.2.4 Subscribe to a code of ethics 3B.2.5 Service to the public, including pro bono work 3B.2.6 Publishing in learned journals 3B.2.7 Advertising not permitted or restricted 3B.2.8 Use of title restricted by law

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3B.3 Comparison and preliminary evaluation: Pilot and construction project manager comparison summarized 156 3B.3.1 Fiduciary responsibility to the public 3B.3.2 Professional association defines best practices 3B.3.3 Identify with the occupation and not the employer 3B.3.4 Held in high esteem by the community 3B.3.5 Serving a formal apprenticeship or internship 3B.3.6 License required to fly a plane 3B.3.7 Has a body of knowledge which is complicated, secret,

abstruse, esoteric or unique 3B.3.8 Requires liability insurance to practice 3B.3.9 Uses symbolic costumes or uniforms 3B.3.10 Requires highly ritualistic processes

CHAPTER 4

Survey development and analysis, Part 1 164 4.1 Purpose and design of the survey 164 4.2 The participants: A demographic survey 165

4.2.1 Geographic area of origin 4.2.2 Age 4.2.3 Gender 4.2.4 Education 4.2.5 Licenses/certifications held 4.2.6 Experience 4.2.7 Salary 4.2.8 Industry sector 4.2.9 Job title

4.3 Other survey questions: Towards a professionalization index 173 4.3.1 The foundation questions 4.3.2 General survey questions 4.3.3 Summary: The purpose and development of the survey questions

4.4 Summary of Chapter 4 186

CHAPTER 5

Survey development and analysis, Part 2 187 5.1 Analysing answers to the key questions 187

5.1.1 Key question 1 Is project management a profession? 5.1.2 Key question 2 Is there a continuum and where on that continuum of

professionalization; if so, where does project management lie on the continuum?

5.1.3 Key question 3 What is the actual numeric value for each attribute by respondents?

5.1.4 Key question 4 Is the project management body of knowledge unique? 5.1.5 Key question 5 How much experience/apprenticeship/education is

associated with the term profession? 5.1.6 Key question 6 Is project management a calling? 5.1.7 Key question 7 How do project managers perceive the practice of

individual ethics? 5.1.8 Key question 8 How do project managers compare against other

professionals in terms of pro bono work?

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5.1.9 Key question 9 How do organizations representing practitioners compare against other organizations in terms of ethics?

5.1.10 Key question 10 Do project managers publish papers in peer reviewed journals?

5.1.11 Key question 11 Does advertising by project managers conform to other professional norms?

5.1.12 Key question 12 Is (or should) use of the title ‘project manager’ be restricted by law?

5.1.13 Key question 13 Are symbolic costumes, uniforms or other identifying insignia necessary to define a profession?

5.1.14 Key question 14 Should project managers be licensed? 5.1.15 Key question 15 Should project managers be required to carry professional

liability insurance? 5.1.16 Key question 16 Given autonomy in decision making is a key attribute of a

profession, do project managers have autonomy in making decisions? 5.1.17 Key question 17 Given identifying with the occupation and not with an

employer is a key attribute of a profession, who do project managers identify with?

5.1.18 Key question 18 Those in existing professions enjoy high community esteem. What is the community esteem of project managers?

5.1.19 Key question 19 Those in existing professions earn higher than average salaries. What is the perception of project managers in terms of the salaries they earn?

5.1.20 Key question 20 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the mystique which surrounds it. Does project management have mystique?

5.1.21 Key question 21 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the cruciality (criticality) of the services. Does project management have criticality?

5.1.22 Key question 22 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the dénouement or the ability to produce positive results very quickly and without limited involvement of the consumer of the services. Does project management have dénouement?

5.1.23 Key question 23 How does the fiduciary responsibility of project managers compare against that of established professions?

5.2 Summary of key question results 275

CHAPTER 6

Discussion 292 6.1 Introduction 292 6.2 Summary of quantitative results 292 6.3 Summary of qualitative results compared against case studies 295 6.4 Weight adjusted professionalization index 301 6.5 Considering the attributes on the whole 305

Is project management a profession? What is it?

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CHAPTER 7

Conclusion 309 7.1 Introduction 309 7.2 Limitations of this research 311

7.2.1 Lack of significant demographic differences 7.2.2 Bias in the key word analysis of the body of knowledge 7.2.3 More research on the effectiveness of licensing 7.2.4 Development of a true ratio scale 7.2.5 Data mining to research ethics questions

7.3 Reflections 313 7.3.1 Project management: Not a profession 7.3.2 Observations from the literature 7.3.3 For those stakeholders who believe project

management is NOT a profession 7.3.4 For those who believe project management IS a profession 7.3.5 For those who believe it doesn’t matter

References 322

Appendices 336

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Dedicated to my parents Evelyn Meldrum Giammalvo and the late Peter Giammalvo

Thanks for everything, Mom and Dad.

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List of exhibits Exhibit 2.1 Examination of words used to define the concept of profession 47

Exhibit 3A.1 Primary traits of a profession 93

Exhibit 3A.2 CMAA requirements for certification 98

Exhibit 3B.1 The Airline Pilot 134

Exhibit 3B.2 The Aloha Airlines incident, 1988 152

Exhibit 5.1 Generation of survey question 28 187

Exhibit 5.2 Generation of survey questions 30/31, 39-/42, and 47. 192

Exhibit 5.3 Generation of survey question 45/46 208

Exhibit 5.4 Generation of survey question 15 to answer key question 4 210

Exhibit 5.5 Generation of survey questions 34, 35, 36 and 43 to answer key question 5 211

Exhibit 5.6 Generation of survey questions 16, 20 and 24 to answer key question 6 217



Exhibit 5.9 Key question 9 224


Exhibit 5.11 No survey question for KQ11 236

Exhibit 5.12 Key word analysis to answer key question 12 239



Exhibit 5.15 Generation of survey questions 18 and 26 to answer key question 15 245

Exhibit 5.16 Generation of survey questions 19, 25, 27 to answer key question 16 249







Exhibit 5.23 Generation of survey questions 18, 19, 25 and 26 to answer key question 23 271

Exhibit 6.1 Summary of average scores from survey respondents 294

Exhibit 6.2 The 22 attributes of a profession as identified during the literature research 295

Exhibit 6.3 Comparison between survey responses, construction project managers and airline pilots 296

Exhibit 6.4 Weight adjusted professionalization index score 304

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List of tables Table 2.1 Summary of legal definitions of a profession 64 Table 2.2 Impacts of restrictions on QUALITY of services 73

Table 2.3 Impacts of restrictions on COST of services 74 Table 2.4 Attributes of a profession ranked by source and relative scores 82

Table 2.5 22 attributes commonly associated with a profession 84

Table 3A.1 Time line of the history of construction management 89

Table 3A.2 Typical CM curriculum 95

Table 3A.3 Summary of CM attributes 120

Table 3B.1 Summary of commercial airline pilot ranking mapped against attributes of a profession 153

Table 3B.2 Ranking of CM and commercial aircraft piloting compared 157

Table 4.1 Foundation questions in the survey 174

Table 4.2 22 attributes commonly associated with a profession (based on the review of the literature) 177

Table 4.3 Survey question 45/46 178

Table 4.4 Development of the survey questions, designed to generate data for answering the research questions (demographics excluded) 179

Table 5.1 Attributes rank ordered showing actual values (weight) from survey 207

Table 5.2 Source of the major elements of the project management BoK 210

Table 5.3 Frequency of key words as a percentage of total words in the code of ethics 225

Table 5.4 Key words as a percentage of total words in codes of ethics 226

Table 5.5 Comparison of codes of ethics 238

Table 5.6 Codes of ethics sorted by frequency of words and ratio of key words to total words 270

Table 5.7 Summary of interpreted qualitative and quantitative results from survey data 276

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List of figures Figure 1.1 Survey wording offering incentives for participating 11 Figure 1.2 Geographical roots of the respondents 12 Figure 3A.1 Esteem question results from the survey by - project managers 115 Figure 3A.2 Salary survey by sector 116 Figure 3A.3 Job satisfaction by salary 116 Figure 4.1 Results from survey question 14 166 Figure 4.2 Results of survey question 6 167 Figure 4.3 Results from survey question 7 167 Figure 4.4 Results from survey question 8 168 Figure 4.5 Results from survey question 9 168 Figure 4.6 Results from survey question 10 169 Figure 4.7 Results from survey question 11 170 Figure 4.8 Graph showing salary as a function of work experience (AACE, 2005) 171 Figure 4.9 Results from survey question 12 171 Figure 4.10 Results from survey question 13 172 Figure 4.11 Normalized salaries by job function (ACCE, 2005) 173 Figure 4.12 Generation of a survey question (excluding demographics) 178 Figure 5.1 Results from survey question 28 189 Figure 5.2 Survey question 28, responses plotted on an interval scale 190 Figure 5.3 Results of survey question 30/31; relative ranking of occupations compared against

recent college graduate responses plotted showing mean, and range, +/1 sigma 193 Figure 5.4 Professionalization continuum developed from data in response to survey question

30/31; interval scale showing relative relationships between licensed occupations and project managers 194

Figure 5.5 Question 39-/42, professionalization continuum: Interval scale showing relative relationships between licensed professions and project managers, by applying Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgement 197

Figure 5.6 Applying the bias shift from SQ39-/42 against the results of SQ47, illustrates the interim step to eliminate bias from the results of both SQ 30/31 and SQ 47. 197

Figure 5.7 Question 47, responses plotted showing mean, and range, +/-1 sigma 198 Figure 5.8 Question 47 illustrating bias adjustment; professionalization continuum: Interval

scale showing relative relationships between licensed occupations and project managers, adjusted for bias using Thurstone’s Law. (reading left to right, least professional 21.0 to most professional at 1.0) 196

Figure 5.9 Questions 30/31, 39-/42 and 47 compared BEFORE adjustment for bias 201 Figure 5.10 Questions 30/31, 39-42 and 47, compared AFTER adjustment for bias 203 Figure 5.11 Results for survey question 45/46, attributes rank ordered showing +/- 206 Figure 5.12 Results, survey question 34 213 Figure 5.13 Results, survey question 43 213 Figure 5.14 Results, survey question 35 214 Figure 5.15 Results, survey question 36 214 Figure 5.16 Results, survey question 16 219 Figure 5.17 Results, survey question 20 219 Figure 5.18 Results, survey question 24 219

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Figure 5.19 Results, survey question 27 220 Figure 5.20 Results, survey question 29 223 Figure 5.21 Results, survey question 32 236 Figure 5.22 Results, survey question 17 242 Figure 5.23 Results, survey question 44 243 Figure 5.24 Results, survey question 37 243 Figure 5.25 Results, survey question 38 244 Figure 5.26 Results, survey question 18 247 Figure 5.27 Results, survey question 26 248 Figure 5.28 Results, survey question 19 250 Figure 5.29 Results, survey question 25 250 Figure 5.30 Results, survey question 26 251 Figure 5.31 Results, survey question 16 254 Figure 5.32 Results, survey question 20 254 Figure 5.33 Results, survey question 24 254 Figure 5.34 Results, survey question 21 256 Figure 5.35 Results, survey question 22 258 Figure 5.36 Salary by industry sector 259 Figure 5.37 Salary by project type 260 Figure 5.38 Job satisfaction by salary, all respondents 260 Figure 5.39 Job satisfaction by salary, project managers only 240 Figure 5.40 Results, survey question 23 263 Figure 5.41 Results, survey question 33 266 Figure 5.42 Results, survey question 19 268 Figure 5.43 Results, survey question 25 269 Figure 5.44 Results, survey question 26 269 Figure 5.45 Results, survey question 19 273 Figure 5.46 Results, survey question 25 273 Figure 5.47 Results, survey question 26 274

Figure 5.48 Three phases of the research 275

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Acknowledgments

Despite the quest for a PhD being more or less an individual effort, no great undertaking can be accomplished without the support and encouragement from a broad spectrum of players.

First thanks go to my parents, who not only gave me the genetic capabilities, but also instilled in me a love of learning for learning’s sake. Thanks Mom and Dad!! Took me awhile, but it looks like I may have finally made it!!

As a PhD is an undertaking not everyone does and, among those who do, is usually a journey undertaken only once; and having a guide or mentor to show the way is a must. I have depended on the guidance, mentoring and advice of my Supervisor, Professor Christophe Bredillet and Research Advisor, Professor Philippe Ruiz. Thanks, Christophe and Philippe!! Your guidance, wisdom, advice and patience was sincerely appreciated!!

Even with the best intentions and highest enthusiasm, there are days when it just doesn’t seem worth the effort. For keeping my motivation and spirits up, and for never losing faith in my ability to complete this task, I owe a debt of gratitude to my wife, Cheryl Carl. Cheryl, looks like I no longer have an excuse to postpone that book you’ve been wanting.

Writing a PhD consumes a lot of time and money. And a good portion of this time came at the expense of potentially ‘billable time’. For her patience and support, I owe a debt of gratitude to my boss, Ms. Yani Suratman, President Director of PT Mitratatata Citragraha. Yani, thanks for providing the funding for this project and I hope having my PhD will generate a fair return on your investment, in terms of both time and money. With all those kids to educate, I can’t very well let you down.

Last, but certainly not least, is my editor, Ms. Barbara Brougham. Wow!!! You took an ugly duckling and made it into a swan. A true “miracle worker” with words. If I get my PhD, it will because of your talents with words as much as my research.

Others who played key supporting roles:

PTMC Office Manager, Ms. Sustu C. Inastu, (Ms. Tutu) who helped with all the logistics

Mr. Ramadhani Achdiawan, (Dhani) who was my mentor and advisor in using SPCC

R. Max Wideman, who read over the original works and who’s Glossary I relied on so heavily

To one and all, and anyone I may have forgotten, a most sincere THANK YOU!

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Certificate of authorship/originality

I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged within the text.

I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis.

Paul D. Giammalvo Dated: 1 July, 2007

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Abstract

The research described in this thesis has been a journey of exploration and discovery. Using a combination of positivist and post positivist approaches, both traditional and non-traditional definitions of a profession and professional have been identified; various hypotheses related to these definitions have been tested using a survey instrument; data collected from over 400 respondents has been analysed in order to understand the nature of the practice of construction management, which has failed to professionalize itself after almost 50 years of formalized practice.

In conducting the research on what it means to be a ‘professional’, commercial aircraft piloting, which has in less than 100 years been accepted as a profession, was closely examined to determine what set it apart from project management. From this and other disparate explorations, the research has identified the areas of agreement, the areas of divergence, and the areas still in question regarding the past and future of project management, and from this examination distilled answers or recommendations and provided a glimpse into the future of project management.

Amongst the highlights of the findings is that project management is not, by and large, regarded to be a profession. It is considered by the majority of its practitioners to be a process, methodology or system. The key attributes required to professionalize project management are not licensing, but creating a methodology, system or process which, done correctly and appropriately, can consistently deliver ‘successful’ projects and build trust in the consuming public in the competencies of the practitioners to apply these methodologies, systems or processes to deliver projects on time, within budget while substantially meeting the needs, wants an expectations of the stakeholders.

From the research, a Professionalization Index has been developed that can provide a snapshot of where project management, as perceived by the practitioners, lies on the path to professionalization, when compared against other occupations.

Key words: profession, professional, project, management

Is project management a profession? If yes, where does it fit in and if not, what is it?

1 Chapter 1: Introduction

CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction As practitioners of any knowledge based occupation transition into an integrated and

virtual world, the question of their occupation being considered a ‘profession’ is

becoming increasingly important, as every practitioner wants to shed the image of the

work they do being ‘just another job’ and reap the prestige, benefits and potential

rewards, if not the responsibilities, liabilities and risks, associated with belonging to a

recognized and established profession. This trend towards ‘professionalization’ of

many basic occupations is readily observed (Wilensky, 1964), evidenced by garbage

collectors wanting to be called sanitary engineers, housewives referring to themselves

as domestic engineers, librarian’s seeking licensure, nurses and other medical care

specialists seeking equal footing with doctors, and construction project managers

seeking equal standing with architectural and engineering professionals.

Fortune magazine called project management ‘the career choice of the 90’s and

beyond’ (Stewart, 1996). The largest professional organization representing project

managers, the US based Project Management Institute (PMI), unabashedly refers to

the ‘profession’ of project management. And PMI is not alone. Other organizations

representing the practice also refer to project management as a profession. Should we

take the approach of Dorothy, in the Wizard of Oz, however, and believe that simply

closing our eyes and wishing hard will turn the practice of project management into a

profession? Or is there some standard or criteria which need to be met in order to

legitimize this claim?

J. Rodney Turner and Ralf Muller, writing in the International Journal of Project

Management (2003), noted:

If project management were recognized as a profession, and the use of the title Project Manager restricted to those individuals in possession of related professional certification, it would help in the selection of project managers, giving greater confidence in their competence and trustworthiness.

This research has been designed to explore these paradigms and discern the

difference between rhetoric and fact.


1.2 Context of the study Project management is an integral part of mankind’s evolution: the great pyramids of

Egypt and the seven wonders of the ancient and modern world; the construction of

massive cathedrals in the UK and Europe by the Freemasons; the Panama Canal;

putting a man on the moon; 100+ story buildings.

The list of unique, one time events linked to achieving a long term objective or goal is

almost endless, providing persuasive evidence that initiation, planning and execution

of projects may some how ‘hard wired’ into the human psyche. Further evidence of

the human inclination to organize, to plan, to put things in order can be seen in our

individual development. To any parent, toilet training of their young child is a major

project, the completion of which is much anticipated and greeted with joy and relief.

Being able to tie one’s shoes is generally considered a prerequisite to enter

elementary school. Other major ‘projects’ inherent in most people’s lives include:

graduating from high school; obtaining one or more university degrees; getting

married; purchasing one or more houses; and, consistent with the concept of life cycle

(which plays such an important role in project management), the final project, one’s

funeral. Citing these examples as representative of the idea of ‘project’ means there

are over six billion ‘project managers’ in the world today.

But certainly we can’t compare learning to tie one’s shoes to putting a man on the

moon, which means that some differentiator must exist which separates those who are

‘professional’ project managers from those who are ‘amateurs’ or even marginally

competent. Can the differentiator be salary? Status in the community? Size of the

project managed? Importance of the project to society? Complexity of the project?

What attributes, factors, combinations or permutations differentiate the merely good

from the great project manager? Furthermore, since projects must be managed in

virtually all occupational specialties, and exist within all sectors, how do we

differentiate between the expertise in the underlying technical specialty (i.e. medicine,

engineering, biology or science) and the ability to initiate, plan, execute, control and

close projects? Is competency in project management the differentiator or does the

ability derive from or inherent in the mastery of the underlying technical specialty?


1.3 The nature of the problem Coming from a background in construction management, I had always considered my

profession to be civil engineering and the discipline or specialty within the field of

civil engineering to be the management of technical and tradespeople to complete

projects in the built environment. To belong to or read about professional

organizations claiming that project management was or should be considered a

separate profession simply didn’t feel right. Preliminary investigation prior to

formally starting this research, in fact, indicated a cacophony of mixed and

conflicting messages about the concept of project management, coming not only from

practitioners but, more importantly, from those organizations purporting to represent

the voice of the practitioner.

The largest of these organizations, the US based Project Management Institute (PMI),

states in their Policy governance manual that ‘Project management is a profession’

(PMI, 2000). Yet in a study partially funded by PMI, Bill Zwerman, Janice Thomas,

Susan Haydt and Terry Williamson (2004, p. 195) concluded in part that project

management is ‘unlikely to ever become recognized as a stand alone profession’

(Zwerman, Thomas, Haydt & Williamson, 2004, p. 195). No less an authority than

Peter Drucker (1999) states ‘management is the distinguishing organ of any and all

organizations’ (pp. 7, 8), meaning that the fundamental skills and principles of

managing people to produce goods and services are necessary regardless of the

application. And Henry Fayol (1916), in his Administration industrielle et generale

(Industrial and general administration), almost perfectly describes today’s project

management body of knowledge, yet does so in the context of general management,

not project specific.

To complicate the picture more, the highly regarded International Council on Systems

Engineering (INCOSE) (n.d., online) describes systems engineering (which in large

part forms the basis for project management) as:

an engineering discipline whose responsibility is creating and executing an interdisciplinary process to ensure that the customer and stakeholder’s needs are satisfied in a high quality, trustworthy, cost efficient and schedule compliant manner throughout a system’s entire life cycle. (INCOSE, online)


To illustrate further just how divided the practicing community is, consider the

comment from Peter Morris (2004, n.d., online) on ‘Re-thinking project

management’ where he describes project management as a discipline which remains

‘stuck in a 1960s time warp’.

At the same time the debate rages about whether project management deserves to be

recognized as a stand alone profession, one only has to look in newspapers or listen to

the nightly news to see evidence that project management, as practiced today, is far

from deserving of anything but derision and scorn. The larger and more complex the

project, it seems the more likely it is to run into problems. Boston’s ‘Big Dig’, Ford

Motor’s attempts to computerize their procurement process, the Hubble telescope, all

stand as evidence that something is wrong. While one may say that the news industry

thrives on ‘bad news’ and is only reporting those projects which have run amok,

academically rigorous research by the Standish Group, Gartner Group, FMI and

others seems to support claims that project management, as it is currently being

practiced, is far from as effective as professional project management organizations

would like potential clients to believe. Certainly the kind of consistent and predictable

performance which would justify or earn the right of an occupation to be called a

profession appears to be lacking.

Upon what basis, therefore, could or should project managers or those organizations

representing them, base any claims that the practice of project management qualifies

for or deserves recognition as a profession? A clear lack of consensus in response to

this question on the part of some practitioners, as well as those organizations claiming

to represent their views, along with highly respected leaders in the field of

management, raise uncomfortable questions about project management as the best

way to manage a project, much less as worthy of status as a ‘profession’.

1.4 Statement of the research problem The stage was set for the research reported in this thesis by the apparent discrepancies

between what is being touted by professional organizations (that project management

is a profession); some practitioners (who honestly believe themselves to be

professional practitioners); and the perception of the consuming public, (especially in

the public sector), that project management simply is not delivering value for money.


This perception is supported at least in part by credible qualitative and quantitative

research.

The current study was designed to explore these apparent discrepancies and reach

some conclusions about whether or not project management is or should be a

considered a profession, and if not, what can or should be done to raise the credibility

of the practice and professional image of the practitioner.

1.5 The objectives of the study The five primary objectives of the research were to:

1) answer the question Is project management a profession?

2) determine what project management is, if not a profession

3) ascertain where project management stands in relation to other emerging occupations claiming to be professions

4) determine what can be done, if anything, to enhance the image of the occupation

5) decide what, if anything, can be done to improve the delivery of successful projects.

Answers to these questions will provide a guide as to where the practice of project

management is vis a vis other occupations, and will serve as a beacon or guiding light

to help practitioners identify what needs to be done to improve both the success and

the image of project managers.

While much research in this area is qualitative, one of the intended contributions of

the current study was to create a model which can translate qualitative attributes or

perceptions into numerical values, not only to examine project management, but to

gauge the professional quotient of other occupations when compared to one another.

This research was not intended to be prescriptive, although it does conclude with

some recommendations. The aim was to highlight or illuminate issues for further

research and consideration, and to develop a methodology to quantify relative

professionalization.


1.6 Methodology

1.6.1 Research design overview

The underlying philosophy driving the research is based on the understanding that

practitioners are moving from a constructionist to a post-constructionist world. As

with any period of great change, the zone of transition is beset by seemingly chaotic

events. Recognizing the implication and limitations chaos has in applying the

scientific method alone, the research methodology was designed to take advantage of

not only qualitative and quantitative research. Thus, although planned, this research

project also evolved, very much as the very occupational specialty being researched

has evolved. Stated another way, the methodology chosen to do the research was

designed to mirror the subject of the research as closely as possible.

As with any other project, ‘scope creep’ was inevitable. In this case, the increased

scope was caused by the identification early in the data collection of a reality

characteristic of project management that ultimately had to be addressed when

considering the evidence for accepting the occupation as a stand alone profession:

unlike other, more identifiably independent occupations, project management exists

as an integral part of most, if not all, existing occupations considered to be

‘professions’. It is an essential life skill (PMI, n.d., online) which everyone must

master to some degree in order to survive as a human being. Therefore, how can

project management ever be considered as a profession unto itself? Would any data

gathered during this research support project management as an independent and

singularly identifiable profession?

To answer these questions first required that the attributes normally associated with

established professions be identified. Once identified, the tactic was to quantify where

project management stood in relation to the benchmarks of the attributes of the

established professions. Every effort was made to look at project management from

the perspective of both those practitioners who identify themselves as project

managers as well as those who perform the same functions as project managers yet do

not recognize or consider themselves to be project managers.

The method behind this current study was influenced by the overlapping juncture

between the sociologic (Shimberg, 1982; Young, 1987; Kimball, 1995; Maister,


1997; Zwerman & Thomas, 2004), legal (Polelle, 1999; Spaulding, 2003; Gawley,

2002; Matter of Freeman, 34 NY2d 1, 9-10 [1974]), economic (Cox & Foster, 1990;

Donaldson, 1982; ‘An economic review and analysis of the implications of

occupational licensing’, 1999), and semantic (Marutello, 1981; Haga, 1974, pp. 3-10;

Goode, 1969) perspectives that were used to determine if and how a true ‘profession’

can be differentiated from an ordinary occupation.

1.6.2 Professions used for benchmarking

It was complicated by the fact the research had the potential to include just about all

existing professional occupations. To simplify the research, therefore, and yet make it

relevant in the global context, the only occupations targeted for inclusion in the

research were those requiring professional licensure in the top third of OECD

countries. The basis for selecting the top third of OECD countries lay in the premise

that in the developing nations, ‘licensure’ is often used as a means of extortion that

has little or nothing to do with protecting the public or other attributes associated with

defining a profession, and everything to do with collecting ‘economic rents’.

Initial qualitative research identified nine occupations that are licensed in all or near

all of the top third of OECD countries (OECD, n.d., online). These are the professions

or trades targeted for comparative research:

commercial airline pilots

medical doctors

real estate agents

lawyers

architects/engineers

accountants

building contractors

electricians

plumbers

The reason for including several trades in the mix is due to the fact that historically,

the professions evolved from the trades (guilds). As one of the tests of

professionalizm involved ascertaining whether professions are static or evolve over

time, it was important to quantify just where project management lies on an interval


scale between what is generally accepted to be trades and those occupations already

considered to be professions. As will be discussed in the section on Methodology, it

was anticipated that a meaningful zero point could be established, turning the

interval scale into a valid ratio scale.

Another important reason for choosing occupations normally and customarily

licensed by the top third of OECD countries lay in the fact that while licensing in the

developed nations tends to be done (at least ostensibly) to protect the health, safety

and well being of the consuming public, in many of the developing nations,

occupational licensing is a means to extort economic rents from practitioners with

little or no regard for anything but lining the pockets of government officials. This

matter is of considerable concern, for in many of the developing nations, credentials

such as the PMP are often manipulated by local officials as a means to extort money,

a form of economic rent seeking (Naritomi, J., Soares, R. & Assunçäo, J., 2007),

through monopolistic control of the training, application and/or testing process.

1.6.3 Project phases

Given research by most definitions qualifies as a project, consistent with the core

tenets of project management; this project was executed by taking a phased approach.

This research project was broken down into four phases:

1 qualitative research in the form of literature review to determine the attributes common to professions

2 quantitative research to determine the relative professionalization of project management as an occupation compared against other, more established occupations already considered to be professions

3 qualitative and quantitative research to better define what project management is

4 interpreting the data and writing the thesis.

PHASE 1

Extensive literature reviews established that while research existed on the

professionalization of various occupations from a sociologic, economic or legal

perspective, there was little or no research that tried to combine all three perspectives

into a single, comprehensive set of metrics or attributes against which the ‘degree of


professionalization’ of an occupation could be quantified, measured and evaluated.

The literature search led to the distillation of 19 extrinsic attributes common to those

occupations currently considered in socio-economic and legal terms to qualify as

professions (see Table 2.4, Chapter 2).

However, the literature research turned up yet another perspective that provided an

interesting alternative method of evaluating or determining a profession. Solely

extrinsic attributes could be mediated by intrinsic factors that cause people to accord

any given occupation the status of being a profession. Further literature search turned

up another set of factors, less mainstream but certainly having validity, that argued

that for any occupation to be considered as a profession, practitioners must be

perceived by their fellow men and women as:

having a certain ‘mystique’ acquired by having mastered a complex, unique, difficult or obscure body of knowledge

offering services that were crucial in terms of immediacy of need as well as the importance of the services being rendered

acting always in good faith to apply a mastery of a complex body of knowledge to effect immediate, significant and measurable relief or improvement in the situation (Marutello, 1981).

Thus the intrinsic attributes of a profession (see Table 2.4, Chapter 2) provide a

counterbalance to the more ‘traditional’ or extrinsic metrics against which professions

are determined and measured. This current research appears to be unique in that it is

the first attempt to move beyond the extrinsic factors of project management, and

look to the intrinsic factors as well. For while it could be argued that having all the

extrinsic attributes would more than likely result in a given occupation being

accorded status and recognition as a profession, without the intrinsic factors, the

extrinsic factors become mere trappings – window dressing. For in the end, it is how

people perceive any occupation as adding value to their lives under stressful or

difficult conditions that determines whether or not that occupation has earned the

respect and trust of the general public sufficiently to be accorded the respect and

advantages normally associated with a profession.


The research for both extrinsic and intrinsic factors resulted in a combined total of 22

factors or attributes against which to evaluate an occupation to determine how

professional it may be at any given point in time vis a vis other occupations.

The preliminary validation of these 22 attributes as indicative of the professionalism

of an occupation involved an internet search conducted using two representative

occupations – commercial aircraft pilots and construction project managers. The case

studies of these occupations represented preliminary attempts to validate and test an

evolving survey instrument against two occupations with which I was particularly

familiar. Initial theories were tested in the context of these occupations before more

extensive research was undertaken.

PHASE 2

A survey instrument (Appendix A) was developed, tested and run using Free OnLine

Surveys1. This survey instrument represented several iterations of refinement,

including conducting pilot surveys at the various paper presentations, conducting one-

on-one interviews with various categories of stakeholder, all with the objective of

refining the survey questions to answer the fundamental research questions: Is project

management a profession, and if not, what is it?

To attract as many respondents as possible, the link to this survey2 was published on

various webs, including the Project Management Forum3 and other commercial webs,

including the researcher’s corporate web4. Attempts were made to publish the survey

in other forums to maximize exposure and obtain the broadest possible range of input.

These forums included the Construction Management Association5 and the

Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering International6. The total

population having access to the survey instrument was estimated to be at least

170,000 people from all around the world, with a maximum of 300,000 and a

minimum of 150,000. From this base population, the survey elicited some 400

responses over a period of nine months, running from March of 2005 through

December, 2005. 1 http://www.freeonlinesurvey.com/ 2 http://www.freeonlinesurvey.com/viewresults.asp?surveyid=76670 3 www.pmforum.org 4 www.getpmcertified.com 5 CMAA. www.cmaanet.org 6 AACEI, www.aacei.org


In order to entice participation in a survey which took about an hour to complete, 2

(two) professional development units (PDUs) or .2 continuing education units

(CEUs) were awarded to participants. The offer of PDUs was cleared by PMI (Dr.

Mike Price) so long as they were claimed under Category 2 – Self Directed Learning.

One hour or PDU was awarded for participating in the survey. Another hour was

awarded for reading and reflecting on the content as part of self-directed learning.

The only requirement made by PMI was to make this information clear on the survey

(Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Survey wording offering incentives for participating

To compensate other participants for participating in this long survey, free tee-shirts

were offered. It was clear that unless some incentive or compensation was offered,

few people would respond, given the length and complexity of the survey. Only ~7%

of respondents opted to participate anonymously, with 46% opting for PDU/CEUs

and 47% opting for tee-shirts.

As can be seen in Figure 1.1, statistically meaningful samples were received from all

major areas of the world, except for Russia. Of particular importance is the relative

heavy response from the Asia Pacific (39.7%). Given China, India and Indonesia


represent the world’s first, second and fourth largest countries (Asian Development

Bank, 2005), and that Indonesia is the world’s largest Muslim country, the results of

this study take on significant importance as this geographical area represents the most

potential future growth in the application and use of project management, however it

may be defined.

Figure 1.2 Geographical roots of the respondents

This survey instrument was designed and tested to measure not only the perceived

extrinsic and intrinsic attributes of project management, but also with the aim of

providing a quantifiable answer to the question: What is project management?

PHASE 3

Preliminary responses to the pilot survey indicated that while project managers were

making progress in their attempts to professionalize the occupation, project

management is ‘unlikely to ever become recognized as a stand alone profession’

(Zwerman & Thomas et al., 2004). Phase 3 of the research, therefore, considered the

question: ‘If project management is not a stand alone profession, then what is it?’

There were two additional or follow on hypotheses put forward and researched to

answer this question.

Hypothesis 1: Project management is a soft, complex dynamic system, a methodology, not a profession.

Hypothesis 2: There is a difference between practitioners engaging in an occupation being able to earn their living from applying a methodology, system or approach and that occupation being a profession.


Qualitative research to date would indicate clearly that project management is in fact

a soft, complex, dynamic system – a method, approach or discipline. But a very

special one. Research by the leading commentators on project management, including

Kerzner (2005), Lewis (1999), Cleland (1999) and Frame (2002) consistently refer to

project management in those terms. Early theoretical work by Jay Forrester (1961)

George Richardson and Alexander Pugh, III (1981) and more recently, research in

computerized modeling by John Sterman (1996), all from MIT’s Sloan School of

Management, indicate clearly that project management is a complex, dynamic

system. These researchers have, in fact, developed validated models of applied

project management.

However, as project management is almost purely people driven, practitioners need to

look beyond mechanistic models based on Taylor’s (1911) scientific method, and

look to ‘soft systems’ where the human element is emphasized and featured as the

core element for success. This is known collectively as soft systems engineering

(INCOSE, n.d., online) and appears to be the most likely future area of growth for

project management.

Having sufficient grounded research indicating that project management is a

methodology, the remaining question to be answered was whether becoming

sufficiently competent in the mastery and execution of a given methodology

constitutes being a ‘professional’. Based on research to this point, and experience, it

was hypothesised that doing something well enough to be able earn a living from it is

insufficient justification for calling an occupation a profession. There needs to be

recognition that the noun, ‘profession’ is context-sensitive and potentially very

ambiguous when used in speaking or writing, as is the adjective ‘professional’.

An excellent example of the potential for confusion can be found in the way in which

these words are used in sport. It is common in all sports to refer to those who make

their living playing a game as ‘professionals’, implying that the game itself is a

‘profession’. Yet very few people would actually argue that soccer or basketball,

cycling or snooker are ‘professions’, although the individuals who succeed at making

their living from them are termed ‘professional’ sportsmen or women.


Likewise, project managers may do their job with a great deal of skill and

‘professionalism’ without project management being a profession in itself, a fact that

project managers should not overlook with debating the status of their occupation.

One of the key deliverables from this research was quantifying, measuring and

evaluating the professional status of various occupations in order to ascertain the

professional status of project management.

PHASE 4

Phase 4 was the final compilation of the data, the analysis of that data and the writing

of the thesis. The remainder of this document is the culmination of the fourth and

final phase.

Outline summarising the methodology of the research.

Method was both qualitative and quantitative, using content analysis in developing and testing hypotheses; and statistical analysis of responses to a an online survey to test hypotheses

step 1 Formulated the initial research objectives

Identified stakeholders solicited perspectives outside of North America validated the need for the research

step 2 Conducted an extensive literature review (content analysis)

Extracted 19 extrinsic and 3 intrinsic attributes of established professions Electronic (key word) searches Manual searches

Content Analysis > a hypothesis for each research question/attribute

Phas

e 1

Content Analysis > a survey question to test each hypothesis

step 3 Development of the survey instrument

47 Question- 15 demographics/32 Research based ~45-60 minutes to complete Incentives – PDU/CEU’s or T-Shirt

Control Groups Identified/Targeted Teachers, Nurses, MBA’s, Doctors, Commercial Airline Pilots

Multiple approaches to test key hypothesis Triangulation used to determine the relative ranking of project

management vis a vis other occupations

step 4 Tested the initial survey instrument

Using 12 ESC Lille grad students/13 commercial clients Bias/ESL interpretation

Pilot Survey Pre-tested against Construction Project Management

Phas

e 2

Pre-tested against Commercial Airline Piloting


step 5 Published the refined survey instrument online

Thin research on how to develop & conduct on-line surveys March 2005 – December 2005 ~400 Respondents

North America 28% Central/South America 06% European Union 08% Middle East 03% Africa 16%

Phas

e 2

Asia/Pacific 39%

step 6 Statistical analysis of the data

Pearson Product Moment Correlation t-Test (identifying possible bias w/ p-values for the t-tests >0.05) One Way ANOVA

Phas

e 3

Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment (Factor Analysis)

step 7 Reflect on the analysis and draw conclusions

Phas

e 4

1.7 Stakeholder analysis Keith MacDonald, in ‘The sociology of the professions’ identified the stakeholders as

‘social actors’ (Macdonald, 1995, p. 6) and performing a stakeholder analysis is an

essential step early in the planning process. To appreciate the importance of

stakeholders in the world of project management, the PMBOK guide, 2004 mentions

stakeholder over 150 times in 400 pages. At the early stages of the research, the

following stakeholders were identified, understanding that as the research progressed,

additional stakeholders might be added. The original list included:

consumers

society

professional organizations

employers

practitioners

1.7.1 Stakeholder meetings/discussions

To ensure that all stakeholders had been identified, stakeholder meetings were

organized, enabling the stakeholders to be identified and providing them the

opportunity to offer input. As this was global research, every attempt was made to


elicit input from stakeholders from around the world, giving special emphasis on

those outside of North America, including the EU, Africa and Asia. In order to ensure

exposure and to solicit this global input and evaluation from interested stakeholders,

this research has been presented at the following seminars/symposia:

Pan-Pacific Conference XXI International Business and Global Project Management May 26-28, 2004 Anchorage, Alaska

Annual Seminar/Symposia ESC-Lille University August 26-28, 2004, Lille, France

PMSA/PMI Joint Congress Global Project Management August 11-13, 2004, Johannesburg, South Africa

Pan-Pacific Conference XXII International Business and Global Project Management June 7-9, 2005, Shanghai, China


PMSA/PMI Joint Congress Global Project Management June 11-13, 2006, Johannesburg, South Africa


By exposing and sharing these ideas before North American, European, African and

Asian audiences, and capturing the comments, suggestions and inputs from both

within and external to the world of project management, it was intended that the

current study should represent a fair and balanced global perspective of the practice of

project management, rather than primarily one coming from North America alone.

1.7.2 Consumers

The first and foremost stakeholders of any profession are those individuals or

organizations who directly employ the practitioners. Historically, the rise of the

professions came about largely based on the models of the guilds of the 15th – 18th

centuries. According to several notable sociologists, economists and semanticists, like

the guilds of old, the professions are nothing more than monopolies (Haga, 1974;

Friedman, 1970; Maynard, n.d.) operating under the guise of ‘protecting the

consuming public from quacks, charlatans and incompetents’ (Kimball, 1995; Polelle,

1999).


There are many examples where the consuming public has been exposed to bodily,

mental or financial harm by incompetent practitioners. There is a question, therefore,

of whether classifying an occupation as a profession and affording protection to the

consuming public via the right of the practitioners to be self-policing is the most

effective method. Extensive prior research indicates at best neutral and at worst,

negative benefit: cost ratios resulting from licensing and other restrictions associated

with an occupation being ‘professionalized’ (Pew, 1990; Cox & Foster, 1990; ETB,

2003).

1.7.3 Society

Second to the direct consumers of professional services, is society in general. Above

all else, extensive review of relevant literature, particularly from legal and socio-

economic perspectives indicates that the only meaningful difference between ordinary

business and the professions lies in their commitment to making society better. This is

exemplified by Eliot Freidson, who describes professions as operation within the

framework of ‘an ideology, serving some transcendent value and asserting more

devotion to doing good work than to economic reward’ (Freidson in Macdonald,

1995, p. 180).

Recent examples of failed projects – Chunnel, Ford Motor Company’s Supply Chain

ERP Software debacle, Australian Customs House Software System, Boston’s ‘Big

Dig’ and the US Internal Revenue’s (IRS) failed database implementation system –

represent but a few of the indicators that something is seriously amiss with project

management as it is being executed today. This is supported by reputable research for

the IT, telecommunications and construction sectors (Gartner, 2000; Standish, 2004;

FMI 2005, 2006). As projects (applying almost any definition) (Wideman, 2006) are

a part of mankind’s history going back to the taming of fire, inventing the wheel, the

pyramids of Egypt and the Great Wall of China, project management must be

acknowledged as being an integral part of human evolution and destiny. Accordingly,

the current rate of real or apparent failures should not be tolerated, otherwise there is

the risk that the contributions project management has made over the years will

become devalued. This is especially true as projects become more, not less, complex

and more, not less, expensive and critical. It is not unthinkable that in the foreseeable

future, mankind will be faced with a life threatening event, such as bird flu, terrorism


or an asteroid collision, which will require individuals with project management skills

to save the world as we know it or to reform aspects of society in order to adjust to

new circumstances.

1.7.4 Professional organizations

Looking to the professional organizations which represent those involved with project

management in its various forms and applications, practitioners represented by these

societies are sending a cacophony of mixed messages. The largest of these

organizations, the US based Project Management Institute (PMI) states in its Policy

governance manual that ‘project management is a profession’ (PMI, 2000, para 1.1).

Yet in a study partially funded by PMI, Zwerman, Thomas et al. (2004) concluded in

part that (project management) is ‘unlikely to ever become recognized as a stand

alone profession in the traditional sense’ (p. 195).

Some appreciation of the confusion associated with the evolution of project

management can be found by reading the way in which the highly regarded

International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) (INCOSE, n.d., online)

describes systems engineering (which in large part forms the basis for project

management):

[Systems engineering is] an engineering discipline whose responsibility is creating and executing an interdisciplinary process to ensure that the customer and stakeholder’s needs are satisfied in a high quality, trustworthy, cost efficient and schedule compliant manner throughout a system’s entire life cycle.

The Construction Management Association of America defines construction project

and program management to be:

Construction Management is a professional service that applies effective management techniques to the planning, design, and construction of a project from inception to completion for the purpose of controlling time, cost and quality.

Construction Management is a discipline and management system specifically created to promote the successful execution of capital projects for owners. These projects can be highly complex. Few owners maintain the staff resources necessary to pay close, continuing attention to every detail--yet these details can ‘make or break’ a project.


The American Institute of Constructors mission statement explains:

The purpose of The American Institute of Constructors (AIC) is to promote individual professionalism and excellence throughout the related fields of construction

To illustrate further just how divided the practicing community is in defining exactly

who or what project managers are, consider the comment from Professor Peter Morris

(2004) on ‘Re-thinking project management’ where he describes project management

as a discipline which remains ‘stuck in a 1960s time warp’ (online). This clear lack of

consensus on the part of leading practitioners supports the need for further

investigation into the status of project management as an occupation.

So what is project management? A profession? Not a profession? Engineering

discipline? A professional service? Disciplined management system? Discipline stuck

in a time warp? At the South African PMSA/PMI meeting in June of 2006 in

Johannesburg, Iain Frazer, Chairman of the PMI Board of Directors claimed, ‘It

doesn’t really matter’. If it doesn’t matter, then why all the efforts to claim project

management is a profession?

1.7.5 Employers

Living, working and providing project management related professional services in a

region of developing nations, the importance of the ‘professionalization’ of the

workforce is both real and urgent, and can best be summed up by a statement made

by Mr. James J. Mulva, CEO and Chairman of ConocoPhilips Petroleum that, ‘The

faces of the people working for ConcocoPhilips should be a mirror-image of the faces

in the countries in which we operate’. The use of a predominately expatriate

workforce in the developing nations is generally not desirable financially or

politically correct situation. Consistent with the Millennium Development Goals

(n.d., online), it is the obligation of today’s corporations, guided by the principles of

corporate social responsibility (CSR) to raise the level of skills, knowledge and

competencies of the work force in the developing nations to international standards

through the process of technology transfer7.

7 Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to

behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the


This becomes the driver behind the need to develop credible means to measure the

‘professionalism’ of people from different cultures and religions, speaking different

languages. Thus, the process of developing professionalism in fulfilment of the

principles of CSR and the Millennium Development Goals requires that we fully

understand what exactly what the definition of a professional is before we can

possibly hope to produce them.

1.7.6 Academics/institutions of higher learning

There is big money to be made in project management for academics and their

institutions. Since the 1990s, as project management came into vogue as a panacea

for all corporate and organizational ills, and project management as a delivery system

became the latest darling of the business schools, the opportunity for academics and

their alter egos, business consultants, to make a lot of money selling repackaged and

reworked business concepts has proven too much to pass up. As Freidson (2001)

notes, one of the requirements for an occupation to become a profession is ‘an

occupationally controlled training program which produces the credentials defined by

the practitioners, in a way segregated from general labor markets; which is associated

with ‘higher learning’ and the development of new knowledge’ (p. 180). This opens

up the door to the dangers of crass commercialization and potential exploitation,

especially of those seeking the credentials as a means to achieve higher paying jobs or

to obtain jobs outside of their country of origin.

1.7.7 Consultants

Consultants play an interesting role in the professionalization of project management.

On one hand, assuming all practitioners become professionals, then what is the need

for a consultant? On the other hand, consultants are needed to guide the practitioner

on the road to professionalization.

This dichotomy is exemplified in Christopher McKenna’s recent book, The world’s

newest profession – management consulting, in which he explains that in the age of

knowledge, the rate of change is increasing so quickly that it makes more sense

economically to outsource the creation of new knowledge than it does to create it in

quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large.


house. Dr. McKenna (McKenna, 2006) concludes his book with the statement that,

‘The world’s newest profession (management consulting) will have to wait until the

21st Century’ (p. 251). Clearly, management consulting is not a profession, however,

despite big salaries and attempts by McKenna and others to try to professionalize the

image.

1.7.8 Practitioners

Practitioners have the most to gain (or lose) by the professionalization of any

occupation. Studies by Gartner (2003), Marco (2004; 2000), Standish (1995),

Engineering News Record (ENR, n.d., online), Schoppman, Greg et al. (2006) and

others (Morris & Hough, 1987; Chan & Kumarasawamy,1999) serve as broad

indicators that project management, as it is being practiced today, is resulting in

failure rates of anywhere between 30% – 70%. This wide inconsistency and such

excessively high failure rates are paradoxical with the image of an occupation having

earned the right to call itself a profession. Failure rates of this magnitude are more

reminiscent of medicine in the 17th century than in an occupation attempting to earn

the right to be recognized as a profession.

Project managers owe it to themselves to improve their image not through hype,

marketing and misplaced emphasis on restraint of trade through licensing, but by

focusing their efforts on delivering successful projects consistently and reliably. The

American Bar Association has summed it up rather nicely, saying, ‘The only fruitful

use of the term profession today relates to individuals, not groups’ (Rotunda, 1997).

As the American Bar Association has admitted:

Some lawyers are professional and some are not…[and]…it is neither useful nor appropriate to label the practice of law or any other occupation as a profession, if that label is then used to justify restraints of trade that would not be accepted for all occupations. (ABA Working Group on Civil Justice, Blueprint for Improving the Civil Justice System, 1992, cited in Polelle, 1999, online)

From these meetings, stakeholders could be classified into three groups, according to

their school of thought:

those who believe project management is not a profession This group generally views project management as a delivery system or methodology, holding their ‘profession’ to be the underlying technical specialty from which they entered project management. Usually, but not always, a


Bachelors degree in architecture, engineering or some scientific specialty, or having worked their way up through the trades or some other experiential based career path.

those who believe project management is a profession This group seems most often to consist of practitioners coming from the software sector (IT/IS). While the organization which represents many of them – IEEE – is a well established professional organization, consistent with Abbot (1988), by ignoring the needs of this constituency, it would appear the IEEE may have subordinated their jurisdiction of the project management functions of IT/IS practitioners, thus forcing their members in that category to seek out an alternate representation for them and their needs as they move from being technicians into management roles (p. 2).

those who believe it doesn’t matter whether it is a profession or not This group seems to consist of two sub-groups. The first are those who subscribe to the ideas put forth in several studies by the American Bar Association indicating, as Ronald Rotunda (1997) argues, ‘the only fruitful use of the term ‘profession’ today relates to individuals and not groups’ (online). , while the second seem to believe that simply saying that project management is a profession will make everyone believe it is one.

1.8 The significance of the study The research was originally designed to answer the questions outlined previously.

However, after the research for this study was well underway, Dr. Bill Zwerman, Dr.

Janice Thomas, Susan Haydt and Terry Williamson, researchers at the University of

Calgary and Athabasca University, published Professionalization of project

management – Exploring the past to map the future (Zwerman, Thomas, Haydt, &

Williamson, 2004). To a large degree, their work served as foundation and to some

extent, a template for this research.

As their research established a precedent, this study was modified mid point to

validate or refine their findings. The primary differences between their work and this

research are:

In this research, the attributes or traits of a profession were dealt with in more detail, and were expanded somewhat to include more focus on intrinsic and semantic aspects of professionalization.


While the Zwerman, Thomas et al. (2004) study focused primarily on North America, the current research explored how global practitioners viewed themselves, hoping the data would serve as a baseline for future analysis to see if project management were becoming more or less professionalized.

Where Zwerman, Thomas et al. (2004) focused on the professionalization efforts of nursing, social work and teaching, the focus of this dissertation was the analysis of two occupations more associated directly with project management:

⎯ commercial airline piloting as an existing and recognized profession, with particular focus on the fact that a commercial air transport pilot represents a uniquely global approach to defining a profession (Due to the international nature of piloting, and the inherent need for safety, the piloting of commercial aircraft represents perhaps the most standardized of any occupational specialty, even more than medicine.)

⎯ construction project management, firstly because it is one of the older and more mature manifestations of project management, and secondly because of the (largely unsuccessful) efforts over the past 40 or 50 years to raise construction project management to be on equal standing with the already well established architectural and engineering professions.

Taken together, these two examples provide ‘outliers’ in that commercial aircraft

piloting does not meet many of the fundamental or traditional attributes of a

profession, yet is perceived to be one; while construction project management, which

evolved directly from architecture and engineering, has never been able to achieve

equal professional standing with either.

1.9 Definitions of the key terms Project management is generally recognized as a cross functional, multi-disciplined

delivery vehicle for both products and services, and lack of standardization thus far

has resulted in a polemic and often schismatic assemblage of terms, many of which

are confusing at best and, at worst, outright conflicting.

One of the challenges encountered in this research was the lack of standardized

terminology. Max Wideman, PMP, PMI Fellow and highly regarded practitioner and

author, has compiled a respected, web-based compendium or glossary of some

20,000 terms common to project management (online). In his glossary, Wideman lists


some 23 definitions for the word project, 13 for project management and 14 for

project manager. While there are some similarities, the definitions are different

enough to make any meaningful research difficult.

As much of the surge in the popularity of project management comes as a result of

the computing sector, the following statement by the Computing Sciences

Accreditation Board (CSAB) (which is the Computing Accreditation Commission

member of ABET) has relevance when it states:

Any discussion of names of the computing sciences professions must recognize the semantic imprecision and confusion that plagues practically every aspect of computers, computer studies, and the range of traditional academic disciplines that increasingly use computers in instruction and in academic research. (CSAB, 1997, online)

Given that project management, at least in North America, is a ubiquitous and

imprecise term in the computing, as well as other sectors, the journey of determining

whether project management is or is not a profession began by acknowledging the

importance of semantics. As the key words in this research are profession,

professional, project and management, the objective was to first define these terms as

they would be used throughout the study. (Other terms have been defined at future

junctures as necessary.) The rationale behind the semantic approach was to discover

the most ‘normal and customary’ English usage and meanings for these words, thus

minimizing or avoiding the impact of ‘spin doctors’, who change or distort meanings

and definitions to market particular points of view or perspectives or who use

semantics as a method to obfuscate and dominate a specific knowledge base.

As can be appreciated from a review of the myriad of dictionaries available, there

exist many nuances of meaning for the key words, even between dictionaries coming

from the same country, including those where English is the primary language. As

this research was designed to be global in nature, whenever practical, reliance has

been on those definitions offered by Webster’s third new international dictionary

(unabridged) (Merriam-Webster, 2002), with secondary or supplemental reference to

the Concise Oxford English dictionary (OUP, 2004). Some specific definitions have

come from the Encarta dictionary online (Microsoft Corporation, n.d.).

Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2002) defines

profession thusly:


Profession: a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive preparation including instruction in skills and methods as well as in the scientific, historical, or scholarly principles underlying such skills and methods, maintaining by force of organization or concerted opinion high standards of achievement and conduct, and committing its members to continued study and to a kind of work which has as its prime purpose the rendering of a public service.

Learned professions: theology, law and medicine

In order to develop a full and complete understanding of these terms, let’s break this

definition down further into the component elements:

calling impulse or desire to follow particular job: a strong urge to follow a particular career or do a particular type of work

specialized devote time to particular activity: to devote time exclusively to a particular interest, skill, or field of study

knowledge information in mind: general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles all that can be known: all the information, facts, truths, and principles learned throughout time

long going on for lengthy period: lasting for an extended period of time

intensive concentrated: involving concentrated effort, usually in order to achieve something in a comparatively short time

preparation preparatory measure: something done in advance in order to be ready for a future event

skills ability to do something well: the ability to do something well, usually gained through experience and training something requiring training to do well: something such as an art or trade that requires training and experience to do well;

methods way of doing something: a way of doing something or carrying something out, especially according to a plan body of scientific techniques: the body of systematic techniques used by a particular discipline, especially a scientific one

principles basic assumption: an important underlying law or assumption required in a system of thought ethical standard: a standard of moral or ethical decision-making

organization group: a group of people identified by shared interests or purpose, for example a not-for-profit professional organization


concerted opinion achieved or performed together: an opinion reached by two or more people working together or with the same aim

high standards (of achievement and/or conduct) above average: greater than the normal or average, for example in quantity, number, quality, intensity, or cost, or well above a smaller or lower level or amount continuing education specialist courses to update professionals: regular courses or training designed to bring professionals up to date with the latest developments in their particular field lifelong adult education: adult education, usually in the form of short or part-time courses, continuing throughout an individual’s life providing a public service provision of essential services: the business or activity of providing the public with essential goods or services such as electric power service benefiting the general public: a service that is run for the benefit of the general public, for example the utilities, the emergency services, transport, and broadcasting

Restating the definition of profession using the clarifications above, and put in the

context of project management (or any other occupational specialty) the definition of

profession can be more completely rephrased as:

A strong drive or desire to do the kind of work normally associated with [project management] [Or Insert your chosen Occupation], by devoting considerable time and effort, over a long period of time, to master as much information, facts, truths, and principles as possible, by making a deliberate and concerted effort to develop, through training, experience, and by taking specialized adult education courses, over a life time spent as a [project manager], those systematic techniques to be able to execute the work of a [project manager] by adhering to above average standards of ethical, moral and legal care, as defined by a group of people with shared aims, the primary one being serving the interests of the general public.

This definition of project management has been elaborated in whole or in some part

or another through lawyers, economists, sociologists and practitioners, but no single

source has been found which brings all aspects of a profession together in a single

document. It is believed this research is the first of its kind to combine the legal,

social, economic and semantic definitions and apply them to the practice of project

management.

Searching the literature, conversations with colleagues around the world and listening

to clients indicated that considerable confusion exists between the noun profession

and the adjective, professional. Due to this widespread confusion, it became

imperative before proceeding further with the research to make the distinction


between the two terms clear and as unambiguous as possible. Having just defined

profession, for the purposes of this paper, the definition of the adjective, professional,

follows:

professional [prə fésh’nəl] adj very competent: showing a high degree of skill or competence following an occupation as paid job: engaged in an occupation as a paid job rather than as a hobby

To make the distinction between the noun, profession, vs. the adjective, professional,

as clear as possible, consider this anecdote in the context of the above definitions:

Tiger Woods is unquestionably a talented golfer. One would be very hard-put to dispute the obvious, which is that he is very competent at what he does, perhaps amongst one of the best ever. Therefore he meets the first test of being a professional – skill and competence. In fact, he is sufficiently competent that he makes a very handsome living performing for pay what most of us consider as a hobby; hence, applying the second criteria, he meets the ‘earnings test’ to be considered a professional. Therefore, having met both tests (highly competent and earning a living at what most do for a hobby) qualifies him as a professional golfer. However, just because Tiger Woods (and many other people around the world to a lesser degree) meet the criteria to be appropriately called professional golfers, does that necessarily qualify golf itself as a profession?

The answer is, obviously not, but many in the community of project management

practitioners seem to conflate the two terms, concluding that if they are, in fact,

professional at what they do, then what they do must, by extension, be considered a

profession. This is false logic and a trap easily fallen into. This analogy can be

expanded to include not only golf and other sports, but to many occupational

specialties including acting, singing and other talent based performances. Taken to an

extreme, consider applying the above test to the world’s oldest profession –

prostitution. As will be shown through analysis of the data collected, failure to make

this simple distinction between the noun and the adjective is a root cause of confusion

among project management practitioners, one which must be addressed by all

occupations trying to ‘professionalize’ what they do.

There are two remaining terms which must be defined prior to proceeding further

with the exploration of this topic. They are project and management.

project n [prójjekt] (plural projects) unit of work: an organized unit of work


proposed or planned undertaking: to achieve a particular aim or objective; a scheme for which there seems hope of success

management [mánnijmənt] n administration of business: the organizing and controlling of the affairs of a business or a particular sector of a business

handling of something successfully: the act of handling or controlling something successfully

skill in handling or using something: the skilful handling or use of something such as resources

responsible for results: the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling, and supervising any industrial or business project or activity with responsibility for results

To restate the definition of project management according to Webster’s third

international dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2002):

project + management: the administration supervision or executive function to plan, organize, coordinate, direct and control a proposed or planned undertaking to achieve a particular aim or objective within a specific time frame, with some reasonable expectation for success, through the skillful handling or use of limited or constrained resources and the successful organization, administration and controlling these affairs in a business-like manner.

To avoid getting trapped, constrained or risk misinterpretation and disputes over

definitions, as this was a global study, definitions were garnered primarily from

Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2002), (including

restatements) cross referencing the Concise Oxford English dictionary (OUP, 2004)

whenever necessary or appropriate. The objective was to base the research as much as

possible on standardized, globally accepted and recognized English language

definitions rather than any terms ‘jargonized’ or ‘idiomized’ by the practitioners of

project management (or any other occupation referencing this research publication.)

As an anecdotal illustration of the importance standardization of the lexicon has to the

development of a profession, consider the potentially disastrous impact of a

miscommunication in the field of commercial airline piloting. Not only is this

occupation universally recognized as being a profession, but it is one of only a

handful of occupations which requires a license to practice which is recognized across

all borders (mutual global reciprocity).

One of the early conventions agreed to by governmental airline regulators, airlines

and pilot associations was to adopt English as the official language, not only for the


pilots, but also for the key supporting roles, including air traffic controllers, ground

crews and aircraft maintenance professionals. Furthermore, world governments

agreed (more or less) on the terminology used by pilots and related support, often

involving the use of arcane acronyms.

Without this agreement on the lexicon, ‘rules of the road’ and an ‘official’ language,

the growth of commercial air travel would have been severely limited, not to mention

the inherent possibilities of miscommunications leading to disasters both in the air

and on the ground.

The rather enviable safety record of air travel owes a lot to this standardization of

language, terms and operational rules (Ask Captain Lim, n.d., online; FAA, n.d.,

online). This is an important lesson which should not be overlooked by the project

management community as practitioners search for ways to professionalize the

practice of project management.

Another example which illustrates dramatically the importance of speaking a single,

common language is the attempted separation of the Iranian twins, Ladan and Laleh

Bijani, who were conjoined at the head.

The operation, which is expected to last at least two days, consisted of a team of eight international experts, 18 local doctors and more than 100 support staff, performing the operation, led by Dr. Keith Goh, from Singapore. (Singapore Straits Times, 2004)

Had the team not spoken a common language (English) using a common vernacular,

this operation would not have been possible.

In terms of project management, not only have practitioners yet to agree on a

common language and working lexicon (vernacular), practitioners cannot even agree

on defining what it is practitioners do. Even the simplest sounding agreement, such as

defining what a ‘successful’ project looks like has eluded practitioners for more than

40 years. If practitioners cannot even agree on a definition of project, project

manager or successful project, how can they pretend to call what they do a

profession?


1.10 Organization of the thesis In Chapter 1, the key questions being researched are introduced. The five primary

objectives of the research were to:

1) answer the question Is project management a profession?

2) determine what project management is, if not a profession

3) ascertain where project management stands in relation to other emerging occupations claiming to be professions

4) determine what can be done, if anything, to enhance the image of the occupation

5) decide what, if anything, can be done to improve the delivery of successful projects.

The reasons, aims and objectives of the research are outlined and it is explained that

project management is caught in a paradox. On one hand, project management has

become the ‘flavour of the month’ for senior managers, while at the same time,

organizations are expecting miracles from project managers. Professional

organizations which make money representing professional practitioners are

proclaiming project management to be a profession yet credible research indicates

project management is failing to deliver on time, within budget and substantially

conforming to the technical requirements, much less trying to satisfy any need for

which the project was undertaken in the first place.

The key stakeholders involved in project management – those who stand to gain or

lose if project management were to be accepted as a profession – were introduced.

These stakeholders include:

those who do not believe project management to be a profession

those who do believe project management to be a profession

those who believe it really doesn’t matter.

This introduction also included a brief reason for selecting two rather disparate case

studies – construction project management and commercial aircraft piloting around

which to develop the research.


Key terms have been highlighted and the flow of the research outlined with a brief

explanation to serve as a roadmap.

Chapter 1 closes by setting the stage for Chapter 2, where we will start the literature

review to determine by what standards a profession can or should be judged and start

by testing these attributes against the case studies.

In Chapter 2, we scour sociological, legal, economic, semantic writings to determine

what attributes can be used to create a numerical model to test for a degree of

professionalism. We come up with a total of 22 attributes, representing both

traditional and non-traditional evolution of occupations currently accepted as

professions.

In Chapter 3A, we test those attributes against construction project management, an

occupation which has been recognized for well over 50 years as being a discipline of

both architecture and engineering, but has never been able to establish itself as a stand

alone profession. As general applications of project management are largely derived

from construction project management, the evolution of construction project

management should provide some indication of what will likely happen to other

manifestations or incarnations.

In Chapter 3B, we take the same 22 attributes and compare commercial airline

piloting to see where it ranks on the scale. commercial airline piloting was chosen

because despite the occupation not being recognized legally as a profession, in the

minds of the consuming public, commercial aircraft piloting is considered to be a

prestigious job, with recognition as a profession.

Chapter 4 offers a discussion of the development of the research questions and a

survey instrument (Appendix A) designed to answer the research questions. Two

major questions are the focus of Chapter 4:

1 Is project management a profession and if not, what is it?

2 Where does project management rank on a continuum between the trades and the learned professions of law and medicine.

Survey questions were created to see how both project managers and non-project

managers ranked the occupation against other occupations and to see what both

practitioners and those outside of the practice defined project management.


Unfortunately, do to a lack of response by non-project managers, the full comparison

could not be completed. However, with close to 400 respondents, the survey

instrument did provide a lot of valuable insight into perceptions.

In Chapter 5, we start to work with the results from the survey, to see what makes

sense and what we can use and what we can’t use. Here, we start to answer the

research questions and test the various hypotheses. We learn that practitioners do not

consider project management to be a profession, that it is a process or methodology;

We learn that project management is less of a profession than being an MBA, but

more of a profession than being an electrician. We are also able to start to quantify the

22 attributes, to see which ones are more important and how practitioners rate project

management against each of those 22 attributes.

Chapters 6 and 7 summarize both the qualitative and quantitative results of the survey

and draw conclusions, resulting in the creation of a Professionalization Index that

provides a relative weight adjusted value for each of the 22 attributes. Unfortunately,

as there were an insufficient number of non-project managers who responded to the

survey, it proved impossible to compare project management against other

occupations. However, as the professionalization index provides for a true zero,

follow on research will be able to calculate a true ratio scale to see if project

management becomes more or less of a profession, and how much more or less

compared to other occupations. Use of a professionalization index is also applicable

to any other occupation wishing to measure where they are vis a vis other

occupations.

33 Chapter 2: Literature review and preliminary research

CHAPTER 2

Literature review and preliminary research

2.1 Introduction: Considering the nature of professions In Chapter 1, the overall strategy and objectives of the research were outlined,

recognizing that like any project plan, change was likely to occur. Key stakeholders

were identified and a clear idea of their needs, wants and expectations was

established. Consistent with the philosophy of Steven Covey (1991), I began this

journey with the ‘end in mind’ (p. 42).

Consistent with a positivist approach, in Chapter 2, I take the next logical step, which

is to conduct a literature review to determine what research in the area has been done

before, and whether it is possible to craft a study that will create some new and better

understanding of project management as an occupational specialty. In Chapter 2, the

vision defined in Chapter 1 begins to take on substance and reality.

For historical background on the evolution of professions, reliance was on (in rough

order of importance) Bruce Kimball’s (1995) The true professional ideal in America

– A history and the work of C.L. Gibb (1966) in Hidden hierarchies: professionalism

and government, along with Howard Mills and Donald Mills (1966), editors of

Professionalization.

To gain an appreciation for the dynamics of evolving professionalism, the work of

David Maister (1993), including the research underlying True professionalism – The

courage to care about your people, your clients and your career and Managing the

professional services firm played an influential role; as did the work of Harold

Wilensky (1954) in ‘The professionalization of everyone’, published in the American

Journal of Sociology.

To understand the structure or substance of the professions, John Cullen’s (1979)

research on The structure of professionalism – A quantitative examination gives

insight, as does Slayton and Trebilcock’s (1978) Professionals and clients – A

constitutional struggle. To understand the issues of licensing and regulation, the

initial resource was the work of Shimberg, Esser and Kruger (1973) in Occupational

licensing: Practices and policies, and Regulating the professions by Roger Blair and


Stephen Rubin (1980). Given the trend towards more conservative views, heavy

reliance was placed on the work of Carolyn Cox and Susan Foster (1990) entitled The

costs and benefits of occupational regulation, a report prepared for the Bureau of

Economics, Federal Trade Commission. As the importance of licensing to the

development of a profession is clear, research by David S. Young (1987), The rule of

experts: Occupational licensing in America was included, along with a study

commissioned by the Pew Research Centre and conducted by Finochio, Dower, Blick

and Gragnola of the Task Force on Health Care Workforce Regulation (1998) titled

Strengthening consumer protection: Priorities for health care workforce regulation.

Lastly, Licensing and the UK engineering profession – A review, funded by the

Engineering and Technology Board (ETB) and researched by Eras, Ltd. (2003)

provided an international perspective reflecting current thinking and political trends.

As this research also looked at the development of the professions from a legal

perspective, the work of Michael J. Pollele (1999), ‘Who’s on first and what’s a

professional?’ played a key role, as did Norman Spaulding’s (2003) ‘Reinterpreting

professional identity’ and Christopher Gawley’s (2002) ‘Protecting professionals

from competition: The necessity of a limited antitrust exemption for professionals’.

Also figuring heavily in defining a profession from a legal perspective was the

decision by Chief Justice Breitel in re: Matter of Freeman, 40 AD 2d 397. A legal

perspective wouldn’t be complete without referencing Ronald Rotunda, and his 1997

Arkansas Law Review article ’Professionalism, legal advertising and free speech in

the wake of Florida v. Went For It, Inc and his professional responsibility, 6th edition

were cited frequently.

Consultation with Dr. Lynn Crawford, UTS & ESC Lille, an authority on global

project management standards, suggested the real need was to look at the more non-

traditional perspectives of how professions develop or evolve. Emphasis was then

placed on the research of W.J Haga (1974), particularly ‘Perils of professionalism’

published in Management Quarterly; and W.J. Goode (1969), with his ‘Theoretical

constraints of professionalism’ published in The semi-professions and their

organizations. Another strong recommendation from Dr. Crawford was Sociologist

by Andrew Abbott (1988). In ‘The system of professions: An essay on the division of


expert labor’ Abbott presents an analytical model that looks at professions in terms of

their turf, their control and the interactions, interdependencies and conflicts (‘turf

wars’) they experience. Abbot is also an advocate of the principle of estoppel: that by

claiming what you do is a profession in fact makes it so. Professor J. Rodney Turner,

also from ESC Lille, has recommended that the views of Plato also be included,

especially Plato’s perspective that learning must occur as a prerequisite to being a

professional.

2.2 The concept of a profession: An historical and semantic perspective

To grasp the contemporary meaning of professions and professionals in the context of

the 21st century, we start by looking to Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and of course,

Hippocrates. Of specific relevance to this research is Aristotle’s ‘What we learn to do,

we learn by doing’. Fundamental to all professions is the principal that you cannot

learn what you need to know for any profession by reading books. Hence, we refer to

the ‘practice’ of medicine, implying that the acquisition of knowledge and skills is

never ending. Likewise of importance is Socrates views on deception- that ‘self

deception is the worst of all deceptions’. As we explore the professionalization of

project management, we are going to have to question whether, as practitioners we

are deceiving ourselves in making claims that project management is a profession.

Several of Plato’s philosophies also have relevance to this research. ‘Knowledge

obtained under compulsion obtains no hold on the mind’ becomes important when we

consider project management being known as the ‘accidental profession’. Plato also

admonishes physicians to ‘put the good of their patients above making money’,

which to this day forms one of the core ‘attributes’ of a profession, at least in the

traditional sense. Another quotation by Plato includes: ‘the object of knowledge is

what exists and its function to know about reality’. But perhaps the most important

contribution by Plato was summarized by Christopher McGinnis, in his capstone

thesis ‘The social status of physicians in Greece and Rome’, where he explained:

In Greece around the 5th century B.C. there was a rise in a new class of healer. These physicians were not priests with divine gifts, but simply craftsmen practicing an art. They were often approached with mistrust and caution because there were no regulations on who could practice medicine, and the only way to know if a doctor was competent was from his results.


These physicians in Greece were of two types: The educated Hippocratic physicians who studied medical theory at a medical school such as those at Cos or Cnidus, and the slave-doctor who learned his craft through apprenticeship and observation. The Hippocratic physicians came from the upper echelon of Greek society, as is seen in the example of Eryximachus in Plato’s Symposium, while the slave-doctor or doctor’s assistant would often be a slave or freedman.

This points out two important considerations which need to be incorporated into the

research:

The key differentiator between the professional practitioner and the priest lies in the source of the underlying knowledge. While the priest relies on a belief in faith, the true professional relies on knowledge substantiated by fact and observations.

Ultimately, the only way to prove a doctor was competent at the time was based on his results. Isn’t this exactly the state we find project management in today?

Lastly, there is Hippocrates, who said, ‘I will apply dietetic measures for the benefit

of the sick. I will keep them from harm and injustice’, upon which the Hippocratic

Oath, still taken today by all medical doctors, was based (Rothman, ‘The crisis in the

ethics and profession of medicine: A historical perspective’).

While Aristotle, Socrates, Plato and Hippocrates established the philosophical basis,

to examine the true beginning of the professions as we know them today, we must

start by understanding the European guilds of the Middle Ages and Renaissance

periods (Kimball, 1995; Polelle, 1999). These guilds began as groups of workers

talented in performing certain skills or crafts. As they became more organized and

realized that not everyone in the community was capable of performing these

essential services, they became more powerful, eventually challenging the king and

other Medieval hierarchy by demanding the right to be self-policing. Once granted

this authority, the guilds controlled two primary elements (Goode, 1969):

who and how many apprentices were accepted and trained (control over the secret methods, formulae and skills)

who could own the tools, workshops and other means of production.

By the 17th century, the guilds by nature of having created essentially a monopoly,

had grown corrupt, collusive and nepotistic (Kimball, 1995; Goode, 1969). This

eventually led their downfall. The only guild to survive was the Scholars Guild,


which to this day continues to exhibit several of the traits common to the original

guilds – lifetime tenure and faculty governance – in most universities around the

world.

From the Scholars Guild came the birth of specialties from within the scholarly

community, namely, divinity, law, medicine and university teaching. The ethical

aspects of professions came about as a result of the 16th century requirement that

divinity students make a public declaration of their religious vows. However, by the

17th century, these vows had become a commitment to adhering to and maintaining

the ‘secrets’ of the profession, and remain the reason why medicine and law continue

to this day to use Latin or Greek terminology.

This commitment to protect or keep secret the ‘body of knowledge’ necessary to

execute the duties of the profession formed the basis for what we know today as the

code of ethics common to essentially all professions, whether new or old. Despite the

demise of the trade or craft guilds, the scholarly guilds, which evolved into what we

call today the ‘learned professions’, have managed to keep many of the attributes

associated with the original guilds, such as privileged social standing, lifetime tenure

and the prevention of outside interference or intervention in the administration or

management of their affairs (Kimball, 1995).

2.2.1 The concept of professional project managers in the professions

The work of Shimberg, Esser and Kruger (1973) in the mid 1960s showed how

persuasive the idea of being a professional had become in the 20th century, as did later

seminal work by Kimball (1995) in The true professional ideal in America – A

history, and Willenski (1954) in The professionalization of everybody. The trend

towards people wanting their occupation to be perceived as a profession, thereby

reaping the respect, prestige and benefits associated with that descriptor, is easy to

understand. More specifically, the Project Management Institute (PMI), the world’s

largest organization representing those practicing project management, has clearly

stated in their policy governance manual that, ‘Project management is a profession’.

In the most recent version of the PMI Code of Professional Ethics, released in early

January, 2007, reference to project management as a ‘profession’ occurs 11 times and

‘professional’ 20 times.


But does merely repeating the same mantra often enough result in it becoming fact?

As the parable about the emperor’s new clothes tells us, human beings are prone to

believe not what they see, but what they have heard, and are heavily influenced by

peer pressure to conform to group norms. Unfortunately, this may well be the case

with project management, for instead of being a stand alone profession, there is

growing evidence that each specialty is justified in ‘claiming’ project management as

it applies within that sector;

Thus, like the civil engineering schools of 40 years ago, laying claim to construction

project management as a discipline falling under the auspices of civil engineering,

there is evidence that the discipline of information technology is claiming project

management for computer science majors; while aeronautical engineers are

establishing the academic basis for claiming project management related to

aerospace. Meanwhile telecommunications engineering schools are creating project

management courses designed specifically to address the nuances of project

management as it relates to telecommunications projects. Further evidence of this

trend can be found by looking at the membership profiles of organizations competing

against PMI, such as the Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering

International, (AACE)1; Construction Management Association of America,

(CMAA)2; American Institute of Constructors (AIC)3; and the American Society of

Civil Engineers (ASCE)4. One of the reasons PMI has such a small percentage of

their membership coming from the construction sector (~4%) may be because the

specialty organizations (e.g. CMAA, AACE or ACI) satisfy the needs of the mature

user more effectively than does PMI. While at the periphery of this research, it is

intended that through the application of a combination of modern and post modern

thinking, sufficient evidence will evolve to support this fledgling hypothesis.

These examples of organizations wanting to establish their members’ professional

standing represent a developing ‘turf war’ not unlike those that plagued the

construction sector during the early 1960s, when each trade was fighting with the

1 www.aacei.org 2 www.cmaa.org 3 www.aicnet.org 4 www.asce.org


other to ‘claim’ ownership of each new method or material being introduced. This

observation is consistent with Abbot’s (1988) theory of competition. The ‘infighting’

and ‘turf wars’ were one of the leading causes of the demise of unionism in the

construction sector in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and the ascendancy of open

shop operations.

The possibility of this sort of conflict happening in the area of project management is

not an insignificant matter, and one that, while not directly a topic of this research,

should not be ignored. Using the construction sector as a model, not only do we see

the owner’s project manager on most projects, but also project managers from the

architects, engineers and consultants, as well as the general contractor and each of

his/her subcontractors and vendors. There is a trend, therefore, towards the

specialization of project managers around each sector.

But who will manage the project managers? Given that project management is truly a

legitimate delivery method and not just another management fad, and given the

competition in the education sector is becoming increasingly competitive, how likely

are the business schools to stand idly by waiting for the engineering schools to lay

claim to project management? Thus can be seen the development of portfolio and

program management by the business schools, recognizing that someone will

eventually need to watch over and coordinate the plethora of project managers

assigned to each project. These inevitable turf wars have long been evidenced within

the medical profession. It wasn’t all that many years ago that chiropractic was not

formally ‘recognized’ by the medical profession, nor was traditional (Chinese) or

alternative medicine. Yet because they were accepted by the consuming public, the

medical profession was forced to accept them on equal terms.

Another fact which illustrates the importance of this topic is the representation of

project managers by no less than three professional organizations, which do $100

million USD plus global business, with each claiming to represent the global project

management practitioner, with no shortage of local or regional entities claiming the

same. Looking historically at either the construction or the medical professions in

particular, can only lead to the conclusion that battles for the hearts, minds, loyalties,

but more importantly, the pocketbooks of those practicing the art and science of

project management have been considerable and are ongoing.


2.2.2 Evolution of the concept of professionalism

The evolution of professions has been studied for over 100 years, resulting in at least

four schools of thought. The more traditional extrinsic school looks to those

attributes or traits which manifest themselves through observable characteristics or

signs, indicating the evolutionary progress of an occupation to achieving professional

status. The second, less common approach, is to look at professionalization through

the actions of the consuming public. This perspective is known as the intrinsic or

semantic approach, and relies more on the belief, trust and acceptance of the

practitioners. The intrinsic school can be evidenced by the relatively recent

acceptance of such occupations as traditional Chinese herbal medicine, acupuncture,

and chiropractic as ‘professions’, at least in the Western world. The evolution of these

‘professional practices’ was driven from the bottom up, by the consuming public,

often despite the ridicule and debasement by the established medical professions. The

difference between these two schools of thought is centered on how each interprets

the concept of professionalism. One is willing to rely on principles of trust and real or

perceived results, with little or no regard to the extrinsic attributes normally

associated with the established professions; while the other bases its interpretation on

measurable attributes: education, accreditation, organization into widely recognized

and representative bodies. This certainly supports the argument of the importance and

relevance of the intrinsic (semantic) over extrinsic (trait) attributes as being the better

determinants of how to define a profession.

Other theories exist, including control, feminist and conflict, all of which were well

covered by Zwerman et al. (2004). Control theories explore the relationship between

professionals and bureaucracy, deducing that the two are incompatible, and are

exemplified by the tensions between power and control (Zwerman et al., 2004, pp.

29-30). The control theories apply to occupations which evolved as part of the

bureaucracy (Hugman, 1991, p. 201, cited in Zwerman et al., 2004, p. 29) Zwerman

et al. go on to explain the feminist concept of professionalism as one which contains

predominantly masculine values and constructs, as espoused by ‘Adams, Lugsden,

Chae, Arber and Bond’ (Zwerman, 2004, p. 30)

Lastly, the conflict approach explores the ways that class and racial distinctions are

maintained through the professionalization process (Zwerman et al., 2004, p. 30).


While these later theories may represent a more sophisticated approach, when all is

said and done, it is the perception of the consuming public which determines what is

and what is not considered to be a profession, indicating that while perhaps not as

much in favour as before, the traits are important indicators. (e.g Covey, 1991, p. 21;

Spencer & Spencer, 1993, p. 12). Since prior research has addressed extrinsic and

intrinsic attitudes towards professionalism, the current study focussed on a holistic

approach which included not only the semantic perspective, but also legal, economic,

sociologic and dictionary definitions.

The semantic approach or philosophy derives from the work of Cogan (1955), who in

‘The problem of defining a profession’ identified three strategies or approaches used

in defining a profession:

1 Persuasive definitions designed to argue in favor of an occupation being accepted or recognized as a profession; these are the arguments based around safety or health issues, and are amongst the most common rationales for professionalizing an occupation This model applies to engineering sector, medical practitioners and commercial airline piloting.

2 Operational definitions used to facilitate decisions about the organization and practices of an occupation becoming a profession These are the processes or procedures used by engineers, physicians and pilots.

3 Logistic definitions descriptive attempts to establish boundaries or ‘turf’ that an occupation claims as its domain (that which separates a brain surgeon from a heart surgeon, or a chemical engineer from a civil engineer, or the pilot of a 747 from one who flies a commuter airline).

It is within the context of the logistic definition that the majority of this thesis is

focussed.

After Cogan in 1955 several other notable researchers (Goode, 1969; Luthans, 1976)

argue that the traditional attributes normally used to identify or classify a profession

were no longer valid, and that ‘intangible’ attributes were beginning to change the

traditional methods of defining a profession. But the researcher who seemed to


capture the essence of this trend was M. L. Haga. Haga (1974) identifies three

primary, compelling or intrinsic aspects of an occupation which enable it to move

beyond being merely an occupation, ultimately evolving into a profession. These

three intrinsic attributes are:

1 cruciality 2 mystique 3 denouement

Example

To illustrate this concept, consider the occupation of commercial airline pilot. Here is

a service that some, but not all, deem ‘crucial’. In some cases, even though many

don’t like flying, and some actually fear flying, work, social, education or family

demand it be done. Flying a plane involves skills, knowledge and competencies that

are well beyond the average person’s interests or desires. Given the cost of a flight

ticket, why would anyone want to bother investing the time and effort in becoming a

pilot when it makes more sense to ‘outsource’ it to a specialist? But once the decision

is made to fly, in doing so, you turn over full and complete control to this specialist,

the pilot. You are told to sit in a specific seat, and for all intents and purposes, don’t

leave that seat until you reach your destination. In between, your life is literally in the

hands of a total stranger.

The importance of this act of trust cannot be overstated. This is the practical

definition we will be using while evaluating the nature of project management.

2.2.3 Researching words and their meanings

Profession and professional. In examining prior research into the concept of

professionalism, the noun profession was considered from legal, economic,

sociological, semantic, and standard English language dictionary perspectives.

Summarized, the research paints a comprehensive picture of those attributes

commonly identified with all occupations considered to be professions to some

degree or another. (Refer to Exhibits and Tables throughout this chapter.). While not

all attributes have equal weighting, as acceptance as a profession is more about

perceptions than it is about quantifiable criteria, the whole is greater than the sum of

the individual components. In terms of perception, the most valid measure is not the

extrinsic variables but the intrinsic variables.


At the same time as the noun was being investigated, the adjective professional was

also examined. Anecdotal evidence indicates that there is considerable confusion

between the noun profession and the adjective professional. While one can certainly

be professional at what one does for a living, simply being able to earn a living does

not necessarily mean that the occupation one has chosen automatically qualifies as a

profession.

Construction management and project management. Research on the

development of construction management as a ‘case study’ for this research proved to

be somewhat frustrating. That very little has been written about the history and

philosophy surrounding the evolution of construction management as a precursor to

the world of project management known today is disappointing. The death in early

December of Dr. Ed Haltenhoff, who was the primary source of information about

the history of CM, has negatively impacted the research in this area.

Other research that proved interesting and relevant was the work of Russia’s Nicolai

Kondratieff (1929, cited in Modelski, n.d.), Joseph Schumpeter (1942) and more

recently, MIT’s Jay Forrester (1998). Their research on business cycles has relevance

to project management. The fact that nothing significant has been developed in the

field of project management since the creation of the critical path method (CPM) in

the mid 1960s, and made popular by Primavera and more recently, Microsoft

Project, indicates some sort of stagnation in the growth cycle, at least for the project

management body of knowledge. Yet outsourcing and project based work is

becoming more and not less prevalent.

This situation exposes an important dichotomy. While the knowledge base of project

managers seems to have largely stagnated, the demand for project management as a

delivery approach is growing exponentially, at least judging by the membership in the

world’s largest organization representing the professional practitioner – the PMI. So

if the knowledge base has essentially stagnated, what is the driver behind the

popularity of project management as a delivery method? And more importantly, what

implication does this have for the future of project management, not so much as a

delivery method, but in terms of the perceived level of professional respect accorded

it as an occupation?


In the 1800s, the French economist J.B. Say (1803) coined the term entrepreneur and

defined it as one who ‘shifts economic resources out of an area of lower and into

areas of higher productivity and greater yield’ (Younkins, online). Isn’t that

essentially what project managers are doing? Say further defined an entrepreneur as

‘one who upsets and disorganizes’ (Younkins, online); or, stated more succinctly by

Joseph Schumpeter (1942), the entrepreneur’s role is ‘creative destruction’ (pp. 82-

85). Is a project manager an entrepreneur according to these definitions?

On the other hand, if a company of 10,000 people is downsized to a fraction of its

former self, and the work performed at one time by employees outsourced to

subcontractors who specialize in doing that particular series of tasks, who coordinates

and supervises the work of the subcontractors? Where does project management end

and general management begin?

Furthermore, when one works for an organization, isn’t the organization in effect

‘lending’ the project manager the name and credibility of the organization, the human

and physical resources, interim funding, all in the expectation that the project

manager will generate a positive return on investment or achieve some other

objective favorable to the organization? The link between entrepreneurship and

successful project managers is one that needs to be explored, as does the link between

project management and general management. Such an investigation could lead to a

new concept of intrapreneurship.

2.2.4 General and dictionary definitions

George Bernard Shaw, in his play The doctor’s dilemma (1906), cynically defines

professions as ‘conspiracies against the laity’ (Oxford quotations, 2005). Talcott

Parsons, (1939) opines that professions attracted people who had a psychological

predisposition to seek ‘social recognition for their work over wealth’ (p. 3). Michael

Davis (1987) explains that ‘professions differ from self-interest groups such as labor

unions and for-profit corporations in that they altruistically aim to ensure that the

services they provide are beneficial to those who receive them’ (p. 27).

Counterpoint these definitions with Eliot Freidson (1970), who argues that the

‘professions differ from trade unions only in their sanctimoniousness’ (p. 360). More

recently, Bowie & Jamal (1995) and Linda Emanuel (1997) note that the public’s


expectations of those in the professions is ‘higher than that of those in business’

(Jamal & Bowie, 1995, p. 33) and that the professions apply ‘expert action on behalf

of people in vulnerable states’ (Emanuel, 1997, p. 54). Moving away from the

altruistic perspective of Emanual (1997), Jamal and Bowie (1995), Davis et al.,

another group of economists and sociologists, have taken a different approach, that of

the knowledge and skill sets required to be a professional. The desired knowledge

includes the idea from noted economist Milton Friedman (1970) who believes the

‘social responsibility of those working for corporations was to increase profits’ (p. 8).

In between these two extremes, other sociologists, jurists and economists argue from

a position that seeks to provide a balance between the altruistic and pure business

models. (i.e. capital asset pricing model) taught in most business schools is more

appropriate to the concept of the professions. Chief Justice Breitel argues in the

Matter of Freeman that ‘a profession is not a business’ and that a profession has

higher order standards than a business’ (Matter of Freeman, 34 NY2d 1, 9-10

[1974]). The development of Donaldson and Preston’s (1995) stakeholder model;

Dunfee’s (1997) social contract model; or Woods (1991) corporate social

performance model seems to indicate a growing awareness that a profession (and by

extension, those practitioners who work in the profession) creates obligations which

go beyond delivering projects ‘on time and within budget while fulfilling technical

specifications’, but also include a softer, more human touch as espoused or implied

by Juran’s (1988) ‘fitness for use’ principle and Deming’s (1986) ‘total customer

satisfaction’ (p. 3).

Given the plethora of project management terms being used and in some cases,

intentionally or otherwise, distorted by industry specific interpretations, the current

research was based on a generally accepted and respected English language

dictionary, rather than one coming from any particular sector or industry. Therefore,

unless otherwise stated, Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-

Webster, 2002) was used as the primary source and basis of the fundamental

definition.

While this approach is consistent with the methods employed by some jurists (courts),

some economists, some sociologists, and nearly all semanticists, the weakness lies in


the ambiguity and vagueness contained in classic dictionary definitions. Thus the

journey started with the dictionary definition but included an examination of

restatements, interpretations or deviations from the standard definition as required, in

order to conclude with a definition for profession and professional which worked in

the context of project management. As the research was global in scope, the

definitions were cross checked against the Concise Oxford English dictionary (OUP,

2004) and if there were any discrepancies, those were noted. For comparisons

between different sectors and professional organizations, Wideman’s (2004)

Comparative glossary of project management terms (version 4.1) was used. The need

for a comparison was important to the research because project management has

become a veritable Tower of Babel of terms, definitions and interpretations. While

the project management Institute has done work to standardize the terminology, their

success has been limited by a lack of consensus globally.

Profession: The noun. Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-

Webster, 2002) defines profession thus:

profession: a calling requiring specialized knowledge and often long and intensive preparation including instruction in skills and methods as well as in the scientific, historical, or scholarly principles underlying such skills and methods, maintaining by force of organization or concerted opinion high standards of achievement and conduct, and committing its members to continued study and to a kind of work which has as its prime purpose the rendering of a public service.

learned professions: theology, law and medicine

This definition and any derivatives, enhancements or clarifications will form the basis

of this research. In order to develop a full and complete understanding of these terms,

let’s break this definition down further into the component elements (Exhibit 2.1).


Exhibit 2.1 Examination of words used to define the concept of profession

Word Definition

calling impulse or desire to follow particular job: a strong urge to follow a particular career or do a particular type of work

specialized devote time to particular activity: to devote time exclusively to a particular interest, skill, or field of study

knowledge information in mind: general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles; all that can be known: all the information, facts, truths, and principles learned throughout time

long going on for lengthy period: lasting for an extended period of time

intensive concentrated: involving concentrated effort, usually in order to achieve something in a comparatively short time

preparation preparatory measure: something done in advance in order to be ready for a future event

skills ability to do something well: the ability to do something well, usually gained through experience and training; something requiring training to do well: something such as an art or trade that requires training and experience to do well

methods way of doing something: a way of doing something or carrying something out, especially according to a plan; body of scientific techniques: the body of systematic techniques used by a particular discipline, especially a scientific one

principles basic assumption: an important underlying law or assumption required in a system of thought; ethical standard: a standard of moral or ethical decision-making

organization group: a group of people identified by shared interests or purpose, for example a not-for-profit professional organization

concerted opinion

achieved or performed together: an opinion reached by two or more people working together or with the same aim

high standards (of achievement and/or conduct)

above average: greater than the normal or average, for example in quantity, number, quality, intensity, or cost, or well above a smaller or lower level or amount

continuing education

specialist courses to update professionals: regular courses or training designed to bring professionals up to date with the latest developments in their particular field; lifelong adult education: adult education, usually in the form of short or part-time courses, continuing throughout an individual’s life

providing a public service

provision of essential services: the business or activity of providing the public with essential goods or services such as electric power; service benefiting the general public: a service that is run for the benefit of the general public, for example the utilities, the emergency services, transport, and broadcasting

Restating the definition of profession using the definitions above, and put in the

context of project management (or any other occupational specialty) the definition of

profession can be more completely rephrased as:

A strong drive or desire to do the kind of work normally associated with (project management; or insert your chosen occupation), by devoting considerable time and effort, over a long period of time, to master as much information, facts, truths, and principles as possible, by making a deliberate and concerted effort to develop, through training, experience, and by taking specialized adult education courses, over a life time spent as a (project manager), those systematic techniques to be able to execute the work of a


(project manager) in a sound, business-like manner, by adhering to above average standards of ethical, moral and legal care, as defined by an organized group of practitioners with shared aims, the primary one being serving the interests of the general public.

This definition of project management has been elaborated in whole or in some part

or another through lawyers, economists, sociologists and practitioners, but no single

source has been found which brings all aspects of a profession together in a single

document. It is believed the current research is the first to combine the legal, social,

economic, semantic and dictionary definitions and apply them to the practice of

project management.

Professional: Noun, adjective and confusion. It became clear during the literature

search, conversations with colleagues around the world and listening to clients, that

there is considerable ambiguity and nuance associated with the noun profession and

the noun professional, along with the adjective, professional. It was imperative before

proceeding further with the research, therefore, to make the distinction between the

terms as clear and as unambiguous as possible.

For the noun, profession, this proved more difficult than expected due to common

usage that has seen the word’s meaning expand to include contexts that are not

encompassed by the standard definition offered at the beginning of this section. Use

of the adjective and the noun professional in a wide variety of contexts has resulted in

profession expanding its meaning and becoming more generalized in everyday

speech and writing.

The word professional in both nominal and adjectival construction, varies with

context. The dictionary definition of the adjective, professional is:

professional (prə fésh’nəl) adj very competent: showing a high degree of skill or competence following an occupation as a paid job: engaged in an occupation as a paid job rather than as a hobby

The dictionary definition of the noun, professional is:

professional (prə fésh’nəl) n a professional person, not an amateur a person having impressive competence in a particular activity


To illustrate how broad the definition of professional is, and how this has affected the

original meaning of profession, let’s revisit and reconsider the anecdote about Tiger

Woods in the context of the above definitions:

Tiger Woods is unquestionably a talented golfer. One would be very hard-put to dispute the obvious, which that he is very competent at what he does, perhaps one of the best ever. Therefore he meets the first test of being a professional (n) – skill and competence. In fact, he is sufficiently competent that he makes a very handsome living performing for pay what most of us consider a hobby; hence, applying the second criterion, he meets the ‘earnings test’ to be considered a professional (n). He is not an amateur. Having met both tests (highly competent and earning a living at what most do for a hobby) entitles him to be termed a professional (adj.) golfer.

However, just because Tiger Woods meets the criteria to be called both a professional (n) and a professional (adj) golfer, golf does not qualify as a profession, although Woods might call it his profession (his paid job).

It is no wonder that many in the community of practice of project management

confuse what is means to belong to a profession. There is the tendency to make the

connection that if they are in fact professional (extremely competent) in the way they

work, then what they do must, by association, be considered a profession. This is

false logic and a semantic trap easily fallen into.

The analogy can be expanded to include not only golf and other sports, but many

occupational specialties including acting, singing and other talent-based activities.

Taken to an extreme, consider applying the above test to the world’s oldest

‘profession’ – prostitution. As will be shown through analysis of the data collected,

failure to make the requisite distinction between the noun profession and the noun

and adjective professional is a semantic lapse which must be addressed and resolved

by all occupations trying to ‘professionalize’ what they do.

Project and management. There are two remaining terms which must be defined

prior to proceeding further with the exploration of this topic. They are project and

management.

project (prójjekt) n (plural projects) unit of work: an organized unit of work proposed or planned undertaking: to achieve a particular aim or objective; a scheme for which there seems hope of success;


management (mánnijmənt) n administration of business: the organizing and controlling of the affairs of a business or a particular sector of a business handling of something successfully: the act of handling or controlling something successfully skill in handling or using something: the skilful handling or use of something such as resources

Project management, according to Webster’s third international dictionary (Merriam-

Webster 2002) is:

A proposed or planned undertaking to achieve a particular aim or objective, with some reasonable expectation for success, through the skillful handling or use of resources and the successful organization, administration and controlling these affairs in a business-like and ethical manner.

Life skill. A final definition important to establish as the journey continues is life

skill. Project management, using the dictionary definition, is an essential life skill

which everyone must master to some degree or another in order to survive as human

beings. How then can project management ever be considered as a profession unto

itself?

To reinforce this point, let us use the analogy of accounting. At the most basic level,

each and every one of us has to learn some basic accounting skills; otherwise we

would be unable to function in the modern world. Balancing our check book,

purchasing automobiles, houses and other assets, managing our credit cards, planning

for retirement, all require we understand basic accounting functions and principles.

Obviously, some individuals have great difficulty balancing their check books each

month, while other ‘amateurs’ are sophisticated investors. So it is with project

management. Some individuals manage their lives with much greater aplomb than

others. And, unlike golfing, basic accounting skills are life skills, without which we

risk being unable to function adequately.

None of the preferred dictionaries used for this study – the Concise Oxford English

dictionary (OUP, 2004), the Encarta dictionary online (Microsoft Corporation, n.d.)

or Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2002) – contain a

definition of life skill, and lacking any specific academic research containing a citable

definition, for the purposes of this research, the definition provided by Wikipedia

(n.d.) was used:


Life skills are the skills necessary for successful living, whether that is with a family, with a career, or institutional. These include setting a worthwhile and realistic goal, and then developing a plan to accomplish that goal that details the steps, courses, money, time, and reasons for achieving the goal. Then, step by step, one moves towards the goal. (n.d., online)

To summarize, Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-Webster,

2002) definitions of profession, professional, and project management were used as

the basis for this research, including the restatements as appropriate. However, the

nuances between how a profession is perceived from legal, socio-economic and

semantic stances must have considerable bearing on the acceptance of any occupation

as a profession.

2.3 The concept of a profession: Legal definitions Author’s note: This research is not intended to constitute or be relied upon as legal advice, but a description of applicable principles in the context of an academic research on project management. Please consult with your attorney for specific legal advice on issues or questions raised or contained in this research.

2.3.1 Legal definitions

Legal definitions of what constitutes a profession have a profound influence on any

occupation gaining acceptance as a profession. Of all the perspectives pertaining to

defining a profession, in the end, it is the legal definition which will most likely

prevail over all others.

Nevertheless, in the US, both state and federal legislators have been reluctant to

define the term, fearing repercussions from voters if their occupation happened to be

excluded (Polelle, 1999; Gawley, 2002). Likewise, the courts have often provided

‘varying, inconsistent and frequently conflicting methods of analyzing which

occupations merit the protections conferred by the title of profession’ (Polelle, 1999,).

About the closest legislative definition of a professional derives from the United

States Code (Labor Management Relations Act 29 USC152(12) 1995) which states:

The term ‘professional employee’ means

A. any employee engaged in work which is:

predominantly intellectual and varied in character as opposed to routine mental, manual, mechanical, or physical work;

involving the consistent exercise of discretion and judgment in its performance;

of such a character that the output produced or the result accomplished cannot be standardized in relation to a given period of time;


requiring knowledge of an advanced type in a field of science or learning customarily acquired by a prolonged course of specialized intellectual instruction and study in an institution of higher learning or a hospital, as distinguished from a general academic education or from an apprenticeship or from training in the performance of routine mental, manual, or physical processes;

OR

B. any employee, who (i) has completed the courses of specialized intellectual instruction and study described in clause (iv) of paragraph (a), and (ii) is performing related work under the supervision of a professional person to qualify himself to become a professional employee as defined in paragraph (a).

Compared against the current Merriam-Webster’s (2002) definition, the two remain

close, but with important differences. What is it that separates ordinary business

people from professionals? What provides professionals with special status in the

eyes of the law? For most people, the law applies a standard of ‘ordinary negligence’

as defined or perceived by the ‘common’ or ‘average man’. However, those accorded

the status of professional receive preferential treatment in five areas:

peer reviews – standard of practice established by ones professional peers

medicine school rule – standard determined by discipline or sector

locality rule – standard determined on geographical location

error of judgment rule – all things being equal, benefit of the doubt goes to the practitioner

limited or reduced statute of limitations – reduced time in which consumers can initiate legal actions for malpractice/professional negligence.

Peer review. Professionals, because of the complex nature of their work, are afforded

special protection because, it is argued, the ‘ordinary man’ does not understand the

complex nature of a professional’s work. The only people capable of judging whether

a professional acted appropriately under a given set of circumstances would be fellow

professionals. So in the context of proving negligence or professional liability, the

burden of proof is not ‘ordinary negligence’ as defined by the ‘common man’, but by

a standard set by the professional practitioner’s own peers. Restated, professionals are

judged by the standard of ‘what is normal and customary in the profession’, not ‘best

practice’ but merely an ‘average’ level of care.

In exchange for this apparent conflict of interest and marginal standards, the

practitioner must demonstrate that they adhere to a code of ethics/code of conduct


which clearly puts the interests of the consuming public before that of the commercial

interests of the practitioner. Effectively, in exchange for the right to be self governing,

a professional needs to put service to the public above and before any commercial

interests. However, there are even more special legal privileges accorded those

occupations deemed to be professions and professionals subject to peer review.

Ordinary care concept. While the standard for non-professionals is

‘ordinary negligence’, the standards the peer review boards or experts must establish

are not ‘best practice’ within any occupation, but merely what a ‘reasonably careful

practitioner in the same field would or would not do if they practiced in the same

locality under the malpractice defendant’ (Polelle, 1999; Gawley, 2002). Thus the

level of care is not the ‘best’, but merely an average, and that average is not a global

or even a national average, but a local one. This legal principal has important

relevance in establishing, much less enforcing, global standards of competency.

School of medicine rule. Another important part of the peer review concept is the

school of medicine rule, which states that in setting the standard of care, the peer

experts setting that standard of care must be from the same school or discipline.

(Polelle, 1999). Applied to project management, it would mean that only IT project

managers could set the standards against which IT project managers could be judged;

construction project managers would be the only ones qualified to set the standards

for fellow construction project managers. The same applies to other disciplines within

project management. The impact of this on the professionalization of project

management is critical, as it contradicts the principle being advocated by several

organizations that there is a single methodology which will work for all cases. It also

raises some interesting topics for discussion about setting global competency

standards.

Locality rule. Further restricting the definition of a profession is what is known as

the locality rule, which states that not only must the peer review committee/experts

come from the same school or discipline, but ‘interpreted strictly, those setting the

standards must also be from the same geographic region’ (Polelle, 1999,). Thus a

practitioner living and working in a remote site could only be evaluated by others

who live and work at remote sites; or an Australian practitioner could only be

measured against the standards of fellow Australians, not Americans, not Europeans.

This raises another important issue for those attempting to establish global project


management standards, for only airline piloting has come close to establishing truly

global standards of practice, and even within that application, not all standards are the

same in all countries.

Honest error of judgment rule. The honest error of judgement rule is another very

special rule which applies only to professional practitioners. This rule states that ‘if a

practitioner must choose between two or more courses of action, all of which may be

appropriate under similar circumstances, then it is not malpractice to choose one over

the other’ (Polelle, 1999,), even if, in hindsight, one would have been preferable over

another.

Statute of limitations. Lastly, a crucial difference between ordinary negligence and

professional negligence lies in the statute of limitations, or the amount of time

between an event occurring and when an aggrieved party may file suit against a

practitioner. In almost all jurisdictions, the statute of limitations is shorter for

professional negligence than for ordinary negligence (Polelle, 1999, p. 3).

As can be appreciated, given the special treatment accorded the professions,

determining whether an occupation is or is not a profession has profound impacts in

terms of legal liabilities.

The entire legal concept of peer review should be taken seriously as we move from

skills and knowledge-based credentials to competency-based credentials. Especially

important for any occupation working to establish global competency-based

credentials is the need to address the average vs. the best practices issue, the school of

medicine issue and the locality issue. For inevitably, challenges will occur around

these issues, and better to address them up front than after the credential has been put

in place.

2.3.2 Fiduciary responsibility defined and explained

Polelle (1999), Schein (1972) and Cox (1990) offer a good grounding in the concept

of fiduciary responsibility, and the issue of fiduciary responsibility to the consuming

public remains a common thread throughout most research related to project

management. The concept is not always a well understood, however, or accepted

(Simon & Reish, 2006), especially in the developing nations (Grace, 2002; Harden,

1968). Rather than raise questions about fiduciary responsibility with the respondents,

therefore, the research tool was a key word analysis of documents produced by those


organizations most often representing project managers, compared against the

benchmark of the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA). This

US federal law sets minimum standards for most voluntarily established pension and

health plans in private industry to provide protection for individuals in these plans.

Further research indicated that the most closely related application of fiduciary

responsibility to project portfolio, program and project management could be found

by looking at the modern portfolio theory found in the Uniform Prudent Investor Act

and the Restatement 3rd of Trusts (Prudent Investor Rule) (Simon, 2005) and the

ERISA 404(c) rules (USDoL, 2006). To understand fiduciary responsibility in the

context of project management, it is important to recognize the fact that project

management involves often complex relationships between the project manager,

subcontractors and the project sponsors. Aspects of these relationships have led to the

development of principal – agent or agency theory which recognizes the inevitable

tensions that will arise between an agent (the project manager) and a principal (the

project sponsor) when the principal must transfer some of the decision making

authority to the agent:

If the aim of both parties is to maximize their economic position, then there is good reason to believe that the agent will not always act in the best interests of the principal. Delegation of decision making authority from principal to agent is therefore problematic…. (Muller & Turner, 2005, p. 399)

It is common during a project for the project manager to understand all issues, great

and small, more fully than the sponsor; and to be making decisions without the

sponsor fully understanding why or whether they are the right decisions from their

point of view. Furthermore, since the project manager has their own interests to

consider, the interests of the sponsor will be best served only when the two interests

are aligned. Such an alignment can be managed by entering into appropriate

contracts, but, even with these instruments in place and legally enforceable, the

success of the project will hinge largely on the ethical behaviour and willingness to

communicate shown by all parties involved. Explained in more detail:

think of fiduciary responsibility as a sacred trust between you and your project stakeholders – backed up by federal law. You want to do the right thing for your stakeholders, and they are depending on you to make decisions in their best interests. What if you make a mistake? What if you depend on subcontract or outsourced service providers who don't have your stakeholders' best interests at heart? Can you plead ignorance? Can you say you got bad advice, your advisor or consultant didn't give you the whole story?


Sorry, but excuses may not keep you from being sued, and they won't protect you from liability. According to the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), as amended, the federal law that governs proper conduct regarding retirement plans, ignorance is no excuse. (Gnabasik, 2002, p. 29)

To put apply the principles contained in ERISA to project management:

most fiduciary breaches are the result of a lack of prudence. Many plan sponsors are not aware that they are a fiduciary and don’t understand what responsibilities and potential liabilities such a designation entails. Following these steps should prevent most of the violations that lead to lawsuits:

Determine who is a fiduciary Briefly, a fiduciary is anyone who (1) Exercises discretionary control over the management of a plan; (2) Has any discretionary authority or responsibility regarding plan administration or execution; (3) Offers investment advice regarding plan assets and derives compensation from it. Although determining who exactly is a fiduciary depends on the facts and circumstances of each case, fiduciaries usually include the plan administrator designated in the plan document and which may be an administrative, or investment committee, the investment manager and the broker/consultant, if the plan relies on her advice. (Gnabasik, 2005)

As can be appreciated by restating this criterion in the context of project management,

applying ERISA legal principles certainly would appear to create fiduciary

responsibilities not only in project managers, but also in portfolio and program

managers as well.

Review basic fiduciary responsibilities The next step is to remind everyone of a fiduciary’s basic responsibilities. First, fiduciaries must act in the best interest of participants and their beneficiaries (stakeholders). Although this is usually only a problem involving cases of ‘self-dealing’ or conflicts of interest (the classic example involves selling goods or services at an inflated price compared to the planned value), it also means that sponsors have a duty to keep costs reasonable. Finally, to quote ERISA, plan decisions must be made ‘with care, skill, prudence and diligence under the circumstances then prevailing that a prudent man acting in a like capacity and familiar with such matters in the conduct of an enterprise of a like character and with like aims.’ This means that a fiduciary must seek outside expertise when lacking the requisite education, experience or skill. (Gnabasik, 2002, p. 32)

Evidence of this is both clear and emphasized through the civil engineers Obligation

of an Engineer, but is largely ignored in the leading organizations representing project

management (PMI, AIPM, IPMA Code of Conduct/Code of Ethics).

Perform a self audit ERISA stipulates that each plan (project) must have a plan document and that the plan is operated (executed) according to those plan documents. An annual spot check of basic plan operations (e.g., rollovers, loans, hardship withdrawals, nondiscrimination testing, etc.) and a review of all required plan documentation will go a long way in preventing any potential problems. (Gnabasik, 2002, p.33)


Implicit in the context of portfolio, program or project management would be the

requirement for portfolio, program and project managers to take more responsibility

in creating a project plan and then ensuring it is followed. While this is done by the

more sophisticated applications of project management (for example, construction

project management and government contracting) under the auspices of claims

prevention/documentation, applying the ERISA standards would make it mandatory

for all practitioners to apply the same level of diligence.

Ensure a sound process is in place for investment (project) selection and monitoring Plan sponsors need a process in place for selecting and monitoring investments.(projects) Many advisors work with their clients by drafting a customized investment policy statement (project plans) and helping their clients to monitor the investment (project performance against the plan) on a regular basis. The important point here is that a plan sponsor has a bona fide process in place that they can refer to should anyone question a plan’s investment decision-making process. (Gnabasik, 2002, p.33)

The implications of this ‘test’ should be clearly evident, especially to those who are at

the program or portfolio management level. Applying the ERISA laws to project

management, it would appear to mean that an organization MUST have in place a

process or methodology, or risk being held accountable for breaches of their fiduciary

obligations.

Consider buying fiduciary liability insurance Advisors need to apprise their clients of the potential liabilities associated with fiduciary status. Fiduciaries can be held personally liable for breaches. In addition to the ERISA-required fidelity bond, advisors may want to raise the idea of buying additional fiduciary liability insurance for the plan. Large plans routinely buy such extra protection as it is relatively inexpensive and offers broad coverage. (Gnabasik, 2002, p. 34)

It would be hard to argue against the analogies between portfolio, program and

project management in the context of ERISA laws. Whether the practitioners of

project management and the organizations which represent them are willing to accept

this liability in return for having project management recognized as a profession

remains to be seen, but having made this comparison, it would appear as though

Polelle (1999) is correct in stating that:

judges should take judicial notice that a particular occupation qualifies for professional malpractice status when it has put in place and actively enforces an express and fiduciary system of ethical regulation of its members, FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR rather than serve the anti-competitive instincts of the regulated members. (n.d., online)


2.3.3 ‘Legal no man’s land’ in defining a profession

While we know ‘legislators are reluctant to address the issue of defining a profession

for fear of alienating potential voters’ (Gawley, 2002,), the courts have not been much

better. Generally speaking, the courts have taken three approaches to defining a

profession (Polelle, 1999):

Limit the special protections accorded under malpractice law to those professions recognized by early common law (doctors, lawyers, educators and clergy).

Recognize occupations with a license to practice issued by a government entity.

Choose some ‘middle course’ between the two extremes.

As can be appreciated, under the first scenario, architects, engineers, airline pilots and

others who play crucial roles in the health, safety and welfare of the consuming

public would not be recognized as being professions. Taken at the other extreme, if

the ‘licensing’ test were applied, that would include not only doctors, lawyers,

teachers, architects, engineers and airline pilots, but also encompass barbers,

beauticians, school bus drivers, truck drivers, electricians, plumbers and a host of

other less common occupations. Gales Professional and occupational licensing

directory (1996) contains over 1,300 occupations in the US which require a license as

a precondition upon which to work at an occupation. The list includes the occupations

of abstractor through wrestler, and some pretty bizarre and unusual occupations in

between. Given the alternatives between two such extremes, most courts, at least in

the US, tend to favor some middle of the road approach (Polelle, 1999).

Amongst the middle of the road approaches has been the use of standard dictionary

definitions, restated in the context of the case. However, as can readily be seen from

the standard dictionary definition used for profession, a great deal of the meaning can

be subjective. What constitutes ‘specialized knowledge’ or ‘long and intensive

preparation including instruction in skills and methods as well as in the scientific,

historical, or scholarly principles underlying such skills and methods’? Furthermore,

as evidenced by Wideman’s (2004) Comparative dictionary of project management

terms, having multiple meanings for even such basic terms as project or project

manager only confuses the problem further. Finding that dictionary definitions were

not precise enough for legal purposes, two US states, Florida and North Dakota, out

of exasperation that the legislators were unwilling to address this issue (Gawley,

2002), attempted to develop their own standards.


In Pierce v. AALL Insurance Inc. [513 So.2d 160, 161 (Fla. 5th DCA)], the Florida

Supreme Court held that a common denominator in all occupations generally

considered to be professions was holding a four year degree or better. In Pierce, the

courts held that an insurance salesman, despite needing a license to practice, and

requiring special knowledge was not a profession, as holding a four year degree was

not required. This was supported by the findings of the North Dakota Supreme Court

in Jilek v. Berger Electric (441 N.W. 2d 660 [ND, 1989]) in finding that being an

electrician was not a profession, for while it did require a license and it did require a

long period of training and specialized knowledge, it did not require, at minimum, a

four year college degree (Polelle, 1999).

The impact of this on project management is profound, for none of the most

commonly recognized certifications in project management require a four year

degree. It is worth considering how other occupations have been treated by the courts

in terms of their status as professions.

EDUCATORS

Worth noting in the context of project management is the fact that in the field of

education the (US) courts have overwhelmingly refused to allow a tort action

(malpractice suits) for a number of reasons, including:

lack of satisfactory standards against which to evaluate the academic performance of educators

inherent uncertainties about damages

excessive involvement of the judiciary in overseeing higher education

potential for a flood of litigation (Polelle, 1999).

This decision has significance for project management in so far as not only have

project managers not been able to agree on terminology or definitions (Wideman,

2004), but they have as yet to establish standards of competence. While these are in

the process of being developed (Crawford, 2005), they are far from completed, much

less widely accepted and adopted.

There is also the question of ascertaining damages. As project managers generally do

not control the scope of the project, the time for performance or the initial budgeting,

should they be held financially liable or accountable for a project that fails to deliver

what the client wanted? What of the project manager who completes a project on


time, within budget and in substantial conformance with the technical specifications,

but the project as originally conceived was flawed? Should the project manager

assume financial liability for direct damages? Consequential damages? While these

are rhetorical questions for the purpose of this research, they are serious questions

which at some point will have to be answered.

Like education, it would seem ridiculous to expect the courts to become involved as

the arbiters of what is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ project management any more than they should

get involved in defining what is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ education. That should derive from

and amongst those who provide project management services and those who

consume them. Noted legal scholar Roscoe Pound (1953) defined profession as ‘a

group of men (sic) pursuing a learned art as a common calling, in the spirit of public

service, its work no less a public service because it is also a means of livelihood’ and

in this context, the role of the professional organization in negotiating with the end

consumer becomes of critical importance.

Laws such as the Sarbanes Oxley Act and BASIL II5, however, may have opened the

door ever so slightly for project managers to be held accountable for the

consequences of their activities in the foreseeable future, opening floodgates of

litigation for malpractice. If and when that happens, it will be interesting to see if the

courts will determine project management to be a profession, subject to the special

treatment accorded professionals or not. Worth noting at this point is UK courts have

established an early precedent, holding that project management is not a profession

(Pride Valley Foods Ltd v. Hall& Partners, 2000; EWHC Technology 106, 2000,

Line 140).

CLERGY

As with teachers, lacking any clear standards of care against which to baseline, the

US courts have been reluctant to entertain malpractice against clergy. Except in such

egregious instances such as Catholic priests molesting children, other considerations

5 The Basil II accord was reached in May, 2004 by a committee of the Bank for International

Settlements. It calls for a new method of reporting solvency ratios and risk management to be adopted by the end of 2006. All European banks are required to follow that accord. In addition, in June, 2002, the European Union adopted a regulation requiring all ‘listed companies, including banks and insurance companies, to prepare their consolidated accounts in accordance with IAS [now IFRS] from 2005 onwards’, with some provision for deferrals until 2007. http://www.xbrl.ca/newsletters/01/Hyperlink%208.htm accessed 18 Feb 07


(not the least of which in the US is the 1st Amendment rights separating Church from

State) have over ridden the courts’ willingness to entertain malpractice suits (Polelle,

1999; Gawley, 2002; Rotunda, 2006).

ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS

Almost without question, architecture and engineering have been held to be

professions. However, the tests applied appear to be somewhat arbitrary, and as both

professional architecture and engineering organizations have been functioning in the

USA from the mid 1800s, they have had more time than most organizations in which

to establish their claims on the ‘tasks’ they do (Abbot, 1988). Much of the basis for

architects and engineers claiming to be a profession is based on the legal principle of

estoppel. Under estoppel, if you claim specialized knowledge or skills in doing

something, and you fail at doing it correctly, then you are stopped or prevented from

using as a defense that you didn’t actually have that knowledge or skill.

Similar to the rule of locality and the same school rules, the second restatement of

torts concludes that ‘one who undertakes to practice a profession or a trade, will be

held to the skill and knowledge normally and customarily held by members of that

trade or profession in good standing in similar communities’ (Polelle, 1999). As the

services rendered by both architects and engineers have a clear and direct bearing on

the public safety, in many countries, these occupations require a license to practice,

specifically to protect the interests of public safety.

However, one very important case has relevance to the current state of project

management. In Garden v Frier [602 So.2d 1273 (FL 1992)] the Florida Supreme

Court held that land surveying was not a profession, because the land surveying

license requires a four year degree or additional experience in lieu of a degree.

Although the defendant in the case had a four year degree, it was not universally

required, so the practice of land surveying was not considered to be a profession. This

has a profound implication for all of the most popular or recognized certifications in

project management, as none (at least as of this writing) requires a four year degree.

BURDEN OF PROOF

The definition of the concept of burden of proof was essential to this research. As

both qualitative and quantitative analysis were utilized in this study, and the definition

of any occupation is subjective at best, different burdens of proof were applied


throughout the research. Three relevant burdens of proof were taken from the legal

system, and a fourth, semantic definition – tipping point –was applied as appropriate

and necessary. Generally speaking courts tend to apply three burdens of proof

(Simon, 1970):

Preponderance of the evidence. This is also known as the ‘balance of the

probabilities’. It is a standard or ‘test’ applicable in civil (non-criminal) cases. The

standard has been met if the allegations of fact are more likely to be true than false.

Essentially, this standard requires 51% probability or more that the allegations are

true (Nolo, 2006).

Clear and convincing evidence. An intermediate or stronger burden of proof

also applied in some US civil cases is the ‘clear and convincing evidence’ standard.

Applying this test requires that the judge or jury be convinced that the facts are

‘substantially more likely than not to be true’. For the purposes of this study, clear

and convincing evidence was defined to be about 80%, but less than 95%, which

would meet the test of ‘beyond a reasonable doubt’. The 80% value is derived from

the findings of Judge Jack B. Weinstein in United States v. Copeland (228 F.Supp.2d

267) (EDNY 2002) (Tillers, 2006).

Beyond a reasonable doubt. This standard or test applies primarily to

criminal cases (Nolo, 2006). Applying this standard, the party responsible for proving

the facts of a case must do so to the extent that there exists no ‘reasonable doubt’ in

the mind of the judge or jury in determining the facts of a case. Based on Rita

Simon’s research, ‘the quantifiable definition of ‘beyond a reasonable doubt’ would

be around 95%’ (Saunders, 2005, p. 3).

Tipping point. There is yet another ‘burden of proof’ coming from

semantics. Malcolm Gladwell, in his 2002 best selling book The tipping point – How

little things can make a big difference, defines a tipping point as ‘that magic moment

when an idea, trend or social behavior crosses a threshold, tips and spreads like

wildfire’ (p. 12). John Sterman (2000), in Business dynamics: Systems thinking and

modeling for a complex world, defines tipping point as:

A threshold condition that, when crossed, shifts the dominance of the feedback loops that control a process. (p.305 )


Systems tend to remain stable as long as conditions remain ‘below’ the tipping point and controlling feedback is dominant. (p. 306).

But when conditions cross the tipping point behavior can become (temporarily) unstable and, in the case of projects, lead to failure. (p.314)

Despite the popularity of tipping point, and subsequent qualitative validation of the

concept, no research could be identified which came up with an actual, quantifiable

value. However, consistent with the findings of Barabasi (2003) in Linked, and given

that the work of Vilfredo Pareto (1896-97) figures so prominently in project

management (PMBOK, 2004), for the purposes of this study, a tipping point of 80%

was assumed, pending further research. As the concept of a tipping point may well

describe the global popularity of project management, it would have been remiss not

to incorporate it as a consideration in the current study.

Legal definitions summarized. While this research is not intended for legal use, the

following terms and their associated values were used, noting that the quantifications

for the burden of proof have not been established within the legal community. These

terms and their associated values were used for the purposes of consistency only

(Table 2.1).

Ultimately, the primary legal hurdles for any occupation being recognized by the

judiciary come down to five major considerations:

Does the occupation have in place and actively enforce an express and fiduciary system of ethical regulation of its members? (Polelle, 1999)

Is the system of ethical regulation focused on the benefit of the consuming public and not to serve the anti-competitive instincts of the regulated members? (Polelle, 1999)

Does the occupation require a license to practice? (Morgan & Rotunda, 1995)

Does the occupation require a four year degree or better? (Morgan & Rotunda, 1995)

Does the practitioner have a demonstrated commitment to public service? (Gawley, 2002)


Table 2.1 – Summary of legal definitions of a profession

Occupational specialty

Profession yes/no

Underlying philosophy, rational or legal argument Selected citations

clergy no

lack of standards; limitations in establishing damages; potential flood of litigation; excessive involvement of the judiciary in religion; first amendment (separation of church and state)

Barnes v Outlaw, 937 p.2d 323, 327, [AZ, 1996]; Nally v Grace Community Church, 763 P.2d 948, [CA 1988]

teachers/educators no

lack of standards; limitations in establishing damages; potential flood of litigation; excessive involvement of the judiciary in education;

Ross v Creighton Univ, 957 F.2d 410,413-415, [7th Circuit, 1992]; Andre v Pace University, 655 N.Y.S. 2d 777 [NY App Term 1996]

social workers sometimes

only those who are licensed and providing counseling similar to psychologists are considered professionals.

Horak v Biris, 474 N.E.2d 13, 17, [IL Appelate Court, 1982]; Crain v Martinez, 93-942, Civ-ORL-22, 1994

physicians, dentists, surgeons and podiatrists

yes standards exist; damages can be established; professional organizations exist;

Mathews v Walker, 296 N.E.2d 569-570, Ohio Ct Appl, 1973; Bryant v Bauguss, 1993

nurses no lack of independent medical discretion in making decisions

Richardson v Doe, 199 N.E.2d 878 Ohio, 1984; Kambas v St Joseph's Mercy Hospital, 205 N.W.2d 431,435, [MI, 1973]

accountants yes yes if licensed, no if unlicensed, but generally, yes.

Hospital Computer Systems v Staten Island Hospital, 788 Supp. 1351, 1992; Javier v Immigration and Naturalization Service, 335 F Supp. 1391, 1971; Owyhee County v Rife, 593 P.2d 995 [ID 1979]

insurance salesmen, no lack of advanced education and training

Advincula v United Blood Services 678 N.E.2d 1009, 1018 [IL 1996]; Owyhee County v Rife, 593 P.2d 995 [ID 1979]

embalmers no lack of advanced education and training


pest control no lack of advanced education and training


barbers & cosmetologists

no lack of advanced education and training


pharmacists yes advanced education and training required

Harrell v Lusk, 439 S.E. 2d 896, 898, [GA 1989]

computer programmers

maybe

no – professional service was merged into the final product; yes – holding themselves out to be professionals. (estoppel)

Hospital Computer Systems v Staten Island Hospital, 788 Supp. 1351, 1992; Data Processing Services v LH Smith Oil Co. 492, N.E.2d [ID Ct.Appl. 1986]

real estate brokers no license required, but lack of advanced education and training (4 year degree not required)

Tyle v Zoucha, 412 N.W.2d 438 [NB, 1987]


Occupational specialty

Profession yes/no

Underlying philosophy, rational or legal argument Selected citations

land surveyor no

same as project management. 4 year degree is not required. it can be substituted for more experience in the field.

Pierce v. AALL Insurance Inc. [513 So.2d 160, 161 (Fla. 5th DCA)], Garden v Frier, 602 So.2d 1273 [FL 1992]

electrician no no college degree required Jilek v Berger Electric, 441 N.W. 2d 660 [ND, 1989]

airline pilot no

for aircraft piloting, questions of tort liability arising out of the operation of aircraft, ordinary rules of negligence have been applied.

Southern Helicopter v Jones, 379 S.W.2d 10 [AR, 1964]; T-Craft Aero Club v Blough, 642 P.2d 70 [ID 1982]; Mackey v Miller, 273 S.E.2d 550 [VA, 1981]

project managers no

there is no chartered or professional institution of project managers nor a recognizable profession of project managers No 4 year degree required

Pride Valley Food v Hall & Partners, England and Wales High Courts, EWHC Technology, 106, 2000, line 140 Pierce v. AALL Insurance Inc. [513 So.2d 160, 161 (Fla. 5th DCA)], Garden v Frier, 602 So.2d 1273 [FL 1992]

This summary provides an overview of the rather limited or strict legal interpretations

of what occupations are considered professions from a judicial perspective. But to

quote Polelle from his 1999 law review Whose on first and what’s a professional? ,

society will not tolerate any contradiction between professional enthuses which seek to reap the benefits of an uninhibited marketplace mentality while at the same time demanding insulation from the competitive costs of that same marketplace.

This same philosophy is reiterated by Freidson who identifies three ideal or imagined

models of work (Freidson, 2001):

Free Market Model (based on Adam Smith) where we are all free to buy and sell anything we choose, competing against one another to buy at the lowest possible price and sell at the highest, with no regulation

Ration-Legal-Bureaucratic Model (based on Max Weber/Karl Marx) where production and distribution of goods and services is centrally controlled and is governed by a strict set of rules (standard operating procedures) and establish the qualifications of who and do what duties and descriptions which carefully define those duties (job descriptions)

Professional Market Model (defined by holders of specialized knowledge, who have the power to organize and control their own work). Legally, only they can do the work or offer the services they provide and only they are allowed to determine whether the work was done correctly or to supervise the work. In return for these privileges, they do not abuse their rights, as they are doing the work not for the money, but for the pure pleasure and enjoyment of helping others, and not primarily for the monetary or pecuniary gains to be had. (pp. 1-3)


What we need to understand is despite Abbott’s (1988) claim that ‘because the

professions are so well studied and well defined, it has proven easiest to analyze the

division of expert labor’ (p. 317) most others do not see it that way.

2.4 The concept of a profession: Sociological definitions

2.4.1 Sociological definitions

Harvard Business School professor, David Maister (1997) writes in his book, True

professionalism:

Once upon a time, clients trusted professionals. It was automatic, based on the learned professionals exclusive knowledge and respected calling. A sound character was assumed and business was confidentially conducted on a handshake. Great firms and institutions were born out of the natural expectation of trust. But those days are over. (pp. 68-69)

The effects of Enron, Global Crossings, Tyco, Parmalat and Worldcom, the

increasing costs of healthcare due to damages for pain and suffering, not to mention

the settlements by the Catholic Church for sexual abuse by priests, have been an

erosion of the public trust in professions. Be they lawyers, health care providers,

clergy, teachers or accountants, we are seeing an ever increasing erosion in the trust

of professionals by the consuming public. Thus the relevance of sociological

perspectives is perhaps more important than ever.

Sociologists seem to tend towards a liberal perspective which disfavors the granting

of the special privileges and status accorded professionals, and most appear to believe

that ‘few humans, when faced with mutually exclusive decisions between financial

and ethical interests, can find the moral latitude necessary to maintain professional

integrity’ (Donaldson, 2000). An examination of the literature related to sociological

perspectives on what constitutes a profession or a professional indicates that the

sociological interpretation of the term is broader and less clear than the legal or

dictionary definitions.

Sociologists fall into two major schools of thought with regard to the concept of a

profession. Talcott Parsons (1977), Michael Davis (2001), Linda Emanuel (2002),

Jamal (1995) and Bowie et al. (1995) tend towards a ‘moralist’ or ‘altruistic’ school

of thought. These scholars define the true professional as psychologically predisposed


to put doing good for mankind ahead of doing things for money, fame or power. In

this regard, the moralist school resembles the legal perspective.

The second major school of thought takes a more pedestrian or pragmatic approach,

which emphasizes the importance of a body of knowledge, (usually transferred

through advanced degrees), supported by research funded/initiated by professional

organizations, dedicated to achieving goals established by those organizations

representing the professional practitioner. Researchers in this category include A.I.

Goldman (1999), Shimberg (1973, 1982), Esser (1973), Kruger (1973) and Abbot

(1988).

Research for this present study indicated that a middle of the road approach to

defining a profession and a professional practitioner currently dominates. Researchers

such as Donaldson and Preston (1995), with their stakeholder model; Dunfee (1999)

with his social contract model and Wood (1991) with her corporate social program all

focus on a combination of moralist and pragmatic perspectives. Other recent

researchers, Eliot Freidson (2001, 1994, 1986) and Christopher McKenna (2006),

have updated the work of Abbot (1988) and Larson (1979) in particular to reflect the

significant evolutionary changes in the past 25 years, not the least of which have been

the perfidious activities of Enron, Global Crossings, Worldcom and Parmalat to name

but a few.

2.4.2 Sociological models

The stakeholder model is already well represented in project management. As noted

previously, the term ‘stakeholder’ appears over 150 times in the ~400 page long

PMBOK guide. However, at least based on the actions of some organizations

purporting to represent those practicing project management, the social contract or

corporate social program are not as evident. For example, PMI, reasonably claiming

to be the world’s largest representative of practitioners, despite having in excess of

USD$80 million in the bank, unlike other comparable professional organizations, has

yet to link its dues structure to purchasing power parity. While the stakeholder model

is a core element of PMI’s philosophy, little is written about the social contract or

corporate social program (CSP) approaches, at least in the context of project

management. However, as can be seen from the legal perspective, emphasis on the

importance of the social contract model remains quite strong.


An important sociologist is Andrew Abbot (1994, 2001), who is noted for creating ‘a

rich and imaginative analysis of the institutions connected with occupational

jurisdictions’ (Freidson, 2001, p. 6). He is also faulted for ‘not creating a clearly

structured analytic procedure nor explicit connections to other bodies of data and

theories’ (Freidson, 2001, 6). Abbot (2001) also subscribes to the philosophy

contained in the legal principle of estoppel. He claims that an unfilled need is

sufficient for an organization to simply claim ownership of the void, or if there is no

void, it can fight other organizations for their ‘turf’. While the principal of estoppel

has a solid basis in law, and in fact, architecture and engineering in particular owe

their current status as professions largely to estoppel (Pollele, 1999), the work of

Abbott (2001) most closely describes the situation between the architects, engineers

and construction management (Abbott, 1988, p. 86).

In Andrew Abbott’s (1988) book, The system of professions: An essay on the division

of expert labor. he represents a somewhat unclear analytical model that looks at

professions in terms of:

their jurisdictions; (their ‘turf’, domains or claims on a specific body of knowledge)

the tasks they do; (their methodology or processes)

the expert skills and knowledge needed for those tasks

how competitive forces internally and externally work to change both the jurisdictions and the tasks.

Abbott (1988) attempts to show that professions are interdependent systems,

containing internal structures. He accomplishes this task by means of analyzing the

emergence of modern professions and their relationships with each other

cooperatively and competitively. Of particular interest to this research is Abbot’s

(1988) view that:

sometimes problems of classification arise. For some problems are constantly shifting classifications, and fall under more than one classification, due to their defining traits. This may lead to intervention or competition by other professions who want to assimilate the unclear problem into their own professional repertoire. (p. 4)

The relevance of this becomes apparent in the long standing and often acrimonious

‘turf wars’ between architects and engineers over the management of construction


projects. This lack of clarification is one of the leading reasons behind construction

project management being a ‘bastard child’ of both architects and engineers, with

neither of them willing to give ground. Thus like in many divorce cases, construction

project management has become the proxy battleground between two feuding parents

– architects and engineers.

Another important sociological perspective comes from Eliot Freidson (1994). In

Professionalism reborn: Theory, prophecy and policy, he states:

In general there are three ways to organize a market. First, there is the free market in which workers compete freely to be chosen and paid by employers or clients. Secondly, there is a bureaucratic market which is hierarchically organized and controlled. And thirdly, there is a professional market which is organized and controlled by the specialized occupations themselves. In the first the consumer is in command; in the second the manager or executive is in charge; and in the third, control is vested in the specialist workforce.

In free markets the common interest of all participants is in monetary price and gain. Workers typically have little interest in the work they do or in the way they do it. They do what is necessary to maximize income. Price and profit are the measures of success, with efficiency defined by the minimization of price in the production of a particular good or service. Workers generally have little job security.

Actions are more constrained in a bureaucratic labor market. The incentives and values are different. The emphasis of those in charge is on reliability and predictability in the production of specified goods and services. ‘Quality’ is defined by formal rules and standards which guide performance appraisal. Prices are specified for goods and services of standardized quality. Workers compete for jobs on the basis of qualifications and relevant experience, and can gain a measure of job security.

In professional labor markets the choice of workers by both consumers and employers is limited by occupational regulation. While there may be some competition between members of a given occupation, within their sheltered position in the labor market, the emphasis is on collegiality and collective action. In the past, most health professionals have had secure employment.

In the free market model the prime incentive is material gain, and value is measured in money. In the bureaucratic model the prime motive is security, and value is measured by reliable conformity to established standards. In the professional model the prime incentive is the respect and approval of colleagues, and value is rooted in the quality of the work. (pp. 32-45)

Contrast Freidson’s (1994) ‘collegiality – respect and approval of colleagues’ against

Abbot’s (1988) ‘intervention or competition by other professions who want to

assimilate the unclear problem into their own professional repertoire’ and you can

begin to appreciate the intra and extra organizational tensions impacting the

professions today.


To further cloud the picture, in Thomas Friedman’s (2005) Flat world and Tom

Osenton’s (2004) Death of demand both authors describe a world in which the

developing nations (China, India, Indonesia, for example) are not satisfied with lower

rungs of the supply chain, but aspire to very quickly move up the supply chain by

providing professional services. Some of the best examples of this would be the

outsourcing of call centers to India or the recent purchase of IBM’s retail computer

business by Lenova.

Other important evidence of this trend is the proliferation of ‘medical tourism’ in such

places as Singapore, Thailand and China, where people can obtain world class

medical care at a fraction of the cost of similar care in North America or Europe.

Abbot (1988) addresses this issue by predicting that ‘organizational (rather than

occupational) dominance will emerge’ (p. 39). Freidson doesn’t address it directly,

but notes that research by Casey (1995), and presented in Work, self and society in

post industrialism, predicts ‘a post occupational society, in which all workers [are]

part time, temporary workers’ (p. 11).

Piore and Sabel (1984) two other researchers who has predicted many of the trends

popularized more recently by Peters, (2003) Friedman (2005) and Osenton (2004). In

1995, Sabel predicted ‘in a post-modern economy, jobs will be composed of flexible

skills rather than tasks, and occupational rather than firm identity will once again

become the norm in the workforce’ (p. 12). Put in the context of Abbot (1988) and

Freidson (2001), one can appreciate the potential impacts the ‘outsourcing’ of

professional services is going to have in terms of ‘collegiality’ (intra-organizational

competition), as well as inter-organizational clashes which the globalization of

professional services is likely to engender.

These ideas point to the possibility that professional services (and the concept of a

profession) will move from a fraternal model towards a more free-market model.

Should this become fact rather than theory or conjecture, the concept of many

occupations professions will likely diminish while the importance of the individual as

a professional will increase. This supports Ronald Rotunda’s (1997) assertion that

‘the only fruitful use of the term profession today relates only to individuals, not

groups’ (p. 2). This is born out by a study conducted by the American Bar


Association’s Working Group on Civil justice: Blueprint for improving the civil

justice system 12 (ABA, 1992) which concludes that ‘professionalism lies not so

much in following certain rules as in the development of personal attitudes and a

manner of deportment that leads to appropriate professional relationships and

courtesy in manner and creed’. This relatively simple observation has profound

implications for the future, not only for project management, but for all occupations

which involve the provision of professional services.

In summary, the various sociological models offer the least consistent definitions of

either profession or professional. While most models are founded upon academically

sound research, no one model completely, consistently or accurately defines the

attributes of a profession in sufficient detail to enable quantification. Stated another

way, as Polelle (1999) discusses, lacking legislative definition, and despite the use of

semantic and other guidelines, from a legal perspective, there is no ‘bright line’ rule

to help in defining a profession. A review of the sociological attributes does nothing

to clear up the picture.

However, the following outline captures the essence of the various sociological views

and perspectives in a sequential order:

Caplow, 1954 a structured, functional, sequential model; Wilensky, mid 1960s a logical sequence of identifiable steps Millerson, mid 1960s there is no one model (each case is unique) Larson, mid 1970s monopolistic stages Bledstein, mid 1970s cultural attributes Arney, mid 1980s cultural traits Freidson, mid 1990s ideological system Abbot, late 1980s competitive control of jurisdictions (knowledge) Freidson, early 2000s logical, systematic framework

While the sociologists have written the most, their models leave as much confusion as

they do solutions for determining whether any single occupation is or is not a

profession. This is especially obvious when compared to the legal scholars, who have

attempted (and been somewhat successful) in determining ‘bright-line’ tests.


2.5 The concept of a profession: Economic definitions

While often economic and sociological thinking are lumped together under the guise

of socio-economic perspectives, they were kept separate in this research because,

while both address many of the same issues, economists tend to look mostly towards

the economic impact imposed by the legal wrangling over licensing and the implied

or real impact that artificially limiting the number of practitioners has on the cost of

services to the consuming public and the relative quality of those services. Some of

the major issues identified by economists are:

anticompetitive impacts of restrictions on advertising (Muris & Cheney, 1978; Bond, 1980; Feldman & Begun, 1978 1980 & 1985; Cady, 1976; FTC, 1984; Benham, 1972; Bond, 1980; Kwoka, 1984)

benefit: cost ratio of licensing (Young, 1986; Healey, 1973; Paul, 1984)

reciprocity (practitioners coming into an area from out of the state or out of the country) (Martin, 1982; Shepard, 1978)

barriers to entry (residency requirements, certifications, quotas, education requirements, use of interns) (Hass-Wilson, 1986; Kwoka, 1984; Bond, 1980; Liang & Ogur, 1987; Conrad & Sheldon, 1982; Martin, 1982; Feldman & Begun, 1985; Carol & Gaston, 1981; Holen, 1978)

Several other reasons for separating sociologists from economists were that:

Economists are the most diametrically opposed to the legalist perspective in terms of providing a balanced approach to defining a profession.

Economists are perhaps the best researched in terms of quantitative vs. qualitative analysis (consistent with modernistic thinking).

To summarize, Tables 2.2 and 2.3 offer a compilation of research on the economic

impacts of various restrictions on the quality and cost of professional services.

As can be appreciated from Tables 2.2 and 2.3, while the impact of various

restrictions on the quality of services is mixed, the costs of services when restricted

clearly go up significantly. While this data was taken from a 1990 report prepared by

Carolyn Cox and Susan Foster for the US Bureau of Economics, Federal Trade


Commission (Cox & Foster, 1990), subsequent research by the highly regarded Pew

Research Group (Finocchio, Dower, Blick & Gragnola, 1998) presented in

Strengthening consumer health care protection through health care workforce

regulation confirmed the findings of Cox and Foster (1990), reiterating that amongst

other recommendations, ideally, ‘voluntary credentialing (in the case of the medical

profession means Board Certification) was preferable to licensing’ (Finocchio et al.,

p. 103; Cox & Foster, 1990, p. 59) but with the proviso that ‘peer review boards

should consist of 51% (or more) of consumers and 49% (or less) of practitioners’

(Finnochio et al., 1999, p. 103).

Table 2.2 Impacts of restrictions on QUALITY of services

Occupation Type of restriction Impact on quality Researcher

accountants licensing required neutral Young, 1986

dentistry exam requirements and reciprocity

positive Holen, 1978

electricians, plumbers, optometrists, real estate agents and veterinarians

oral exams and prior occupational experience

negative Carroll & Gaston, 1981

legal advertising restrictions negative Muris & McChesney, 1978

optometry advertising & commercial practice restrictions

neutral Bond, 1980

optometry advertising negative Kwoka, 1984

optometry commercial practice, advertising restrictions and continuing education

positive (note: study was considered flawed in that it was impossible to separate out the impacts of each element)

Feldman & Begun, 1985

laboratory personnel licensing required neutral Healey, 1973

pharmacy reciprocal licensing positive Martin, 1982

pharmacy citizenship positive Martin, 1982

pharmacy non-reciprocal licensing neutral Martin, 1982

pharmacy advertising neutral Cady, 1976

physicians licensing required neutral Paul, 1984


Table 2.3 Impacts of restrictions on COST of services

Occupation Type of Restriction Impact on Cost Researcher

dentistry reciprocity 15% Shepard, 1978

dentistry commercial practices 4% Conrad & Shelton, 1982

dentistry use of hygienists 4% Conrad & Shelton, 1983

dentistry use of hygienists 11% Liang & Ogur, 1987

legal advertising 5-11% US Federal Trade Commission, Cleveland Office

optometry advertising 25% Benham, 1972

optometry advertising 33% Bond, 1980

optometry commercial practices 33% Bond, 1981

optometry advertising 20% Feldman & Begun, 1978 & 1980

optometry commercial practices 5-13% Haas-Wilson, 1986

optometry advertising 20% Kwoka, 1984

optometry commercial practices 20% Kwoka, 1984

pharmacy advertising 5% Cady, 1976

Another important recommendation from both the Pew study (Finocchio et al., 1999)

and Cox and Foster (1990) was that, ‘National competency standards were preferable

to state or local ones’ (Finocchio et al., 1998, p. 115; Cox& Foster, 1990, p. 36).

While not coming out totally against licensing and other restrictions, the Pew

researchers felt that the best interests of the consuming public were not being served,

and were calling on significant reforms, at least in the healthcare sector.

The implications of this for project management are reasonably clear, emphasizing

that the trend for voluntary credentialing, as opposed to government required licenses

remains strong, and that national standards are preferable to local or state standards.

Extrapolating the findings of Cox and Foster (1990) and Finocchio et al. (1999) in the

context of project management, there is strong support for the Global Alliance for

Project Performance Standards (GAPPS) (www.globalpmstandards.org).

2.6 The concept of a profession: Semantic definitions

2.6.1 Semantic definitions

While the semanticists can and do come from philosophic, legal, sociology or

economic backgrounds, in order to explore whether or not the whole is more than the

parts or there might be meaning in the social context through usage (post modernist

view), the semantic perspective was of sufficient importance to warrant a separate

treatment from the purely legal, economic and sociological point of views in this

study. In many cases (Polelle, 1999; Abbot, 1988) they appear in both their respective

fields (legal and sociology) as well as in the semanticist category.


The leading researchers in terms of the semantics of the concept of a profession

include M. L. Cogan (1955), M. J. Haga (1979), Michael Polelle (1999) and Ronald

Rotunda (1997); but as noted previously the distinction is often blurred, depending on

whether the researcher is looking at the definition from the perspective of their

original field or linguistically as a semasiologist (linguist).

One of the earlier semantic researchers was M. L. Cogan (1955). In Problems of

defining a profession, Cogan (1955, p. 107) proposed three types of definitions

associated with professions:

persuasive definitions designed to convince others that what they did was a profession

operational definitions designed to convince others that the nature of the work they performed established the claim that what they did for work was a profession

logical definitions designed to convince others that their work was a profession by dint of the historical or customary application of the term.

The Semantic School derived from this basis (Maurutello, 1981).

Haga (1974) in particular, although a rather obscure researcher, published a pithy and

hard hitting description of the difference between true professions and ‘would be’

professions in the Management Quarterly Review. In this article he noted:

The utility of distinguishing between the true professions and merely ‘would be’ professions can be appreciated when one looks at why so many occupations pursue the elusive status of profession. Here are the chief things that occupational groups seek when they undertake ‘professionalization’:

– Above all else, they want AUTONOMY. That is, they want freedom from supervision in carrying out their jobs;

– They want RECOGNITION based not upon the name of their employer, but upon their identity with their occupation;

– They want the POWER to determine who is ‘in’ their occupation from those who are ‘out’;

– They want to establish a MONOPOLY over a certain line of work, freeing it from influence of ‘outsiders’ (mostly employers, but also clients and the general public) who do not share or necessarily understand the ideology;

– They want the POWER to discipline wayward colleagues who deviate from their work ideology. (p. 4)


Haga (1974) goes further to explain that:

there is no denying that once autonomy is achieved, greater success in negotiating for monetary rewards will likely follow. While money cannot be totally dismissed as an important professionalizing force, establishing autonomy becomes the means to that end. (p. 4)

But even more relevant to project management, Haga (1974) states:

the chief means of maintaining autonomy is INTIMIDATION. The essence of truly professional behavior lies in intimidation – of clients; of employers; of whatever audience stands to threaten a profession’s autonomy. (p. 6)

This observation is interesting having seen first hand evidence of exactly these

behaviors by more than one of those organizations purporting to represent the

‘professionalization’ of project management. Evidence of this intimidation included a

major global organization suing several long time members and threatening legal

actions against a host of others, and other threats of legal actions in several of the

other larger, well known global organizations representing project managers.

Assuming Haga’s (1974) perspective is still valid, taken in the context of today’s

world as defined by Friedman (2005) or Osenton (2004) as being one of overcapacity

and brutal global competition at all levels, whether or not anything but the

‘traditional’ or ‘fee for services’ practitioner should qualify as being a profession

becomes highly questionable and certainly fodder for further research.

In Professionalization of project management: Mapping the past to explore the

future, Zwerman et al. (2004, p. 24) identify three categories of profession:

Set A – traditional ‘fee for services’ model

Set B – employer-employee model

Set C – new knowledge worker model

Assuming that Friedman (2005), Osenton (2004), Peters (2003) and other futurists are

correct and that we are headed for a world where nearly everyone becomes a part

time, outsourced worker, employed on yearly or project-based contracts, wouldn’t it

seem likely that Set A and Set C will eventually become indistinguishable, and that

those people remaining in Set B will become a relatively small minority of the

working world? Freidson (2001) touches on this in Professionalism, the third logic,


by quoting Krause (1996), Abbott (1988), Casey (1995) and Sabel (1995) as noted

previously, supporting the more recent work of Friedman (2005), Osenton (2004),

Peters (2003) and Maloney (2004).

Haga (1974) also established three semantic criteria against which to measure a

profession:

1 Criticality – An occupation possesses criticality when some significant group of others determines that what the occupation does or provides is crucially necessary to their life, (now or hereafter) health, purse or freedom; Criticality means that the occupation has an almost life-or-death relationship to it’s clientele, employers or the consuming public. ‘Significant Group’ means not everyone considers it a near life or death concern, but that a relatively large enough population considers it so to enable the practitioner to earn a living off the fear of whatever threat to life, health, purse or freedom is facing the population.

2 Mystique – This second differential of a profession is a direct derivative of the first. A person with a crucial problem dare not seek out just anyone to solve this problem. The person who has the ability to solve the problem must be perceived as having much more knowledge/skill or understanding than the lay person experiencing the problem or those of his/her peers. In today’s world, this often translates into those who hold advanced degrees but could equally apply to your auto mechanic, a plumber, electrician or anyone who can do something you perceive to be beyond your comprehension. (i.e. setting up and maintaining your computer)

3 Dénouement – This is the ‘third leg’ required to support this ‘three legged semantic stool’ definition of profession. Like Mystique, Dénouement is a critical ingredient that, when mixed with criticality, defines a profession. Dénouement the bringing together of Criticality, Mystique by an individual perceived by the recipient of the services as having special powers, well above and beyond those of the recipient. In this professional, you are willing to put your full faith and trust, with no concept of what the person is doing, in the service provider to render relatively quick and seemingly effortless results. (PAGE)

Examples of this very real and very common phenomena described by Haga (1974)

abound in our everyday lives. For example, you are a women driving alone down the

highway at night. Your car breaks down. You phone 911 on your cellphone and the

police send out an auto repair person. You haven’t a clue what the person is doing to

your automobile, but you have to trust in this person because you have no other

choice. Within 15 minutes, the auto repair person has replaced some filter or other

faulty mechanical part, and you are on your way. Do you complain about the bill?


Not very likely. Do you really care if the person was a licensed mechanic? You are

simply grateful you were able to get help in the first place and thankful that the

problem was fixable without having to be towed or spend a night in a hotel. Other

examples abound in our day to day world:

Your computer crashes, and you have a major report due first thing tomorrow morning….How do you perceive the computer repair person who is willing to come to your home and repair your computer?

Your toilet backs up on a Friday night when you have house guests arriving on a Saturday morning to stay the weekend….How do you perceive your local plumber who arrives at your home at 22:30 on Friday night to unclog your drain? Do you first ask for his/her plumbers license? Do you ask in advance what he will charge? Do you negotiate hard with him to drop his rate?

Your find a hard lump in your breast and you are unable to get to a doctors appointment for a week….What do you say to the first doctor who will accept you immediately?

You’ve been arrested and jailed for a crime you did not commit….What is the first call you make? Do you really care who shows up to bail you out?

You are a religious person and have just been in a bad traffic accident and are dying, and you want to receive final absolution….Do you really care whether the first religious person to arrive on the scene is not from your religion? Do you tell him or her to go away and try to find someone else?

All are examples where we are put in such stressful situations that we grasp at the first

person who makes any promise to help, and are extremely happy to put our problem

in their hands for a speedy resolution.

While this may well be the mark of a professional person, or it could just as easily be

the traits of a charlatan. Evidence of the dangers in relying solely on this definition

abound, with the proliferation of faith healers, white magicians and others who prey

on the fears and desperation of the afflicted members of our societies. So while this

definition may very well be one of the components of a truly compassionate

professional, as we have seen with legal, sociological and economic criteria, these

traits alone do not make a profession.

This is especially true in the field of project management. Given that risk

management, especially in the proactive identification and management of risk before

risk events happen, plays such a prominent and crucial role in the practice of our craft

(PMBOK Guide, 2004), one could certainly question how, as professional

practitioners, we ever could let ourselves get into such a situation requiring the kind

of solution where criticality/mystique and dénouement would be appropriate.


2.6.2 Equitable estoppel as a special case definition

To a somewhat lesser degree, both the legal scholars (Polelle, 1999; Rotunda, 1997;

Gawley, 2002) and the sociological scholars (Abbot, 1998; Freidson, 2002;

McDonald, 2000) recognize the semantic principles through the legal principle of

estoppel as applied to defining a profession. Essentially, estoppel is a legal principle

that prevents a person from asserting or denying something before a court of law that

contradicts what has already been established as the truth, either by something the

defending person wrote or through the actions of that person. This is also known as

estoppel in pais (Black’s Law dictionary, 2006).

While there are several types of estoppels, equitable estoppel is a type of estoppel that

bars a person from adopting a position in court that contradicts his or her past

statements or actions when that contradictory stance would be unfair to another

person who relied on the original position. For example, if you hold yourself out to be

a professional project manager, and then get sued for failing to deliver the project on

time or within budget, under the principle of equitable estoppel, you would be

‘estopped’ or prevented from claiming after the fact that you did not represent

yourself to be a professional project manager.

Whether you acted in a professional manner will be a matter of fact determined by the

court of law. The important concept to remember here is if your occupation does

NOT meet other definitions of being a profession, then despite you having claimed

you were one, you will be judged by the rules of ordinary negligence as determined

by the average man and not professional negligence, to be judged by the standard of

your peers, from the same discipline and from the same region; nor you will not enjoy

the privilege of a reduced statute of limitations.

Those who believe that simply saying project management is a profession in the

belief this will automatically make it one, are setting themselves up for a potentially

nasty surprise, at least from the legal perspective.

2.7 Definitions summarized Where does this leave us? We know from the dictionary that the definition of

profession and professional is vague and subject to interpretation (Merriam-Webster,

2006). We know from an analysis of a broad review of relevant case law that while

some ‘bright line’ definitions exist for profession and professional (Polelle, 1999),


there remains a general lack of consensus. We also know from the legal analysis that

legislatures are unwilling to risk offending voters by legislating what is and what is

not a profession (Rotunda, 2002). We know from an analysis of the sociological

literature that sociologists are the least consistent in their definitions. Coming full

circle, the semanticists also have produced some definitions, and while each has

justification under a given set of circumstances, there does not exist any single

definition – dictionary, legal, socio-economic or semantic – which consistently

answers the question What is the definition of a profession and/or a professional?

Lacking any single ‘bright line’ standard for defining a profession, consistent with the

approach taken by the judiciary and sociologists, some sort of middle of the road

approach seems to be the only appropriate and logical choice. One of the legal terms

commonly found is burden of proof. For serious cases, such as murder, the burden of

proof has to be beyond a reasonable doubt (Black’s Law dictionary, 2005). While this

doesn’t mean ‘100%’ sure, it certainly should mean 90% or better, especially if you

are going to send someone to the gas chamber or to prison for life’. However, for

most civil cases, the burden of proof is ‘the preponderance of the evidence’. In most

cases, it means as low as 51%. Given that no one single perspective fully or

adequately defines a profession, then I have proposed through this current research

that all the key attributes from all sources attempting to define the concept of

profession be considered to create a scoring model which will provide an all

encompassing approach yielding a score against which the relative professionalism of

any given occupation can be scored or judged.

In summary, the literature research has yielded 22 attributes generally ascribed to

professions. Of these 22, the only ones which appear in all of them are:

1) a ‘body of knowledge’ which is somehow ‘unique, esoteric, secret, complicated or

abstruse’

2) a ‘long period of training’ which normally requires at minimum a four year

university degree


3) a commitment to serving or protecting the public (normally includes performing

work pro bono, although there are other responsibilities included in this general

heading)

4) one or more organizations which purports to represent the practitioner of the

occupation (responsibilities of this organization to include the establishment of

proven methodologies, setting of standards, creating and enforcing codes of

ethics). It is worth noting that implicit in the writing and enforcement of the code

of ethics is the idea that they should be focused on protecting the consuming

public and not focused primarily on policing the actions and behaviors of the

members vis a vis each other.

As can be seen in Table 2.4, the semantic definitions (Abbott, 1988; Haga, 1974;

Cogan et al., 1955) provided the highest ranking, with a score of 67% out of a

possible 100%. However, the fact that the highest score is only 67% certainly

indicates that even the semantic definition is missing many key aspects. The semantic

rankings are followed by legal perspectives with a score of 58%, sociologic, with a

close 56%, economic with 47% and lastly by the dictionary definition with a score of

only 32%. This summary helps explain why there is so much confusion over the

definition of a profession (Freidson, 2001, p. 197).

The 22 attributes distilled from the data in Table 2.4 are listed in Table 2.5.


Table 2.4 Attributes of a profession ranked by source and relative scores 80

Color/Ranking Key 3 Clearly Defined 2 Clearly

Implied 1 Marginally Implied 0 Not Cited

# Attribute Name Total Total %

EXTRINSIC Semantic Legal Sociologic Economic Dictionary Score Possible Score

1 body of knowledge 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

2 unique body of knowledge 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

3 service to the public 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

4 professional association 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

5 performance standards 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

6 long period of training 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

7 establishes standards 3 3 3 3 3 15 15 100%

8 practice limited by government license 3 3 3 3 0 12 15 80%

9 establishes/enforces code of ethics 3 3 3 1 2 12 15 80%

10 subscribe to a code of ethics 3 3 3 0 2 11 15 73%

11 procedural standards /methodologies 2 2 3 1 3 11 15 73%

12 autonomy in decision making 3 3 3 1 0 10 15 67%

13 lifetime commitment/calling 0 3 3 0 3 9 15 60%

14 fiduciary obligation to public 0 3 3 3 0 9 15 60%

15 advertising not permitted or restricted 3 3 0 3 0 9 15 60%

16 professional association defines ‘best practices’ 2 0 0 3 3 8 15 53%

17 pro bono work 0 3 3 2 0 8 15 53%

18 identify with occupation, not employer 3 1 3 1 0 8 15 53%

19 held in high esteem by the community 1 1 3 1 2 8 15 53%

20 requires professional liability insurance 0 3 1 3 0 7 15 47%


Color/Ranking Key 3 Clearly Defined 2 Clearly

Implied 1 Marginally Implied 0 Not Cited

21 earn higher than average compensation 2 0 2 3 0 7 15 47%

22 college degree 0 3 2 2 0 7 15 47%

23 symbolic costumes/uniforms 3 0 3 0 0 6 15 40%

24 publishing in learned journals 3 1 1 0 0 5 15 33%

25 use of title restricted by law 0 3 0 1 0 4 15 27%

26 apprenticeship/ internship/residency 0 2 0 0 2 4 15 27%

27 mystique 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

28 importance of need 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

29 immediacy of need 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

30 highly ritualistic procedures 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

31 dénouement 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

32 cruciality 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

33 access to knowledge limited/restricted 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

34 abstruse/secret/ complicated body of knowledge 3 0 0 0 0 3 15 20%

Total Score 73 58 57 46 35

total possible score 102 102 102 102 102

rating (total/possible) 72% 57% 56% 45% 34%


Table 2.5 22 attributes commonly associated with a profession

# Attribute Extrinsic attributes 1 Professional association- defines methodology/defines standards/enforces CoE 2 Autonomy in decision making 3 Lifetime commitment/calling 4 Earn higher than average compensation 5 Publishing in learned journals 6 Long period of training including higher education 7 Subscribe to a code of ethics 8 Fiduciary obligation to public 9 Professional association defines ‘best practices’ 10 Identify with occupation, not employer 11 Held in high esteem by the community 12 Apprenticeship/ internship/residency 13 Service to the public- including pro bono work 14 Practice limited by government license 15 Advertising not permitted or restricted 16 Requires professional liability insurance 17 Symbolic costumes/uniforms 18 Use of title restricted by law 19 Body of knowledge unique/esoteric/secret (both intrinsic and extrinsic) Intrinsic attributes 20 Cruciality- need is important/need is immediate 21 Dénouement- practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly. 22 Mystique- highly ritualistic/access to knowledge is restricted

While the scoring methodology is admittedly simplistic (it doesn’t take into account

the relative order of magnitude differences between any two scores), it does support

the judicial perspective (Polelle, 1999) that using a dictionary definition is insufficient

as a ‘bright line test’ for a profession, while at the same time being indicative that

neither the semantic, legal, sociological, economic or dictionary definitions is

complete or sufficient, which is consistent with Schein (1988).

This leads to the inevitable conclusion that only by taking a holistic approach can we

possibly define a profession, and that there does exist some tipping point at which an

occupation becomes perceived to be a profession, and that the perception is not static,

but ever changing.

This too has relevance for those who truly do believe project management to be a

profession, as this ranking will serve to identify areas of weakness which can be

improved upon, resulting in an improved perception or professionalization of the

practice of project management.

85 Chapter 3A: Case Study 1, Construction Project Management

CHAPTER 3, PART A

Case study 1: Construction project management

Introduction to the case studies

In Chapter 2, after extensive literature reviews from legal, socio-economic and

semantic perspectives, a total of 22 attributes associated with professions were clearly

identifiable. While some of them were common to all perspectives, there was enough

diversity to provide a reasonable expectation that the combination of attributes would

yield a method or formula to quantify the relative professional standing of project

management, benchmarked against other occupations.

Chapter 3 explains how the 22 attributes were tested against two familiar

occupational specialties, with the objective of creating a standardized instrument or

methodology against which to evaluate project management (or any other

occupational specialty) as a profession.

Construction project management and commercial airline piloting were chosen as

case studies for three reasons:

1 I have first hand experience with both, having worked for much of my life as a construction project manager and because I am a licensed aircraft pilot. Although my license is not commercial, I have come to know many commercial pilots and am closely familiar with the processes and procedures that are integral to their occupation.

2 Construction project management, while it has been around for well over 50 years as a stand alone occupation, has never been able to realize equality with the two established professions with which it most often interfaces – architecture and engineering.

3 Aircraft piloting represents an interesting comparison because, despite being only 75 years old as a recognized occupation, it is generally perceived as a prestigious, highly desirable and well paid profession, despite the fact that to be a licensed commercial pilot does not even require a high school diploma.

The choice of two ‘outlier’ occupations – construction project management, which

appears on the surface to have all the ‘traditional’ requirements associated with a

profession but has not been successful in being recognized as one and commercial


airline piloting, which does not meet the primary requirement of requiring a four year

or more university degree – was intended to help in the quest to separate those

attributes which are essential to defining a profession and quantifying them from

those which are less important or not important at all.

3A.1 Case Study 1: Construction project management

3A.1.1 The concept of construction project management (CM)

Construction project management is a global occupation, and one that, despite having

been recognized since the mid 1950s, has largely stagnated in terms of evolving as a

stand alone practice, much less a profession. While relatively large and complex

construction projects have been going on since well before the Great Wall of China or

the pyramids, construction project management as a discipline separate from

architecture or engineering is a relatively new term or concept, having evolved from

the mid 1800s, and only being formally recognized since the end of WWII.

While relatively new in terms of recognition in historic times, construction project

management is the oldest and most mature of the sub-disciplines currently adopting

project management as a delivery system. With CM being the oldest of a new

discipline, it offered an ideal chance to look at the evolution of a new occupational

category and see if there were lessons which a practitioner could learn or guide posts

which a practitioner could use to help discover what is likely to happen as other users

of project management reach the same level of maturity as construction project

management.

The Construction Management Association of America (2007) defines construction

project and program management:

CM is a professional service that applies effective management techniques to the planning, design, and construction of a project from inception to completion for the purpose of controlling time, cost and quality.

CM is a discipline and management system specifically created to promote the successful execution of capital projects for owners. These projects can be highly complex. Few owners maintain the staff resources necessary to pay close, continuing attention to every detail – yet these details can ‘make or break’ a project.


The American Institute of Constructors (AIC) (2007) mission statement explains:

The purpose of The American Institute of Constructors (AIC) is to promote individual professionalism and excellence throughout the related fields of construction. (online)

Notice that both organizations are consistent in the wording of their statements. While

each organization is dedicated to helping its practitioners perform their duties

professionally they specifically refrain from making any claims that what they

represent is a stand alone profession. CMAA is more specific in stating that what

construction managers do is a discipline and a management system.

The picture is further clouded by the fact that the American Society of Civil

Engineering (ASCE) and the American Institute of Architects (AIA) also ‘claim’

jurisdiction over construction management professional services. This competition is

consistent with observations by Andrew Abbott (1988) in his book, The system of

professions: An essay on the division of expert labor. Abbott (1988) identifies three

types of conflict which emerge intra- (within a single organization) and inter-

professionally (different professional organizations or groups competing for

jurisdiction).

The first case, known as excess jurisdiction occurs, when an incumbent profession cannot grow to meet demand, or increase output, and thus faces invasion by outsiders. The second kind of conflict arises when a professional group’s potential output exceeds its current jurisdiction. The third type of conflict occurs when groups who provide equivalent services at lower prices seek to invade into a settled jurisdiction. (p. 27)

Up until recently, the problem facing most construction project managers was of the

second type, where tasks normally performed as part of the traditional role of either

architects or engineers became specialized enough that a group of practitioners

focused solely on those types of professional services. What started out as a niche

market soon grew into an emerging specialty or discipline within the ranks of civil

engineering or architecture. However, with countries like China and India producing

highly qualified, experienced and competent construction project managers, and

outsourcing becoming more prevalent, transition from the second type of conflict

identified by Abbot (1988) into the third type is likely to occur more and more

frequently.


What makes construction project management even more interesting as a case study

is the fact that substantially the same body of knowledge which forms the basis for

construction project management forms the basis for all other incarnations or

manifestations of project management. This observation leads to the conjecture that

given construction project management has had the longest experience in using

project management as a delivery system; and given that the underlying body of

knowledge is substantially the same for all project management; and given that the

applications or manifestations of the body of knowledge, processes, methodologies

and procedures are substantially the same, then construction project management

provides a very reliable indicator of what is likely to happen to project management

as it applies to information technology, telecommunications and other sectors.

Stated another way, unless some major discoveries are made, the stifled

professionalization of construction project management is likely to occur in other

applications as well. The chronology of development in CM supports the statement

by Prof. Peter Morris (n.d., online) on the home page of the Rethinking Project

Management Forum, that ‘project management is a discipline caught in a 1960s time

warp’ (n.d., online). Rethinking Project Management represents:

a multi-disciplinary network of academics and practitioners; academics from UK universities, the US, Canada and Europe, with representation from the professional associations (APM, PMI & IPMA). Industry collaborators include Roll-Royce and Human Systems Ltd and Funded by the UK’s Engineering & Physical Sciences Research Council. (Rethinking Project Management, n.d., online).

To quote from the Rethinking Project Management Overview (n.d., online):

as the world of project management practice continues to develop across different industries and sectors, the subject of project management is now attracting major criticisms, and the gap between conventional project management theory and the developing practice is widening. There are also increasing calls for the identification of new research perspectives and new research topics from other related disciplines. It was against this background that UMIST and UCL submitted a research proposal to the EPSRC proposing a new network to help rethink this emerging discipline. The principal argument of the research proposal was not that conventional project management theory should now be abandoned, but rather there is a need to extend, enrich, reshape and develop this field beyond its current intellectual foundations. (Overview)


3A.1.2 History of construction project management

Table 3A.1 Time line of the history of construction management

Date Description Where

5000 BC Egyptians construct huge pyramids which have lasted for thousands of years. Unfortunately, no record exists of how they managed the projects.

Egypt

770-470 BC Great Wall of China constructed. As no records of how it was managed have survived, we have no way of knowing if it was completed on time and within budget

China

1842 London Provident Association of Builder Foremen and Clerks of the Works. London, UK

1852 American Society of Civil engineers Founded (ASCE)

1856-1915 Frederick Taylor, Father of Scientific Management Philadelphia, USA

1857 American Institute of architects Founded (AIA) New York City, USA

1861-1919 Henry Gantt, Creator of the Gantt Chart

1870s Railroad Expansion in the USA and UK created a huge demand for skilled supervisors and trades people USA, UK

1887 Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology offers 3 year diploma in carpentry, joinery, brick laying and masonry Melbourne, Australia

1917 Henry Gantt uses visual charts to substantially reduce the time to build ships for WWI

1920 National Federation of Builder Foremen and Clerks of the Works established

London, Birmingham, Sheffield, UK

1945 First US University to offer CM Degree- University of Florida- Gainsville Gainsville, FL, USA

1946 Johns-Manville funds the start up of CM programs in 20 Universities across the USA, anticipating the pent up demand for housing after WWII

USA

1949 National Federation of Builder Foremen and Clerks of the Works Spreads to all parts of UK UK

1950

Cold War begins. Military spending on major projects (Nuclear Weapons Stockpiles)

Bechtel uses project management Organization structure to construct pipelines

Europe/USA Canada


Date Description Where

1950-60 PERT, WBS, Critical Path Method, Single Point of Contact USA/Europe

1956

Association for the Advancement of Cost engineering (AACE) founded.

Navy and Remington Rand Univac create first computerized CM schedules.

USA

1957 Sputnik Launched by USSR. NASA is created to ‘put a man on the moon’ USA

1960 Institute of Building Site Management founded London, UK

1963 Earned Value and Project Life Cycle adopted by USAF, British required to use CM Scheduling and Earned Value on Polaris Submarine

USA

1968 Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology offers two year Diploma in Building construction Melbourne, Australia

1969 project management Institute (PMI) founded USA

1972 Royal Chartered Institute of CM Conceived http://www.ciob.org.uk/ciob/ London, UK

1974 American Council on construction Education (ACCE) formed http://www.acce-hq.org/ Texas, USA

1978 Royal Chartered Institute of CM Inaugurated London, UK

1980 American Council for construction Education (ACCE) accredits Universities offering degrees in CM. IBM launches PC

USA

1983 Harvard Graphics released; Primavera Project Planner released USA

While it is not clear exactly when construction project management made it to

America, it would appear that while the concept evolved in London during the mid

1800s, it made the move to North America or developed there simultaneously and

fairly quickly, as evidenced by the formation of the American Society of Civil

Engineers in 1852 followed in 1857 with the formation of the American Institute of

Architects.


A telling statement taken from the AIA website (AIA, n.d., online) provides insight as

to what the driver behind the formation of these groups might have been:

The group sought to create an architecture organization that would ‘promote the scientific and practical perfection of its members’ and ‘elevate the standing of the profession.

Until this point, anyone who wished to call him-or herself an architect could do so. This included masons, carpenters, bricklayers, and other members of the building trades. No schools of architecture or architectural licensing laws existed to shape the calling. (History of the American Institute of Architects, n.d., online)

It would appear from the wording that the implied purpose was some sort of restraint

of trade. This is an interesting point, for as we enter a world of overcapacity, it will

prove interesting to see if the same kinds of thinking will apply in today’s markets as

did in the mid to late 1800s. Also worth noting is the use of the term ‘calling’ to

describe the practice of architecture.

But the real impetus driving CM, especially in the US, was the return of servicemen

from Europe and Asia after WWII. Their demand for housing and the infrastructure

required to support those houses and their baby boomer families (schools, interstate

highway system, shopping malls) lasted well into the 1960s. These circumstances

match quite closely with Abbot’s (1988) definition of ‘excess jurisdiction’, which

occurs, when ‘an incumbent profession cannot grow to meet demand, or increase

output, and thus faces invasion by outsiders’ (p. 33).

Considering what the history of CM can tell us (Table 3A.1), it is worth noting that

the timeline stops at 1983. Since the invention of the PC, which enabled the creation

of the Harvard Graphics and Primavera Critical Path Method (CPM) Scheduling

software to move to the desktop, there has been not a single major innovation of any

significance to occur. Yes, there have been refinements, and all manner of

combinations, permutations and distortions, but the basic concepts discovered in the

1960s and 1970s remain largely unchanged.

This fact stands as one of the major impediments to project management becoming

more professionalized than it is today. When one compares the strides made in


medicine between 1983 and 2006, and then compares the gains made in project

management during the same period, it can been argued that project management

lacks the culture, structures and aspirations that drive a profession like medicine.

Widespread adoption of specialized CM programs at junior colleges and full four

year degree universities began about 40 years ago, and CM practitioners have been

aggressively attempting to raise themselves to be equal to the status and authority

accorded professional engineers and architects since the programs’ inception. The

fact they have met with little success stands as an early warning to others. One of the

reasons for this frustrated effort lies in the fact that the architects and professional

engineering societies are themselves fighting over who owns the right to oversee,

supervise, approve, modify or accept work. Given these recognised professionals are

fighting over project management, why should they allow a third set of claimants

enter the field?

The two leading organizations representing construction project managers are the CM

Association of America (CMAA)1 and the American Institute of Constructors (AIC)2.

Consistent with Abbot’s (1988) Theory of Competition, it would not be surprising to

see IEEE eventually try to claim project management in the IT and Telecom sectors

from PMI, IPMA and AIPM. AACE and ASCE have also been focusing more on the

technical aspects of project management as it applies to their market niche.

The activities of these organizations are all about big business. With PMI sitting on

$USD80 million+ in liquid assets, and bringing in fresh money at the rate of $USD2

million per month (PMI, 2005), it is only a matter of time before the other

professional organizations begin manoeuvring to strengthen their positions in the

marketplace. Since the IT and telecommunications sectors make up the majority of

PMI membership, what would the consequences be if they were to decide to realign

themselves with IEEE? If Abbot (1988) is correct, we should start to see evidence of

this competition beginning to evolve.

1 www.cmaanet.org 2 www.aic.org


3A.1.3 Construction project management: Is it a profession?

Having been offering construction project management curricula since the early to

mid 1960s, the construction project management sector is recognized as being a

leader in the development of tools for project management education. A broad range

of degrees from Associates Degree (two year diploma program in the UK and

Commonwealth Nations) to Bachelors (four year); Masters and even PhDs with a

specialty or focus in construction project management are available from reputable

and highly regarded institutions of higher learning.

Yet, despite the availability of degrees, there is no specific requirement from any of

the major professional organizations representing construction project management

that a practitioner actually has a four year degree or better. As we know from

Gardner v Fries (Polelle, 1999), one of the ‘bright line’ tests established by the

Florida Supreme Court was that a ‘professional’ would be expected to have a four

year college degree. A typical four year Bachelors degree in construction project

management is described as:

The bachelor’s degree curriculum in construction management prepares graduates for employment in a variety of positions in the construction industry. Graduates are employed as construction planners, site supervisors, schedulers, and contractors. Courses in the construction management program are a blend of practical courses with emphasis on hands-on experiences and classroom based courses which emphasize management principles, estimating, and scheduling. Elective courses or transfer courses provide for experiences in related areas including HVAC, architectural design, and electrical wiring. (Northern Michigan University,2006, online)

Having established the basic criteria to become construction project manager, let’s

look at the evolution of CM as a profession against the 20 primary traits and 15

qualifying or sub-traits of a profession. Primary traits include those outlined in

Exhibit 3A.1.


Exhibit 3A.1 Primary traits of a profession

body of knowledge require professional liability insurance long period of training autonomy in decision making lifetime commitment identify with profession adhering to a code of ethics not employer fiduciary obligation to the public held in high esteem by their home community other obligations to the public earn higher than average compensation professional associations exhibit mystique publishing in learned journals body of knowledge is abstruse, esoteric or secret advertising not permitted or restricted highly ritualistic procedures use of the title is restricted by law access to knowledge is limited symbolic costumes or uniforms practice limited by government license

BODY OF KNOWLEDGE

The body of knowledge for construction project management is virtually identical to

the body of knowledge for all other disciplines, with the exception that safety, health

and the environment play a major role in CM, much more so than is found in

methodologies such as PRINCE2 (PRINCE2, online) or PMBOK guide (2004). But

regardless, even with the addition of those sub-processes associated with safety,

health and the environment, the body of knowledge will not meet the criteria of being

in any way unique, esoteric, abstruse or secret. While architects and engineers each

have a robust and clearly identifiable body of knowledge which meets these criteria,

construction project management does not, and this will continue to constrain CM

from being recognized as a stand alone profession, at least in the context of the

traditional or extrinsic benchmarks.

Of interest is the fact that the trades do have a body of knowledge which meets the

test of being somewhat unique (the terms a carpenter uses are often not the same as

those an electrician would use) which reflects a vestigial link with the trade guilds of

the 15th-17th centuries. So while the ‘parents’ of CM – architecture and engineering –

have a body of knowledge which is unique, esoteric, abstruse, complicated or secret,

as do the trades which the construction project manager oversees, CM per se lies in

that grey area, someplace between architects and engineers and the trades. About the

only aspects of construction project management which could be considered ‘unique’

might be the application of CM scheduling and/or earned value management.


LONG PERIOD OF TRAINING

As evidenced by the Purdue History, up until the late 1960s and even well into the

1970s, construction project managers traditionally came from the trades, in most

cases, carpentry. Prior to having construction project managers, most construction

projects were run by a general superintendent. Invariably, this individual was in his

60s (very few were women), and had worked his way up through the trades, starting

usually around 30 years old by becoming a trade foreman, assistant or area

superintendent, trade superintendent and eventually general superintendent.

While the career path wasn’t formalized, everyone knew what it was and how to go

about moving up the ladder3. Because the focus was not on degrees or knowledge, but

on demonstrated competency, very rarely did anyone become a foreman before the

age of 30, assistant or area superintendent by 40, and general superintendent before

age 50. Most superintendents on large projects were well into their 60s before they

had earned a reputation as a competent professional.

This model started changing during the 1970s as the experienced superintendents

managers started retiring; they were replaced not with people who had come up

through the trades, but with ‘shake and bake’4 construction managers with

engineering or architectural degrees. By the turn 21st century what used to take 20

years of work experience to develop had been compressed into a four year degree and

perhaps four or five years of experience.

Below is a typical CM degree program. Most four year degrees require approximately

130 semester hours of course work, with approximate 800 hours of field experience

(Purdue University, 2006, online).

Presented here is a sample Plan of Study for students pursuing a Building CM degree at Purdue University. This document presents an overall idea of the order in which courses might be taken in a four-year plan during a student’s college career.

3 The researcher is writing from first hand experience, having come up through the ranks as a union

carpenter, while going to school at night to earn an undergraduate degree in CPM. In essence, following the exact career path being described.

4 Authors Note: The term ‘shake and bake’ refers to commercially available breading mixes complete with all spices, allowing people to dip raw chicken into the pre-mixed packet of materials and throw it in the oven. It has come to mean any ‘instant’ product, with little or no mess or labor involved.


Please Note: The Plan of Study on this page is presented for general information only – for exact personal plans of study, each student must see his or her counselor for an accurate record of the Plan of Study that he or she received when entering the BCM program. Curriculum plans of study may change often, while the plan of study received upon entering remains the same for that entering student.

The Building Construction Management program is accredited by the American Council for Construction Education (ACCE).

Credit Hours Required for Bachelor’s Degree: 129 Table 3A.2 Typical CM Curriculum

Semester 1 Course Number Course Name Credit Hours

BCM 100 Introduction to Construction 2

CPT 135 Introduction to Computer Technology and Applications 2

MA 159 Pre-Calculus 5

ENGL 106 English First Year Composition 4

Elective Human Relations Elective 3

TOTAL 16 Semester 2 Course Number Course Name Credit Hours

BCM 175 Construction Materials & Methods 4

CGT 164 Graphics for Civil engineering & construction 2

MA 221 Calculus for Technology I 3

OLS 274 Applied Leadership 3

COM 114 Fundamentals of Speech Communication 3


BCM 112 Construction Surveying Fundamentals 3

BCM 215 Mechanical construction 3

PHYS 218 General Physics 5

BCM 275 Construction Plans and Measurements 3

Elective Communication Selective 3


BCM 212 Construction Layout 3

BCM 216 Electrical construction 3

ECON 210 Principles of Economics 3

BCM 285 construction Mechanics 4

Elective Science 4

TOTAL 17


BCM 385 Soils and Foundations 3

BCM 375 Estimating 3

BCM 350 Construction Site Planning 3

BCM 380 Concrete construction 3

MGMT 190B Accounting Principles 3

TOTAL 15



BCM 301 Construction Accounting and Financial Management 3

BCM 345 Scheduling 3

MGMT 455 Legal Background for Business I 3

STAT 301T (or IT 342) Statistical Methods (or Introduction to Statistical Quality) 3

Elective General Education Elective 3

Elective Technical Elective 2


BCM 355 Construction Supervision 3

BCM 450 Construction Contracts & Administration 3

BCM 475 Construction Costs 3

ENGL 420 ( or ENGL 421)

Business Writing (or Technical Writing: engineering & Science Applications) 3

Elective Technical Elective 3


BCM 455 Construction Company Management 4

BCM 457 Construction Safety 3

Elective BCM Elective 3

Elective Technical Elective

Elective Free Elective 3

TOTAL 16

In addition to Course Work, also required Construction Work Experience

A minimum of 800 hours of construction work experience is required before graduation. Summer construction jobs, BCM internships, or BCM Co-op programs may be used to satisfy this requirement.

An hypothesis has begun to evolve that explains the apparent stagnation of the

professionalization of construction project management as a result of the focus on

academic study with reduced emphasis on practical skills. Given that government

licensing is clearly less desirable in today’s professional world than voluntary Board

Certifications, the competency model being advocated by GAPPS, when combined

with a four year degree seems be the ideal combination, and is consistent with the

concept of ‘life long learning’. The study of the professionalization of airline

transport pilots confirms that.

Once a construction project manager has earned his or her degree, certification is

required by a professional organization in order to work in the industry. The

educational requirements necessary to become a Certified Construction Manager


(CCM) through CMAA or a Certified Professional Constructor (CPC) through AIC

are not stringent. CMAA (CMAA, n.d., online) requirements are outlined in Exhibit

3A.2:

Exhibit 3A.2 CMAA requirements for certification

1. (a) 48 months experience as a CM in the qualifying areas as defined by the Qualifications Matrix

AND 2. ONE OF THE FOLLOWING: a. An undergraduate (4-year BA/BS level) or graduate degree in construction management,

architecture, engineering or construction science. b. A 2-year undergraduate degree (AA/AS level) or certificate in construction management,

architecture, engineering or construction science AND 4 years experience in general design/construction. (This experience is in addition to the 48 month CM requirement.)

c. No degree/certificate in construction management, architecture, engineering or construction science AND 8 years experience in general design/construction. (This experience is in addition to the 48-month CM requirement.)

While the civil engineer’s PE process and the architect’s licensing process both focus

on demonstrated competency (as evidenced by having to create and present a

portfolio of project experience before one’s peers) rather than academic achievement,

the CM credentials, while requiring varying years of on site field experience, do not

have anyway of qualifying whether or not this experience was good or bad. This has

considerable relevance to project management in general, for like flying, sex or even

riding a bicycle, you can read all the books, take all the courses and pass all the

knowledge-based exams, but until you actually fly, have sex, ride a bicycle or

manage projects, and can demonstrate competency by consistently doing them well,

everything else is irrelevant.

LIFETIME COMMITMENT

When project management began to be recognized as a separate activity on a building

site, a tradesman knew that if he was good at the organizational aspects of his job, he

had the opportunity to take on more responsibility and get increasingly larger and

more complex projects to work on. In construction, there is a tremendous sense of

accomplishment, as the efforts of your labor are readily visible and will last for your

entire life. Under those circumstances, it was easy to make a long term commitment

from the days you first started in the trade.


While few CMs start out in the trades any longer, construction project management

remains an identifiable career path. Being a construction project manager is not

something most people do as part of moving on to something else, but an end

objective in and of itself. This is evidenced by reference in the American Institute of

Architects web to the ‘calling’ of architecture (AIA, n.d., online). For construction

project managers, as with architects and engineers, ‘project management’ has the

potential to be the top of a career path in an organization, unless they work for a very

large firm or become private practitioners.

Novice construction project managers, however, have no process of ‘building hours’

in a competency-based program to sort out those who are committed from those who

are not. Project management is often called the ‘accidental profession’ (Wideman,

n.d., online); and while calling it a profession remains a dubious practice, the fact

remains that many do enter into general project management by accident rather than

choice. With the proliferation of degree programs in project management, and project

management being recognized as a career path option in many companies, this may

be changing to follow more along the lines of construction project management.

ADHERING TO A CODE OF ETHICS

Architects, civil engineers, construction project managers, cost engineers, quantity

surveyors, the Royal Chartered Institute of Building and the American Institute of

Constructors all have codes of ethics. Both the American Institute of Constructors and

Construction Management Association of America have rather general codes of

ethics, especially when compared to the more established American Society of Civil

Engineers (ASCE) and the American Institute of Architects (AIA). All of these

representative bodies publish their codes on their websites and in their literature.

The CMAA code of ethics reads (CMAA, n.d., online):

As a professional engaged in the business of providing construction and program management services, and as a member of CMAA, I agree to conduct myself and my business in accordance with the following:

1. Client Service. I will serve my clients with honesty, integrity, candor, and objectivity. I will provide my services with competence, using reasonable care, skill and diligence consistent with the interests of my client and the applicable standard of care.


2. Representation of Qualifications and Availability. I will only accept assignments for which I am qualified by my education, training, professional experience and technical competence, and I will assign staff to projects in accordance with their qualifications and commensurate with the services to be provided, and I will only make representations concerning my qualifications and availability which are truthful and accurate.

3. Standards of Practice. I will furnish my services in a manner consistent with the established and accepted standards of the profession and with the laws and regulations which govern its practice.

4. Fair Competition. I will represent my project experience accurately to my prospective clients and offer services and staff that I am capable of delivering. I will develop my professional reputation on the basis of my direct experience and service provided, and I will only engage in fair competition for assignments.

5. Conflicts of Interest. I will endeavor to avoid conflicts of interest; and will disclose conflicts which in my opinion may impair my objectivity or integrity.

6. Fair Compensation. I will negotiate fairly and openly with my clients in establishing a basis for compensation, and I will charge fees and expenses that are reasonable and commensurate with the services to be provided and the responsibilities and risks to be assumed.

7. Release of Information. I will only make statements that are truthful, and I will keep information and records confidential when appropriate and protect the proprietary interests of my clients and professional colleagues.

8. Public Welfare. I will not discriminate in the performance of my Services on the basis of race, religion, national origin, age, disability, or sexual orientation. I will not knowingly violate any law, statute, or regulation in the performance of my professional services.

9. Professional Development. I will continue to develop my professional knowledge and competency as construction Manager, and I will contribute to the advancement of the construction and program management practice as a profession by fostering research and education and through the encouragement of fellow practitioners.

10. Integrity of the Profession. I will avoid actions which promote my own self-interest at the expense of the profession, and I will uphold the standards of the construction management profession with honor and dignity.

The American Institute of Constructors (AIC) also has a rather basic code of ethics:

I. A member shall have full regard to the public interest in fulfilling his or her responsibilities to the employer or client.

II. A member shall not engage in any deceptive practice, or in any practice which creates an unfair advantage for the member or another.

III. A member shall not maliciously or recklessly injure or attempt to injure, whether directly or indirectly, the professional reputation of others.

IV. A member shall ensure that when providing a service which includes advice, such advice shall be fair and unbiased.


V. A member shall not divulge to any person, firm, or company, information of a confidential nature acquired during the course of professional activities.

VI. A member shall carry out responsibilities in accordance with current professional practice, so far as it lies within his or her power.

VII. A member shall keep informed of new thought and development in the construction process appropriate to the type and level of his or her responsibilities and shall support research and the educational processes associated with the construction profession

Critical analysis of construction project management codes of ethics. A brief

critical analysis on both CMAA’s code of ethics as well as that of AIC in the context

of prior literature reviews follows.

Construction Management Association of America professional engaged in the business

As we know from previous literature research, a profession is more than just a business (Polelle, 1998).

reasonable care We also know from literature reviews that the standard of care by which non-professionals are judged is that of the ‘reasonable man’, while professional standards of negligence are those determined by ones peers coming from the same discipline and the same region. This would imply that construction project management is not a profession (Polelle, 1998; Rotunda, 2002).

technical competence Competence is defined as ‘the quality or state of being functionally adequate, characterized by marked or sufficient aptitude + attitude + skills + strength + knowledge’ (Merriam-Webster, 2006). It would appear as though the CCM credential does not meet any identifiable competency criteria.

established and accepted standards of the profession This definition of standards stands in direct opposition to the ‘reasonable care’ standard identified above. Is the standard of care the ‘reasonable man’ or that of a profession?

construction and program management practice as a profession Based on the precedent set by Pierce v. AALL Insurance Inc. Gardner v Frier, we know (at least in Florida and North Dakota) that one of the ‘bright line’ rules is that a profession requires at minimum a four year degree. As we can see from the certification application process that as in Gardner v Frier, a four year degree is not required.


standards of the CM profession As with previous comments, there seems to be confusion as to whether or not construction project management is or is not a profession (reference CMAA mission statement) and whether the standards of care are those of the ‘reasonable man’ or those of one’s peers.

American Institute of Construction Managers current professional practice

As with CMAA, AIC seems to be confused as to whether project management is or is not a profession. Their certification requires a two year degree (Associates Degree) but also fails to meet any ‘bright line’ tests at least thus far.

As far as professional ethics are concerned, it would appear that professional

organizations representing construction project managers are not as aggressive or

proactive about ethical issues as are architectural or engineering societies. The 150

year old American Society of Civil Engineers in particular is sensitive about the

image of its members and the responsibility of ‘policing its own’, particularly in

regard to malpractice. Of special interest is the ASCE’s recently adopted zero

tolerance policy on bribery.

Guidelines and Policies Encouraging Zero Tolerance for Bribery

ASCE, in cooperation with others, has begun a journey that will lead over time to the development of principles of professional conduct that will help reduce corruption in all its forms, such as fraud, bribery and other unethical and illegal practices in the engineering and construction industry. Only with openness and transparency in the procurement and delivery of engineering services can resources be efficiently allocated for their intended purpose. As a direct result, with the additional financial resources available, sustainable development and the welfare of the world’s population can improve and the quality of life for people everywhere be achieved.

The American Society of Civil engineers is joining the consulting engineering profession, the construction industry, major lenders, the legal profession, and organizations committed to the battle against worldwide corruption. To meet this challenge, the Society pledges the development of principles and over time adoption of guidelines and policies for ethical professional practice by members of engineering societies in the U.S. and worldwide. These guidelines and policies will include zero tolerance for bribery and promote effective programs for reporting unethical behavior. The Society will consider the best practices adopted by the engineering and construction industry in developing or benchmarking anti-bribery programs.

ASCE, supported by the Task Committee on Global Principles for Professional Conduct, will provide – through its media outreach and forums of leaders, and other avenues – a global communications platform for the issue. Our work will be performed in an open and transparent manner to encourage good faith discussion and negotiations leading to principles and policies that other societies could adopt. (ASCE, n.d., online)


Likewise, architects, sensitive about the possibility of anti-trust violations (AIA, n.d.,

online), have dedicated a special series of papers outlining their policies towards non-

competitive practices. The fact that ASCE has a robust policy on bribery and the AIA

has several position papers pertaining to anti-trust actions, indicates the greater

maturity and sophistication of two 150 year old professional organizations compared

to two 35 year old organizations which represent emergent or developing professions.

A robust code of ethics and the sense of fiduciary obligation (see below) are tacit

acknowledgement of the tensions inherent in the position of construction manager

who will be working in a situation fraught with possibilities for malfeasance or

simple negligence, both on the part of the construction manager and the sponsor. The

relationship of the PM and the sponsor is likely to be mediated by a contract, but

moral responsibilities remain that can only be honoured by the exercise of goodwill

and good communication between the parties, as suggested by agency theory (Muller

& Turner).

FIDUCIARY OBLIGATION TO THE PUBLIC

Fiduciary obligation defined. A fiduciary relationship is:

the relation by law existing between certain classes of persons (as confidential advisor and the one advised; executors or administrators and legatees or heirs; conservators and wards, trustees, or beneficiaries; partners, joint adventurers, corporate directors or officers and stockholders; majority and minority stockholders; factors, agents, or brokers and principals; attorneys and clients; promoters and stock subscribers; mutual savings banks or investment corporations and their depositors or investors; receivers, trustees in bankruptcy, or assignees in insolvency and creditors). (Merriam-Webster, 2002)

In the context of construction project management professionals, there are three legal

obligations which carry with them implied fiduciary obligations:

jobsite health and safety

environmental protection

conformance to building codes

These obligations of a professional construction project manager in terms of jobsite

safety (which includes health) apply to both the workers on the project and the

general public. As construction projects are known legally as ‘attractive nuisances’,

the construction project manager has a legal and ethical obligation to ascertain that

not only are the workers on the jobsite protected against harm by conformance to


OSHA laws and regulations, but also that the project is protected against trespassers,

particularly children, from being injured or killed during hours when the project is

shut down.

The construction project manager also has a legal obligation to ensure that all

building codes are met in both the execution of the project and in delivering the

finished project, and that no environmental laws are broken. The fiduciary

relationship implies that a professional construction project manager has the

obligation not only to meet the letter of the law, but also to make reasonable efforts to

understand and comply with the intent of the law.

The importance of owing the first loyalty to the health, safety and welfare of the

general public is common to most professions. The medical profession has their

Hippocratic Oath which states in part a doctor ‘should do no harm’ (Wikipedia, n.d.,

online). This theme of doing no harm is common to the ASCE, AACE and IEEE

codes of ethics as well.

Construction project management appears to be weak on this aspect of

professionalism. The AIC code of ethics addresses the fiduciary responsibility with

the statement ‘full regard to the public interest’ while the CMAA code of ethics talks

about public welfare, but then describes in more detail that the certified construction

manager is not allowed to discriminate and will obey all laws and regulations. Not

quite the same as having a fiduciary obligation to the consuming public, which is

implicit in true professions (Maister, 1996).

OTHER OBLIGATIONS TO THE PUBLIC

Construction project management as represented by its societies doesn’t appear to be

overly focused on service to the public, save for the responsibility to safety, health

and the environment, which more appropriately falls under other headings. However,

community service projects, such as constructing playgrounds in poor communities

or volunteering to work for such organizations as Habitat for Humanity are not at all

unusual. So from that perspective, construction project managers are well positioned

to offer pro bono services, the primary difference being that they often provide these

pro bono services as individuals rather than as organizations. This differs somewhat

from law and medicine, where the organization formally supports the provision of

pro bono services.


PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

Professional associations are considered legally, socio-economically and semantically

to serve four major functions:

to create and enforce the code of ethics

to establish acceptable standards

to establish, monitor and maintain performance standards

to develop, monitor and maintain procedural standards (methodology)

The primary organizations representing the global practice of CM are those subscribe

to by architects, civil engineers, CM societies, cost engineers, Royal Chartered

Surveyors and the Royal Chartered Institute of Building and the American Institute of

Constructors, the Project Management Institute, and the International Project

Management Association.

There are two major US organizations serving to represent construction project

managers:

the American Institute of Constructors (AIC) www.aicnet.org

Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) www.cmaanet.org

In other countries, notably South Africa and Ukraine, construction project

management has evolved to the point where the practice of construction project

management is licensed. Whether that will or even should happen in the USA

remains to be seen.

However, despite both the CMAA and AIC being 35 years old, construction project

management has not been able to establish equal professional footing with either

architects or engineers on a project and, given the inevitable conflicts, invariably the

architects and/or engineers prevail over construction project managers, at least prior

to dispute resolution processes or litigation.

Professional organizations establishing acceptable standards. While all CM

organizations have created ‘standards’, those closest to the architectural and structural

engineering societies have the most credibility. Consistent with the observations of

Andrew Abbot (1988) is the fact that the creation of standards has led to vitriolic turf


wars among architects, engineers and construction project managers. These battles

have resulted in some interesting unintended consequences, again which reinforce

Abbot’s (1988) theory of competition.

At the time that CM was in its infancy, battles were being fought between architects,

primarily represented by the American Institute of Architects (AIA) and the National

Societies of Professional Engineers (NSPE) over who had the right to create

specifications. Out of this dispute, a compromise was reached, which in effect created

a sub-specialty profession –specification writing. Thus was born the Construction

Specifications Institute (CSI) which consists of architects, engineers and lawyers,

who specialize in the writing of technical specifications and integrating them into

standardized contract documents used by architects, engineers, construction managers

and anyone else involved in the built environment.

(See http://www.csinet.org/s_csi/index.asp.)

An indication of the turf wars between the architects, engineers and the building

contractors can best be evidenced by the fact each of them issue their own sets of

contract documents (AIA, online). The Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) has

become the defacto middle ground, however, as all actors on the CM stage have

agreed to use the CSI specifications. This has significance to other emergent or

nascent users of project management as a delivery method, in so far as the

Construction Specifications Institute’s Master Format (CSI, online) and Uniformat

coding structure have enabled the creation of a WBS template used by everyone in

the built environment.

While not very well communicated, the effect the CSI has had on cost estimating,

scheduling and contract administration by creating a standardized coding structure

has been instrumental in the integration of architectural and engineering design

documents to the cost estimating and CM scheduling software. Thus it is possible for

architects and engineers to create the structure using 3D computer assisted drafting

while at the same time generating real time cost estimates and construction schedules.

This level of sophistication has yet to reach the IT and telecommunications sectors.

This section on standards would not be complete without including some discussion

of the Construction Industry Institute (CII):


CII is a consortium of leading owners, engineering and construction contractors, and suppliers who have a singular mission: to improve the cost effectiveness of the capital facility project life cycle, from pre-project planning through completion and commissioning. By collaborating on important industry issues and by providing guidance on best practices discovered through research, the CII members are collectively an industry forum for the engineer-procure-construct process.

CII, through its research, implementation, education, and other initiatives, is a learning organization with a wealth of knowledge and information. The CII funded research program, with more than 30 leading U.S. universities involved, is unique in the engineering and construction industry. The research results lead to best practices for the entire industry to share and implement to improve project success. (Construction Industry Institute, n.d., online)

As seen from the limited sampling above, CM is rich with professional organizations

willing to set standards. While this can and has resulted in conflicts and disputes over

areas of responsibility, the organizations have managed to reach compromises

through joint alliances, partnering or collaboration. The fact that CM remains in many

cases embedded in either schools of civil engineering or schools of architecture,

serves as a deterrent or constraint to the construction manager being perceived as

being on an equal standing as a separate and distinct discipline with a valuable role to

play in the built environment.

PUBLISHING IN LEARNED JOURNALS

Each of the organizations representing construction project managers publishes

journals, but few have the prestige and ranking of the American Society of Civil

Engineers Journal of Construction Engineering and Management.

http://www.pubs.asce.org/journals/co.html

While each of the professional organizations directly or indirectly related to

construction project management publish journals, all of which are available from the

relevant websites, several are worth noting. The Construction Industry Institute (CII)

is noted for its strong research efforts (CII, n.d., online).

From the standpoint of construction project management, there are volumes of highly

regarded publications, not only coming from ASCE and AIA, but also from CMAA,

CSI, AACE and RICS.


ADVERTISING NOT PERMITTED OR RESTRICTED

Advertising for CM practitioners is generally covered through the codes of ethics. But

essentially, there are no limits on advertising comparable to those imposed on the

legal, medical or social working communities of practice.

USE OF THE TITLE IS RESTRICTED BY LAW

The best example of this rather archaic practice comes from a civil engineers policy

adopted 14 May, 2004. As the trend is clearly to move away from restricting titles by

law, it is incumbent upon those organizations representing construction project

managers to establish a strong brand image.

Use of the term ‘engineer’

Approved by the Committee on Professional Practice on January 17, 2004 Approved by the Board Policy Committee on March 12, 2004 Adopted by the Board of Direction on May 14, 2004 Policy The American Society of Civil engineers (ASCE) believes that the following standards are the only basis on which any title or designation should include the term ‘engineer’.

– Graduation from an accredited engineering program with a degree in engineering;

– Registration as a professional engineer or engineer-in-training under a state engineering registration law; or,

– An official ruling designating an individual or a group in an engineering capacity as meeting the definition of ‘Professional engineer’ under the Taft-Hartley Act or the Fair Labor Standards Act.

Only persons in one of these categories should be designated by the title ‘engineer’ or ‘professional engineer’. This policy shall not be construed to prohibit using the word ‘engineering’ as a modifier in titles such as ‘engineering assistant’, ‘engineering aide’ and ‘engineering technologist’ where the title clearly implies that the duties of the position are not those of professional engineer.

ASCE further encourages registered professionals to always use their P.E. title on all professional correspondence and communication. Issue Improper use of the term ‘engineer’ is sometimes confusing or misleading to the public. Employers and employees misuse the term in titles and resumes. This misuse of the title by groups and people who are usually knowledgeable tends to diminish the value of the title which should be applied to people qualified professionally by accepted standards of education, law and/or engineering practice.


Rationale There is a need within ASCE as well as within government and other organizations with practicing professional engineers to provide employee titles and/or classifications that properly identify the individual’s level of responsibility or expertise within that organization. A title such as ‘designer’ is not proper for a graduate engineer with several years of experience; ‘associate engineer’ or similar title as used by ASCE in designating professional grades is more appropriate and strongly encouraged. (ASCE 2004)

Perhaps a more modern approach has been adopted by the National Association of

Realtors (NAR), who, instead of attempting to get legislatures to restrict the title by

law, registered the term ‘Realtor’ as a trademark. Only members of the National

Association of Realtors are permitted to use the registered term, along with several

others registered by the association, and indicated by the symbol ®5.

PMI seems to have adopted the same strategy, registering all its trade names,

including the Project Management Professional (PMP). While PMI has done an

outstanding job of marketing and establishing brand awareness, none of the

organizations focused specifically on construction project management have been

anywhere near as successful. As noted previously, much of that had to do with the

fact that most construction project managers were coming from either a civil

engineering background, and tended to identify more with being an engineer than

being a construction manager, or from a background in architecture, where again, the

loyalty or professional identity was assigned to architecture rather than CM.

SYMBOLIC COSTUMES OR UNIFORMS

In their 1969 song Streets of Laredo, the Smothers Brothers parodied a traditional

western US folk song The Cowboy’s Lament. The original message was intended as a

dig at the consumer culture of the 1960s, but in the context of this research, it stands

as a simple yet powerful example of the importance of a uniform in establishing a

brand image.

Original. As I walked out in the streets of Laredo, as I walked out in Laredo one day. I spied a young cowboy dressed in white linen. Dressed in white linen and cold as the clay.

5 See http://www.realtor.org/letterlw.nsf/pages/mmmPartOne#OneI for further information about the

NAR’s trademarks.


Smothers’ rejoinder. I can see by your outfit that you are a cowboy. You can see by my outfit I’m a cowboy, too. You can see by our outfits that we are both cowboys. If you get an outfit you can be a cowboy, too! (Smothers, D. & Smothers, T., n.d., online)

While intended for amusement, there is a message in the song about the importance

played by uniforms in identifying members of the same group, and establishing an

immediate bond. The power of a uniform on the wearer and those who come into

contact with them cannot be emphasized highly enough.

While somewhat peripheral to this research, several serious academic studies exist

which emphasize the importance of uniforms in the context of professional image.

Several of the most widely cited are Diana Crane’s (2000) Fashion and its social

agendas: Class, gender and identity in clothing. Her study examines the social

significance of fashion and clothing choices in France, the US and England from the

middle of the 19th century to the present day. Most relevant to this research, Professor

Crane dealt with the importance of uniforms and dress codes as a form of social

control (Crane, 2000).

Unlike commercial airline piloting, CM has no uniforms or costumes. However, civil

engineers in North America have a secret ceremony where a ring of iron (Canada) or

stainless steel (USA) is worn on the fifth finger of the working hand, awarded during

a ceremony in which the engineer takes the following pledge: Obligation of the engineer

I am an engineer, In my profession I take deep pride.

To it I owe solemn obligations. Since the stone age,

Human progress has been spurred By the engineering genius.

Engineers have made usable, Nature’s vast resources of material and energy

For humanity’s benefit. Engineers have vitalized

And turned to practical use The principles of science

And the means of technology. Were it not for this heritage of accumulated experience,

My efforts would be feeble. As an engineer,

I pledge to practice integrity and fair dealing, Tolerance, and respect And to uphold devotion

To the standards and the dignity of my profession,


Conscious always That my skill carries with it

The obligation to serve humanity By making the best use of earth’s precious wealth.

As an engineer, I shall participate in none but honest enterprises.

When needed, My skill and knowledge

Shall be given without reservation For the public good.

In the performance of duty And in fidelity to my profession,

I shall give the utmost.

While perceived by some as being corny and archaic, the ceremony does instil a sense

of obligation and responsibility. Given civil engineering has long qualified as a

profession, and construction project management has not yet made it, establishing

some sort of ritual, initiation process or ceremony may have something to do with the

image of the practitioner.

PRACTICE LIMITED BY GOVERNMENT LICENSE

For architects and engineers, to practice requires a license. The license is almost

always granted at the state or provincial level and, while there is reciprocity, it is

given sparingly. In the case of structural engineers, it makes sense that one license

does not fit all cases. In Florida and the Gulf coast states, hurricanes are the most

common cause of structural damage, while in the northeast and mountains states,

snow loads are the leading cause of structural failures. In the West and Alaska,

earthquakes pose the greatest threat. As an engineer is not likely to have expertise in

all these areas, it makes sense that a structural engineer from Boston probably won’t

have the skills necessary to design work in San Francisco. So unless he or she has

evidence of taking specialized courses or working under a person licensed in that

area, reciprocity would be unsafe.

This is not a problem if the construction manager is coming from a background in

civil engineering or architecture, as those professions are recognized and do require

licenses to practice. The challenge today is, as CM is starting to claim a niche of its

own (as evidenced by degrees in construction project management alone, such as the

Purdue example) demand for licensure will probably not occur. However, in all but

two states (Arkansas and Mississippi), building contractors are required to be

licensed. The licensure of builders in all other states is based on the knowledge of the


relevant building codes. As the distinction between builders and construction project

managers is slight, arguments could be made that licensing of construction project

managers already exists.

REQUIRE PROFESSIONAL LIABILITY INSURANCE

Architects and engineers are clearly required to have and maintain professional

liability insurance [also known as Errors and Omission (E&O) Insurance], and

professional liability insurance is not uncommon for project managers. An example

from the University of California (University of California, n.d., online) seems typical

of what is demanded of architects, engineers and others operating in the built

environment.

1. General Liability:

Comprehensive or Commercial Form (MINIMUM LIMITS)

(1) Each Occurrence $1,000,000

(2) Products/Completed Operations

Aggregate $1,000,000

(3) Personal and Advertising Injury $1,000,000

(4) General Aggregate* $2,000,000

* (not applicable to comprehensive form)

If the above insurance is written on a claims made form, it shall continue for three years following termination of the agreement. The insurance shall provide for a retroactive date of placement prior to or coinciding with the effective date of the agreement.

2. Business Automobile Liability:

(MINIMUM LIMITS) for Owned, Scheduled, Non-Owned, or Hired Automobiles with a combined single limit of not less than $1,000,000 per occurrence.

3. Workers’ Compensation: as required under California State Law.

4. Professional Liability Insurance: (MINIMUM LIMITS)

(1) Each occurrence $1,000,000

(2) Project Aggregate $2,000,000

If the above insurance is written on a claims made form, it shall continue for three years following termination of the agreement. The insurance shall provide for a retroactive date of placement prior to or coinciding with the effective date of the agreement.


At least for construction project management, liability insurance is required in some

instances, and is commercially available6. Given construction project management is

one of the more mature users of project management as a delivery system, this is

interpreted to be a sign of the future.

AUTONOMY IN DECISION MAKING

A construction project manager generally has full profit and loss statement

responsibility for the project. He or she can hire or fire temporary employees, sign

checks, issue purchase and work orders and give bonuses. Within the constraints of

the technical specifications and the contract terms and conditions, a construction

project manager has near total authority for all decisions. He or she determines who

does what, when they do it and how they do it. Along with this authority comes

ultimate responsibility.

When compared to the authority of project managers in the IT and

telecommunications sectors, there is generally far less flexibility, although the

accountability may we the same. However, construction project managers generally

do not have the same clear cut responsibility or authority as a pilot in command of an

aircraft. According to ENR, 20%-30% of construction projects were late, over budget

or failed to substantially satisfy the needs, wants and expectations of their clients.

While considerably better than the 30%-60% failure rates reported in the IT sector by

Gartner, Standish META or FMI groups, for a sector that is one of the most mature

users of project management to still be experiencing 20%-30% failure rates after 50

years or more of ‘professionalization’ of construction management is not acceptable.

Using the rate of litigation as a measure of a ‘failed’ project clearly indicates the trend

is continuing upwards. While difficult to prove, using the airline transport pilot as an

example, it looks as though the traditional model of knowledge and management skill

acquisition where construction managers worked their way up through the trades,

with the focus on experience and competency rather than theoretical knowledge, had

a lot to offer.

6 See Professional Design Insurance Management Corporation (n.d.). Project construction

management insurance. Retrieved 7 Jun 06 from http://www.project-management-insurance.com/


IDENTIFY WITH PROFESSION, NOT EMPLOYER

The opening statement from the ‘Obligation of the engineer’ pretty much sums up

what this attribute or trait is all about: Obligation of the engineer

I am an engineer, In my profession I take deep pride.

As most construction project managers are employees rather than independent

contractors, it is unlikely that they would identify with the profession first, unless they

have come from a technical discipline with which they can identify, or construction

project management is able to extricate itself from its position in the shadow of

architects and engineers and stand on its own. Evidence this may be occurring exists.

‘The most common degree title is Construction Management among 51 of the 88

members of the Associated Schools of Construction that responded to an Engineering

News-Record (ENR) survey’ (Rosenbaum & Rubin, 2001). However, the relative

stagnation of CM’s efforts at professionalization, raises serious questions in terms of

the intrinsic attributes.

There are three categories of people who are likely to belong to professional

organizations representing project management practitioners. There are the private

practitioners, primarily trainers and consultants, who work on a fee for service basis.

These practitioners more likely perceive the ‘organization of their dreams’ as being

much along the lines of the Bar or Medical Associations.

The second category of members consists of employees of large companies. These

are typified by members of other organizations, such as those representing airline

pilots, nurses, school teachers and even some physicians, if they are working for an

HMO on the basis of a salary and not fee for service agreement. This category of

person is probably seeking an organization much along the same lines as airline

pilots, where the professional organization functions not only to meet the professional

development needs of the practitioner but also to function as a collective bargaining

agent. Probably the two most active models are the teachers unions7, and the pilots

union, ALPA8.

7 See National Education Association, http://www.nea.org/index.html; United Federation of

Teachers, http://www.uft.org/ 8 See Air Line Pilots Association, International, http://www.alpa.org/


The third category of practitioners, identified by Zwerman et al. (2004) is the

knowledge worker. This category of worker is not as well defined, but assuming Tom

Osenton in his 2002 book Death of demand is correct that global demand is leveling

off; and that as the developing nations increase their skill levels, they are quickly

moving up the supply chain from agriculture to low skilled manufacturing, to high

skilled manufacturing, to knowledge work, it would not be surprising to see more

outsourcing. Tom Peters (2003), in his book, Re-Imagine, is painting a picture of a

world in which most of us will be temporary workers. Assuming that model to be

correct, then the ‘traditional’ model of an organization will ultimately prevail. If this

is the case, then AACE was and remains an ‘appropriate’ model.

HELD IN HIGH ESTEEM BY THEIR HOME COMMUNITY

The test for this is fairly simple. How does your mother introduce you to her friends?

Does she say, ‘my son/daughter works for Fluor Daniel, as a project manager’, or

does she say ‘my son/daughter, the project manager, currently working for Fluor

Daniel’? This simple test will tell as much as needed about the professional standing

of any occupation.

Figure 3A.1 Esteem question results from the survey by - project managers

As can be seen from the survey results, project managers have mixed emotions about

the real or perceived status of project management. With an average score of 3.52 out

of a possible score of 5, most practitioners perceive project management as a strong

moderate in terms of their perceived esteem in the community. Given that

construction project managers comprised approximately 12% of the respondents, and

the results were statistically consistent with the full population results.


Having noted this, coming from a background in construction, to hold the title of

‘construction project manager’ carries with it an aura of prestige and respect.

Normally, a person does not become a construction project manager on a project of

any size or significance until well into his or her 40s. But, ultimately, the esteem one

is accorded in a large part, is a direct reflection of the confidence and self esteem that

one exudes.

The survey results indicated that there was little statistical difference in how people

responded to this question based on age, sex, geographical region or other data. Those

identifying themselves as construction project managers produced results statistically

similar to those of the entire population. This is not consistent with the results of the

AACE survey results shown in Table 10, and my own personal experience from the

USA. The apparent conflicting results are sufficiently surprising to warrant further

study.

EARN HIGHER THAN AVERAGE COMPENSATION

Figure 3A.2 Salary survey by sector


As can be seen from the AACE Salary Survey, project managers coming from within

the ranks of construction project management clearly earn ‘above average’ salaries.

Figure 3A.3 Job satisfaction by salary

But salaries alone are not or should not be the only measure. An overwhelming 75%

of construction project managers are ‘somewhat satisfied’ or ‘very satisfied’ with

their jobs. While less than 7% is very dissatisfied. And those who are the most

dissatisfied are making the most money.

This trait or attribute is directly linked to the lifetime employment trait. One does get

into construction project management by accident. When one had to come up through

the ranks, it was clearly a career choice. And since switching over from the

competency centric mode followed by the airlines and the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s

model of CM, to the more knowledge centric model of the 1970s and beyond,

favoring degrees over field experience, the trend of construction managers to remain

with the profession for life remains very strong.

THE MYSTIQUE OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECT MANAGEMENT

There is no research indicating construction project management could be considered

mystical in any way. Nor is there anything indicating it is not mystical.

BODY OF KNOWLEDGE IS ABSTRUSE, ESOTERIC OR SECRET

As noted previously, the body of knowledge for construction managers, even with the

additional knowledge areas of Safety, health and the environment is hardly any

different than for project management as defined by PRINCE2, the PMBOK Guide

or AACE’s Total Cost Management Methodology or their 11R-88 Skills and

Knowledge of a cost engineer. Thus the body of knowledge remains substantially the

same.


HIGHLY RITUALISTIC PROCEDURES

Construction project management is full of tradition involving ritualistic procedures,

such as ground breaking ceremonies or topping off a building with an evergreen tree

when the structure is complete. The Order of the Engineer ceremony previously

described, or, if one is considering the trades, the swearing in ceremony and serving

an apprenticeship, all stand as examples of ritualistic procedures which give a sense

of belonging to something larger than oneself. This provides a link taken from the

past which helps light a path for the future- assuring continuity. Until the 1970s and

the beginning of affirmative action programs, membership if the trades was available

to you if your father, uncle or other close relative was willing to sponsor you. People

were not taken in off the street. Now, this has both good and bad sides, but it tended

to build a lifetime of loyalty not to any company, but to the trade or profession. This

trait is often still seen in firefighters or police, where you will find three generations

working in the same sector. While undoubtedly some rituals are performed based on

company culture or practices, project management has yet to develop widespread

rituals which pertain uniquely to the practice of project management.

ACCESS TO KNOWLEDGE IS LIMITED

As noted above, when the trades dominated CM, access to knowledge was limited to

those who, for whatever reason, were able to get into the unions. However, since the

move from experience-based construction managers to knowledge-based, access to

the knowledge has been opened up to just about anyone who is interested. However,

comparing the stagnation in the professionalization of CM relative to airline transport

pilots indicates that the knowledge itself is of relatively little importance. The single

most important aspect of being a construction project manager or any other kind of

project manager is the demonstrated ability to safely and conservatively deliver your

project, under varying degrees of difficulty and conditions. This focus, not on

knowledge but on competency, is an important issue which is just beginning to come

to the fore among project managers.

CRUCIALITY

Immediacy of need. The immediacy of need for the services of a construction project

manager is an intrinsic characteristic helping define the occupation; that is, the need is

sited in the consumer and by demanding certain actions gives meaning to the project


manager’s tasks. The immediacy of the need for the construction project manager to

deliver the project on time may be important, but it does not compare with the

immediacy of need for an attorney if one faces arrest or a doctor if there is a medical

emergency.

Comparing the sense of urgency felt by the customers of construction project

management against the customers of project management in general, every client

wants things done ‘fast and good and cheap’. So in this instance, one could speculate

that here is an attribute that is more important to project managers.

Importance of need. Along with the sense of urgency goes the actual importance of

what needs to be done. The fact that most customers want their project yesterday,

when the contract hasn’t even been signed, is an indication that at least in some

general context, construction project management meets the tests for both urgency

and importance as far as the consumer is concerned. And, although the nature of

project management ‘emergencies’ is highly unlikely to ever match the types of

emergencies facing medical or law professionals, customers clearly need and need as

quickly as possible, management services in the construction industry.

A common sense test of cruciality can be found in the 2004 Tsunami which affected

Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka. Or in the 2005 Katrina hurricane which ravaged

New Orleans. These examples point out both the strengths of the intrinsic or semantic

attributes of measuring a profession and the weaknesses. The need for construction

project management was paramount, but a high standard of ethics guiding project

management activities, it is very easy for unscrupulous practitioners to take advantage

of people who, for whatever reason, are at a disadvantage.

DÉNOUEMENT

Here is where the difference between the aviation profession and project management

differs substantially. When your plane is delayed, you may grumble, curse the pilot

and the airline, but even pre-9/11 wouldn’t even think of entering the cockpit and

offering your advice, suggestions or ‘assistance’. Yet, with project management, the

client or customer is continually sticking their noses into what you are doing, making

changes and otherwise preventing you from doing what you know how to do. While

proposed somewhat tongue in cheek, the fact remains that when you are using the


services of a professional pilot, you trust his or her judgment and abide by those

decisions, no matter how important it is you get to where you need to go or how

urgent it is that you get there.

Applying the Dénouement principle to the example of the Tsunami or Katrina relief

efforts, the people did trust the government; the people did trust the US Corp of

engineers. And while the emergency response to the Tsunami Crisis was generally

perceived to have been done professionally, the response to Katrina has not been

perceived to have gone well, thus violating the trust of the people in the government

and social agencies responsible.

3A.2 Summary of case study 1: Construction project management Table 3A.3 Summary of CM attributes

Color/Ranking Key 3 Clear Evidence 2 Partial Evidence 1 Slight Evidence 0 No Evidence

# Attribute Construction

project manager Comments

1 Professional association- defines methodology/defines standards/enforces CoE

3 Many professional organizations purporting to represent CM practitioners

2 Autonomy in decision making 3 CM generally perceived as allowing extensive autonomy in making decisions.

3 Lifetime commitment/calling 3 CM generally perceived as an end ‘career path objective’. What I want to be when I grow up.

4 Earn higher than average compensation 3 Yes

5 Publishing in learned journals 3 Robust professional publications 6 Long period of training including

higher education 2 Long period of training but higher education not generally required. Ref Garden v Frier

7 Subscribe to a code of ethics 2 Codes of ethics exist, but not overly robust or focused on fiduciary obligations.

8 Fiduciary obligation to public 2 Weak connections 9 Professional association defines

‘best practices’ 2

Many professional organizations purporting to represent practitioners. But ‘best practices’ generally not defined. Usually only minimum standards.

10 Identify with occupation, not employer 2 Mixed

11 Held in high esteem by the community 2 Favorably perceived if not held in high esteem

12 Apprenticeship/ internship/residency 2 Nothing formal. All Certifications require experience, but not documented or validated.

13 Cruciality- need is important/need is immediate 2 Circumstantially based

14 Dénouement- practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly.

2 Circumstantially based


# Attribute Construction project manager

Comments

15 Service to the public- including pro bono work 1 Informal or Individual pro bono work, but not

usually organizational 16 Practice limited by government

license 1 CM Licensing only in Ukraine and South Africa. US voluntary certification only

17 Body of knowledge- unique/esoteric/secret 0 BoK is neither unique, esoteric, abstruse or

secret 18 Advertising not permitted or

restricted 0 No restrictions Imposed

19 Requires professional liability insurance 0 Rarely

20 Symbolic costumes/uniforms 0 No symbolic costume/uniform 21 Use of title restricted by law 0 No 22 Mystique- highly ritualistic/access to

knowledge is restricted 0 No

Total score 35 Total possible score 66 Rating (total/possible) 53%

As can be observed from applying the results on CM extracted from relevant

literature reviews against the attributes or definitions of a profession we can see that

in terms of gross numbers, CM, which we know is neither perceived as a profession

nor qualifies as a profession under any ‘bright line’ rules, only scores 53% out of a

possible 100%. As noted previously, the flaw in the analysis at this point remains that

while it can be intuitively recognized that these attributes are not equally weighted,

there is no way of establishing the relative rankings. In other words, having a

symbolic costume should not be equal in weight to having a body of knowledge, but

at this point in the research, relative rankings have yet to be established.

The purpose of this research was that it would serve not only as an academic exercise,

but offer assistance to occupations trying to improve their professional image, which

could use this research as the basis for analyzing their strengths and weaknesses, with

the objective of improving their professional ranking or score.

A score of 53% indicates that construction project management barely meets the

‘preponderance of the evidence’ test (51%) much less approaches the standard of

‘beyond a reasonable doubt’ (~>90%). So, while it would appear that construction

project management is a profession when the ‘preponderance of the evidence’ test is

applied, many opportunities remain for improvement.


3A.3 Recommendations to improve the standing For any professional group or organizations wishing to enhance the professional

image of CM below are some considerations, based on this research:

Long period of training including higher education Organizations offering credentials in construction project management should require a four year degree as a minimum requirement to qualify for any certifications, particularly those aimed at the top levels.

Subscribe to a code of ethics While codes of ethics exist for all the professional organizations, they seem to miss the point that a profession has a moral obligation to the consuming public. For an organization to increase its standing in the eyes of the consuming public, it must focus on delivering results which are measurable. Codes of conduct should be revisited and modeled more along the lines of the various ‘bills of rights’ published by hospitals and airlines.

Fiduciary obligation to public As with the recommendation regarding the code of ethics, the focus of the practitioners and those organizations which purport to represent them must be towards the obligations of practitioners to the consuming public. This is being legislated through laws such as Sarbanes-Oxley, but rather than wait for legislation, it would be preferable for those professional organizations representing practitioners to take the lead in this area. The American Society of Civil Engineers has set a good example through their ‘zero tolerance’ policy for corruption; and given that construction project management is generally recognized as being one of the more prominent sources of corruption (at least in the developing nations) the lead of ASCE in this are should be noted and emulated.

Professional association defines best practice Consistent with the code of ethics and fiduciary responsibility issues, practitioners and the organizations which deem to represent them should move beyond average practice and strive for best practices. Stated another way, instead of setting minimum standards of performance, those organizations wishing to professionalize the occupations they represent should be striving for something better than the minimum.


Identify with occupation, not employer

Assuming Tom Peters (Re-Imagine, 2003), Tom Osenton, (Death of demand,

2004), Tom Malone (Future of work, 2005), and Tom Friedman (Flat world,

2006) are close to being correct, within 10-15 years most of us will become part

time, ‘free agent’ contractors, working on a ‘per project’ basis. If this is true, it

will mean a whole different role for the professional organization to play. More

than likely, the professional organization may well start to look more like the

pilots union or the teachers unions, providing health and retirement services to

their constituencies.

Held in high esteem by the community

This is something which is earned and not demanded. No academic research

could be found which specifically addressed the issue of high social esteem in the

community of construction project managers, but from first hand knowledge, and

applying Eliot Freidson’s (2001) common sense approach, it is average.

Apprenticeship/internship/residency While CM has historically relied on field experience as the basis for the credentials of its practioners, one way to increase the real or perceived professionalization of this manifestation of project management would be to take a lesson from commercial aircraft pilots or PADI scuba divers and require that a logbook of experience be compiled. This is consistent with the research of Lyle and Signe Spencer as outlined in their 1993 book, Competence at work Models for superior performance and Kenneth Cooper’s (2000) more recent Effective competency modeling and reporting, both of which indicate the importance using a range of assessment tools, including:

testing ⎯ attitudinal and behavioral ⎯ skills and knowledge

360° evaluations, done within a relatively short period after the execution of the services; effective for soft skills

individual assessments, conducted by skilled assessors

As with any assessment process, care needs to be taken to ensure the results are both

valid and reliable.


Cruciality: Need is important/need is immediate There is not much that can be done to enhance this attribute, for cruciality is defined by the needs of the person seeking the services. If your toilet is clogged on a Friday evening and you will be entertaining your boss and his wife for supper, the services of a plumber will most surely meet this criteria.

Dénouement: Practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly Like cruciality, this trait or attribute is defined by the consumer of the professional services and not the provider. One of the reasons emergency rooms are so popular even for relatively trivial or non-life threatening events is, despite the anonymity of having to accept whatever doctor happens to be available, most emergency rooms produce results relatively quickly.

Service to the public, including pro bono work As should be appreciated, a profession (or a professional) is not merely another businessman or woman. The true professional honestly cares about other people and the tasks that comprise their work. This passion transcends money and reflects the importance of doing the right things as much if not more than doing things right. While all professional organizations give lip service to public service, the mark of the true professional lies more in individual behaviours.

Practice limited by government license Unless a credible case that the health, safety or welfare of the public can clearly be demonstrated and proven, licensing of construction project managers is unlikely to be accepted, at least not in the developed nations. The trend is clearly towards the adoption of voluntary credentialing, allowing the the marketplace to determine which credentials have value and which do not.

Body of knowledge, unique/esoteric/secret The body of knowledge relating to construction project management (and project management in general) could hardly be classified as unique, esoteric, secret or abstruse. Because the body of knowledge is a very important element in defining a profession (Haga, 1974; Abbot, 1988; Freidson, 2000) since it helps delineate the scope of the professional tasks and responsibilities, the lack of a clearly defined project management-specific body of knowledge makes it all the more difficult to claim the ‘turf’ which belongs to the occupation of project management. Assuming, therefore that the body of knowledge cannot be defined, then the only other way to ensure recognition of PM as a profession would be for project managers to establish jurisdiction over the actual tasks, or series of tasks which comprise what they do. This would translate into substituting the methodology or process for the body of knowledge. This has never been


successful in the past, as there are many methodologies and new ones are evolving so quickly, that to found a profession on a methodology would be akin to building a house on a foundation of sand.

Advertising not permitted or restricted As long as the majority of workers in construction project management fall under Zwerman’s (2004) ‘Set B’ category (employer/employee relationship), the question of advertising being restricted is largely irrelevant. However, assuming the predictions of Peters (2003), Osenton (2004), Malone (2005) and Friedman (2006) are close to correct and we find ourselves part time, contingency or contract workers, then advertising restrictions may well become an important issue in the coming years.

Requires professional liability insurance Liability insurance requirements make sense if we are all independent professional service providers, working out of our own offices as entrepreneurs. However, as most construction managers are employees, our employer is expected to insure against professional liability. Again, as in the advertising issue, this may very well change in the coming few years.

Symbolic costumes/uniforms This is a difficult attribute to come to terms with. Most people simply smile when discussing it, and tend to write it off as being an anachronism, a throwback to a bygone era. The fact remains, however, that powdered wigs, black robes, military style uniforms with ribbons and regalia, white jackets and ‘scrubs’ all become trademarks that enable someone to quickly tell the doctors from the nurses or the lawyers from the judges or the cockpit crew from the cabin crew. So while we may laugh at what we think to be the absurdity of it, the importance cannot be underestimated. About the closest construction managers come to a uniform is the wearing of white or gold hard hats, but even this is far from universal.

Use of title restricted by law This attribute in today’s market is being done through the registration of trademarks and branding. Realtors were perhaps the first organization to appreciate that while it may be difficult to get legislators to pass laws restricting the use of a title, another way existed by using copyright and trade marking. The most aggressive application of this principle in the field of project management is PMI and their trade marking of anything to do with the organization or the credentials produced by the organization. The question becomes whether the use of trademarks alone is sufficient to protect the name and image of any organization.


Mystique: Highly ritualistic/access to knowledge is restricted As with cruciality and dénouement, the other two legs of the three legged stool of semantics, we know that perception is in the eyes of the recipient of the services. To my 83 year old mother, her computer consultant (a 20 something computer geek) has mystique. She neither knows nor cares what he is doing or how he is doing it, as long as within 15-20 minutes he has her computer fixed and she is back on line. In today’s world of Google, where access to knowledge is becoming less restricted, it may very well be possible for a lay person to be as expert if not more expert than the ‘professionals’ in any given field. The classic example of this is Lorenzo’s oil, a true story about Augusto, Michaela and Lorenzo Odones (Odones, n.d., online), who did their own research and experimentation to develop an oil to help their son, Lorenzo, recover from adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) disease. As knowledge proliferates, it reduces the mystique of all but the most advanced and esoteric research.

3A.4 Summary In this chapter, we have explored construction management, which, despite being

recognized as a career path objective, despite having degree programs at the

Bachelor, Masters and PhD levels and despite filling a well defined niche, has yet to

achieve or realize equal professional standing with the other professionals in the built

environment. The architects and engineers, who work on these projects and who are

often supervised by the construction manager. In the next chapter, we will explore

another occupation- commercial aircraft piloting, which is an occupation which IS

respected as a profession, despite the fact that to become a pilot does not even require

a high school diploma. These extreme comparisons are expected to shed some light

on project management in general.

127 Chapter 3B: Case Study 2, Commercial Airline Piloting

CHAPTER 3, PART B

Case study 2: Commercial airline piloting

3B.1 Commercial airline pilot1: A project manager?

Commercial airline pilots are an interesting case study of the development of a

profession despite the fact it does not meet many of the traditional criteria or

attributes of other occupations considered to be a profession. Commercial aircraft

piloting is a global occupation that has evolved rather quickly over the past 75 years

into being generally perceived as a profession, despite the fact that, at least under US

case law, the courts have not held it to be one (Polelle, 1999). Unlike law or

medicine, which have been around for hundreds of years, commercial air piloting is

relatively new, thereby offering the chance to look at the evolution of a new

profession and see if there are lessons from which project managers can learn or

guide posts which they can use to help discover what stage of professional evolution

project management has reached and what direction it needs to be going in.

In order to make the best use of a comparison of airline piloting with project

management, it is important to first establish the relationship between the two

activities – if there is any. That is, what similarities does airline piloting share with

project management?

According to Webster’s third new international dictionary (Merriam-Webster, 2002),

a project is:

A proposed or planned undertaking to achieve a particular aim or objective, with some reasonable expectation for success, through the skillful handling or use of resources and the successful organization, administration and controlling these affairs in a business-like manner.

Considering this definition in terms of airline piloting, it can be said that each flight is

certainly a ‘planned undertaking’. In accordance with FAA regulations, a flight plan

must be filed for any flight carrying passengers for hire. Not only must the flight plan

be filed, but it must also be closed out at the completion of the flight, lest it trigger an

1 For the purposes of this research the terms airline transport pilot and commercial

airline pilot are synonymous and are what this researcher means when talking about a professional pilot.


emergency search and rescue for an overdue or missing plane. And most clearly, each

flight has a particular aim and certain objectives, not the least being to arrive safely

and on time from the perspective of the customer as stakeholder, and to fly profitably,

from the perspective of the investor stakeholders in the airline. Given the rather

enviable safety record, air travel provides a very reasonable expectation that one will

arrive safely, and, depending on the circumstances, on time.

The ‘skilful handing or use of resources’ is one of the primary reasons commercial

airline pilots have earned respect as professionals. Flying a plane is not easy (although

with advanced electronics, it is certainly easier than it once was). Moreover, it is often

the case that the plane’s owners are operating within tight profit margins, and face an

ever increasing price for fuel. In this situation, the pilot is a key element in optimizing

the consumption of fuel while getting the plane, passengers and crew to their

destination safely and on time. So the pilot has full responsibility and control in

optimizing the triple constraints of time, cost and quality trade-offs.

In Wideman’s (2004) Comparative glossary of project management terms (version

4.1) a project is defined as:

A novel undertaking or systematic process to create a new product or service the delivery of which signals completion. Projects involve risk and are typically constrained by limited resources.

In accordance with this definition, each flight undertaken is clearly novel, in the sense

that, although each flight is part of a program of flights travelling on regular routes

and at consistent times, each one is also a brand new undertaking every time a plane

leaves the ground. Flying a plane from one point to another is without question,

however, a systematic process. And delivering the passengers to the gate, closing out

the flight plan and finishing the paperwork all signify completion of the project. Any

attempt to defy the laws of gravity is inherently risky, and, given today’s highly

competitive market, rising fuel and labor costs, and the security demands imposed

post 911, pilots are having to contend with limited resources.

As a final confirmation that commercial aircraft piloting incorporates project

management as a key element of the delivery system, it is worth noting what Dr.

Martin Barnes had to say at the 16th IPMA Conference, Berlin, Germany, June, 2002:


Another definition of a project which I like and use often is that it is getting from State A to State B. State A is some aspect of the state we are in now. State B is that aspect changed. State B is always seen as better than State A by the people who initiate the project.

Well, why would you get on a plane in the first place if you didn’t feel your

destination (State B) was somehow ‘better’ than where you were? (State A)

It seems from these observations that airline transport piloting does incorporate

project management. It is integral to the successful execution of each flight. What,

then, allows the pilot to engage in the project? What requirements must he or she

meet in order to fly?

Basic eligibility requirements to become an airline transport pilot include:

§ 61.153 Eligibility requirements: General.

To be eligible for an airline transport pilot certificate, a person must:

(a) Be at least 23 years of age;

(b) Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language. If the applicant is unable to meet one of these requirements due to medical reasons, then the Administrator may place such operating limitations on that applicant’s pilot certificate as are necessary for the safe operation of the aircraft;

(c) Be of good moral character;

(d) Meet at least one of the following requirements:

(1) Hold at least a airline transport pilot certificate and an instrument rating;

(2) Meet the military experience requirements under §61.73 of this part to qualify for a commercial pilot certificate, and an instrument rating if the person is a rated military pilot or former rated military pilot of an Armed Force of the United States; or

(3) Hold either a foreign airline transport pilot or foreign airline transport pilot license and an instrument rating, without limitations, issued by a contracting State to the Convention on International Civil Aviation.

(e) Meet the aeronautical experience requirements of this subpart that apply to the aircraft category and class rating sought before applying for the practical test;

(f) Pass a knowledge test on the aeronautical knowledge areas of §61.155(c) of this part that apply to the aircraft category and class rating sought;

(g) Pass the practical test on the areas of operation listed in §61.157(e) of this part that apply to the aircraft category and class rating sought; and

(h) Comply with the sections of this part that apply to the aircraft category and class rating sought.

(Doc. No. 25910, 62 FR 16298, Apr. 4, 1997; Amdt. 61–103, 62 FR 40905, July 30, 1997)


There are, furthermore, an airline transport pilot certification and an airline transport

pilot certification. An airline transport pilot may work for hire, but may not act as

pilot for a commercial airline. Possible airline transport pilot careers include air tour

and air taxi, pipeline patrol, traffic reporting, and more.i

Having established the basic criteria to become an airline pilot, let’s look at the

evolution of piloting as a profession against the 20 primary traits and 15 qualifying or

sub-traits of a profession. Primary traits include: body of knowledge; long period of

training; lifetime commitment; adhering to a code of ethics; fiduciary obligation to

the public; other obligations to the public; professional associations; publishing in

learned journals; advertising not permitted or restricted; use of the title is restricted by

law; symbolic costumes or uniforms; practice limited by government license; require

professional liability insurance; autonomy in decision making; identify with

profession; not employer; held in high esteem by their home community; earn higher

than average compensation; exhibit mystique; body of knowledge is abstruse, esoteric

or secret; highly ritualistic procedures; access to knowledge is limited; cruciality:

BODY OF KNOWLEDGE WHICH IS UNIQUE, ESOTERIC/COMPLICATED/SECRET

The body of knowledge associated with airline transport piloting is unique in that it

began evolving from the military use of planes in World War I, and has gradually

been codified by government bodies since that time. In the case of the USA, the body

of knowledge is defined by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)2, and consists

primarily of rules, regulations and policies established by the US Federal

Government. Canadian, Australian and all other governments have similar rules,

regulations and policies, administered through the Convention on International Civil

Aviation.

Anyone looking at the US Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR)3 would be hard

pressed to describe them as being anything but complicated in ways that only

governmental and legal jargon can create, especially when combined with the esoteric

vocabulary associated with aircraft and flying. The complexity of so many arcane

rules and regulations makes them understandable only by those who are trained and

2 http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/ 3 http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?&c=ecfr&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title14/14tab_02.tpl


have been initiated into piloting. The body of knowledge pertaining to piloting is

demonstrably esoteric, complicated and unique; and can be secret in some

circumstances, for example military flying.

LONG PERIOD OF TRAINING

There is no formal education requirement to commence flying lessons; however you must be able to read, write and speak English. The minimum flying time for the issue of a Private Pilots License (PPL) is 20 hours with a minimum of five hours solo. The average time taken to reach the required standard is about 25 hours. Note: the 20 hours required for the issue of a PPL is in addition to the 20 hours required for the General Flying Progress Test, ie a total of 40 hours. (Moorabin Flying Services, n.d., online)

Total Time: 250 hours of flight time as a pilot that consists of at least:

A. 100 hours in powered aircraft, of which 50 hours must be in airplanes.

B. 100 hours of pilot-in-command flight time, that includes at least-

1. 50 hours in airplanes; and 2. 50 hours in cross-country flying of which at least 10 hours must be in

airplanes.

C. Dual: 20 hours of flight training on the Airline transport pilot areas of operation that includes at least

1. 10 hours of instrument training of which at least 5 hours must be in a multiengine airplane; (See Note 4)

2. 10 hours of training in a complex multiengine airplane or turbine powered multiengine airplane;

3. 1 cross-country of 2 hours in a multiengine airplane in day VFR conditions of a total straight line distance of more than 100 nm. from the departure point;

4. 1 cross-country of 2 hours in a multiengine airplane in night VFR conditions of a total straight line distance of more than 100 nm. from the departure point;

5. 3 hours of flight training in a multiengine airplane within the preceding 60 days prior to the practical test.

D. Solo or Performing PIC: 10 hours of solo flying or performing the duties as PIC with an instructor in a multiengine airplane on the Airline transport pilot areas of operation, that includes at least – (see Notes 3 and 7)

1. One cross-country flight of not less than 300 nm. with landings with a min of 3 points, one of which is a straight line distance of more than 250 nm.; and

2. 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and 10 landings at a controlled airport. (Government Printing Office, n.d., online)


Generally, to obtain a Airline transport pilot’s license you need to have 250 hours of flight time. The specific requirements can be found in Section 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Part 61.121 - 61.133. However, don’t confuse a Airline transport pilot’s license with a airline transport pilot’s job. Right now the US major airlines are not hiring and only the regional airlines are. An example is American Eagle which, right now, requires 1500 total time and 300 multi-engine. ASA, ComAir and ACA are other examples of regional airlines that all have web pages with their requirements. (Phillip Greenspun, n.d., online)

The education requirements necessary to become a pilot are not stringent at all.

However, the occupation requires an extensive internship, starting with a private

pilot’s license (~40 hours) and moving up by ‘building hours’ to the point where a

practitioner would qualify to get a job flying passengers for money. Assuming an

average pilot works 250 to 300 hours per month, and is able to log 75-95 actual flying

hours per month (D’Agostino, 2000, online), to log 1500 hours of flying time would

normally take between 17 to 20 months. When compared with the medical, legal and

engineering professions, this would hardly be considered ‘long’, but when compared

against the ‘accidental’ project manager, it certainly would be. The focus with airline

transport piloting is on demonstrated competency rather than academic achievement.

This has considerable relevancy to project management, for like flying, you can read

all the books and take all the knowledge based exams, but until you demonstrate you

can manage projects consistently and well, everything else is irrelevant.

LIFE TIME COMMITMENT

In terms of commitment, the process of building hours normally weeds out aspirants

who don’t truly love flying. So unless the practitioner develops medical problems,

pilots tend to remain practitioners throughout their working careers. The Federal

Aviation Agency (USA) requires that airline transport pilots retire at age 60.

Lobbying to raise that age to 65 is occurring. (USA Today, 2007, online). As the

youngest age a person can qualify under FAA regulations is 23 years old, that

provides a career potential of 37 years, barring health or eyesight limitations.

The relevancy of this to project management lies in the fact that practitioners have no

process of building hours (competency based program) to sort out those who are

committed from those who are not. Project management is often called the accidental

profession (Curling, n.d., online) because, profession or not, many who enter into

project management do it by accident rather than choice. However, with the

proliferation of degree programs in project management, and project management

being recognized as a career path option in many companies, this may be changing.


ADHERING TO A CODE OF ETHICS

There are several professional organizations which represent pilots, but the one most

often associated with airline transport pilots is the Airline Pilots Association

International, (ALPA)4 representing North American (US and Canadian) pilots, and

the International Federation of Airline Pilots Associations (IFALPA)5. ALPA has a

code of ethics6 which focuses on (in order of priority) the passenger, the employer,

professional image, (two canons) and relationship with the professional organization

representing professional pilots (Exhibit 3B.1 below)

As is shown in Appendix B, the ALPA code of ethics and canons are as not quite as

robust as the codes of ethics (CoE) associated with the representative bodies of the

engineering professions (e.g. IEEE, ASCE, AACE). Notice in reading them, there is

considerable focus on the implied duties owed to the ALPA by the members.

Consistent with the philosophy of Haga (1974), this clearly reflects the fact that the

ALPA has a duel function. It is not only as a professional organization, but is also a

union, representing and negotiating for and on behalf of pilots.

This role of the professional body will be explored in more detail under the heading

of Professional Organizations, and will play a major role in the synthesis, but suffice

to say, the code of ethics appears to be secondary to the rules, regulations and policies

promulgated by the Federal aviation agencies responsible for air safety. The ALPA

code of ethics seems very much to have been written as a union document focussed

on prescribing the activities of the members rather than protecting the consuming

public, whose primary responsibility is the FAA, and the airlines themselves due to

insurance pressures.

4 http://www.alpa.org/ 5 http://www.ifalpa.org/ 6 http://www.alpa.org/?tabid=270


Exhibit 3B.1 The Airline Pilot

An Air Line Pilot will keep uppermost in his mind that the safety, comfort, and well-being of the passengers who entrust their lives to him are his first and greatest responsibility.

− He will never permit external pressures or personal desires to influence his judgment, nor will he knowingly do anything that could jeopardize flight safety.

− He will remember that an act of omission can be as hazardous as a deliberate act of commission, and he will not neglect any detail that contributes to the safety of his flight, or perform any operation in a negligent or careless manner.

− Consistent with flight safety, he will at all times operate his aircraft in a manner that will contribute to the comfort, peace of mind, and well-being of his passengers, instilling in them trust in him and the airline he represents.

− Once he has discharged his primary responsibility for the safety and comfort of his passengers, he will remember that they depend upon him to do all possible to deliver them to their destination at the scheduled time.

− If disaster should strike, he will take whatever action he deems necessary to protect the lives of his passengers and crew.

An Air Line Pilot will faithfully discharge the duty he owes the airline that employs him and whose salary makes possible his way of life.

− He will do all within his powers to operate his aircraft efficiently and on schedule in a manner that will not cause damage or unnecessary maintenance.

− He will respect the officers, directors, and supervisors of his airline, remembering that respect does not entail subservience.

− He will faithfully obey all lawful directives given by his supervisors, but will insist and, if necessary, refuse to obey any directives that, in his considered judgment, are not lawful or will adversely affect flight safety. He will remember that in the final analysis the responsibility for safe completion of the flight rests upon his shoulders.

− He will not knowingly falsify any log or record, nor will he condone such action by other crew members.

− He will remember that a full month’s salary demands a full and fair month’s work. On his days off, he will not engage in any occupation or activity that will diminish his efficiency or bring discredit to his profession.

− He will realize that he represents the airline to all who meet him and will at all times keep his personal appearance and conduct above reproach.

− He will give his airline, its officers, directors, and supervisors the full loyalty that is their due, and will refrain from speaking ill of them. If he feels it necessary to reveal and correct conditions that are not conducive to safe operations and harmonious relations, he will direct his criticism to the proper authorities within ALPA.

− He will hold his airline’s business secrets in confidence, and will take care that they are not improperly revealed.

An Air Line Pilot will accept the responsibilities as well as the rewards of command and will at all times so conduct himself both on duty and off as to instill and merit the confidence and respect of his crew, his fellow employees, and his associates within the profession.

− He will know and understand the duties of each member of his crew. If in command, he will be firm but fair, explicit yet tolerant of deviations that do not affect the safe and orderly completion of the flight. He will be efficient yet relaxed, so that the duties of the crew may be carried out in a harmonious manner.

− If in command, he will expect efficient performance of each crew member’s duties, yet he will overlook small discrepancies and refrain from unnecessary and destructive criticism, so that the crew member will retain his self-respect and cooperative attitude. A frank discussion of minor matters of technique and performance after the flight will create goodwill and a desire to be helpful, whereas sharp criticism and peremptory orders at the moment will result only in the breakdown of morale and an inefficient, halting performance of future duties.


− An Air Line Pilot will remember that his is a profession heavily dependent on training during regular operations and, if in command, will afford his flight crew members every reasonable opportunity, consistent with safety and efficiency, to learn and practice. He will endeavor to instill in his crew a sense of pride and responsibility. In making reports on the work and conduct of his crew members, he will avoid personal prejudices, make his reports factual and his criticisms constructive so that actions taken as a result of his reports will improve the knowledge and skill of his crew members, rather than bring discredit, endanger their livelihood, and threaten their standing in the profession.

− While in command, the Air Line Pilot will be mindful of the welfare of his crew. He will see to it that his crew are properly lodged and cared for, particularly during unusual operating conditions. When cancellations result in deadheading, he will ensure that proper arrangements are made for the transportation of his crew before he takes care of himself.

An Air Line Pilot will conduct his affairs with other members of the profession and with ALPA in such a manner as to bring credit to the profession and ALPA as well as to himself.

− He will not falsely or maliciously injure the professional reputation, prospects, or job security of another pilot, yet if he knows of professional incompetence or conduct detrimental to the profession or to ALPA, he will not shrink from revealing this to the proper authorities within ALPA, so that the weak member may be brought up to the standards demanded, or ALPA and the profession alike may be rid of one unworthy to share its rewards.

− He will conduct his affairs with ALPA and its members in accordance with the rules laid down in the Constitution and By-Laws of ALPA and with the policies and interpretations promulgated there from. Whenever possible, he will attend all meetings of ALPA open to him and will take an active part in its activities and in meetings of other groups calculated to improve air safety and the standing of the profession.

− An Air Line Pilot shall refrain from any action whereby, for his personal benefit or gain, he take advantage of the confidence reposed in him by his fellow members. If he is called upon to represent ALPA in any dispute, he will do so to the best of his ability, fairly and fearlessly, relying on the influence and power of ALPA to protect him.

− He will regard himself as a debtor to his profession and ALPA, and will dedicate himself to their advancement. He will cooperate in the upholding of the profession by exchanging information and experience with his fellow pilots and by actively contributing to the work of professional groups and the technical press.

An Air Line Pilot the honor of his profession is dear, and he will remember that his own character and conduct reflect honor or dishonor upon the profession.

− He will be a good citizen of his country, state, and community, taking an active part in their affairs, especially those dealing with the improvement of aviation facilities and the enhancement of air safety.

− He will conduct all his affairs in a manner that reflects credit on himself and his profession.

− He will remember that to his neighbors, friends, and acquaintances he represents both the profession and ALPA, and that his actions represent to them the conduct and character of all members of the profession and ALPA.

− He will realize that nothing more certainly fosters prejudices against and deprives the profession of its high public esteem and confidence than do breaches in the use of alcohol.

− He will not publish articles, give interviews, or permit his name to be used in any manner likely to bring discredit to another pilot, the airline industry, the profession, or ALPA.

− He will continue to keep abreast of aviation developments so that his skill and judgment, which heavily depend on such knowledge, may be of the highest order.

Having endeavored to his utmost to faithfully fulfill the obligations of the ALPA Code of Ethics and Canons for the Guidance of Air Line Pilots, a pilot may consider himself worthy to be called…an AIRLINE PILOT.


During the period of this current research, PMI was in the process of rewriting its

code of ethics, and it will be interesting to see where that organization’s focus lies (on

controlling the member/owners of the organization or in protecting the best interests

of the consuming public); and exactly what will be expected of project managers in

terms of ethical behavior. Worth emphasizing, the American Society of Civil

Engineers (ASCE) has adopted a zero tolerance policy on bribery and corruption

(American Society of Civil Engineers, n.d., online).

The promotion of the code of ethics and the sense of fiduciary obligation (see below)

are tacit acknowledgement of the tensions inherent in the position of the airline pilot,

who may have a legal contract with an employer, as well as one with passengers.

Beyond legal obligations, a moral contract binds these individuals to one another.

Employer and employee, in particular, have responsibilities to one another

reminiscent of those recognised by agency theory (Muller & Turner). It is important

that the pilot is able to communicate with and trust the employing airline in the same

way that the airline must treat fairly with the pilot. Every flight is in a sense a

‘project’ requiring management of the highest order, not only on the part of the pilot,

but on the part of the ultimate sponsors of the trip – the airline company’s owners –

who must guarantee the ground support that ensures the safety of the project.

FIDUCIARY OBLIGATION TO THE PUBLIC

To be clear, let us start by defining what a fiduciary relationship is.

the relation by law existing between certain classes of persons (as confidential advisor and the one advised; executors or administrators and legatees or heirs; conservators and wards, trustees, or beneficiaries; partners, joint adventurers, corporate directors or officers and stockholders; majority and minority stockholders; factors, agents, or brokers and principals; attorneys and clients; promoters and stock subscribers; mutual savings banks or investment corporations and their depositors or investors; receivers, trustees in bankruptcy, or assignees in insolvency and creditors). (Merriam-Webster, 2002)

Recognizing they have a fiduciary responsibility to put the safety of their passengers

above all else, airline pilots have placed their responsibility to the consuming public

ahead of anything else. As retired airline pilot Captain Alex Paterson’s web says: In order to develop an insight into the Profession of Airline Pilot, it is important to realize that a professional pilot’s primary task is to fly the aircraft under his command from the departure airport to destination safely. This fact cannot be over emphasized. After this primary objective has been addressed, the myriad of other important considerations such as operating the aircraft economically, on time, smoothly, quickly, efficiently etc can then be tackled. But unless the aircraft is operated safely it ultimately cannot be any of the latter. The fact is, airlines that do not operate their aircraft as safely as possible eventually ‘lose’ aircraft and airlines that lose aircraft do not usually survive in the market place and as such are not viable. (Paterson, 1999, online)


The importance of owing the first loyalty to the health, safety and welfare of the

general public is common to most professions. The medical profession has the

Hippocratic Oath which states a doctor ‘should do no harm’ (Wikipedia, n.d., online).

The theme of doing no harm is common to the ASCE, AACE and IEEE codes of

ethics as well. This aspect of professionalism is not emphasised in the field of project

management. As of this writing, the PMI code of ethics does not address the issue of

fiduciary responsibility by a practitioner.

SERVICE TO THE PUBLIC

Being a pilot is not an occupation with any public service focus on the whole.

Although pilots do participate, often bravely, in rescue missions to evacuate their

countrymen and women from disaster sites overseas and fly for public services, such

as Australia’s Flying Doctors, as well as defending their nations as part of national air

forces, flying is not associated with altruism, and these are paid missions. This is in

contrast to lawyers, doctors or teachers, whose occupations are perceived on the one

hand to be lucrative, but on the other to contain an element, even the opportunity for,

altruism and sacrifice for the public good.

It must be acknowledged, however, that unlike doctors or lawyers who can carry his

or her tools with him, the ‘tool’ of an airline pilot is a plane. So unless the pilot

actually owns the plane, he or she is in no position to provide pro bono services.

When pilots own their own planes, they do often offer their services for free in order

to participate in search and rescue operations. The ALPA web indicates, however,

that most of pilots’ volunteer work pertains only to the organization itself, and not to

the general public. It is unclear whether it is their time that is offered or whether pilots

also pay for their own fuel and maintenance as part of a volunteer effort.

Volunteering a plane as a free service is not just income forgone; it may also involve

actively spending their own funds. It is unlikely pilots could afford to do this even if

they wanted to.

The relevance this has to project management is that, as with ALPA, a good portion

of -project managers’ pro bono work is done for and on behalf of the professional

organization. To compare, top legal firms dedicate ~5% of their billable hours as

being pro bono, while the response to question 29 pertaining to how much pro bono

work project managers do is less than 2%.


PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

Professional associations are supposed serve four major functions:

Create and enforce the code of ethics

Establish acceptable standards

a) Performance standards

b) Procedural standards (methodology)

Professional associations create and enforce the code of ethics. The largest

professional association for airline pilots is the Airline Pilots Association

International (ALPA), as discussed. It represents North American. While ALPA has a

code of ethics, emails to the organization asking about how many ethical violations

they dealt with were never returned. However, the primary enforcer of rules for pilots

is not their professional organization, which functions as a union, but the various state

and Federal aviation agencies or ministries. Pilots are held accountable for their

failures in judgment and failure to meet standards imposed by these government

agencies through the license renewal and suspension process; and it can be

reasonably inferred that professional organizations representing commercial pilots are

not expected to be responsible for pilot adherence to the rules established for pilots by

government agencies.

Relating this to project management, a poll of IPMA, PMI, AACE and AIPM

regarding code of ethics activity over the past five years indicates that these

professional organizations are generally not aggressive in enforcing codes of ethics or

codes of conduct, especially for violations which impact the consumer of their

services. Nor are they as proactive about ethical issues as are the engineering

societies.

In the case of airline pilots, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is

responsible for investigating all accidents. Between the FAA and the NTSB, most

issues pertaining to the behavior of pilots are addressed, not through any professional

body, but through the administrative processes adopted by government agencies. One

of the primary roles of the professional organizations is to defend pilots or help them

defend themselves should they come into conflict with these agencies.


The model of the professional organization as union along the lines of the aircraft

pilots or teachers may well be something PMI, AIPM and IPMA might consider,

given the nature of the project management industry. Like commercial airline pilots,

most construction project managers are in the employ of a firm, be it an IT,

telecommunications or building company. It is logical for their professional

organizations to consider the option of acting as a union. Ironically, their members

will be increasingly controlled by the very organization designed to represent them.

This would represent a trade off between gaining some autonomy over their clients

and employers, but at the price of giving up autonomy to the professional

organization.

Professional organizations establishing acceptable standards. Aviation is

regulated by the Federal government, with the standards of practice and procedures

determined by the relevant agencies. However, as the ALPA functions as a union as

much as a professional organization, they do play an active role in advocating for and

on behalf of the best interests of their members, especially providing commentary on

proposed changes to any standards, policies or procedures. Evidence of this can be

seen in their posting of issues for comment7.

Another organization which represents both commercial and private pilots is the US

based Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA). This group is quite unlike

ALPA, in that it is primarily a subscription (member based) organization which is not

a union, but more of a lobbying organization. AOPA is unique in that it does not

publish a code of ethics. Another interesting aspect of AOPA is that while it helps

people get trained as pilots, it does not offer training to become a pilot8.

PUBLISHING IN LEARNED JOURNALS

While articles are written about safety and airline pilots play active roles in their

respective professional organizations, no evidence could be found for professional

journals relating specifically to commercial aircraft piloting. Aerospace in general is

associated with several professional journals, such as Aerospace Engineering,

7 See Air Line Pilots Association, Int’l at http://www.alpa.org/ 8 See Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association online at

http://www.aopa.org/advocacy/


published by the Society of Automotive Engineers9 or the Air & Space Power

Journal published by the US Air Force’s College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research

and Education (CADRE) at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama10. The majority of

publications relating to airline piloting appear to be magazines, however, and are not

peer reviewed journals11.

Comparing airline pilots to project managers, it would appear that the two

occupations are similar in this respect. There is no shortage of magazines, but only

two journals are available to project managers: PMI’s Project Management Journal

and IPMA’s International Project Management Journal. Although efforts are

underway to upgrade both journals, neither is considered to be top tier (Association

for Information Systems, n.d., online).

ADVERTISING NOT PERMITTED OR RESTRICTED

As airline pilots are generally employees, and do not provide services for a fee,

advertising is not applicable in most cases. However, there are similarities worth

noting. Both in project management and in airline transport piloting, a healthy

industry has evolved providing training and instruction in preparation for certification

(in the case of project management) or licensing (in the case of pilots). The fact that

both sectors require that the people who provide training be certified at or above the

level of training they are providing, lends support to the idea that those providing

training are a sub-set of a profession.

Training for project management practitioners, however, is strikingly different to

training for aircraft pilots. Neither ALPA nor AOPA provide training, nor do the

Federal agencies that set the standards, procedures and policies. In each case, there is

a clear distinction. The professional organizations do not get into the training

business, and the creation and setting of standards is left to a totally separate and

independent entity.

9 See http://www.sae.org/aeromag/index.htm 10 See http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/apjinternational/aci/aci.html 11 A list of aviation journals and magazines can be found at

http://www.aeroinfo.org.in/aviation/journals.html


In reviewing the literature, and making comparisons between project management

and aircraft piloting, in the publications for the airline sector there is no advertising

suggesting that a trainee could ‘pass [his or her] FAA written exam in 3 days or [get

their] money back’. Nor do you see books published with titles like Earn your pilot’s

license for dummies. It appears that the organizations representing pilots are content

to stay out of the training business and focus on representing the best interests of their

constituencies, which in most cases, includes those members of the practicing

community who provide training.

USE OF TITLE IS RESTRICTED BY LAW

As airline transport piloting requires a rigorous licensing process, there is no need for

the title pilot to be restricted by law. Normally, the title for a pilot relates more to

rank, such as Captain or First Officer or Engineering Officer. Pilot is the job

description. Captain would be the rank.

Pilot-in-command is one special term in the airline industry, however, that does not

get used outside the industry. This is not regulated by any legislation, however, but by

the reality of flying. The entire process of piloting revolves around ‘building hours’.

These hours are captured and documented in a log book. Pilots are allowed to log

hours either as dual or as pilot-in-command (PiC) whenever flying the aircraft.

However, the only hours which really count as those logged as pilot-in-command. So

while a co-pilot will log his or her hours as dual, the only time she can log them as

being a PiC is when the control of the aircraft has been formally handed over to her

by the Captain.

Project management has no equivalent system of significant nomenclature. The trend

towards title restrictions is getting less, not more, and governments are less interested

in getting into the licensing process unless some clear issue pertaining to the health,

safety or welfare of the voting public can be identified. The case of allowing

unlicensed pilots to be flying around stands as an excellent example in favor of

licensing, as does the prospect of unlicensed civil engineers designing bridges or

buildings.


To make the argument that a failed project in the context of an IT or

telecommunications activity endangers the health, safety or welfare of the general

public requires a leap of faith. However, with Sarbanes Oxley the day may come

when project managers are held accountable for the financial health, safety and

welfare of their clients. This is an interesting development and one which those

organizations representing project management practitioners may need to consider.

In this context, it is worth noting that the Association for the Advancement of Cost

Engineering International (AACEi)12 has a rigorous certification process, more

technically demanding than the PMP, but still a knowledge based exam. Passing this

exam results in the successful examinee earning the designation Certified Cost

Engineer (CCE) if they are a graduate of an ABET accredited four year engineering

curriculum. If they are not graduates of an ABET accredited engineering curriculum,

even though they sat exactly the same exam, they are prohibited from using the CCE

designation. Instead, they are awarded the Certified Cost Consultant (CCC)

credential. This has caused considerable dispute over the years as people question

whether the two separate designations are ‘equal’. At this writing, with the demise of

restricting the use of the title, AACE is only adhering to this restriction in the USA.

Outside the USA, the designation of Certified Cost Engineer is allowed regardless of

the institution from which the cost engineer graduated.

SYMBOLIC COSTUMES OR UNIFORMS

Perhaps reflecting the military roots of commercial aircraft piloting, the use of

uniforms and assorted military style paraphernalia is the norm in the world of airline

transport piloting. Hats with gold braid (scrambled eggs), uniforms with epaulets,

stripes and bars, all go to indicate clearly who is who in the cockpit. This same

philosophy is also evident in the cabin, with cabin crew members also having

different uniforms indicating rank or authority. On almost any commercial flight, the

in-flight magazine contains pictures indicating the various uniforms, what they mean

and how to tell senior crew from junior. As the same is true in hospitals, not only with

the doctors, but also in the ranks of the nursing staff, and even all the way down to the

‘candy stripers’, rank and authority are clearly communicated through uniform.

12 See www.aacei.org


While the data from the current study indicated that the respondents felt that uniforms

were the least important attribute of a profession, in the already established

professions (law, medicine, commercial aircraft pilots) the importance of the uniform

cannot be underestimated.

PRACTICE LIMITED BY GOVERNMENT ISSUED LICENSE

For the aircraft industry, this is the single most important factor determining the status

of professional. Few professions are more regulated than airline transport piloting. Of

particular interest from a global context is the adoption of English as the only official

language of piloting. Part of the licensing process includes a demonstrated

proficiency in both written and spoken English, even for pilots coming from other

countries. In the event you cannot read, speak, understand and write English, and it is

determined it may impact your ability to pilot a plane safely, you will have

restrictions placed upon your licenseii.

Without a valid pilot’s license, and a recent medical check up and a logbook

capturing your total hours as pilot-in-command, you cannot find work as an airline

transport pilot. A valid pilot’s license is assigned according to the type of aircraft the

individual has built up hours flying. The first pilot’s license, the Private Pilot’s

License (PPL), is normally for flying a single engine plane, not pressurized, with a

fixed pitch propeller and with fixed landing gear. The pilot is also limited to flying

under Visual Flight Rules (VFR). Without an endorsement on his or her license for

‘complex’ aircraft (aircraft with retractable landing gear, variable pitch propellers);

for instrument rating to fly in bad weather; for float planes; for multi engines or

helicopters; a pilot is unable to fly another type of aircraft as pilot-in-command when

the craft is of a more complex or a different type from that which he or she has been

licensed to operate. [Hours can be built towards operating another type of aircraft by

flying as a co-pilot under the watch and responsibility of a current pilot-in-command;

by flying in flight simulators, and/or by taking formal lessons from a Certified Flight

Instructor (CFI)].

While licensing is a very significant part of maintaining standards in the airline

industry, the trend in project management lies with voluntary certification instead of

licensing (Cox & Foster 1990; Finnochio, Dower, Blick & Gragnola, 1998). PMI’s


movement toward Certificates of Advanced Qualification (CAQs), therefore, seem at

to be a step in the right direction. AACE has followed suit and now has, in addition to

the Certified Cost Engineer (CCE) designation, the Planning and Scheduling

Professional (PSP) and Earned Value Professional (EVP) credential. The organization

is currently in the process of coming out with a similar credential for cost estimating

as well.

The key difference between project management and the airline sector is the airline

transport pilot requires demonstrated competency, as well as success on a knowledge

based exam. So if the intent is to professionalize project management, the next step

must be to move from a knowledge based to a demonstrated competency based

credential. Lacking the ‘authority’ of a license, the credential must be set up in such a

way that it results in better products or services, thereby earning the trust and respect

of the consuming public.

REQUIRES PROFESSIONAL LIABILITY INSURANCE

As pilots almost exclusively work for airlines, and almost never work as independent

contractors on a fee for services basis, professional liability insurance (also known as

errors and omissions insurance) is almost never required. This was confirmed by an

email dated 20 September, 2006 from ALPA HQ stating that ‘as airline pilots are

employees, they are not required to carry professional liability insurance’.

Pilots usually carry insurance, however, to cover their own salaries in the event they

lose their license for some reason, often only a minor infraction of the FAA rules or

because of ill health.

In the field of project management, clients can, and do, require architects, engineers,

consultants and construction and construction project managers to carry professional

liability insurance. The University of California’s online Business and Finance

Bulletin BUS-63 seems typical for architects, engineers and other built environment

professionals (University of California, 2006).

At least for construction project management, liability insurance is required in some

instances, and is commercially available (Professional Design Insurance Management

Corporation, n.d., online). Given construction project management is one of the more

mature users of project management as a delivery system, this can be interpreted to be

a sign of the future.


AUTONOMY IN DECISION MAKING

This is a major factor in the acceptance of airline piloting as a profession. The very

essence of piloting revolves around the concept of the ‘pilot-in-command’ (PiC) To

quote once again from Captain Alex Paterson:

factors are crucial to a safe airline operation because the pilot-in-command of an aircraft is in a unique position. Not only is he the only person aware of all the factors and operational constraints pertaining to his particular flight, but ultimately he is the only person on location qualified to deal in a safe manner with the myriad of problems that invariably arise throughout the course of a flight. To summarize, an aircraft captain is the only person capable of managing his particular flight and as such his primary role in an airline is as the manager of his particular flight. (Paterson, 1999, online)

To quote an address to pilots from the former President of the Australian Federation of Air Pilots, Captain Dick Holt (now retired), who said of the position of airline pilot:

Through his seat at the front of the aircraft flow the efforts of thousands of people who provide the means by which he carries out his task. However, it is an undeniable fact that:

His is the final responsibility.

His is the ultimate decision in any course of action.

He can never be complacent.

He must be humble; the elements keep him so.

He must prove himself to his peers over and over again throughout his career, or seek another job.

He must exude a quiet but magnetic confidence in his own ability and his aircraft.

He must create an aura of efficiency and capability such that the passengers stream on and off the aircraft without even a thought about what is occurring at the front of the aircraft.

Finally, he must be ready during every second of his working life to defeat the ultimate emergency he may encounter at any time.

These responsibilities are recognized in the definition of his title of ‘Captain’, which means ‘in command’ and as such legally the final responsibility for the safety of the aircraft rests solely with the pilot-in-command.

It is these professional responsibilities that not only make pilots ‘Sui Generis’, but also worth every cent of their pay and conditions. (Holt, in Paterson, 1999, online)

In a sense, pilots are the stewards of an airline’s three most valuable assets; it’s passengers, it’s aircraft (worth up to $200+ million each) and the public’s confidence in the corporate identity of the airline. As such, unpalatable though it might be to some airline managers and civic leaders who think ‘pilots are just glorified bus drivers’, the most important people in any successful airline are its pilots, for on their backs rides the very survival of the airline. (Paterson, 1999, online)


The principles outlined here have some profound implications if project management

is ever to be recognized as a profession. Compare the criteria Dick Holt outlined for

airline pilots and apply those to construction project managers. Do PMs have the

‘final responsibility’ for projects? Are they the ‘ultimate decision makers’? Assume

that Gartner, Standish Group, META and other researchers are correct in stating that

20%-60% of projects fail. Would the public be willing to get on an airplane knowing

that the pilot had between a 20% to 60% chance of being late, that they would be

charged more for their tickets than they had been advised, or that some major

component in the aircraft will fail to perform as intended, or in the worst case, the

craft will crash?

Based on these criteria alone, project management is very unlikely to ever reach the

same acceptance as a profession as that enjoyed by professional airline pilots. The

missing element is the level of accountability and not just the responsibility, but the

authority for executing their projects that airline pilots have.

IDENTITY NOT WITH EMPLOYER BUT PROFESSION

Despite most airline pilots being employees of an airline rather than independent

contractors, the fact most of them earned their pilots license on their own before being

able to apply for a job makes it unlikely they would be inclined to identify with the

airline first. The rather tense relations between the unions and airlines over contract

issues lends further support to the argument that the pilot’s first loyalty is likely to lie

not with the employers, but with their occupation first and then to the professional

organization (union) which represents them.

Few people fly unless they truly love it (D’Agostino, 2000). D’Agostino (2000)

compares the working conditions of younger pilots working for newer commuter

airlines against those working for national or international carriers. Her findings offer

a picture of what the future may well hold when professional services become

outsourced, and more individuals begin working on a fee for service basis. In her

article, D’Agostino (2000) portrays a pilot who is paid on a unit price basis

(~$46/hour of flight time) which requires two hours of unpaid prep for each hour of

flight time, which works out to be about $15.00 per hour on average.


In terms of project management, PMI membership profiles indicate that there are

three categories of people who are likely to belong to professional organizations

representing project management practitioners. There are the private practitioners –

primarily trainers and consultants – who work on a fee for service basis. These

practitioners are more likely to perceive their professional organizations as being

much along the lines of the Bar or Medical Associations.

The second category of members consists of employees of large companies. These

are typified by airline pilots, nurses, school teachers and even some physicians, if they

are working for an HMO on the basis of a salary and not fee for service agreement.

This category of person is probably seeking an organization much like the ALPA

model, where the professional organization functions not only to meet the

professional needs of the practitioner but also t as a collective bargaining agent.

Probably the two most active models are the teachers unions13, and the pilots union,

ALPA, already considered.

The third category of practitioners identified by Zwerman et al. (2004, p. 24) is the

knowledge worker. This category of worker is not as well defined, but assuming Tom

Osenton (2005) is correct that global demand is leveling off, and that as the

developing nations increase their skill levels, they are quickly moving up the supply

chain from agriculture, to low skilled manufacturing, to high skilled manufacturing to

knowledge work, it would not be surprising to see more outsourcing.

Tom Peters (2003), in his book, Re-imagine, is painting a picture of a world in which

most of us will be temporary workers. This theme is reiterated by Friedman (2006) in

Flat world and Osenton (2005) in Death of demand. Assuming that model to be

correct, then the group of workers identified by Zwerman et al. (2000) as private

practitioners is likely to increase, while the number of individuals permanently

employed for wages decreases and knowledge workers increasingly move to the

private practitioner sector, selling their expertise on contract. These individuals would

be much more likely to associate themselves with their professions than with their

employers.

13 See http://www.nea.org/index.html and http://www.uft.org/ for examples of

teachers’ organizations


HELD IN HIGH ESTEEM BY THE COMMUNITY

Despite technological advances which make it very nearly possible for planes to take

off and land by themselves (Klesius, 2003, online), most people feel more

comfortable knowing a human being is in charge, if doing nothing more than

watching the computers to see whether they crashed, and not the plane. Moreover,

because how a plane flies and the skills and knowledge to fly it, although not airplane

travel itself, still seem so miraculous and mysterious, pilots continue to be highly

regarded in their communities. While they may well eventually end up as nothing

more than highly paid drivers of exceptional technology, at the moment, commercial

airline pilots pursue a prestigious occupation, despite conflicts between their unions

and the major international and national airlines and regional carriers.

It is unclear, on the other hand, what level of status should be accorded to project

management. As can be seen from the survey results, project managers have mixed

emotions about the real or perceived position of project management as an

occupation. With an average score of 3.52 out of a possible score of 5, most

practitioners perceive project management as a strong moderate. Personal experience

in the construction industry indicates that to hold the title of manager does carry with

it an aura of prestige and respect. Normally, a person does not become a construction

project manager on a project of any size or significance until he or she is in the latter

part of their career; and their experience appears to be highly regarded in the industry

and the wider community. Whether this equates to the construction project manager

being a professional is an interesting question and an aspect of this current research.

EARN HIGHER THAN AVERAGE COMPENSATION

For airline pilots, especially those who work for the major airlines (NW, Delta, and

Continental), the pay is clearly on the high end of the scale. Salaries for Captains of

$100,000+ are possible. But many airlines in financial difficulty are operating on a

dual pay scale system, with those pilots hired during the 1970s and 1980s earning the

high salaries, while those hired in the 1990s and later on a much lower scale. Given

the Census Bureau released income based on the CPS for calendar year 2001 on

September 24, 2002. Median household income for all households is $42,228; iii


MYSTIQUE (WHAT YOU DO FOR WORK IS BEYOND MY COMPREHENSION OR

ABILITIES TO UNDERSTAND)

Body of knowledge is esoteric/abstruse/secret. The body of knowledge associated

with flying is an intrinsic attribute that is likely to rank very high on the scale as to

why piloting a commercial aircraft is considered a profession. As noted previously,

due to the fact that commercial aviation evolved from the military, along with the fact

that the rules, regulations and procedures are formulated, written and maintained by

governments, the body of knowledge concerning flying is esoteric and abstruse and

secret (at least in the context of military flight).

Highly ritualistic procedures. Due in part to the military influence on aviation, the

entire process of flying is extremely ritualistic. Starting with the mandatory visual

inspection of the plane by the pilot-in-command prior to departure, to the use of

extensive checklists for virtually every cockpit procedure, to the elaborate and

necessary procedures to depart from and enter into a landing pattern at each airport,

flying a plane is shrouded in ritual.

Not all the rituals pertain to operating the plane. Some, like the practice of cutting off

the shirt-tail of a student pilot upon successful completion of his or her first solo flight

is a ritual of initiation into a select group. It helps forge the bond that is characteristic

of pilots. When these sorts of rituals lead to the abuse of newcomers, perpetrators

must be punished14. Yet, the existence of any ritual reinforces the air of secrecy and

selectivity of the occupation.

While undoubtedly some rituals are performed based on company culture or

practices, project management has yet to develop widespread rituals which pertain

uniquely to the practice of project management.

Access to knowledge is limited. Unlike medicine and law, where access to

knowledge has been, until recently, guarded and protected to make it as difficult as

possible for the uninitiated to be able to research and learn on their own, access to the

knowledge required to become a licensed airline transport professional is available to 14 For an account of the abusiveness of some initiation rituals, see

http://usmilitary.about.com/od/womeninthemilitary/Women_in_the_United_States_Military.htm, which considers the question of sexual harassment and unethical abuse, particularly in the ‘tail hook’ incident of 1991.


anyone with the money to invest in pilot training. Ready access to this information

was one of the enabling factors in the events leading up to 9/11. From the perspective

of project management, the relevance of this is the fact that knowledge about flying is

in itself of almost no importance. This is one reason why there is no requirement to

have even a two year college degree in order to become a pilot. The single most

important aspect of being a commercial airline pilot is the demonstrated ability to

safely and conservatively fly a plane under varying degrees of difficulty and

conditions. This focus not on knowledge but on competency is an important point

when considering the professionalization of project management.

CRUCIALITY (WHAT YOU DO FOR WORK IS SOMETHING I NEED NOW, NOT LATER)

Immediacy and importance of need. On the whole, departure, landing and flying

resemble most closely catching and riding a bus or train. There is rarely any sense of

emergency, even though there is considerable aggravation and anxiety at the

perception of time wasted when planes fail to take off or land on schedule. Delays,

however, are not usually the fault of the professional pilot.

Once the plane is in motion, an experienced professional at the controls is of

paramount importance, however. his or her presence is absolutely crucial to your safe

and successful travel; and, if you are taxiing down a runway, lifting off and landing,

you will need a pilot’s expertise with an almost unparalleled immediacy. While most

people who can drive a car can control a bus, and rails, on the whole, control the train,

the cockpit of an airplane remains as much the mysterious domain of the professional

pilot as the operating room of a surgeon remains his or her secret realm15.

There is no apparent life and death urgency to be found in project management. In

fact, there is little life and death urgency to be found in most professions. This is not

to say, however, that there isn’t an immediacy and an unrelenting pressure on project

managers to complete the job in good time, with good quality and at a good cost.

And, since project managers ostensibly have under their control the means by which 15 Note that this is not to compare the pilot’s task to that of the surgeon. Their

training and knowledge are vastly different. However, the context within which each operates is highly technologically specialized and absolutely foreign to the ordinary citizen, in spite of medical dramas on television and films like Airport and Top Gun.


to achieve these outcomes, unlike pilots and surgeons whose tasks are obviously

influenced by many circumstances beyond their control, the man or the woman

managing a project carries a heavy burden in terms of its failure or success.

DENOUEMENT (I TRUST THAT YOU CAN APPLY WHAT YOU KNOW TO SOLVE MY

PROBLEM QUICKLY)

Application of ‘mysterious principles’ to effect quick solutions to problem. The

ordinary citizen would not, on the whole, contemplate entering a cockpit to advise a

pilot how to do his job. Firstly, the ordinary person knows so little about how to fly a

plane that no meaningful advice for the pilot would occur to them. Slow down, speed

up, turn right or turn left, and put the wheels down or the brakes on, don’t really work

as commands unless you know how to use the controls and understand their

idiosyncrasies, possibilities and limitations.

In terms of project management, however, customers freely offer advice, make

changes and otherwise impede or prevent PMs from doing what they are confident

they know how to do, in spite of the fact that the client rarely appreciates the resource

constraints, personnel issues or technical issues facing the construction project

manager. Whereas passengers trust their pilot’s judgment and abide by his or her

decisions (there is no other course of action, given the circumstances, of course),

construction project managers face a plethora of advice and pressure that impinge on

their activities. This is exactly what Haga (1974) meant when he commented about

professionals that:

Above all else, they want AUTONOMY. That is, they want freedom from supervision in carrying out their jobs;

They want RECOGNITION based not upon the name of their employer, but upon their identity with their occupation;

They want the POWER to determine who is ‘in’ their occupation from those who are ‘out’;

They want to establish a MONOPOLY over a certain line of work, freeing it from influence of ‘outsiders’ (mostly employers, but also clients and the general public) who do not share or necessarily understand the ideology;

They want the POWER to discipline wayward colleagues who deviate from their work ideology.


From the perspective of commercial airline piloting, all five of Haga’s (1974) criteria

have been fully met. Pilots have autonomy (pilot-in-command). They have

recognition (it is clear what a pilot does and that it is important). They have the power

to determine who is one of them (licensing). They have a monopoly over their work

(no license, no job). They have the means to discipline wayward colleagues (FAA

and other regulations). See Exhibit 3B.2 with regard to the role, the autonomy and the

accountability of the pilot.

Exhibit 3B.2 The Aloha Airlines incident, 1988

To drive home the point of the near total autonomy and accountability consistent with a profession, consider a pilot in the event his/her plane crashes from mechanical failure or some cause other than ‘pilot error’. Despite doing his/her best to land the plane safely, people do get killed or injured. What is the image of the Aloha Airlines pilot in the true incident below?

1988, The Aloha Incident

The structural failure on April 28, 1988 of a 19 year old Boeing 737, operated by Aloha Airlines, was a defining event in creating awareness of aging aircraft in both the public domain and in the aviation community. This aircraft lost a major portion of the upper fuselage in full flight at 24,000 feet, near the front of the plane. Miraculously, the pilot managed to land the plane on the island of Maui, Hawaii. One flight attendant was swept to her death.

Is the pilot who safely landed this plane with the loss of only one life, the kind of project manager you’d wish to have on your projects? Was this individual in command of his/her resources? Is this the kind of project manager to make you proud to be one?

As with construction management CPM, the results of mapping the literature review

against the attributes have been tabulated, and notes have been included to try to

explain how the scoring model was derived. This is somewhat subjective, but a more

rigorous investigation of this aspect has been included in follow on research.


Table 3B.1 Summary of commercial airline pilot ranking mapped against attributes of a profession

Color/Ranking Key 3 Clear Evidence 2 Partial Evidence 1 Slight Evidence 0 No Evidence

# attribute name commercial airline pilot

comments

1

Professional association- defines methodology/defines standards/enforces CoE

3 Professional organization functions as a union, representing the pilots best interests

2 Autonomy in decision making 3 ‘Pilot-in-command’ concept

3 Lifetime commitment/calling 3 Commercial pilots generally perceived as an ‘career path

objective’. What I want to be when I grow up.

4 Earn higher than average compensation 3 Yes

5 Fiduciary obligation to public 3 Very strong obligation to protect the public safety and other

interests

6 Professional association defines ‘best practices’ 3

Pilots’ professional organizations function as unions, advocating for and on behalf of the interests of pilots in partnership with the FAA and airline representation.

7 Identify with occupation, not employer 3 Almost all become qualified pilots before they can even

obtain a job with any airline.

8 Held in high esteem by the community 3 Very prestigious and high esteem job

9 Apprenticeship/ internship/residency 3

Very extensive ‘internship’ which requires they not only ‘build hours’ but pass several written and ‘in-flight’ exams as they progress from private pilot to commercial pilot.

10 Practice limited by government license 3 Cannot legally fly any plane without a license.

11 Body of knowledge- unique/esoteric/secret 3 BoK is unique, esoteric and abstruse and in the case of

military, secret.

12 Requires professional liability insurance 3 Whether individually or as an organization, aircraft piloting

requires extensive liability insurance

13 Symbolic costumes/uniforms 3 Near military use of uniforms, rank and insignia

14 Mystique highly ritualistic/access to knowledge is restricted

3 Very mystical occupation. Rituals abound (i.e. pre flight check)

15 Cruciality Need is important/need is immediate


16

Dénouement Practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly.


17 Long period of training including higher education 1 Long period of training but higher education not generally

required. does require demonstrated competency

18 Subscribe to a code of ethics 1 Code of ethics is replaced by extensive FAA regulations.

19 Service to the public- including pro bono work 1 Informal or individual pro bono work, but not usually

organizational

20 Publishing in learned journals 0 Rarely

21 Advertising not permitted or restricted 0 No restrictions imposed

22 Use of title restricted by law 0 No

Total score 49 Total possible score 66 Rating (total/possible) 74%


A score of 74% indicates that aircraft piloting certainly goes well beyond meeting the

‘preponderance of the evidence’ test (51%) but has yet to meet the standard of ‘clear

and compelling evidence’ (~80%). So while it would appear that commercial aircraft

piloting is a profession in most senses of the definition, there remain some question

marks. Of particular concern are the three legal actions in which aircraft piloting was

not deemed to be a profession, at least in the context of tort actions [Southern

Helicopter v Jones, 379 S.W.2d 10 (AR, 1964); T-Craft Aero Club v Blough, 642

P.2d 70 (ID 1982); Mackey v Miller, 273 S.E.2d 550 (VA, 1981)]. Assuming that the

objective was to raise the professional image of commercial airline pilots, those

attributes scoring at the bottom of the list would have to be considered, not the least

of which would be to require at minimum, a 4 year degree to become a commercial

pilot.

3B.2 Comparison and preliminary evaluation: Commercial aircraft pilot

3B.2.1 Cruciality: Need is important/need is immediate

There is not much a pilot or the organization which represent them can do about this,

as need is driven by the consumer. However, aircraft of any sort can’t fly without

pilots. They are needed and if the plane is ready to fly, they are needed immediately.

3B.2.2 Dénouement: Practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly

A funny story is circulating about piloting:

Given the increasing automation of aircraft, using sophisticated GPS and other technical equipment, the plane of the future will be piloted by a human and a dog. The human is there to monitor the systems to ensure they are working properly and the dog is there to bite the human if she attempts to touch anything.

The moral of this story in the context of this research is that with increasing

automation, the human factor, while never going away, will be diminished. This is

happening in the field of engineering and in medicine, as computers play an

increasingly prominent role in doing work once capable of being performed only by

humans. As ‘mechanization’ (enabled by computer technology) increases, the

likelihood of ‘deprofessionalization’ in fields such as engineering and medicine may

well become more prevalent.


3B.2.3 Long period of training including higher education

If commercial airline pilots want to increase their level of professionalism, requiring a

four year degree is one of the most logical places to start. Practically speaking, most

commercial airlines now require pilots to have a four year degree and degrees are

beginning to be offered by a wide variety of universities in aviation related fields.

Embry-Riddle Aeronautic University in Florida, USA16, specializes in anything to do

with aviation or space, for example.

3B.2.4 Subscribe to a code of ethics

While the professional organizations representing pilots do have codes of ethics, they

are largely symbolic, as FAA regulations largely control many of issues normally

addressed by a code of ethics. As the professional organizations representing pilots

also functions as their union, one would suspect that the true purpose of codes of

ethics in this instance would be to control the actions of the members internally rather

than externally. This is a major problem with any codes of ethics: Is the intent of the

code truly to protect the interests of the consuming public or is it being used to control

outspoken or heretical practitioners? Haga (1974) is particularly straightforward

(almost brutal) is his statement that:

The chief means of maintaining autonomy is, to put it bluntly, intimidation. The essence of truly professional behavior is intimidation – of clients, of employers, or whatever audience stands to threaten a profession’s autonomy. (p. 6 )

3B.2.5 Service to the public, including pro bono work

While pilots undoubtedly play an active role in the community, to increase the

perception of the occupation as a profession would require that those organizations

representing them make a more concerted effort to build the brand image through

public relations efforts focused around what pilots do in terms of volunteer efforts.

3B.2.6 Publishing in learned journals

While pilots and the organizations which represent them play an active role in

advising FAA and advocating for and on behalf of regulation changes favorable to the

pilots, there are no reputable academic journals specific to the occupation of aircraft

piloting. However, with the growth of Bachelor of Science Degrees in Aeronautical

16 See http://www.erau.edu/ for more information about Embry-Riddle Aeronautic

University.


Science with majors in Airline and Commercial piloting (Embry Riddle, 2005) it will

only be a matter of time before academic journals proliferate.

3B.2.7 Advertising not permitted or restricted

Given that most pilots are employees, the question of aggressive advertising is

probably moot.

3B.2.8 Use of title restricted by law

As piloting requires a license and a minimum number of hours flying time in order to

even get a job, there is little or no sense in restricting the use of the title. Another

consideration is there are many people who are not commercial pilots, who fly only

as a hobby or for private business purposes.

To conclude, this research is being undertaken not only as an academic exercise, but

also to serve a useful purpose. One of the purposes would be for those occupations

trying to improve their professional image to use this research as the basis for

analyzing their strengths and weaknesses, with the objective of improving their

professional ranking or score.

3B.3 Comparison and preliminary evaluation: Pilot and construction project manager comparison summarized

Having completed the evaluation of construction project management and

commercial airline piloting, let me summarize them together as a table, and then

compare them (Table 3B.2).

This comparison provides the insight into why commercial aircraft piloting is

considered to be a profession, while construction management is not. Simply

observing the number of green cells in aircraft piloting (14) vs the number of green

cells in construction management (5) serves as an early indication that aircraft

piloting meets more criteria than does construction project management.

Irrespective of the weighting of each specific attribute, commercial aircraft pilots

score a 74% in terms of the number of attributes the occupation exhibits. Consistent

with modern or post-positivist thinking, pilots have done a better job of ‘defining’

their occupation in the context of the ‘big picture’ (holistic perspective). Whether this


was intentional or not is irrelevant to this study at this point, but is something to

consider for those who believe that project management is a profession and hope to

make changes to enhance that perception.

Table 3B.2 Ranking of CM and commercial aircraft piloting compared

Color/Ranking Key 3 Clear Evidence 2 Partial

Evidence 1 Slight Evidence 0 No Evidence

# Attribute Construction

project manager

Attribute Commercial airline pilot

1 Professional association- defines methodology/defines standards/enforces CoE

3 1 Professional association- defines methodology/defines standards/enforces CoE

3

2 Autonomy in decision making 3 2 Autonomy in decision making 3 3 Lifetime commitment/calling 3 3 Lifetime commitment/calling 3

4 Earn higher than average compensation 3 4 Earn higher than average

compensation 3

5 Publishing in learned journals 3 5 Fiduciary obligation to public 3

6 Long period of training including higher education 2 6 Professional association defines

‘best practices’ 3

7 Subscribe to a code of ethics 2 7 Identify with occupation, not employer 3

8 Fiduciary obligation to public 2 8 Held in high esteem by the community 3

9 Professional association defines ‘best practices’ 2 9 Apprenticeship/

internship/residency 3

10 Identify with occupation, not employer 2 10 Practice limited by government

license 3

11 Held in high esteem by the community 2 11 Body of knowledge-

unique/esoteric/secret 3

12 Apprenticeship/ internship/residency 2 12 Requires professional liability

insurance 3

13 Cruciality- need is important/need is immediate 2 13 Symbolic costumes/uniforms 3

14 Dénouement- practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly.

2 14 Mystique- highly ritualistic/access to knowledge is restricted 3

15 Service to the public- including pro bono work 1 15 Cruciality- need is important/need

is immediate 2

16 Practice limited by government license 1 16

Dénouement- practitioner is trusted to produce positive results relatively quickly.

2

17 Body of knowledge- unique/esoteric/secret 0 17 Long period of training including

higher education 1

18 Advertising not permitted or restricted 0 18 Subscribe to a code of ethics 1

19 Requires professional liability insurance 0 19 Service to the public- including

pro bono work 1

20 Symbolic costumes/uniforms 0 20 Publishing in learned journals 0

21 Use of title restricted by law 0 21 Advertising not permitted or restricted 0

22 Mystique- highly ritualistic/access to knowledge is restricted 0 22 Use of title restricted by law 0

Total score 35 Total score 49 Total possible score 66 Total possible score 66 Rating (total/possible) 53% Rating (total/possible) 74%


Looking at what the two case studies have in common, we find that the following are

top ranked in both occupations:

professional association that sets standards and enforces the code of conduct

autonomy in decision making

lifetime commitment

higher than average salaries are common to both.

Given construction project management is not considered to be a profession while

commercial aircraft piloting is, provides at least a preliminary indication those items

in common can probably be eliminated.

Next I looked at those attributes pilots scored 3 in but CMs did not as being likely

differentiators. These are:

fiduciary responsibility to the public

professional association which defines best practices

identify with the occupation, not the employer

held in high esteem by community

serve a formal apprenticeship/internship/residency

requires a license to practice

has a body of knowledge which is complicated, secret, abstruse, esoteric or unique

requires liability insurance to practice

uses symbolic costumes or uniforms

requires highly ritualistic processes.

If we are willing to accept the modern or post positivist thinking, the differentiator

lies with one or more of these attributes. However, if the post modern or post

positivist thinking more closely represents truth, then it will not be any one, but the

entirety of them all being more than just the sum of the parts.

Furthermore, not all of these attributes are reasons for an occupation being considered

a profession. Many of them, especially the extrinsic ones, are most likely the effects

of the occupation being a profession.


3B.3.1 Fiduciary responsibility to the public

While this is what Polelle (1998) suggests as one of the ‘bright line’ tests of a

profession, the fiduciary responsibility of both pilots and construction managers is

defined more by the FAA regulations in the case of pilots and to a lesser degree by

OSHA, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or relevant building codes in the

case of construction managers. Additionally, as both pilots and construction managers

tend to be employees rather than fee-for-service providers, fiduciary responsibility is

more than likely not a key differentiator (Polelle, 1998). It is interesting to note that in

the architects’ code of ethics, it is specifically stated that architects do not accept

responsibility for the safety, health and the environment until such time as the project

has been completed.

If, in the course of their work on a project, the Members become aware of a decision taken by their employer or client which violates any law or regulation and which will, in the Members’ judgment, materially affect adversely the safety to the public of the finished project, the Members shall…

Commentary: This rule extends only to violations of the building laws that threaten the public safety. The obligation under this rule applies only to the safety of the finished project, an obligation coextensive with the usual undertaking of an architect.

This leaves it quite clear that ‘someone else’ is responsible for the health, safety and

the environment while the project is being constructed or executed. Strange to find

that neither ACI nor CMAA has picked up on this gap and exploited it.

Yet compare the AIA code of ethics wording against the very powerful wording

contained in the pilots’ code:










Finally, he must be ready during every second of his working life to defeat the ultimate emergency he may encounter at any time.’

These responsibilities are recognized in the definition of his title of ‘Captain’, which means ‘in command’ and as such legally the final responsibility for the safety of the aircraft rests solely with the pilot-in-command. (Patterson, 1999, on-line

For those who desire to turn project management into a profession, this is the kind of

accountability practitioners are going to have to be willing to subscribe to in order to

win the respect of the consuming public and earn the right to be called professionals.

Whether this is done on an individual basis or through an organization will have to be

decided, but as John Rotunda (1997) concluded writing in the Arkansas Law Review

Journal: ‘The only fruitful use of the term ‘profession’ today relates to individuals,

not groups’ (Rotunda, 1997, p. 21).

3B.3.2 Professional association defines best practices

This may well be another significant differentiating factor between an occupation and

a profession. The Airline Pilots Association plays a unique dual role as it functions as

not only the professional organization but also serves as a bargaining agent (union)

for and on behalf of member pilots. In this role, it is by nature in conflict with both

the Aircraft Owners Association, IATA and the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA). In

this case, we have a triumvirate responsible for negotiating the regulations that both

pilots and the airlines must abide by. This tension between the three parties, each with

different tasks to perform and conflicting and in some cases competing agendas,

make Abbot’s (1988) competition theory applicable, at least in part.

3B.3.3 Identify with the occupation and not the employer

Identifying with an occupation is important from a self esteem perspective but there is

no support from the literature which would indicate this is a major contributing factor

to the professionalization of piloting. Airline pilots are, on the whole, employees and

not free agents as per Zwerman et al. (2004); and their peak organization, the Airline

Pilots Association functions more as a union than as an organization maintaining


standards and defining the parameters of the occupation. Commercial airline pilots,

while identifying themselves as being pilots, also identify themselves with their

airlines. Whether this identification has been weakened by the current system of split

wage scales would be interesting to investigate, but is beyond the scope of the current

research.

3B.3.4 Held in high esteem by the community

Esteem is an effect of professionalization, not a cause. As Haga (1974) points out,

‘autonomy leads to greater success in negotiating for monetary rewards’; and while

he doesn’t say it, implicit with earning more money, and having what is seen to be a

‘glamorous job’ (D’agostino, 2000) inevitably means greater esteem in the

community.

3B.3.5 Serving a formal apprenticeship or internship

While this too is an important and relevant contributing factor to an occupation being

recognized as a profession, it alone does not establish a ‘bright line’ test for any other

profession. Yet ‘building hours’, not only total time but time in each type of plane, is

essential to obtaining jobs as a pilot; and the importance of continuous training and

continuously proving one’s competency by flying safely and successfully cannot be

overemphasized. This is yet another area that project management needs to

investigate more closely.

3B.3.6 License required to fly a plane

The need for a license can define a profession, given the precedent established by

Owyhee County v Rife stating that ‘accountants who were licensed are professionals,

but accountants who are not do not qualify as professionals’ (Polelle, 1998).

However, school bus drivers are also licensed as are long haul truck drivers, and

although driving a school bus or a long haul truck may not be as difficult as flying a

plane, is the requirement for a license sufficient alone to define a profession?

In the world of construction management, no licenses are generally required.

Research indicates that the only two countries requiring the licensing of construction

project managers are South Africa and the Ukraine. At this point, no research was

available attesting to the efficacy of either licensing program.


3B.3.7 Has a body of knowledge which is complicated, secret, abstruse, esoteric or unique

Without question, the body of knowledge required to earn and maintain a pilot’s

license is an excellent example of knowledge being abstruse (difficult to understand

or comprehend) and esoteric (able to be understood only by those initiated into the

occupation). While medicine and law rely on Latin or Greek, the language of aircraft

piloting is unique only to aircraft piloting and consists of arcane terminology and

acronyms compiled over the years by military and government technocrats.

3B.3.8 Requires liability insurance to practice

While this criteria also forms the basis of what Polelle (1998) believes to be a valid

‘bright line’ test of a profession from the legal perspective, this requirement works

best for people who are free agents in terms of their employment. Most pilots and

most construction managers are employees. So this test for a profession falls short in

and of itself.

3B.3.9 Uses symbolic costumes or uniforms

The use of distinctive clothing is a very interesting extrinsic attribute which seems on

the surface to be almost laughingly foolish, yet in many professions, is something

quite serious. Doctors wearing white coats; judges wearing black robes and powdered

wigs; barristers wearing powdered wigs; accountants wearing green eye shades;

engineers wearing rings made out of steel; pilots wearing uniforms and military style

chevrons, braids and hats; no matter how foolish it may seem, there is something

about a uniform or costume which lends an aura to some occupations. For project

management, a lot of energy has gone into the design of the various pins denoting

PMP, CCE and other similar credentials.

3B.3.10 Requires highly ritualistic processes

Ritual in an occupation is a seemingly archaic practice, but one which has been

maintained for very good reasons. In the operating theater, each instrument is

carefully accounted for and tracked, both as it is being used and after it has been used.

Thus when you hear the doctor calling for a scalpel from the nurse, it is because she is

responsible for tracking that instrument prior to use, while being used and after it has

been used.


Aircraft piloting is full of the ritualistic processes. One of the most obvious is what is

known as the ‘pre-flight checklist’ and it consists of an entire walk around the outside

of the plane, checking not only the fuel for water and the oil level in the engine, but

signs of damage on the skin. The same applies to the inside of the plane. A written

checklist is referred to before any pilot can take off. Undoubtedly important and no

matter how boring, rituals have a purpose, and few would argue that following some

ritual tends to indicate the occupation is a profession.

So where does this leave us? We know that aircraft piloting is regarded as a

profession and that construction project management is not. We know what the two

occupations have in common. We also know those attributes which are not important

to either of them. This leaves only those which are featured in piloting but not in

construction management. Yet, in an analysis of the ten attributes of a profession

assigned to piloting, not a single one meets the legal, sociological, economic,

semantic and dictionary definition of a profession beyond a reasonable doubt.

This leads to the preliminary conclusion, according to a post modern or post positivist

model, that the idea of piloting as a profession is based as much on perception as on

fact; and that the whole is more than the sum of the parts. Acceptance of piloting as a

profession derives from meaning and interpretation through a social context. This

may well support Zwerman et al.’s (2004) position that the newer alternate theoretical

frameworks (control, feminist and conflict theories) (pp. 29 & 30) are in fact more

valid than using the attribute models when evaluating project management.

164 Chapter 4: Survey development and analysis, Part 1

CHAPTER 4

Survey development and analysis, Part 1

4.1 Purpose and design of the survey Consistent with the plan established in Chapter 1, following the review of the

literature (Chapter 2), from which 22 attributes of a profession were extrapolated, two

occupations – construction project management and airline piloting – were analysed

against the attributes with the objective of determining if these attributes could form

the basis of a test of the degree to which an occupation could be considered a

profession: a professionalization index. That is, could the degree to which an

occupation had become a profession be measured? If so, would a continuum result

which would not only establish the rank order of any occupation, but would provide a

ratio of similitude between any two or more occupations.

Chapter 4 describes how, based on the observations from the research in Chapter 3, a

survey instrument was developed, the results collated and analysed. It was intended

that a survey of individuals in a variety of occupations, including project

management, would generate data that could be used to address the research

questions. This would include using the survey data to develop a test instrument to

test for the degree to which project management (as distinct from construction project

management) was a profession. The aim was to develop the test and apply it to the

occupation of project management to gain insight into both project management as a

profession and the instrument as a test of the degree to which any occupation is a

profession.

It should be noted, that prior to the distribution of the survey, it was already clear that

there was no consensus that project management was a profession. The results of

stakeholder meetings demonstrated very clearly that not only was there no agreement

between and amongst practitioners, but that the topic was sensitive and highly

polarized. Moreover, it was also clear that the perception of an occupation as a

profession was neither a black or white, yes or no issue; nor was the perception static.

It was anticipated that if the survey were sufficiently sensitive that these tensions

would be revealed in the results and a test for determining the level of

professionalization of an occupation could be extrapolated..


The survey that was subsequently administered consisted of questions numbered up

to 47, based on the 22 attributes of a profession, with a selection of questions inserted

randomly to collect data related to the demographics of the responding population.

The survey also included four (4) foundation questions, which appeared randomly.

The answers to these four questions would be essential for the creation of a test of the

degree to which an occupation could be regarded as a profession – a

professionalization index.

4.2 The participants: A demographic survey The participants in the survey came from mass mailings of the invitation to

participate in the survey, to: the Project Management Institute, (PMI) Construction

Management Association of America, (CMAA) American Society of Civil

Engineers, (ASCE) Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, (AOPA) Association for

the Advancement of Cost Engineering International, (AACE) International School

System (Teachers and Administrators) (ISS) International Project Management

Association, (IPMA) Australian Institute of Project Managers (AIPM), The George

Washington University Alumni List (Lawyers, Doctors and Non- Projects people).

All told, it is estimated conservatively that the total population reached between

100,000 to 200,000 potential respondents, from which around 400 responded. As this

was designed to be a global investigation, the participants had to be selected with

their geographic location in mind, as well as their occupations. Questions appearing

randomly in the survey instrument recorded the location, age, gender, education,

licenses/certifications held, industry experience, salary, industry sector and job title of

survey respondents.

4.2.1 Geographic area of origin

The first consideration was to explore whether or not the there were any regional

differences. Recognizing the trade-off’s inherent between detail and size of the

survey, the decision was made to analyze regions on a continental or sub-continental

level, the underlying rational being that other factors such as age or experience would

be more relevant differentiators (Figure 4.1).


Figure 4.1 Results from survey question 14

From the standpoint of responses, it was pleasing to see such a good response from

virtually all areas to which the survey was sent, with the exception of Russia. Of even

more significance was the response from Asia-Pacific region. Given that this region

encompasses the world’s most populous nations (China, ranked #1, with 1.3 billion

people; India, #2, with 1.1 billion people; Indonesia, ranked #4, with 220 million

people) with the world’s largest Islamic population, the participation of so many

respondents from the region makes this research unique. With China projected to

become the world’s largest economy by 2010, and India projected to move into

second place by 2015, and Japan currently ranked as the world’s second largest, the

opinions of this group represent a key indicator as to what the future of the

‘professionalization’ of project management will look like.

4.2.2 Age

As can be seen from the survey results, representation was obtained across all age

groups, with ~65% of the respondents being under 42 years of age. These individuals

would have a minimum of 25 years to a maximum of 50 years of work left ahead of

them; and the opinions expressed by this age mix are therefore likely to represent a

reliable indicator of the future trends in the professionalization of project management

for a considerable period of time (Figure 4.2).


Figure 4.2 Results of survey question 6

4.2.3 Gender

The researcher felt gender might influence responses, and while there was a good

sample from both men and women, there were surprisingly similar opinions

expressed by both genders (Figure 4.3).


4.2.4 Education

As with other demographics, the sample size of ~400 provided a very representative

cross section of education levels (Figure 4.4).



As this study was designed specifically to capture the views of practitioners of project

management, the analysis of current holders of various certificates relating to project

management formed a core element of the research. While those holding PMI’s PMP

designation dominated the respondents, it was interesting to note that fully 27% held

more than one credential.

4.2.5 Licenses/certifications held

The fact that over 25% of the respondents felt it necessary or desirable to hold more

than one certification indicates that ultimately there will be a partitioning of project

management into various specialties, just as engineering has been partitioned into

areas of practice (i.e. civil, mechanical, electrical) (Figure 4.5). Of even further

interest, this research will explore the phenomenon that even within disciplines such

as civil engineering, sub-specialties have emerged, including environmental,

structural, fire safety, hydrogeological and waste treatment engineering.



But most importantly to this research, construction project management, which, at

close to 60 years old is perhaps one of the most mature applications of project

management, is analyzed as the basis for predicting future trends likely for IT,

telecommunications and other less mature users of project management.

4.2.6 Experience

It was felt that years of experience would provide some interesting comparisons.

Given some ~70% of the respondents have less than 15 years experience, and

assuming a typical career lasts for 30 years, it can be reasonably assumed that the

projections derived from this population represent another 15 years or more of

thinking, subject to changes wrought by economic or social upheavals or

technological advances which have the potential to alter the face or understanding of

project management as currently practiced (Figure 4.6).


4.2.7 Salary

One indicator which originally was anticipated as being significant to the analysis of

survey data was salary (Figure 4.7). However, as this was a global survey,

incorporating many respondents from the developing nations, the salary information

proved to be largely irrelevant, unless adjusted for purchasing power parity.

Furthermore, the question of origin applied to region/country of birth and did not

necessarily indicate where the respondent was currently based. This rendered salary

data unusable for the purposes of the research project.



In terms of future research, when a global response is required, and if salary is

important to the research, not only the region of origin for each respondent, but also

the primary area of the world in which they are working and the nature of the

company for whom they work needs to be identified. The question of salary also has

to be delicately phrased to accommodate the respondents’ need for privacy.

Despite not being able to use the salary data which was collected, further research

identified similar data which has been collected for many years by the Association for

the Advancement of Cost Engineering International (AACEI) (www.aacei.org). Using

the data from Figure 4.8, which clearly indicates a correlation between experience

and salary, experience can be reasonably substituted for salary in most analyses.


Figure 4.8 Graph showing salary as a function of work experience (AACE, 2005)

4.2.8 Industry sector

The next important demographic consideration was industry sector. This was

potentially one of the more important aspects of the survey, as very clearly there is a

difference in maturity between the early adopters of project management

(construction, aerospace, entertainment) and later adopters, such as IT,

telecommunications and financial services. Considerable attention was given,

therefore, to comparing the differences between the perceptions from each of the

sectors (Figure 4.9).



4.2.9 Job title

Lastly, the final demographic of interest was whether job title had any bearing on

how project management was perceived. Again, considerable focus has been devoted

to looking at the data generated by this question in order to see if any trends could be

identified which would impact the future direction of project management (Figure

4.10). From the perspective of grounded theory, this also offers a rich area for

consideration.


As 22% of the respondents listed ‘other’ in terms of job title, particular interest was

devoted to this category. However, there was no statistically significant difference

between this category of respondents and others, aside from minor differences in

ranking internally.


Figure 4.11 Normalized salaries by job function (ACCE, 2005)

Future researchers looking at project management might want to include these job

titles in their demographic surveys. ‘Other’ leads to possible trends in where project

management might be headed, for why would a person respond to a survey on project

management, if they had no interest in this subject?

4.3 Other survey questions: Towards a professionalization index

4.3.1 The foundation questions Please note that the foundation questions appeared at random in the survey, and that due to constraints imposed by the software used for analysis of the answers, single questions had to be divided into separate numbers. Hence questions 30/31 are essentially one question, as are questions 39-/42 and are referred to in that way.

The four foundation questions included in the survey are outlined in Table 4.1 and

distinguished by colour. Details of the questions, such as list of occupations (question

30/31) and the occupational pairings (question 39-/42) are available from Appendix A).


Table 4.1 Foundation questions in the survey

Foun

datio

n Q

uest

ion

1

Survey Question 28 Below are 8 definitions. Please rank the definition that MOST represents your definition, understanding or interpretation of PROJECT MANAGEMENT as it is practiced by you or within your organization. Mark 1 being the ‘best’ definition, 2 being the second best and so on, with 8 representing the least appropriate definition in your opinion.

NOTE. Please give a different rank for each option. Do not use the same number twice.

‘a subject, field or duties executed within my existing occupation or profession’ ‘a way of doing something or carrying something out, according to a plan’ ‘to produce something in a particular or standardized way’ ‘the job by which a person earns a living’ ‘an occupation that requires long and specialized education or training’ ‘activity(ies) that somebody does regularly for pay ‘a method or set of procedures for achieving or producing something’ ‘a series of actions directed towards achieving a specific aim or objective’

Survey Question 30/31 Below is a list of 21 occupations generally considered to be Professions based upon the requirement of a license to practice. Compare each occupation against the baseline of a fresh graduate of a 4 year university, with no experience and no license, marking how much more you perceive the RELATIVE VALUE of the occupation compared against the fresh university graduate in terms of PROFESSIONAL IMAGE or PRESTIGE.

EXAMPLE: Comparing a fresh graduate of a 4 year University against a Candlestick Maker, by marking the ‘40%’ box, you are saying that in your opinion, the Candlestick Maker is perceived by you to be forty percent more of a profession than the fresh graduate (out of a possible maximum of 100%).

Foun

datio

n Q

uest

ion

2

appears as Survey Question 31, a continuation of question 30 Below is a list of 21 occupations generally considered to be ‘Professions’ based upon the requirement of a license to practice. Compare each occupation against the baseline of a fresh graduate of a 4 year university, with no experience and no license, marking how much more you perceive the RELATIVE VALUE of the occupation compared against the fresh university graduate in terms of PROFESSIONAL IMAGE or PRESTIGE.

EXAMPLE: Comparing a fresh graduate of a 4 year University against a Candlestick Maker, by marking the ‘40%’ box, you are saying that in your opinion, the Candlestick Maker is perceived by you to be forty percent more of a profession than the fresh graduate (out of a possible maximum of 100%).


Survey Question 39-/42 Listed below are pairs of occupations (see Appendix A). From each pair, mark the circle that best represents your ideal IMAGE or IMPRESSION of how much of a PROFESSION each occupation is relative to the other. If you consider them EQUAL, mark the 0%.

EXAMPLE- Based on the selection in the sample answer below, you are saying that in your opinion, a Baker is perceived by you to be 80% more of a profession than that of a Candlestick Maker

appears as Survey Question 40, a continuation of question 39 Listed below are pairs of occupations. From each pair, mark the circle that best represents your ideal IMAGE or IMPRESSION of how much of a PROFESSION each occupation is relative to the other. If you consider them EQUAL, mark the 0%.


Foun

datio

n Q

uest

ion

3






Foun

datio

n Q

uest

ion

4

Survey Question 47 Rank the following list of professions in the order you perceive them to represent your professional ideal. (1 being most professional, 21 being least professional) NOTE. Please give a different rank for each question. Do not use the same number twice. Aircraft Pilots (Commercial Jet) Accountant (Certified Public) Commercial Tractor Trailer Truck Driver Barber/Cosmetologists MBAs/Business Consultants Librarians Civil Engineers/Land Surveyors Dentists Lawyers Physicians (Medical Doctors) High School Principal Construction Managers Project Managers School Bus Drivers Computer/Software Engineers Electricians Plumbers Registered Nurses Real Estate Brokers/Appraisers Insurance Agents Electrical/Telecommunication Engineers

Survey question 28 was designed to establish whether project management was

considered a profession at all by the respondents. It was expected that survey

questions 30/31, 39-/42 and 47 would address that part of the research questions that

asked whether a continuum of professionalization existed. At the same time, it was

realized that the initial indication of a continuum would only provide a rank ordering,

and not provide a true ratio scale. It would still be impossible to determine the degree

of separation of the professions. That is, would a doctor be considered 10, 20 or 300

times the professional that a project manager was?

4.3.2 General survey questions

In order to develop a ratio scale, other survey questions relating to the 22 attributes of

a profession were inserted into the survey. Consistent with the concerns expressed by

Zwerman et al. (2004, pp. 20-30), in the development of the survey, not only were the

extrinsic or traditional attributes included, but also those attributes derived from the

non-traditional perspectives, particularly Haga (1974). This resulted in four intrinsic

attributes being considered as well (Table 4.2).


Table 4.2 22 attributes commonly associated with a profession (from the review of the literature)


From the literature review, it had not been difficult to identify those attributes which

appeared to be more important (refer Chapter 3), understanding that, like the seven

blind men trying to describe an elephant, the relative importance of any single

attribute varied, depending on the culture and traditions of each occupation. Some

occupations the wearing of a uniform is very much a part of being a profession, (e.g.

doctors, airline pilots) while for others, the wearing of a uniform has little or no

relevance) In terms of the survey, it was felt that appropriate analysis and use of the

answers to the questions would provide move beyond a mere rank ordering, by

creating a true ratio scale that could be used to refine the concept of a

professionalization continuum and assist with the development of a

professionalization index (test for degree of professionalization). Therefore, survey

question 45/46 was included to provide a weighting factor to indicate the relative

importance of the attributes (Table 4.3).


The answers to question 45/46 and the other questions would indicate where on the

continuum project management could be considered to lie if it were deemed not to be

a full-fledged profession.

Table 4.3 Survey question 45/46

Survey question 45/46 Below is a list of 11 attributes normally associated with an occupation being recognized or accepted as being a ‘profession’. From the selection below, please indicate the relative weighting or importance you give to each of these attributes. You can mark any value between 0 (No importance to evaluating or determining a profession), to a maximum of 100 points (Essential attribute necessary to be considered a profession) (Note: 11 different attributes are to be found in each section of question 45/46.)

4.3.3 Summary: The purpose and development of the survey questions

Table 4.4 outlines in detail how all the survey questions (other than those related to

demographics) were developed, the attributes upon which they were based or the

questions they were intended to answer and the hypotheses derived from the

investigation of the literature. Thus, each question on the survey was generated via a

key question mediated by an hypothesis based on the key findings (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.12 Generation of a survey question (excluding demographics)

questions generated by the

key findings

key findings

hypotheses based on the key findings

survey questions

developed in response to the key questions

179

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Tabl

e 4.

4 D

evel

opm

ent o

f the

sur

vey

ques

tions

, des

igne

d to

gen

erat

e da

ta fo

r ans

wer

ing

the

rese

arch

que

stio

ns (d

emog

raph

ics

excl

uded

)

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Mul

tiple

, con

flictin

g an

d co

nfus

ing

defin

itions

of p

roje

ct

man

agem

ent a

nd p

rofe

ssio

n ab

ound

.

KQ

1 Is

pro

ject

man

agem

ent a

pro

fess

ion?

Pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent i

s no

t a

prof

essi

on. I

t is

a di

scip

line

with

in

all o

ther

tech

nica

l occ

upat

ions

.

SQ28

Be

low

are

8 d

efin

itions

. Ple

ase

rank

the

defin

ition

that

mos

t rep

rese

nts

your

def

initio

n,

unde

rsta

ndin

g or

inte

rpre

tatio

n of

pro

ject

man

agem

ent a

s it

is p

ract

iced

by

you

or

with

in y

our o

rgan

izat

ion.

Mar

k 1

bein

g th

e ‘b

est’

defin

ition,

2 b

eing

the

seco

nd b

est a

nd

so o

n, w

ith 8

repr

esen

ting

the

leas

t app

ropr

iate

def

initio

n in

you

r opi

nion

.

KQ

2 Is

ther

e a

cont

inuu

m a

nd w

here

on

that

con

tinuu

m o

f pro

fess

iona

lizat

ion;

if

so, w

here

doe

s pr

ojec

t m

anag

emen

t lie

on

the

cont

inuu

m?

Def

inin

g pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent a

s a

prof

essi

on is

not

a y

es o

r no

answ

er; a

s an

occ

upat

iona

l sp

ecia

lty, p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t lie

s on

a c

ontin

uum

som

epla

ce

betw

een

the

trade

s an

d th

e le

arne

d pr

ofes

sion

s.

SQs

30 a

nd 3

1 Be

low

is a

list o

f 21

occu

patio

ns g

ener

ally

con

side

red

to b

e ‘p

rofe

ssio

ns’ b

ased

up

on th

e re

quire

men

t of a

licen

se to

pra

ctic

e? C

ompa

re e

ach

occu

patio

n ag

ains

t the

ba

selin

e of

a fr

esh

grad

uate

of a

4 y

ear u

nive

rsity

, with

no

expe

rienc

e an

d no

licen

se,

mar

king

how

muc

h m

ore

you

perc

eive

the

rela

tive

valu

e of

the

occu

patio

n co

mpa

red

agai

nst t

he fr

esh

univ

ersi

ty g

radu

ate

in te

rms

of p

rofe

ssio

nal im

age

or p

rest

ige.

SQs

39, 4

0, 4

1 an

d 42

Li

sted

bel

ow a

re p

airs

of o

ccup

atio

ns. F

rom

eac

h pa

ir, m

ark

the

circ

le th

at b

est

repr

esen

ts y

our i

deal

imag

e or

impr

essi

on o

f how

muc

h of

a p

rofe

ssio

n ea

ch

occu

patio

n is

rela

tive

to th

e ot

her.

if yo

u co

nsid

er th

em e

qual

, mar

k th

e 0%

.

All o

ccup

atio

ns e

xist

on

a co

ntin

uum

SQ 4

7 R

ank

the

follo

win

g lis

t of p

rofe

ssio

ns in

the

orde

r you

per

ceiv

e th

em to

repr

esen

t you

r pr

ofes

sion

al id

eal.

(1 b

eing

mos

t pro

fess

iona

l, 21

bei

ng le

ast p

rofe

ssio

nal)

Que

stio

n re

finin

g th

e su

rvey

dat

a: F

indi

ng th

e re

lativ

e va

lue

or w

eigh

ting

of e

ach

attri

bute

R

elat

ive

valu

e or

wei

ghtin

g of

ea

ch a

ttrib

ute

KQ

3 In

tuitiv

ely,

not

all a

ttrib

utes

are

of

equa

l val

ue. W

hat i

s th

e ac

tual

nu

mer

ic v

alue

for e

ach

attri

bute

by

resp

onde

nts?

Each

attr

ibut

e ha

s a

num

eric

val

ue

whi

ch c

an b

e ca

lcul

ated

and

that

th

e su

m to

tal o

f the

attr

ibut

es w

ill pr

oduc

e a

‘pro

fess

iona

l Ind

ex’

SQs4

5/46

Be

low

is a

list o

f 22

attri

bute

s no

rmal

ly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith a

n oc

cupa

tion

bein

g re

cogn

ized

or

acc

epte

d as

bei

ng a

‘pro

fess

ion’

. Fro

m th

e se

lect

ion

belo

w, p

leas

e in

dica

te th

e re

lativ

e w

eigh

ting

or im

porta

nce

you

give

to e

ach

of th

ese

attri

bute

s. Y

ou c

an m

ark

any

valu

e be

twee

n 0

(No

impo

rtanc

e to

eva

luat

ing

or d

eter

min

ing

a pr

ofes

sion

), to

a

max

imum

of 1

00 p

oint

s (E

ssen

tial a

ttrib

ute

nece

ssar

y to

be

cons

ider

ed a

pro

fess

ion)

180

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Que

stio

ns b

ased

on

the

22 a

ttrib

utes

iden

tifie

d fro

m th

e lit

erat

ure

– U

sed

to m

edia

te th

e an

alys

is o

f the

ans

wer

s to

Fou

ndat

ion

Que

stio

ns

Attri

bute

s of

a p

rofe

ssio

n Ex

trins

ic

KQ

4 Is

the

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t bod

y of

kn

owle

dge

uniq

ue?

The

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t bod

y of

kn

owle

dge

is N

OT

uniq

ue.

Body

of k

now

ledg

e a.

uni

que

b. e

sote

ric/

com

plic

ated

/ se

cret

SQ15

Pl

ease

eva

luat

e th

e fo

llow

ing

term

s or

phr

ases

by

how

uni

que

you

cons

ider

eac

h as

th

ey a

re u

sed

in p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t com

pare

d to

gen

eral

usa

ge

Long

per

iod

of tr

aini

ng

KQ

5 H

ow m

uch

expe

rienc

e/ap

pren

tices

hip/

educ

atio

n is

ass

ocia

ted

with

the

term

pr

ofes

sion

?

A pr

ofes

sion

requ

ires

at le

ast a

4

year

deg

ree

AND

4 y

ears

of

prac

tical

exp

erie

nce.

a. h

ighe

r edu

catio

n

b. a

ppre

ntic

eshi

p/in

tern

ship

/ re

side

ncy

SQ34

H

ow m

any

year

s of

edu

catio

n be

yond

hig

h sc

hool

doe

s it

take

to p

rodu

ce a

pr

ofes

sion

al p

ract

iticin

g pr

ojec

t man

ager

? SQ

43

How

man

y ye

ars

of u

nive

rsity

leve

l edu

catio

n do

you

ass

ocia

te w

ith th

e te

rm

‘pro

fess

iona

l’?

SQ35

H

ow m

any

year

s of

wor

k ex

perie

nce

does

it ta

ke to

pro

duce

a p

rofe

ssio

nal p

roje

ct

man

agem

ent p

ract

itione

r?

SQ36

H

ow m

any

year

s of

app

rent

ices

hip,

inte

rnsh

ip o

r sup

ervi

sed

wor

k ex

perie

nce

do y

ou

asso

ciat

e w

ith th

e te

rm ‘p

rofe

ssio

n’?

KQ

6 Is

pro

ject

man

agem

ent a

cal

ling?

Th

e te

rm ‘a

ccid

enta

l pro

fess

ion’

co

mm

only

app

lied

to p

roje

ct

man

agem

ent i

ndic

ates

that

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t is

not

a ca

lling,

.

Life

tim

e co

mm

itmen

t

SQ16

I c

onsi

der p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t to

be m

y life

’s w

ork

SQ

20

I rel

ate

mor

e to

bei

ng a

pro

ject

man

ager

than

I do

to w

orki

ng fo

r any

par

ticul

ar

empl

oyer

SQ

24

Whe

n I i

ntro

duce

mys

elf t

o pe

ople

, I w

ould

be

mor

e lik

ely

to d

o so

by

stat

ing:

‘I

am a

pro

ject

man

ager

who

wor

ks fo

r XYZ

com

pany

’ OR

‘I w

ork

for X

YZ c

ompa

ny a

s a

proj

ect m

anag

er’

181

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Adhe

ring

to a

cod

e of

eth

ics

KQ

7 H

ow d

o pr

ojec

t man

ager

s pe

rcei

ve

the

prac

tice

of in

divi

dual

eth

ics?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

have

pr

ofes

sion

al le

vel e

thic

s.

SQ27

Pe

ople

who

use

my

serv

ices

as

a pr

ojec

t man

ager

are

not

con

cern

ed a

bout

how

I ex

ecut

e th

e pr

ojec

t as

long

as

the

proj

ect i

s su

cces

sful

(usi

ng th

eir d

efin

ition

of

succ

ess)

.

Serv

ice

to th

e pu

blic

(pro

bon

o w

ork)

K

Q8

How

do

proj

ect m

anag

ers

com

pare

ag

ains

t oth

er p

rofe

ssio

nals

in te

rms

of p

ro b

ono

wor

k?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

mee

t or e

xcee

d th

e to

tal n

umbe

r of p

erso

n ho

urs

dona

ted

by e

stab

lishe

d pr

ofes

sion

s.

SQ29

D

urin

g th

e pa

st y

ear,

I hav

e do

nate

d th

e fo

llow

ing

num

ber o

f hou

rs p

erfo

rmin

g vo

lunt

ary,

unc

ompe

nsat

ed c

omm

unity

ser

vice

requ

iring

the

use

of m

y pr

ojec

t m

anag

emen

t ski

lls

Prof

essi

onal

ass

ocia

tion

KQ

9 (o

rigin

al)

How

do

orga

niza

tions

repr

esen

ting

prac

titio

ners

com

pare

aga

inst

oth

er

orga

niza

tions

in te

rms

of e

thic

s?

Ther

e is

a d

iffer

ence

bet

wee

n th

e co

des

of e

thic

s/co

des

of c

ondu

ct

of o

rgan

izat

ions

whi

ch a

re

reco

gniz

ed a

s pr

ofes

sion

s fro

m

thos

e w

hich

are

not

a.

enf

orce

s co

de o

f eth

ics

This

was

not

on

the

regu

lar t

est i

nstru

men

t Th

is w

as a

nsw

ered

thro

ugh

emai

ls s

ent t

o th

e ex

ecut

ive

dire

ctor

s/C

EOs

of m

ajor

pr

ofes

sion

al o

rgan

izat

ions

repr

esen

ting

proj

ect m

anag

ers.

Al

thou

gh re

spon

ses

wer

e lim

ited,

it a

ppea

rs a

s th

ough

mos

t of t

he p

rofe

ssio

nal

orga

niza

tions

repr

esen

ting

proj

ect m

anag

ers

do N

OT

aggr

essi

vely

enf

orce

thei

r cod

es

of e

thic

s, a

t lea

st n

ot in

the

cont

ext o

f pro

tect

ing

the

cons

umin

g pu

blic

. Firs

t han

d ex

perie

nce

and

limite

d re

spon

ses

indi

cate

they

use

the

CoE

prim

arily

to c

ontro

l the

ir m

embe

rshi

p.

K

Q9

(sub

stitu

te q

uest

ion)

If

a ro

bust

cod

e of

eth

ics

play

s a

key

role

in d

eter

min

ing

a pr

ofes

sion

, how

do

var

ious

CoE

s ap

plic

able

to p

roje

ct

man

agem

ent c

ompa

re a

gain

st

acce

pted

pro

fess

ions

?

A co

de o

f eth

ics

adop

ted

for

proj

ect m

anag

ers

whi

ch c

lear

ly

focu

ses

on th

e he

alth

, saf

ety

and

wel

fare

of t

he c

onsu

min

g pu

blic

w

ill be

a c

lear

indi

catio

n th

at

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t is

a pr

ofes

sion

.

Not

a te

st q

uest

ion;

inve

stig

ated

thro

ugh

key

wor

d an

alys

is o

f pro

fess

iona

l soc

iety

co

des

of e

thic

s b.

est

ablis

hes

acce

ptab

le

stan

dard

s i.

perfo

rman

ce s

tand

ards

ii.

proc

edur

al s

tand

ards

(m

etho

dolo

gy)

This

attr

ibut

e w

as ig

nore

d fo

r the

pu

rpos

es o

f thi

s re

sear

ch, a

s al

l the

or

gani

zatio

ns in

volv

ed in

the

stud

y pu

rpor

t to

esta

blis

h pe

rform

ance

st

anda

rds

and/

or a

met

hodo

logy

.

N/A

N

/A

Publ

ishi

ng in

lear

ned

jour

nals

K

Q10

D

o pr

ojec

t man

ager

s pu

blis

h pa

pers

in

pee

r rev

iew

ed jo

urna

ls?

If pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent i

s a

prof

essi

on, t

hen

proj

ect m

anag

ers

publ

ish

in p

eer r

evie

wed

jour

nals

SQ32

D

urin

g th

e pr

evio

us 3

yea

rs, I

hav

e w

ritte

n an

d pu

blis

hed

the

follo

win

g nu

mbe

r of

artic

les

in p

rofe

ssio

nal jo

urna

ls/p

ublic

atio

ns.

182

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Adve

rtisi

ng n

ot p

erm

itted

or

rest

ricte

d K

Q11

D

oes

adve

rtisi

ng b

y pr

ojec

t m

anag

ers

conf

orm

to o

ther

pr

ofes

sion

al n

orm

s?

As fe

w p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

wor

k on

a

‘fee

for s

ervi

ces

basi

s’ th

is

ques

tion

was

dee

med

irre

leva

nt to

th

is re

sear

ch.

N/A

Use

of t

itle is

rest

ricte

d by

law

K

Q12

Is

(or s

houl

d) u

se o

f the

title

‘pro

ject

m

anag

er’ b

e re

stric

ted

by la

w?

As th

e te

rm ‘p

roje

ct m

anag

er’ is

so

ubiq

uito

us, t

here

is n

o w

ay a

t thi

s po

int i

t cou

ld b

e re

stric

ted.

Key

wor

d an

alys

is o

f the

term

‘pro

ject

man

ager

’

Sym

bolic

cos

tum

es/u

nifo

rms

KQ

13

Are

sym

bolic

cos

tum

es, u

nifo

rms

or

othe

r ide

ntify

ing

insi

gnia

nec

essa

ry to

de

fine

a pr

ofes

sion

?

Cos

tum

es a

nd s

ymbo

lic u

nifo

rms

or p

arap

hern

alia

are

nec

essa

ry to

de

fine

or id

entif

y a

prof

essi

onal

pr

ojec

t man

ager

.

SQ17

W

hen

in a

wor

k en

viro

nmen

t, I a

m a

ble

to id

entif

y ot

her p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

in m

y or

gani

zatio

n by

the

clot

hes

they

wea

r or s

ome

othe

r ide

ntifia

ble

part

of th

eir c

ostu

me.

(i.

e. s

peci

al ti

e, ri

ngs,

hea

dgea

r or o

ther

uni

que

part

of th

eir d

ress

or a

ppea

ranc

e)

KQ

14

Shou

ld p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

be

licen

sed?

Lice

nsin

g pr

ojec

t man

ager

s w

ill pr

otec

t the

con

sum

ing

publ

ic.

SQ37

I b

elie

ve th

e pr

imar

y pu

rpos

e of

occ

upat

iona

l lice

nsin

g of

any

pro

fess

ion

is to

pro

tect

th

e pu

blic

from

qua

cks,

cha

rlata

ns o

r inc

ompe

tenc

e.

SQ38

I b

elie

ve th

at lic

ensi

ng o

f pro

ject

man

ager

s w

ill le

ad to

pro

ject

s be

ing

com

plet

ed o

n tim

e, w

ithin

bud

get a

nd s

ubst

antia

lly fu

lfillin

g al

l tec

hnic

al re

quire

men

ts.

Prac

tice

limite

d by

gov

t. lic

ense

SQ44

I b

elie

ve o

ccup

atio

nal li

cens

ing

of a

ny ty

pe re

sults

in a

mon

opol

y an

d a

form

of

rest

rain

t of t

rade

.

KQ

15

Shou

ld p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

be re

quire

d to

car

ry p

rofe

ssio

nal li

abilit

y in

sura

nce?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

arry

pr

ofes

sion

al lia

bility

insu

ranc

e on

ly

if th

ey a

re h

eld

resp

onsi

ble

AND

fin

anci

ally

acc

ount

able

.

SQ18

I b

elie

ve th

at p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

shou

ld b

e he

ld fi

nanc

ially

acc

ount

able

for m

ista

kes

they

/thei

r tea

ms

are

resp

onsi

ble

for w

hen

man

agin

g a

proj

ect.

Req

uire

s pr

ofes

sion

al lia

bility

in

sura

nce

SQ26

As

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

feel

I ha

ve _

____

____

____

___

resp

onsi

bility

for t

he d

ecis

ions

I m

ake

rela

ted

to th

e ex

ecut

ion

of th

e pr

ojec

t for

whi

ch I

am in

cha

rge.

183

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

KQ

16

Giv

en a

uton

omy

in d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

is a

key

attr

ibut

e of

a p

rofe

ssio

n, d

o pr

ojec

t man

ager

s ha

ve a

uton

omy

in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s?

Auto

nom

y in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s is

a

requ

ired

elem

ent o

f a p

rofe

ssio

n.

SQ19

As

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

feel

I ha

ve _

____

____

____

___

auto

nom

y in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s re

late

d to

the

exec

utio

n of

the

Proj

ect I

am

resp

onsi

ble

for.

SQ25

In

the

fulfil

men

t of m

y du

ties

in th

e ro

le o

f a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

feel

I am

abl

e to

co

nsis

tent

ly ex

erci

se d

iscr

etio

nary

judg

men

t in

how

the

proj

ect

gets

exe

cute

d

Auto

nom

y in

dec

isio

n m

akin

g

SQ27

Pe

ople

who

use

my

serv

ices

as

a Pr

ojec

t Man

ager

are

not

con

cern

ed a

bout

how

I ex

ecut

e th

e pr

ojec

t as

long

as

the

proj

ect i

s su

cces

sful

(usi

ng

thei

r def

initio

n of

suc

cess

)

KQ

17

Giv

en Id

entif

ying

with

the

occu

patio

n an

d no

t with

an

empl

oyer

is a

key

at

tribu

te o

f a p

rofe

ssio

n, w

ho d

o pr

ojec

t man

ager

s id

entif

y w

ith?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

do n

ot id

entif

y w

ith th

eir e

mpl

oyer

, but

with

the

occu

patio

n of

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t.

Iden

tity

not w

ith e

mpl

oyer

but

pr

ofes

sion

SQ16

I c

onsi

der p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t to

be m

y life

’s w

ork

SQ

20

I rel

ate

mor

e to

bei

ng a

pro

ject

man

ager

than

I do

to w

orki

ng fo

r any

par

ticul

ar

empl

oyer

SQ

24

Whe

n I i

ntro

duce

mys

elf t

o pe

ople

, I w

ould

be

mor

e lik

ely

to d

o so

by

stat

ing

‘I

am a

pro

ject

man

ager

who

wor

ks fo

r XYZ

com

pany

’ OR

‘I w

ork

for X

YZ c

ompa

ny a

s a

proj

ect m

anag

er’

Hel

d in

hig

h es

teem

by

the

com

mun

ity

KQ

18

Thos

e in

exi

stin

g pr

ofes

sion

s en

joy

high

com

mun

ity e

stee

m. W

hat i

s th

e co

mm

unity

est

eem

of p

roje

ct

man

ager

s?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

are

not h

eld

in

the

sam

e hi

gh e

stee

m a

s ex

istin

g pr

ofes

sion

als.

SQ21

As

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

con

side

r mys

elf t

o be

hel

d in

___

___

este

em in

my

hom

e (n

on-

wor

king

) com

mun

ity b

ecau

se o

f the

wor

k I d

o as

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er.

184

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

KQ

19

Thos

e in

occ

upat

ions

reco

gniz

ed a

s pr

ofes

sion

s ea

rn h

ighe

r tha

n av

erag

e sa

larie

s. W

hat i

s th

e pe

rcep

tion

of

proj

ect m

anag

ers

in te

rms

of th

e sa

larie

s th

ey e

arn?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

earn

hig

her t

han

aver

age

sala

ries.

Ea

rn h

ighe

r tha

n av

erag

e co

mpe

nsat

ion

SQ22

C

ompa

red

to o

ther

peo

ple

of m

y ag

e an

d ed

ucat

ion

leve

l, in

my

posi

tion

as a

pro

ject

m

anag

er, I

feel

I am

com

pens

ated

___

____

____

for m

y se

rvic

es.

This

impo

rtant

attr

ibut

e w

as c

onfir

med

/rei

nfor

ced

by c

ompa

ring

the

resu

lts o

f AAC

E's

annu

al s

alar

y su

rvey

.

Intri

nsic

Mys

tique

(ave

rage

of 1

5, 2

3 an

d 0)

(hig

hly

ritua

listic

pro

cedu

res)

K

Q20

A

lead

ing

intri

nsic

attr

ibut

e fo

r a

prof

essi

on is

the

mys

tique

whi

ch

surro

unds

it. D

oes

proj

ect

man

agem

ent h

ave

mys

tique

?

Proj

ect m

anag

emen

t doe

s no

t ha

ve m

ystiq

ue.

SQ23

Pe

ople

not

fam

iliar w

ith p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t con

side

r wha

t pra

ctitio

ners

do

to b

e m

ystic

al a

nd/o

r hig

hly

ritua

listic

.

Th

is a

ttrib

ute

was

so

pate

ntly

obv

ious

th

at it

was

giv

en a

val

ue o

f zer

o fo

r th

e pu

rpos

es o

f the

rese

arch

. Not

on

ly is

the

body

of k

now

ledg

e an

ag

glom

erat

ion

com

ing

from

a

mul

titud

e of

sou

rces

, as

mos

t of t

he

BoK

deriv

es fr

om g

ener

al b

usin

ess

teac

hing

s, a

cces

s is

far f

rom

limite

d.

N/A

N

/A

Cru

cial

ity

a. im

med

iacy

of n

eed

b. Im

porta

nce

of n

eed

KQ

21

A le

adin

g in

trins

ic a

ttrib

ute

for a

pr

ofes

sion

is th

e cr

ucia

lity (c

ritic

ality

) of

the

serv

ices

. Doe

s pr

ojec

t m

anag

emen

t hav

e cr

itical

ity?

Proj

ect m

anag

emen

t doe

s ha

ve

cruc

iality

/crit

ical

ity.

SQ33

Pe

ople

who

use

the

serv

ices

of a

pro

ject

man

ager

gen

eral

ly c

onsi

der t

hose

ser

vice

s cr

itical

to th

e su

cces

s of

thei

r pro

ject

.

KQ

22

A le

adin

g in

trins

ic a

ttrib

ute

for a

pr

ofes

sion

is th

e dé

noue

men

t or t

he

abilit

y to

pro

duce

pos

itive

resu

lts v

ery

quic

kly

and

with

out l

imite

d in

volv

emen

t of t

he c

onsu

mer

of t

he

serv

ices

. Doe

s pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent

have

dén

ouem

ent?

Proj

ect m

anag

emen

t doe

s no

t ha

ve d

énou

emen

t.

Den

ouem

ent

quic

k so

lutio

ns to

pro

blem

s

SQ19

As

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

feel

I ha

ve _

____

____

____

___

auto

nom

y in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s re

late

d to

the

exec

utio

n of

the

Proj

ect I

am

resp

onsi

ble

for.

SQ25

In

the

fulfil

men

t of m

y du

ties

in th

e ro

le o

f a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

feel

I am

abl

e to

co

nsis

tent

ly ex

erci

se d

iscr

etio

nary

judg

men

t in

how

the

proj

ect g

ets

exec

uted

. SQ

26

As a

pro

ject

man

ager

, I fe

el I

have

___

____

____

____

_ re

spon

sibi

lity fo

r the

dec

isio

ns I

mak

e re

late

d to

the

exec

utio

n of

the

proj

ect f

or w

hich

I am

in c

harg

e.

185

Cha

pter

4: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 1

Key

find

ings

(fro

m li

tera

ture

re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a

varie

ty o

f tes

t que

stio

ns

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

part

of

addr

essi

ng K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

KQ

23

How

doe

s th

e fid

ucia

ry re

spon

sibi

lity

of p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

com

pare

aga

inst

th

at o

f est

ablis

hed

prof

essi

ons?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

do n

ot e

xhib

it a

leve

l of f

iduc

iary

resp

onsi

bility

co

mpa

rabl

e to

that

of e

stab

lishe

d pr

ofes

sion

s.

SQ18

I b

elie

ve th

at p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

shou

ld b

e he

ld fi

nanc

ially

acc

ount

able

for m

ista

kes

they

/thei

r tea

ms

are

resp

onsi

ble

for w

hen

man

agin

g a

proj

ect.

SQ19

As

a p

roje

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er, I

feel

I ha

ve _

____

____

____

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auto

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mak

ing

deci

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SQ25

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SQ26

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____

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4.4 Summary of Chapter 4 In Chapter 4, part 1 of the survey development and analysis, we explored how the 22

attributes generated a series of key questions. These key questions, in turn, led to

hypotheses which led to questions on the survey instrument to prove or disprove the

hypotheses. the development of the was discussed. The questionnaire was prepared

using the 22 attributes distilled from Chapter 2, and pre-tested in Chapters 3a and 3b.

Chapter 4 also indicates how the results were collected, collated and analysed.

As noted previously, it was intended that a survey of individuals in a variety of

occupations, including project management, would generate data that could be used

to address the research questions. This would include using the survey data to develop

a test instrument to test for the degree to which project management (as distinct from

construction project management) was a profession. The aim was to develop the test

and apply it to the occupation of project management to gain insight into both project

management as a profession and the instrument as a test of the degree to which any

occupation is a profession.

While the failure to obtain sufficient responses meant that a comparison between

project management and other occupations was not realized, the fundamental

principles remain valid and the results have proven appropriate in answering some of

the initial research questions. This will be explored in part two of the survey

development and analysis, Chapter 5.


CHAPTER 5

Survey development and analysis, Part 2

5.1 Analysing answers to the key questions While Chapter 4 (part 1 of the survey development and analysis) focused on the

development of the survey, including the demographics, in Chapter 5 (part 2 of the

survey development and analysis) the data obtained from the replies of the 400

respondents is considered. In Chapter 5, preliminary answers to the research

questions began to be formed.

Please note that for all statistical analysis, ranking and other quantitative analysis,

unless otherwise stated, the mean values, calculated from the survey responses was

used.

5.1.1 Key question 1 Is project management a profession?

Initially, the current research was triggered by this question, which was then refined

to Can a valid test be developed that indicates to what degree an occupation (such as

project management) can be considered a profession? AND If a valid test were

applied to project management, would project management be a profession? If is it

not a profession, what is it?

The research initiating question, however, became a key question in the development

of the survey instrument: Key question 1: Is project management a profession? From

the key question, mediated by a hypothesis, the survey question was developed, as

indicated in Exhibit 5.1.

Exhibit 5.1 Generation of survey question 28

Key finding Multiple, conflicting and confusing definitions of project management and profession abound.

Question generated by the key finding

KQ1 Is project management a profession?

Hypotheses Project management is not a profession. It is a discipline within all other technical occupations.

Survey question SQ28 Below are 8 definitions. Please rank the definition that most represents your definition, understanding or interpretation of project management as it is practiced by you or within your organization. Mark 1 being the ‘best’ definition, 2 being the second best and so on, with 8 representing the least appropriate definition in your opinion.


As can be seen from the literature review, the question of what is and what is not a

profession remains unresolved. Not only did the initial stakeholder analysis turn up

three clearly distinct and mutually exclusive perspectives, but from the literature

reviews, particularly from the legal and semantic perspectives, we have seen Polelle

(1999), Rotunda (1997), Gawley, Breitel (2002), Abbot (1988), Freidson (1994),

Haga (1974) and Cogan (1955) all postulate their interpretations. Polelle (1999) in

particular laments the lack of a ‘bright line’ definition for the courts to use and he has

formulated a set of criteria which he believes to be appropriate (Polelle, 1999).

A review of US labor laws to gain insight into how the US Department of Labor

defines a profession was undertaken, as was an examination of the definitions of

profession and professional from not only legal, but also from sociological, economic

and semantic perspectives. Consistent with the practices of some jurists, I looked at

the dictionary definition of profession and professional and restated those definitions

to see if they provided any further enlightenment.

In order to minimize the probability of the answers to one question biasing the

answers to other questions, the sequencing of each question in the test instrument was

intentionally randomized. Hence no significance can be imputed to the sequential

numbering of the question. Note, therefore, that test question numbers do not match

key question numbers.

Figure 5.1 presents the responses to survey question 28. Because this is a ranking

question, the choices selected first, second or third will have the shortest bars, while

those ranked sixth, seventh or eighth will have the longer bars.

This question proved to be one of the most important and interesting of the research.

Through this forced ranking, a very clear consensus favored process, method or

system (ranked 1-3 respectively) vs. vocation (trade) occupation or profession,

(ranked 8th, 7th or 6th, respectively). Discipline, which was an anticipated answer, fell

in between the two groupings. But more importantly, profession was ranked in the

middle grouping. This can be seen more clearly using a linear scale, 1-8, incremented

by divisions of .1. Note that for test question 28, as respondents were being asked to

rank from Most preferred definition (1) to Least preferred (8) the lower numbers

represent the highest ranked definitions while the higher numbers indicate the lowest

preference.



Very clearly and by a wide margin, project management practitioners chose the

definition of process (1.99 out of a possible 8.00) to best describe what it is they do,

followed by method at 2.95, and system at 3.04. This formed Cluster 1 in Figure 5.2.

The second cluster consists of procedure, (4.3) discipline, (4.6) and profession, (5.2)

followed by a gap of to the third cluster, consisting of occupation (6.8) and vocation

(6.9). Given the semantics, although ‘vocation’ was intended to mean the trades, the

word ‘calling’ is synonymous and in that context, is often linked with being a

profession, especially in terms of the learned professions, theology, medicine and law.

While certainly an interesting finding, it remained premature to draw any conclusions

or read anything meaningful into these results until they could be taken in the context

of the whole. However, at least on the surface, it appears as though respondents may

well be saying that all three interpretations have meaning or relevance? That in fact

‘systems engineering’ as INCOSE defines it may be correct? That ‘project

management’ (which is hardly distinguishable from systems engineering) is in fact a

‘process, method or system’ that is ‘multi-disciplinary’ and cross functional?

(INCOSE, online, n.d.).


Another interesting observation is the respondents selected discipline over profession,

which tends to support Drucker’s consistent references to all incarnations and

applications of management as being a discipline (Drucker, 1954, 1973, 1999, 2001,

2003). While useful and meaningful for the intended purposes of this research, the

full significance and meaning of this clustering remains a ripe area for future

exploration.

Figure 5.2 Survey question 28, responses plotted on an interval scale

5.1.2 Key question 2 Is there a continuum and where on that continuum of professionalization; if so, where does project management lie on the continuum?

Key question 2 asked if the degree to which an occupation could be considered a

profession dwelt on a continuum, and if it were possible to discern where one

profession stood in relation to others. The continuum includes the licensed trades

through the learned professions of law and medicine, and incorporates many of the

occupations considered to be ‘emerging’ or ‘evolving’ professions. Key question 2

directly addressed the original research question.


The objective was, if possible, to develop a ratio scale, with a fixed and known zero

point. While the findings from the survey questions were interesting and consistent

within reason, they were unable to conclusively identify where on the continuum

between the trades and the learned professions project management lies.

While Zwerman et al. alluded to project management as a profession not being a

black or white, yes or no answer, (Zwerman, 2004, p. 174), at least three other

researchers had already expressed this point of view. Leading was Bruce Kimball

(1995), Professor of Educational Leadership, University of Rochester. In his book, A

history of the true professional ideal (Kimball, 1995) he posited the idea that

professions are subject to a normal life span or life cycle, with a conception, period of

development, exponential growth, leveling off and eventually declining phase

(Kimball, 1995). To the concept that all professions were subject to the ebb and flow

of life spans, I added thoughts from MIT’s social psychologist, Edgar H. Schein

(1972),who theorized in his Professional education: Some new directions (Schein,

1972) that ‘sociologists have agreed on the necessity to use a multi-hypothesis

approach in defining a profession’ (Schein, 1972, p 12). Another influential

researcher who contributed to the development of key question 1 was Malcolm

Gladwell (2002), in his best-selling book Tipping point. The essence of Tipping point

is that some ‘magical moment’ exists when an ‘idea, trend or social behavior crosses

some threshold, tips, and spreads like wildfire’ (Gladwell, 2002, back cover).

Combining the ideas of Kimball (1995), Schein (1972) and Gladwell (2002), I

theorized that, given the normal life span applies to occupational popularity (Kimball,

1995), that using a multi-hypothesis approach (Schein, 1972) it would be possible to

create an instrument that could measure and track where an occupation was vis-a-vis

other occupations, and in doing so, could identify a ‘tipping point’ where an

occupation moves from merely being an occupation to actually becoming recognized

as a profession. Applied to project management specifically, the objective was to

measure where project management lay on a continuum between the trades (which is

where the concept of the professions originated) to the learned professions of law,

medicine, theology and education.


Given the importance of this concept of a continuum to the overall research, groups

of separate questions were conceived which it was hoped would reinforce or support

the findings and also to eliminate bias (Exhibit 5.2).

Exhibit 5.2 Generation of survey questions 30/31, 39-/42, and 47. (Details of questions, such as lists and pairs, and combined results available from Appendix A.)

Key finding All occupations exist on a continuum


KQ2 Is there a continuum and where on that continuum of professionalization; if so, where does project management lie on the continuum?

Hypothesis Defining project management as a profession is not a yes or no answer; as an occupational specialty, project management lies on a continuum someplace between the trades and the learned professions.

SQ 30/31 Below is a list of 21 occupations generally considered to be ‘professions’ based upon the requirement of a license to practice? Compare each occupation against the baseline of a fresh graduate of a 4 year university, with no experience and no license, marking how much more you perceive the relative value of the occupation compared against the fresh university graduate in terms of professional image or prestige.

SQ 39-/42 Listed below are pairs of occupations. From each pair, mark the circle that best represents your ideal image or impression of how much of a profession each occupation is relative to the other. if you consider them equal, mark the 0%.

Survey questions

SQ 47 Rank the following list of professions in the order you perceive them to represent your professional ideal. (1 being most professional, 21 being least professional)

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS FROM SURVEY QUESTION 30/31

The results from this question are summarized by the Excel graph shown in Figure

5.3. In this graph, the average (mean) score for each occupation is shown by the pink

diamond, with the lines showing the mean plus and minus one standard deviation.

The possible range was from 0, meaning the subject occupation was equal to a recent

four year graduate with no experience and no license to practice, to 11, meaning the

occupation was 10 times greater than that of a recent (fresh) graduate.

As can be seen in Figure 5.3, the average and average plus/minus one sigma is

interesting, but fails to clearly show the relative distance between any two

occupations. To address this, an Excel spreadsheet was created with identically sized

cells, the cells were numbered from 0 to 11 in .1 increments, and the average results

from the spreadsheet were plotted. Figure 5.4 indicates the relative ranking of each

occupation against the baseline of a recent (fresh) university graduate.


Now, is it fair or justifiable to say that a high school principal, at 6.93, is roughly

twice as professional as a school bus driver at 3.37? Or that a doctor at 9.25 is 2.75

times as professional as a school bus driver, at 3.37? (9.25/3.37 = 2.75). While the

objective was worthy, using a recent university graduate didn’t really generate a true

zero, thus it failed to create a true ratio scale, where a practitioner can say with any

degree of certainty that any given occupation is X times more or less of a profession

than any other. The initial test instrument also contained the flaw of introducing a bias

favorable to the respondents’ own occupation. As the sample size contained such a

large percentage of project managers, this phenomenon could not help but introduce a

bias favorable to project managers.

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

11.00

Graduate

BusDrvr

TrkDrvr

Barber

Insuran

ce

Plumbe

r

REBroker

Librar

ian

Electric

ian

CompEngRN

ElectE

ngMBA

HSPrinc

CM

CivilEng PM

Dentist

Lawye

rCPA

Doctor

Pilot

Occupational Specialties

Ran

king

(1-1

1)

Mean +1 SigmaMean -1 SigmaMean

Figure 5.3 Results of survey question 30/31; relative ranking of occupations compared against recent college graduate responses plotted showing mean, and range, +/1 sigma


Figure 5.4 Professionalization continuum developed from data in response to survey question 30/31; interval scale showing relative relationships between licensed occupations and project managers

CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF SURVEY QUESTION 39-/42

Question 39-/42 was set up using combinations of occupations commonly licensed by

the top 1/3 of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

countries. [Note: The reason for selecting only the top 1/3 of OECD countries was

based on the fact that many developing countries use licensing as a form of ‘legalized

extortion’ or ‘economic rents’. (Transparency International, 2005)]. However, if the

full 21 occupations used in survey questions 30/31 and then 47 were to be used for

pair-wise comparisons in question 39-/42, the survey instrument would have been

unwieldy, resulting in a 21 X 21 matrix, or 441 data points. To cut this down, the

most obvious occupations at the low end of the scale (barber, truck driver) were

eliminated, and the various engineering occupations were simply aggregated into a

single occupational listing of ‘engineer’. Another category, ‘building contractor’ was

also added, to address a point raised by a stakeholder during the Anchorage

presentation, that while construction managers are not always licensed, in most

instances, building contractors, who certainly play the same role as construction

managers, almost always are.

While the number of occupations was scaled down, the primary objective of using

pair-wise comparisons and applying the statistical analytical approach devised and


made famous by Thomas Saaty (1980) for the analytical hierarchy process (AHP)

was to eliminate the bias of respondents naturally favoring their own occupations and

ranking them higher. As the bias only applied to a total of 10 sets of analysis out of

the 45 sets, the impact of any bias was ‘washed out’ by the other 35 pairs of data.

Recognizing that structuring of a survey question asking people to rank their own

occupation against that of others would inevitably result in bias, an approach had to

be applied which would compensate or enable the bias to be removed or accounted

for. The tool chosen for this was pair-wise comparison, then applying Thurstone’s

Law of Comparative Judgment (1927; see Appendix 3) to factor out bias.

Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment

Thurstone presents a simple theory of the discriminal process and how its nature allows the construction of an interval scale based on comparisons of pairs of stimuli. This Law of Comparative Judgments is often used as a psychophysical method to derive interval scales of perceptual qualities.

The resulting rank order rated by each respondent can be combined in one scale using Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment to translate rank orders to a single group interval scale for the group as a whole.

Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment (1927) is based on the following five propositions:

1. Each stimulus gives rise to a discriminal process, which has some value on the psychological continuum of interest.

2. Due to momentary fluctuations (which can be considered as internal fluctuations occurring within or between observers), the value of a stimulus may be higher or lower on repeated presentations. The distribution of this fluctuation can be characterized by a postulated normal distribution (or some other known distribution).

3. The mean and standard deviation of the distribution associated with a stimulus are its internal scale values and discriminal dispersion, respectively.

4. Therefore the distribution of the difference between two stimuli is also normally distributed and it is a function of the proportion that one stimulus is chosen as greater than the other.

5. The difference in scale values, R, between two stimuli are the standard deviations of the respective discriminal dispersions, rij is the correlation between the two discriminal processes, and zij is the normal deviate (the z-score) corresponding to the proportion of times stimulus j is judged greater along the psychological continuum than stimulus i.

Certain assumptions can be made that result in a simplification of this equation that also leads to a very simple procedure for analysis of paired comparison data. These assumptions, Thurstone’s Case V, are:


1. The evaluation of one stimulus along the continuum does not influence the evaluation of the other in the paired comparison.

2. The dispersions are equal for all stimuli. (Thurstone, 1927, pp. 273-286)

For this research, Case V was applied.

Montag (2006) further explains that, while simple to use and understand, Thurstone’s

Law has the following disadvantage:

Practitioner’s have had some problems in implementing Thurstone’s Law because the ability to compute confidence intervals is missing in the formulation. (online)

Despite the complex sounding definition and explanation, the actual process of

applying Thurstone’s Law is fairly easy and straightforward. The first operation being

to collect pair-wise data (1983), which was done via survey question 39-/42, which

gave respondents the opportunity to rank nine occupations against one another on a

pair-wise basis.

Applying Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment (1927) to the data collected

from the survey produced a very interesting map measuring the relative degree of

professionalization exhibited by project management when compared against licensed

occupations generally considered to be professional in nature. What do practitioners

do with this information? As noted previously, one advantage of using pair-wise

comparison and applying Thurstone’s Law is a way to compensate for or eliminate

bias by respondents towards their own occupation. What does that look like? (See

Figure 5.5.)

Figure 5.6 then shows that, based on the pair-wise comparisons, project management

is less of a profession than medical doctor but more than an electrician. More

importantly, project management can be said to be roughly half way between an

electrician and a medical doctor in terms of ‘professional evolution’ (6.1 vs. 6.3).


Figure 5.5 Question 39-/42, professionalization continuum: Interval scale showing relative relationships between licensed professions and project managers, by applying Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgement

Figure 5.6 Applying the bias shift from SQ39-/42 against the results of SQ47, illustrates the interim step to eliminate bias from the results of both SQ 30/31 and SQ 47.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF SURVEY QUESTION 47

The last and most simple of the three questions designed to address key question 2

was a rank ordering of 21 professions (see details, Appendix A). It was hoped that the

results of this question would provide sufficiently common rankings to form a pattern

that would indicate agreement as to where occupations dwelt on a professions


continuum. The disadvantage of using rank ordering lay in the large number of items

to be ranked. While ranking is fairly easy to do with 10 or less items, 21 items are

difficult to rank and results can be arbitrary or misleading. The top four or five items

are easy enough to rank, likewise, the bottom four or five. Those items between the

poles are often difficult to categorize, however. Furthermore, because of human

nature, one tends to introduce a bias towards one’s own occupation. Given most of

the respondents were project managers, it was expected that the rankings in response

to survey question 47 would contain some bias (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7 shows the same treatment accorded survey question 47 that was given to

question 39-/42, which also contained inherent bias, which we have no way of

quantifying using a simple forced ranking approach.

1.00

3.00

5.00

7.00

9.00

11.00

13.00

15.00

17.00

19.00

21.00

School

Bus D

rivers

Barber/

Cosmeto

logist

Commercial

Truck D

river

Insuran

ce B

rokers

Realtors

Plumbe

rs

Librar

ians

Electric

ians

High Sch

ool P

rincip

al

Constru

ction

Man

ager

Register

ed Nurs

es

Computer/S

oftware

Enginee

rs

Teleco

mmunica

tions

Eng

ineers

MBA

Civil E

ngine

ers

Projec

t Man

agers

CPA

Lawye

rs

Dentists

Aircraf

t Pilo

t

Medica

l Doc

tors

Occupation

Res

pons

e Va

lue

(11-

1)

Figure 5.7 Question 47, responses plotted showing mean, and range, +/-1 sigma

The values for each of the average readings were entered into an Excel spreadsheet

containing identically sized cells (constant horizontal scale). Each cell was numbered

from 21 to 0 in increments of .1. The average values calculated from the database for

each response in the test were entered into this spreadsheet, turning the ordinal data


into an interval scale. In order to enable comparing apples to apples, the scales were

kept the same, and the comparisons were made irrespective of the actual values

generated, only their position relative to one another. Realizing that using forced

ranking (as in survey question 47) or relative values (as in question 30/31) would

produce a bias, the pair-wise analysis, adjusted by applying Thurstone’s Law of

Comparative Judgment (1927), was considered to produce the more reliable values,

hence was used as the baseline. Results are presented in Figure 5.8.

Figure 5.8 Question 47 illustrating bias adjustment; professionalization continuum: Interval scale showing relative relationships between licensed occupations and project managers, adjusted for bias using Thurstone’s Law. (reading left to right, least professional 21.0 to most professional at 1.0)

COMPARING THE RESPONSES TO SURVEY QUESTIONS 30/31, 39-/42 AND 47

The process followed in analyzing this series of three questions was consistent. The

data from the test were first averaged by occupation. The second step was to calculate

the standard deviation of each column, and plot it in Excel, showing the mean and the

mean plus and minus 1 standard deviation (refer Figure 5.9). While this produced a

picture of the relative ranking, it didn’t present a satisfactory picture of the relative

perception of one occupation vs. another. To convert the ordinal data into an interval

scale, an Excel spreadsheet was created with identically sized cells. The cells were


numbered from 21 to 1 in .1 increment’s. The average score for each occupation was

positioned over the appropriate cell value. (Note, no two occupations were exactly the

same value). Average values were rounded up or down to the nearest .1 increment

(Figure 5.9).

The advantage of this method was to produce a very easily read and understood

interval scale rating, with an accuracy suitable to convey some sense of where project

management ‘fits’ compared against occupations that almost always require a license

to practice.

The disadvantage of this approach was that it failed to eliminate the natural tendency

of respondents to rank their occupation higher than it should be. As can be seen in

Figures 5.9 and 5.10, a method had to be found which would eliminate the effects of

bias in the data. Another disadvantage was that with no true zero the data could only

be analyzed by the distance between any two occupations. It could not be said that

one occupation was a multiple of any other. That is, it could not be said that a project

manager, with an average score of 7.36, was roughly twice as much of a professional

as a plumber, with an average score of 14.44. All that could be said was that the

difference in perception between a plumber and a project manager is 14.44 – 7.36 =

7.08. There is no way to judge the value of a single increment, unless there is a true

zero.

When the three sets of data were compared using the same horizontal scale, some

extremely exciting information became apparent, however.

In Figures 5.9 and 5.10, the green boxes indicate instances where all three questions

produced the same results. As suspected in the preliminary analysis, regardless of

whether people use pair-wise comparison or rank ordering, those occupations at the

extremes pose little or no confusion or disagreement. This is particularly well

supported by the results for survey questions 30/31 and 47, where the correspondence

of the middle occupations (save for electrician) is only off by one or two places.

There are no radical displacements of any occupation in favour of another.

201

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Given that applying Thurstone’s Law of Comparative Judgment (1927) has

eliminated bias, when the results from the three questions are compared on a common

horizontal scale, there is almost perfect agreement as to the position of project

management among other occupations, which are also fairly consistently aligned..

Based on this alignment, I feel confident in claiming that in mid-2005, project

management was considered by those practicing it to be less of a profession than an

MBA and professionally registered engineers, but more of a profession than software

or IT engineering, telecommunications engineering and construction management.

The ramifications of these findings are numerous.

The data provide early indications that while not yet a profession, project

management is perceived to be an occupation possessing moderately high esteem

within the global community of practice. Construction management, which has been

around for 50 years or more, has not had much success in gaining equal footing with

architects and civil engineers. Close, but not there yet.

203

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Construction management, despite having been one of the ‘first movers’ in

developing and adopting ‘management by project’ concepts, methodologies, tools

and techniques, may be suffering from an ‘identity crisis’ which has cut it off from

the more glamorous and highly visible yet more recent adopters of project

management as a delivery system, such as IT and telecommunication. This is

consistent with Drucker’s (1973) focus on the growing importance of the knowledge

worker.

The newly emerging engineering practices such as telecommunications engineering,

software engineering or computer science, have yet to achieve equivalent status with

civil engineers. Project management is close to, but still considered ‘inferior’ to the

MBA. Consistent with the research of Christophe McKenna (2006), the MBA

(management consultants) may well be poised to become the next profession.

Drucker alludes to this possibility in the preface of Management: Tasks,

responsibilities and practices (Drucker, 1973, p. xi) but his subsequent works never

really follows up on it any further. Given Drucker’s prolific writings, it would seem

as though he would have developed this theory more, however, even as late as 2003,

despite the title On the profession of management, he does not make ANY case

supporting the claim that management is or should be a profession.

These early interpretations of the data corresponded to Christopher McKenna’s

(2006) new book The world’s newest profession: Management consulting in the 20th

century,. Interesting to note that despite the title of McKenna’s book, he concludes

‘by the end of the 20th Century, no credible observer could claim management

consulting still constituted a young professional field’ and that to be recognized, ‘the

world’s newest profession would have to wait until the 21st century (Mckenna, 2006,

p 251). So, even at the start of the 21st century, the MBA is not considered a

profession. McKenna’s reasons for management consulting not being recognized as a

profession lie in the real or perceived lack of professional ethics within the ranks of

management consultants (McKenna, 2006, p. 247).


5.1.3 Key question 3 What is the actual numeric value for each attribute by respondents?

The design of the survey question to answer key question 3 was based primarily on

the ‘multi-criterion’ perspective espoused by Schein (1972). The concept was fairly

simple: assuming that Schein is correct in his assertion that multiple criteria will result

in a definition for ‘profession’, that if the criteria could be identified and a valid

survey instrument could be developed to capture the perspectives from both project

managers and occupations considered to be a profession, that a comparison could be

drawn between the results. Unfortunately, while the survey produced 400

respondents, there were an insufficient number of respondents from occupations other

than project management to be able to make a valid comparison. However, the

research did provide a methodology to measure project managers, and the hope is the

professional index developed here will be used as the basis to measure other

occupations. Exhibit 5.3 illustrates the development of survey question 45/46 to

address key question 3: Intuitively, not all attributes are of equal value. What is the

actual numeric value for each attribute by respondents?

Exhibit 5.3 Generation of survey question 45/46 (Details of question available in Appendix A)

Key finding Relative value or weighting of each attribute


KQ3 Intuitively, not all attributes are of equal value. What is the actual numeric value for each attribute by respondents?

Hypotheses Each attribute has a numeric value which can be calculated and that the sum total of the attributes will produce a ‘professional index’

Survey question SQ45/46 Below is a list of 22 attributes normally associated with an occupation being recognized or accepted as being a ‘profession’. From the selection below, please indicate the relative weighting or importance you give to each of these attributes. You can mark any value between 0 (No importance to evaluating or determining a profession), to a maximum of 100 points (Essential attribute necessary to be considered a profession)

This question was very important to the research. There are two variables of

importance to consider when analyzing the attributes. The first is the average raw

score of the response the population provides to each of the survey questions. The

second variable is the relative value of each attribute has compared against the others.

A search of the literature revealed no research supporting this particular approach to

survey data, as sociologically, legally, economically and semantically, all researchers

had relied previously on qualitative rather than quantitative approaches. Applying


Friedson’s common sense approach (Freidson, 1994), most should agree that not all

attributes are of equal value. Furthermore, depending on the occupation in question,

some attributes may be more important than others. For instance, the wearing of a

uniform, while ranked dead last by project managers, would undoubtedly rank much

higher if the survey were to be given to airline pilots or doctors. Worth noting from

Figure 5.11, not a single attribute scored above 80% (the test of ‘clear and convincing

evidence’ or our assumed ‘tipping point’ based on Pareto’s Law).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

CoETrust

BoK

ProfOrgS

FidOb

Crucial

ProfOrgBP

ProfOrgPE

Autono

my

Identify

BSEduBigSal

Prestig

e

ResInt

ern

Commit

TitleRes

t

Liabty

Ins

Journ

lPub

Licen

se

ProBono

AdvRes

t

Uniifor

m

Attributes of a Profession

Wei

ghtin

g (0

-100

%)

Figure 5.11 Results for survey question 45/46, attributes rank ordered showing +/- 1 sigma. Series 1 = Mean + I Sigma; Series 2 = Mean – 1 Sigma;

Series 3 = Mean Value (● )

Furthermore, of the top quartile, three of the attributes are most closely associated

with the semantic or intrinsic attributes (trust, body of knowledge and cruciality).

Also worth noting is the widespread sigma on the body of knowledge and on the

fiduciary obligation. Although several correlations were made on the data, there was

nothing which indicates any one demographic group had a particularly different

perspective than any other group. Here again, further research in this area may well

be of more value, for as Freidson (1994) noted ‘scholarship concerned with the


professions is in an intellectual shambles today’ (p. 149). Friedson’s (2001) more

recent work Professionalism – The third logic reflected on much the same

philosophy. While he was attempting to ‘create a model of the logic of

professionalism consistent with the free market models or of business-organizational

model’ (p. 4), the model he created was impossible to quantify.

Given the importance of this data to the remainder of the research, I have also

included it in tabular form. For the time being I will leave this data, but will be

coming back to it as we draw further conclusions about project management as a

profession.

In Table 5.1, the 22 attributes of a profession are rank ordered from #1 to #22 based

on the average value assigned to them by respondents to the survey. This value is

interpreted as being the relative value or weighting that the population of respondents

gave to each attribute.

Table 5.1 Attributes rank ordered showing actual values (weight) from survey

Rank Attribute Weight 1 code of ethics 77.5 2 trust by clients 76.4 3 body of knowledge 70.7 4 prof. org sets standards 69.0 5 fiduciary obligation 68.2 6 crucialilty 67.8 7 proforg establishes best practices 65.5 8 proforg enforces code of ethics 63.6 9 autonomy in decision 61.8 10 identify with occupation 60.3 11 4 year degree or better 58.8 12 higher than ave salary 55.1 13 prestige in community 54.7 14 serve residence/internship 53.9 15 lifetime commitment 49.6 16 title is restricted by law 49.1 17 requires liability insurance 46.8 18 publish in journals 40.8 19 license required 37.8 20 perform pro bono work 35.8 21 adverts restricted 26.1 22 wear a uniiform 14.3


5.1.4 Key question 4 Is the project management body of knowledge unique?

Key question 4 was derived directly from the literature research indicating that a body

of knowledge which is ‘unique, esoteric, secret, complicated or abstruse’ is prima

facie requirement underlying any profession. This is one of the few attributes which is

common to all perspectives on defining a profession, and as such, one of the first

attributes that I wanted to evaluate. Furthermore, based on input from J. Rodney

Turner during the defense of this thesis, not only does the BoK need to be ‘unique,

esoteric, secret, complicated or abstruse’ but it also must meet three additional tests. It

must be:

theoretically based

empirically tested

proven to be scientific and predictive

Based on literature review, sufficient evidence exists that the body of knowledge

related to project management is NOT ‘unique, esoteric, secret, complicated or

abstruse’, (Wideman, 1996; INCOSE, 2006) leading to the null set as being the most

likely hypothesis.

Exhibit 5.4 Generation of survey question 15 to answer key question 4 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Body of knowledge a. unique b. esoteric/

c. complicated/secret


KQ4 Is the project management body of knowledge unique?

Hypotheses The project management body of knowledge is NOT unique.

Survey question SQ15 Please evaluate the following terms or phrases by how unique you consider each as they are used in project management compared to general usage

Survey question 15 took the 26 most frequently occurring words in the PMBOK

Guide 2000 and asked respondents to evaluate them by how unique they considered

each to be in the way it was used in project management compared to general usage

(see Appendix A). The design of the question was based on the idea that a broad

spectrum of respondents would ‘wash out’ any bias. Unfortunately, a broad spectrum

of respondents was unable to be secured, which rendered the intent to compare the

results of project managers vs those who were not project managers impossible.


However, despite the inability to use the results as designed, the eventual results

proved useful, and pointed to the possibility of gaining further insight from a less

homogenous group of respondents. To supplement the results of this question,

another data analysis, not contained in the original design of the research, was

conducted.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF SURVEY QUESTION 15

The results of this question indicate an average score of 75.6%, which exceeds the

‘preponderance of the evidence’ test but falls short of the ‘clear and convincing

evidence’ test. However, as this question was based upon the 26 words appearing

most frequently in the PMBOK Guide, to help evaluate this question further, an

analysis of the origins of the concepts most common to project management was also

done, indicating that the body of knowledge generally ascribed to project

management (PMBoK Guide, 2004; PRINCE2, 2004) does NOT meet the intrinsic

requirement of a body of knowledge, that it is ‘esoteric1, abstruse2, complicated or

secret’ (Table 5.2).

As pointed out by Zwerman, Thomas et al. (2004) ‘professional status ultimately rests

on the ability of practitioners to lay claim to a more or less exclusive command of an

esoteric body of knowledge’ (p. 179). This is also consistent with Abbot (1988, p. 2).

Despite concern summarized by Zwerman, Thomas et al. (2004) that debate exists as

to whether a claim to a unique knowledge base is essential (pp. 39-40), as evidenced

by the fact that the body of knowledge is the only attribute which appears on both

traditional and non-traditional lists of attributes, which stands as evidence that

consensus remains that control over a ‘unique, esoteric, secret or abstruse’ body of

knowledge is an essential part of the professionalization process. Given that the body

of knowledge which project managers have identified comes from within the larger

body of knowledge associated with general management or business, there is no

rational argument to support a claim that the body of knowledge of project

management is or ever will be unique. This question was further elaborated by

Morris, Crawford, Hodgson, Shepherd and Thomas in ‘Exploring the role of formal

1 Merriam Webster 3rd International Dictionary defines ‘esoteric’ to mean ‘designed for or

understood by the specially initiated alone, that demand special training to be perceived and enjoyed, and its devotees form a cult’

2 Merriam Webster 3rd International Dictionary defines ‘abstruse’ to mean ‘difficult to comprehend or understand’


bodies of knowledge in defining a profession – The case of project management’

(Morris et al., 2006) where they conclude that ‘it should not be the professional

associations which define the body of knowledge, but researchers testing the concepts

theoretically and practically, lest we end up with a self fulfilling prophecy’ (p. 719).

Abbot (1988) invokes this principle when he states that ‘control of knowledge and its

applications means dominating outsiders who attack that control’ (p. 2).

Table 5.2 Source of the major elements of the project management BoK

Project management knowledge area (generic concepts)

Originator/author of the fundamental/ underlying theory

Technical discipline which produced the underlying theory

scientific management F. Taylor Industrial Engineering

systems thinking Weiner/Boulding/Churchman/ Senge/Forrester/Sterman Operations Research

contingency management Burns/Stalker/Woodward General Management

ethics Weber Human Resources/General Management management functions Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management strategic planning (prevoyance) Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management

planning/controlling/executing Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management

WBS Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management responsibility assignment matrix Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management

projectized org structure Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management management by objective Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management

MRP/JIT Fayol Mining Engineering/ General Management communications Mayo Human Resources/General Management

motivating Likert/Magregor/Mazlow/Hertzberg/Vroom/Locke

Human Resources/Psychology/ General Management

teams/teamwork Mayo/Mazlow/Likert/McGregor/Argyris/McClelland

Human Relations/Psychology/ General Management

contracts/procurement US Govt Procurement Legislation/Regulations Government Sector FARS

earned value management

F. Taylor/F.& L. Gilbreth/H. Gantt/US Navy/Air Force Procurement

Industrial Engineering/ Government Sector

customer satisfaction Deming Statistician/Industrial Engineer conformance to requirements Crosby General Management

fitness for use Juran Electrical Engineering/ Industrial Engineering continuous improvement Ishikawa Applied Chemical Engineering

statistical process control charts /plan-do-check-act cycle/six sigma quality

Shewhart Physicist


Based on Table 5.2, given that the body of knowledge is not at all unique to project

management, one can only conclude that project management is a subset or specific

application of general management techniques. This lends credibility to the results of

survey question 28, indicating that project management is a process, methodology or

system and not a profession. It also lends credibility to Drucker for his apparent

reluctance to make any claims what so ever that management of any type is a

profession. However, even though this body of knowledge is clearly not unique to

project management, the very fact that the underlying body of knowledge is so

pervasive and used by so many different occupations, stands as prima facie evidence

that it does meet the three criteria identified by Professor Turner, that:

the underlying body of knowledge is based in theory;

it has been empirically tested;

it has been proven to be scientific and predicative.

5.1.5 Key question 5 How much experience/apprenticeship/education is associated with the term profession?

Exhibit 5.5 Generation of survey questions 34, 35, 36 and 43 to answer key question 5 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Long period of training: a. higher education; b. apprenticeship, internship, residency


KQ5 How much experience/apprenticeship/education is associated with the term profession?

Hypothesis A profession requires at least a 4 year degree AND 4 years of practical experience.

Survey question SQ34 How many years of education beyond high school does it take to produce a professional practicing project manager? SQ35 How many years of university level education do you associate with the term ‘professional’? SQ36 How many years of work experience does it take to produce a professional project management practitioner? SQ43 How many years of apprenticeship, internship or supervised work experience do you associate with the term ‘profession’?

This hypothesis that a profession requires at least a four year degree AND four years

of practical experience is grounded in the ‘bright line’ legal cases cited from Polelle

(1999), Gawley (2002) and Rotunda (1997). In particular, Garden v Frier (1988) and

Jilek v Berger Electric (1989) stand out as being indicative that experience alone is


not sufficient to qualify a person as a professional. However, as can be seen from the

airline pilot case study, demonstrated and proven experience is preferable to a degree.

To resolve this apparent contradiction, the hypothesis was framed in the context that

neither a degree alone nor experience alone is sufficient. In order to earn recognition

as a profession, both elements must be present.

A common attribute or trait common to nearly all definitions is the expectation that

professions require a ‘long’ period of education and training. Based on the literature

research, this attribute is often broken down into two parts: 1) formal education,

usually at minimum four years beyond high school, but often longer. Polelle (1999) in

particular identified several US State Supreme Court decisions establishing a four

year education as one of the ‘bright line’ tests that jurists use to determine whether an

occupation is or is not a profession. 2) Some form of supervised, ‘hands on’ training,

apprenticeship, internship or experience-based element, designed to build

competency.

However, as indicated by Garden v Frier (1988), the Florida Supreme Court felt that

apprenticeship alone without a four year degree did not qualify as being a profession.

(Polelle, 1999). For the purposes of further discussion, restating the Merriam Webster

Dictionary definition, competency is defined to mean ‘the quality or state of being

functionally adequate, characterized by marked or sufficient aptitude + attitude +

skills + strength + knowledge’ (as for a particular duty or in a particular respect).

Results and analysis of survey question 34. Respondents to this question indicated

somewhat decisively (26.3 + 16.9 + 31.1 = 74.3%) that four or more years of formal

education beyond high school should be required to produce a competent professional

project management practitioner (Figure 5.12). As with other comparisons, 74%

exceeds the ‘preponderance of the evidence’ test (51%) but fails to meet the ‘clear

and decisive’ test consistent with Pareto (1896-1897) (80%).


Figure 5.12 Results, survey question 34

Results and analysis of survey question 43. Respondents to this question indicate

fairly decisively (44.2 + 18.8 + 21 = 84%) that four or more years of formal

Education beyond high school should be required to produce professional anything

(Figure 5.13). The responses to this question do meet the ‘clear and decisive’ test.

Based on these results, a project manager should require a minimum four years of

formal education beyond high school.



Results and analysis of survey question 35. Respondents to this question also

indicated nearly as decisively (20.2 + 21.5 + 40.5 = 82.2%) that three or more years

of working experience beyond high school should be required to produce a project

manager (Figure 5.14). Again, as this data meets the ‘80%’ test, that a project

manager should be required or expected to serve some sort of apprenticeship,

internship or mentored work experience.


Results and analysis of survey question 36. Respondents to this question indicated

quite decisively (25.9 + 20.2 + 12.1 + 18.1= 76.3%) that three or more years of

formal education beyond high school should be required to produce a competent

practitioner (Figure 5.15).



Discussion of results. The results of the survey indicate a fairly high degree of

consensus, and statistical analysis between the various demographic sub-populations

showed a substantial consistency across all demographic combinations and

permutations. With the exception of minor changes in weighting, no significant

differences of opinion were recognized.

The survey results for this question indicate quite clearly that nearly 85% of

practitioners believe that a four year degree or better is the mark of a ‘profession’, and

that more than 40% believe five or more years of university level education is

necessary for an occupation to be considered a ‘profession’. Given the current

requirements to sit for the PMP is only a four year degree or less, the results of this

survey may have profound implications for PMI and similar organizations offering

knowledge based credentialing programs.

By comparing the two questions above, I found the respondents sending a very clear

and consistent message that a four year degree or better is the minimum requirements

to have project management recognized as a profession (73%) and 48% saying more

than four years is necessary to produce a professional project manager. This further

supports the argument that current minimum education thresholds to sit for the PMP

exam are insufficient in the eyes of the global practitioner.

Yet I see a discrepancy between the experience levels practitioners believe necessary

to produce a competent project manager and the basic requirements established by

PMI. Currently, PMI requires 7,500 hours of experience spread over not less than five

years, nor more than eight years, for anyone holding less than a four year degree, and

for those holding a four year degree, the requirement is 4,500 hours spread over not

less than three nor more than six years. According to the input from the survey

respondents, ~40% believe the minimum should be more than five years and 60% say

four years or more. By contrast, the more technically demanding Certified Cost

Engineer (CCE) credential offered through the Association for the Advancement of

Cost Engineering International www.aacei.org requires eight full years experience for

less than a four year technical degree and four full years experience for holders of a

four year technical degree. Thus it would appear as though the AACE requirement

better match with what a global cross section of practitioners deem appropriate.


However, to reiterate, based on Garden v Frier (1988) and to a lesser degree, Jilek v

Berger Electric (1989), having the alternate of substituting years of experience in lieu

of a degree will certainly jeopardize any claims that project management is a

profession. (Polelle, 1999) at least from the important legal perspective.

However, recognizing that PMIs PMP, AACE’s CCE, AICs CPM and CMAAs CCP

and similar credentials are knowledge based, raises further serious questions about the

professionalization of project management. Virtually ALL other professions as well

as the more technically demanding trades, (especially those directly related to the

health or safety of the consuming public, such as electricians or plumbers) require

some form of apprenticeship, internship or residency, conducted under the guise and

mentorship of a qualified and reputable ‘master’ practitioner (often, with the master’s

license being on the line in the event one of the apprentices, through ordinary

negligence, causes harm). The use of some sort of demonstrated competency is

perhaps one of the most widespread requirements before an occupation can be

deemed a profession. This is consistent with the approach IPMA and AIPM have

taken and further supports by the more recent GAPPS initiatives. Beyond the scope of

this research but certainly a topic for further research is the nature of what kinds of

approach would be better in determining competency. According to Pew Research

(Finnocio et al., 2002) and US Federal Trade Commission’s Bureau of Economics,

(Cox, 1990) independent boards consisting of at least 50% lay people (consuming

public) should sit on these boards.

5.1.6 Key question 6 Is project management a calling?

The next attribute or trait common to most professions is a lifetime commitment.

While implicitly acknowledged by all researchers, Schein (1972, p. 19) specifically

identified a profession as one in which the practitioners ‘have a strong motivation’

and a ‘lifetime commitment’.


Exhibit 5.6 Generation of survey questions 16, 20 and 24 to answer key question 6 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Life time commitment


KQ6 Is project management a calling?

Hypothesis The term ‘accidental profession’ commonly applied to project management indicates that project management is not a profession.

Survey questions SQ16 I consider project management to be my life’s work. SQ20 I relate more to being a project manager than I do to working for any particular employer. SQ24 When I introduce myself to people, I would be more likely to do so by stating: ‘I am a project manager who works for XYZ company’ OR ‘I work for XYZ company as a project manager’.

Likewise the Merriam Webster definition, restated:

A strong drive or desire to do the kind of work normally associated with [project management] [Or insert your chosen occupation], by devoting considerable time and effort, over a long period of time, to master as much information, facts, truths, and principles as possible, by making a deliberate and concerted effort to develop, through training, experience, and by taking specialized adult education courses, over a life time spent as a [project manager], those systematic techniques to be able to execute the work of a [project manager] in a sound, business-like manner, by adhering to above average standards of ethical, moral and legal care, as defined by an organized group of practitioners with shared aims, the primary one being serving the interests of the general public. (Merriam-Webster, 2003)

Given the investment in both time and money necessary to prepare oneself to practice

in most professions is quite high, the tendency for people to choose carefully before

making such an investment results in a relatively high satisfaction level, as well as a

willingness to stay with your chosen profession once achieved. This has particular

relevance to project management, as it has developed a reputation as being ‘the

accidental profession’ (Pinto & Kharbanda, 1995).

Results of survey questions 16, 20 and 24. Whether the perception comes about

because project management offers such a low barrier to entry, because of a lack of

clear understanding by senior managers about the qualifications necessary to

effectively manage projects or some other reason is unknown. However as responses

questions 16, 20 and 24 show, there are considerable differences of opinion regarding

lifetime commitment to the occupation of project management.

These questions were not complicated and were designed to eliminate people

providing what they believe to be the ‘right’ or ‘best’ answer. The simplest and most


forthright approach was to ask the questions in a straightforward way, in the

assumption that respondents would be honest in their responses.

While the average score for survey question 20 was 77.8%, those scoring > Not Sure

averaged only 70.45%. Taken together, this does not send a solid message that project

managers consider their work a lifetime commitment, at least not in the context of

other occupations. Statistics on most professionals who decide for one reason or

another to ‘retire’ from a profession in medicine or law are thin, but two studies give

us some indication from which we can draw some comparisons. Alan Mascarenhas

(2006), writing in the Sydney Morning Herald on 7 September, quoted a survey

conducted by the Australian Financial Review stating that ‘45 per cent of young

lawyers surveyed confessed they wanted to quit their job within two years, with 9 per

cent planning to quit law altogether’. This fits rather closely with another survey on

medicine, conducted by the California Medical Association, which calculated that

‘10.2% of physicians were considering taking early retirement and moving on to

other careers’ (Los Angeles Business Journal, 2001, online). As can be seen from the

actual responses (Figure 5.16, 5.17 and 5.18), the messages are mixed. On one hand,

some 73% consider project management to be their life’s work. And approximately

the same percentage say they relate more to being a project manager than they do

working for any particular employer.

Question 24 may well give a more objective, if somewhat oblique picture of how

most project managers perceive themselves. Again, research on this subject is sorely

lacking, but based on the engineers’ obligation, opening with ‘I am an engineer’ is

strongly indicative of the thinking of professionals. ‘I am a project manager’,

therefore, was an answer to survey question 24 that was strongly indicative about the

respondents felt about their occupation. When asked a question about how they

would introduce themselves, 57% responded in a manner indicating they relate more

to a company than to their selected vocation.


5.1.7 Key question 7 How do project managers perceive the practice of individual ethics?


Key finding Adhering to a code of ethics


KQ7 How do project managers perceive the practice of individual ethics?

Hypothesis Project managers have professional level ethics.

Survey question SQ27 People who use my services as a project manager are not concerned about how I execute the project as long as the project is successful (using their definition of success).

The question of ethics is a hot one today. Global Crossing, ENRON, Parmalat and a

myriad of other relatively recent scandals have rocked the legal and accounting

professions, resulting in laws being passed mandating tighter accountability. Laws

such as Sarbanes Oxley and BASIL2 have been passed primarily because the

responsibility of professionals to police their own in exchange for limited anti-trust

protection has been eroded to such a point that the government has had to step in and

assume that responsibility. A true profession maintains, as part of their fiduciary

obligation to the consuming public, the implied promise that they will put the good of

the consuming public over their own interests or those of their company.

To test this hypothesis, I tried to phrase question 27 in a way that didn’t encourage an

obvious answer. Consistent with the principle of ‘clear and convincing’ evidence, and a

‘tipping point’ of 80%, which is consistent with Pareto (1896-97), anything less than a

score close to 80% positive for question 27 would be cause for concern (Figure 5.19).



56% of the respondents (those scoring > Not Sure or higher) felt that it didn’t matter

how they achieved the end result, as long as they satisfied the client or their sponsor’s

definition of success, and on average, 65% felt the clients didn’t care. This is a

disturbing number, for in today’s post Enron, Millennium Development Goals world,

ethics and clean, transparent governance are or should be the rule. This is supported

by the proliferation of corporate social responsibility (CSR), which the World

Business Council for Sustainable Development in its publication Making good

business sense by Lord Holme and Phil Watts (2002), used the following definition:

Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large. (p. 9)

The key aspect of codes of ethics is whether they actually are perceived to be focused

on protecting the consuming public, or are they being used to keep members in line.

As this is a credibility issue, this researcher looked to established professions such as

those represented by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) as being a

leader in this area. ASCE’s recent adoption of ‘zero tolerance’ for bribes and

corruption stands as a model for other organizations to follow. This is particularly

important as engineered projects play such a vital role in achieving the millennium

development goals for the developing nations. Therefore, recommendations from this

research are that organizations representing project managers adopt the same ‘zero

tolerance’ for bribes and corruption that ASCE advocates.

Essential to the credibility of the CoE is the perception that the primary focus is on

protecting the health, safety and welfare of the consuming public. In the case of

airline pilots and construction managers, this translates directly into physical safety.

However, to other users of project management as a delivery method, it also means

the financial safety, health and welfare by the practitioners towards their consuming

public. This is effectively the intent of Sarbanes-Oxley (2002), passed by the US

Federal government. Sarbanes-Oxley (2002) has relevance for project managers

(Kliem, 2006), as the level of accountability for fraud extends to those in the

organization who execute projects. The burden on the project manager to, in the event

they discover fraud, bring it to the attention of the appropriate manager, and if the

issue is not addressed, to ‘blow the whistle’. The EU and most other nations have

passed similar, if not more stringent requirements.


5.1.8 Key question 8 How do project managers compare against other professionals in terms of pro bono work?


Key finding Service to the public (pro bono work)


KQ8 How do project managers compare against other professionals in terms of pro bono work?

Hypothesis Project managers meet or exceed the total number of person hours donated by established professions.

Survey question SQ29 During the past year, I have donated the following number of hours performing voluntary, uncompensated community service requiring the use of my project management skills

In Gawley’s (2002) Protecting professionals from competition he made the point very

clearly that one of the differences between ‘a professional and a merchant is the

professional does pro bono work’ (Lexis/Nexus, online). This position is supported

by American Bar Association (ABA) Model Rule 6.1 which states that:

Every lawyer has a professional responsibility to provide legal services to those unable to pay. A lawyer should aspire to render at least (50) hours of pro bono public legal services per year. In fulfilling this responsibility, the lawyer should: provide a substantial majority of the (50) hours of legal services without fee or expectation of fee to persons of limited means or charitable, religious, civic, community, governmental and educational organizations in matters which are designed primarily to address the needs of persons of limited means; and provide any additional services through delivery of legal services at no fee or substantially reduced fee to individuals, groups or organizations seeking to secure or protect civil rights, civil liberties or public rights, or charitable, religious, civic, community, governmental and educational organizations in matters in furtherance of their organizational purposes, where the payment of standard legal fees would significantly deplete the organization’s economic resources or would be otherwise inappropriate; delivery of legal services at a substantially reduced fee to persons of limited means; or participation in activities for improving the law, the legal system or the legal profession. In addition, a lawyer should voluntarily contribute financial support to organizations that provide legal services to persons of limited means. (ABA, online, 2003)

While medicine is not quite as regulated as law, very clearly pro bono work plays an

important role in medicine. To test this hypothesis, the survey question was

constructed to have respondents identify the number of hours they donate pro bono,

and compare that against literature research for other occupations recognized as

professions, in this case, law and medicine (Figure 5.20).



The response to this question from some 400 plus practitioners indicates that 63% of

project managers dedicate 20 hours or less of their time to pro bono work. Compare

this against a survey done for the American Lawyer. A cursory examination of

information included in 1998 firm performance, as reported in the July, 1999 issue of

the American Lawyer appears to reaffirm the conclusions of the Galanter/Palay

(1992) study. According to that information, lawyers at the nation’s most profitable

and largest law firms, on average, donated 40.8 hours of pro bono service during the

past year3.

As can be seen from the survey data, only 20.2% of project managers donated 41 or

more hours, leaving 79.8% who donated less. This is not consistent with either law or

medicine4, nor is it consistent with a common attribute of professions.

Given that review of the literature consistently identifies commitment to the

consuming public as a prerequisite to being considered a professional, and given that

only ASCE, being but one of the professional organizations representing project

managers specifically address the issue of pro bono work and given only 20.2% of

project managers approach the minimum requirements outlined in ABA’s Model

Rule 6.1, in the area of pro bono work, project management is sorely deficient in

terms of meeting the standard for a profession.

3 Lardent, Esther F., Law Firm Pro Bono Project © 2000 The Pro Bono Institute ‘Making a Business

Case for Pro Bono Work’ http://www.probonoinst.org/pdfs/businesscase.pdf 4 Anecdotal information regarding planning Community Service Projects by the AMA

http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/8650.html


5.1.9 Key question 9 How do organizations representing practitioners compare against other organizations in terms of ethics?

Exhibit 5.9 Key question 9 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Professional association: a. enforces code of ethics b. establishes acceptable standards

i. performance standards ii. procedural standards (methodology)


KQ9 (original) How do organizations representing practitioners compare against other organizations in terms of ethics?

This attribute was ignored for the purposes of this research, as the question of knowledge based standards (test) vs competency based standards is a study unto itself and is being researched by others.

KQ9 (substitute question) If a robust code of ethics plays a key role in determining a profession, how do various CoEs applicable to project management compare against accepted professions?

Hypotheses There is a difference between the codes of ethics/codes of conduct of organizations which are recognized as professions from those which are not. A code of ethics adopted for project managers which clearly focuses on the health, safety and welfare of the consuming public will be a clear indication that project management is a profession.

Survey question Not a test question; investigated through key word analysis of professional society codes of ethics

INVESTIGATING CHAPTER 9: KEY WORD ANALYSIS

The role ethics plays in defining a profession is consistently important, whether the

research is a semanticist, economist, legalist, historian or sociologist. Given it plays

such a pivotal role in defining a profession, this research analysis was designed to

compare codes of ethics from a variety of different organizations including aircraft

piloting and construction management, against codes of ethics from those

organizations directly or indirectly representing project management.

Testing the ‘strength’ of the various codes of conduct used by those organizations

most often representing project managers was carried out to see if there was any

correlation between the various key words and if so, was it clear, implied or non-

existent. The organizations selected were the International Council on Systems

Engineering (INCOSE)5; American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)6; Australian

Institute of project managers (AIPM)7; Institute of Electrical and Electronics 5 See www.incose.org 6 See www.asce.org 7 See www.aipm.com.au


Engineers (IEEE)8; Construction Management Association of America (CMAA)9;

Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering International (AACEi)10;

American Institute of Constructors (AIC)11; American Institute of Architects (AIA)12;

project management Institute (PMI)13; Airline Pilots Association (ALPA)14. Table 5.3

indicates the key words and their frequency and use in the various codes while Table

5.4 outlines key words as a percentage of the words in the code of ethics.

Table 5.3 Frequency of key words as a percentage of total words in the code of ethics

Key words Phrases INCOSE ASCE AIPM IEEE CMAA AACE AIC AIA PMI ALPA Average Rankethics or ethical 8 8 2 2 3 2 0 15 13 2 5.5 1 safety, health, welfare 2 18 3 3 1 9 0 3 0 10 4.9 2 public interest 2 18 5 0 1 10 1 2 1 1 4.1 3 skill, knowledge 3 6 2 1 1 5 0 11 6 4 3.9 4 honest 2 5 2 2 1 3 0 4 13 0 3.2 5 conflict of interest 3 3 1 1 3 2 0 1 18 0 3.2 6 competence 1 7 0 1 2 2 0 4 1 1 1.9 7 objective or truthful 2 7 1 0 2 2 0 3 2 0 1.9 8 professional reputation 0 3 0 0 1 1 3 2 6 3 1.9 9 integrity 3 4 1 0 3 1 0 5 1 0 1.8 10 responsibility 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 7 4 1.7 11 fiduciary, agent, trustee 0 6 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1.3 12 kickback, bribe, gratuity 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1.3 13 dignified or modest 0 7 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1.3 14 confidential 0 1 0 0 1 4 1 4 2 0 1.3 15 sustainable development 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.9 16 corrupt 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.7 17 self or personal interest 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0.3 18 whistle blower 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.1 19 governance 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.1 20 total occurrences 27 119 22 12 19 52 5 55 77 25 41.3 total key words in doc 406 2199 466 268 571 1661 174 2639 3946 1407 1373.7 key words/total words 6.65% 5.41% 4.72% 4.48% 3.33% 3.13% 2.87% 2.08% 1.95% 1.78% 3.64% ranking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 profession ? Discipline Yes ? Yes No No No Yes ? Yes

8 See www.ieee.org 9 See www.cmaanet.org 10 See www.aacei.org 11 See www.aicnet.org 12 See www.aia.org 13 See www.pmi.org 14 See www.alpa.org


Table 5.4 Key words as a percentage of total words in codes of ethics

Key words

phrases AACE AIA AIC AIPM ALPA ASCE CMA

A IEEE PMI INCOSE Average

safety, health, welfare

9 3 0 3 10 18 1 3 0 2 4.9

fiduciary, agent, trustee

5 0 0 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 1.3

ethics or ethical 2 15 0 2 2 8 3 2 13 8 5.5

honest 3 4 0 2 0 5 1 2 13 2 3.2

whistle blower 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.1

corrupt 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 1 0 0.7

kickback, bribe, gratuity

0 0 0 0 0 10 0 1 2 0 1.3

dignified or modest

5 0 0 1 0 7 0 0 0 0 1.3

conflict of interest

2 1 0 1 0 3 3 1 18 3 3.2

public interest 10 2 1 5 1 18 1 0 1 2 4.1

governance 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.1

integrity 1 5 0 1 0 4 3 0 1 3 1.8

confidential 4 4 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 1.3

self or personal interest

0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0.3

competence 2 4 0 0 1 7 2 1 1 1 1.9

objective or truthful

2 3 0 1 0 7 2 0 2 2 1.9

sustainable development

0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0.9

professional reputation

1 2 3 0 3 3 1 0 6 0 1.9

skill, knowledge 5 11 0 2 4 6 1 1 6 3 3.9

total occurrences

51 54 5 20 21 119 19 11 70 26 39.6

total key words in doc 1661 2639 174 466 1407 2199 571 268 3946 406 1373.7

key words/total words

3.07%

2.05%

2.87%

4.29%

1.49%

5.41%

3.33%

4.10%

1.77%

6.40% 3.48%

profession ? ? Yes No ? Yes Yes No Yes ? No

INVESTIGATING KEY QUESTION 9: LIMITATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS

At the time the survey instrument was being developed, it was assumed that a cross

section of respondents from outside of the field of project management would be

responding. While ultimately, there was not a good response from people who did not

hold the job title of project manager, the broad cross section of respondents from


areas outside of project management (specifically, medicine, law, education,

commercial aircraft piloting, real estate development and banking) that was being

anticipated did not eventuate. Of the ~400 respondents, only ten were clearly from

outside the traditional world of project management, and there was nothing

statistically significant to deduce anything meaningful from their responses.

In relation to key question 9, it was hypothesized that a code of ethics which for

project managers clearly focused on the health, safety and welfare of the consuming

public would be an indication that project management was a profession.

Although the survey responses did not reveal the extent to which a code of ethics

influenced professional behaviours, having code of ethics was the top ranked attribute

of professionalization. It was anticipated, therefore, that there would at least be certain

key words used by professional organizations which could serve as indicators of

those organizations representing occupations already considered professions.

While this investigation proved promising, and some interesting results came out of

it, having neither the appropriate data mining software nor expertise in using such

software, this part of the research, which was not central to the project, must be

considered interesting and informative, but incomplete and inconclusive.

As can be seen from Table 5.3 there is no correlation between the total number of key

words contained in the code of ethics and whether or not the occupation is perceived

to be a profession. Statistical analysis of the data indicated no strong correlation

between any two or more key words and the perceived professionalism of the

underlying occupation. Although this was a disappointing result at odds with the

semantic theory at the base of this investigation, further research is required to prove

or disprove the hypothesis that in the wording and phraseology of an occupation lies a

predictor of its perception as a profession.

Organizational bodies and standards. Along with a unique, esoteric, complicated,

secret or abstruse body of knowledge, perhaps the second most important ‘pillar’

supporting the professionalization of an occupation is the requirement that

practitioners be represented by an organization. While these organizations can take

several forms, the most common are:


unions or other collective bargaining agents, which most closely resemble the guilds from which the professions evolved, with most members being self employed or employed temporarily (i.e. carpenters, electricians, plumbers, barbers & beauticians)

union or other collective bargaining agents, with most members being full time, ‘permanent’ employees of a single institution or organization (i.e. nurses, teachers, airline pilots)

voluntary organizations representing self employed practitioners working on a ‘fee for services’ basis. This group represents the traditional ‘professions’ (i.e. doctors, lawyers, architects, engineers, land surveyors)

voluntary organizations representing practitioners who are full time, ‘permanent’ employees. This group is much like that above, but without the organization playing a role as collective bargaining agent. The group includes many of today’s ‘knowledge workers’ [i.e software developers, chief knowledge officers, (CKO); Chief Information Officers, (CIO)].

However, these worlds are beginning to blur, especially between groups latter three

groups, as doctors start to join HMOs and work not on a fee for service basis, but as

employees. Architects and engineers also are less likely to ‘hang out their shingle’,

opting instead to go to work for a large EPC type construction companies (i.e Fluor

Daniel, Bechtel, Bouyges, Saipem).

These professional organizations serve three primary functions:

They enforce the code of ethics.

They are responsible for setting standards (best practices of the profession vs. normal and customary practices)

They are generally responsible to develop the methodologies, processes or procedures or, as in the case of the aviation, provide input to proposed regulations, policies and procedures.

The responsibility of the professional organization to set standards is considerably

more complicated. Firstly, there are generally recognized to be two general postures

to standards which an organization can assume: best practices of the profession and

normal and customary practices of the profession.


Why is it important? In legal terms, which standard an organization adopts

determines the criteria against which the practitioners will be judged. This is known

as the standard of care and is defined by Blacks law dictionary (2005) as:

standard of care n. the watchfulness, attention, caution and prudence that a reasonable person in the circumstances would exercise. If a person’s actions do not meet this standard of care, then his/her acts fail to meet the duty of care which all people (supposedly) have toward others. Failure to meet the standard is negligence, and any damages resulting there from may be claimed in a lawsuit by the injured party. The problem is that the ‘standard’ is often a subjective issue upon which reasonable people can differ. (See: negligence, duty of care). (p. 1447)

Setting the standard of care becomes important to the development of a profession, as

it determines the legal bar to prove negligence. Obviously, best practices clearly

establishes a much higher standard than normal and customary practices.

PMI has opted to take the route of normal and customary practices, as the PMBOK

Guide states: ‘The primary purpose of the PMBOK Guide is to identify the subset of

knowledge that is ‘generally recognized’ as ‘good practice’, with ‘generally

recognized’ further defined as ‘knowledge and practices applicable to most projects

most of the time and that there is widespread consensus about their value and

usefulness’ (PMBOK, 2004).

To counter potential criticism that the best practices of today would naturally become

the standard practice once institutionalized (personal communication), assuming the

objective of any professional organization is continuous improvement, the best

practices would not be a static standard, but an ever improving one.

The legal implications of this choice of words is significant, for if project

management is to be perceived as a profession, are normal and customary standards

appropriate for an evolving profession, or would it be better to upgrade the image by

adopting best practices and not merely normal and customary ones? This is an

important decision, and one which should be clearly explained to the member/owners

of all professional organizations in order that they might make an informed decision,

recognizing that in adopting best practice they will be held to a higher standard of

performance.


While the concept of legal care is evident throughout the writings of Polelle (1999),

Gawley (2002), Rotunda (1997); and legal definitions exist in Black’s law dictionary

and Nolo online legal dictionary, Wikipedia still provides the best summarized

definition:

In tort law, a duty of care is a legal obligation imposed on an individual requiring that they exercise a reasonable standard of care while performing any acts that could result in foreseeable harm to others. For an action in negligence, there must be an identified duty of care in law.

Duty of care may be considered a formalization of the implicit responsibilities held by an individual towards another individual within society. It is not a requirement that a duty of care be defined by law, but it will often evolve through the jurisprudence of common law.

Individuals who are considered to be professionals within society are often held to a higher standard of care than those who are not. Engineers and doctors will be held to reasonable standards for members of their profession, (as determined by their peers) rather than those of the general public in cases related to their fields. (Which are judged by the ‘reasonable’ or ‘ordinary’ man standard)

Breach of duty of care, if resulting in an injury, may subject an individual to liability in tort. Duty of care is an important prerequisite in the tort of negligence, as the duty of care must exist and must have been breached for the tort to occur. (Wikipedia, online, n.d.)

Lastly, the professional organization is responsible for creating and maintaining the

‘methodologies, processes or procedures’ which make up or constitute the normal and

customary or best practices.

Methodology, process and/or procedures in project management. While any

project management body of knowledge, done correctly, would be hard pressed to

qualify as being ‘esoteric, complicated, secret or abstruse’, perhaps the real challenge

which will prove to be facing the professionalization of project management lies in

the occupation’s methodology, process and/or procedures. Gartner (2002), Standish

(2004), FMI (2005) and other credible sources cite project failure rates of anywhere

between 20% to 60% or more.

To clarify the results of the Chaos Report (Standish, 1994) projects were categorized

by how they were concluded:


Resolution Type 1, or project success: The project is completed on-time and on-budget, with all features and functions as initially specified.

Resolution Type 2, or project challenged: The project is completed and operational but over-budget, over the time estimate, and offers fewer features and functions than originally specified.

Resolution Type 3, or project impaired: The project is cancelled at some point during the development cycle.

Overall, the success rate was only 16.2%, while challenged projects accounted for

52.7%, and impaired (cancelled) for 31.1%. (Standish, 1994).

Based on this rather ‘easy’ test for project success, there is something radically wrong

with the processes being used for project management. Key amongst them being the

lack of a competent and consistent project life span methodology (personal

communication]. Up until recently, most processes have been based on the scientific

method, assuming linearity exists between inputs and outputs, modeling project

management very much like an assembly line in an auto factory. Put the right

components in the right places at the right times, and finished products will roll off

the assembly line at the end, within budget, on time and substantially meeting the

technical specifications and any modifications ordered by the ultimate owner.

However, this is not what practitioners find happening, especially in the knowledge

society. What practitioners have are processes in which the end customer often does

not have a complete idea of what it is they want, except in the vaguest terms. In many

instances, what the client seeks has never been done before. Under these

circumstances, practitioners cannot use the scientific method. What is needed are post

methodologies, which are variously known as complex dynamic systems or complex

adaptive systems. Stated another way, in the post modernist world we live in, a

project becomes a living beast. We can monitor it and we can control it, but because

of the feedback loops continually acting to change the behavior, the outcomes and the

processes, what appeared to be a sound decision today may cause the project to fail

six or 12 months from now.

To address this issue, one need only to look more closely at the work of Dr. John

Sterman, Jay Forrester, Peter Senge et al. from MIT’s Sloan School of Management,

or the work of the Santa Fe Institute15. It appears that the professionalization of

15 www.santafeinstitute.edu


project management is being held back not only by a body of knowledge which is

fragmented, inconsistent and purloined from so many different sources, but by the

lack of a methodology(s) which can consistently deliver projects on time, within

budget and substantially meeting stakeholder expectations. Perhaps this is an

impossible expectation, given our current state of knowledge. However, the solution

more than likely lies in developing a better understanding of complex, adaptive,

dynamic systems. Whether this will come from project management organizations or

whether ultimately the systems engineering societies will eventually take over is the

subject of conjecture, but the issue of the methodology is at the very heart of the

professionalization of project management.

To put this in perspective, based on the Chaos Report (2004) and FMI’s 2006 Project

Management Survey of the Construction Industry16, it would appear as though project

management is today where medicine was in the 1700s – An emerging or evolving

profession based as much on experimentation, luck and good fortune as on sound

methods, procedures and practices (Standish, 1994; FMI, 2006). The Institute of

Management (UK) was founded in 1900, and only earned its Royal Charter in 2002.

It would seem that it took 100+ years to earn sufficient respect and gravitas to be

recognized as a profession. Project management may still have along row to hoe.

The problem of bias. In terms of the survey instrument, there seemed to be no way

to phrase the ethics question in a manner which would provide meaningful results, as

these types of questions, when posed to a population of respondents, will almost

surely result in biased answers. And in many cases, the practitioner may not even be

familiar with the professional code of ethics of the organization to which he or she

belongs. To get around this problem, firstly, the professional organizations were

asked to share their ethical violations statistics. While several were very open and

cooperative, most did not respond at all. To circumvent this lack of data, key words

from a broad variety of professional organizations were analyzed, some of which

represented known and accepted professions and others which did not. Professional

organizations whose members were likely to be involved in organizations who used

project management as a delivery system were favoured.

16 http://www.fminet.com/Research/ResearchMethod/index.jsp


To evaluate the enforcement of the codes of ethics, letters (sent via email) were

written to each of the four major organizations representing project managers, from

which responses were received: PMI; IPMA; AIPM; AACE; and three of the major

organizations representing construction project management, from which no response

was received: ACI; CMAA; RICS.

Each organization was polled to find out:

How many ethics cases are heard each year, going back as long as records have been kept?

Is the rate of ethics cases rising faster than or less than the membership growth?

How many members have been expelled from the organization due to ethics violations?

How many certifications have been rescinded due to ethics violations.

How many of the ethics violations were due to infractions of the code of ethics relating to actions within the organization vs. how many were for unethical/unprofessional actions of members coming as a result of complaints from the consuming public?

The results from this direct survey were indicative that the organizations representing

project managers do not aggressively enforce the codes of ethics. A second analysis

was conducted using key word search technology, to see if a comparison could be

made between key words used by those organizations which Are considered or

accepted as being professions compared to those which are evolving or claiming to be

professions.

This approach proved no more fruitful in answering this question than using the

survey or direct questioning of the organizations directly.

In summary. Key Question 9 addressed the original question, How do organizations

representing practitioners compare against other organizations in terms of ethics?

with a follow on question, If a robust code of ethics plays a key role in determining a

profession, how do various CoEs applicable to project management compare against

accepted professions?

While all the major organizations representing project management have codes of

ethics, it appears as though the enforcement of codes of ethics by these professional


organizations is weak at best, and when the codes are enforced, it has more to do with

controlling the membership to conform to the organizational standards than anything

to do with protecting the consuming public against fraud, charlatans or incompetence.

Given that, based on the results illustrated in Figure 5.11, respondents to the survey

ranked adhering to a code of ethics as being the highest rated attribute to practitioners

of project management, it seems there is a disconnect between what practitioners

expect from their professional organizations and what the professional organizations

are delivering.

Unfortunately, the results of Key Question 9 are a strong indication that Haga’s

(1974) posit that the primary role of the professional organization is to intimidate

clients, employers, governments is correct

5.1.10 Key question 10 Do project managers publish papers in peer reviewed journals?


Key finding Publishing in learned journals


KQ10 Do project managers publish papers in peer reviewed journals?

Hypotheses If project management is a profession, then project managers publish in peer reviewed journals

Survey question SQ32 During the previous 3 years, I have written and published the following number of articles in professional journals/publications.

An attribute implicitly associated with the need to create a unique body of knowledge

is the need to have a reputable peer reviewed journal or technical publication as the

vehicle to continually develop and refine that knowledge base.

As publishing in peer-reviewed journals is the basis for creating the unique body of

knowledge, it certainly is worth exploring the perceptions of today’s practitioners, if

for no other reason than to determine if they realize and recognize the importance of

this professional attribute to the on-going professionalization of their occupation.

This concept is firmly embedded in professional development, particularly in

scientific, engineering, medical and legal professions: that a member of a profession

has an obligation or responsibility to invest in the profession’s continued development

and success. ‘Giving back to the profession’, is an important concept, one that can


best be accomplished through formal education and training as well as community

education initiatives that attract and mentor the next generation of apprentices or

interns in the field. Some societies, such as AACE and ASCE incorporate such

activity in the codes of ethics belonging to the profession. For example, the American

College of Clinical Engineering describes clinical engineers as follows:

Clinical Engineers, by education and training, are members of a proud profession. Through their professional society, the American College of Clinical Engineering (ACCE), they have established a code of ethics, pursued peer recognition and certification programs, and developed a heritage of publishing, teaching and humanitarian programs designed to ‘give back’ to society and to prepare the next generation of practitioners. (Clinical Engineers, 2006)

Likewise, the prestigious Carnegie Foundation’s Initiative on the Doctorate states that

‘professional stewardship involves educating and preparing those to whom the vigor,

quality, and integrity of the field can be entrusted’ (Carnegie Foundation, 2006, p.

12).

Based on the literature research cited above, and in other parts of this paper, it is clear

that professionals are expected to publish papers in peer reviewed journals. It seems

logical that if project managers published in peer reviewed journals, it would lend

prima facie evidence supporting that project management too was a profession.

To test this hypothesis, a survey question was developed which enabled the

respondent to indicate how many papers he/she published in peer reviewed journals.

Responses could be compared to the levels of publications for members of recognized

professions.

As the numbers show, project managers (72%) don’t publish their technical work.

Lack of publication – the building and sharing of a body of knowledge – may prove

to be an indicator of the relative maturity of the professionalization process. As noted

in previous sections, project management has not offered new insights into the

conduct of the activity in more than 20 years. When compared against advances made

in existing professions such as law, engineering, science and medicine, it certainly

raises some important doubts about project management qualifying as a profession

(Figure 5.21).



5.1.11 Key question 11 Does advertising by project managers conform to other professional norms?

Exhibit 5.11 No survey question for KQ11

Key finding Advertising not permitted or restricted


KQ11 Does advertising by project managers conform to other professional norms?

Hypotheses As few project managers work on a ‘fee for services basis’ this question is irrelevant.

Survey question N/A

The issue of restricted advertising appears in most definitions of a profession,

especially those relating to law and medicine. In particular, MIT’s Edgar Schein In

most contexts, advertising relates either to ethical practices and/or image of the

profession (Schein, 1972) lists ‘limited or not allowed to seek out clients through

advertising’ (p. 21) specifically as number 10 of the 10 criteria he uses in defining a

profession. And by extenstion, thepractitioner as a professional. The issue of

advertising doesn’t appear to be of much concern for project managers, as relatively

few practitioners offer services for fees compared with doctors, lawyers, architects,

engineers or accountants. The exception to this is the field of construction project

management, which is covered in another section of this thesis.

However, assuming outsourcing is here to stay (Malone, 2004; Osenton, 2004; Peters;

2002; Friedman, 2005), then it may well be that more and more project management

practitioners from other sectors will follow the lead of construction management, with


companies specializing in project management, either on an ‘at risk’ or agency basis.

Should this evolve, advertising may well grow into an ethical and/or professional

image issue.

However, if the current practices in advertising advocated or tolerated in large part by

PMI are any indication, a serious issue pertaining to advertising exists which is

clearly harming the development/evolution of project management as a profession.

That issue is the blatant advertising carried in all sorts of PMI literature and online

that advocates ‘teaching to the exam’. If any organization wants to ‘protect’ the image

of their credential, claims of ‘earn your PMP in five days or your money back’ are

certainly not the way to go about doing so. Another example is Peter Nathan and

Gerald Jone’s (2004) PMP Certification for dummies. While the Dummies series of

books is generally well written, and while Nathan and Jones (2004) have produced a

quality product, at least in terms of the content, the question remains whether a book

of this title enhances the image of project management? If nothing else, shouldn’t this

be an advertising issue which has crossed over and becoming a potential ethical

violation? To quote from the relevant canons of the American Society of Civil

Engineer’s code of ethics (noting that AACE, IEEE, AIA and most other professional

organizations representing occupations already recognized as professions have or

contain similar phrasing):

Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others.

Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession. (ASCE Code of Ethics, n.d., online)

To put the issue in perspective, one is unlikely to go to the local bookstore and find

Brain surgery for dummies nor is one likely to find Commercial airline piloting for

idiots, nor Trial lawyering for losers. Most professional organizations or societies

include in their codes of ethics specific wording which prohibits advertising, activities

or behavior which detracts from the dignity and image of their occupational specialty.

Apparently, this has not been the case in the world of project management, at least up

to this point.


Because there are relatively few project managers who hang out their own shingles

(at least at this point) (Zwerman et al., 2004), the analysis of this question was limited

to comparing the various codes of ethics from those organizations which purport to

represent project management practitioners to see if advertising was addressed. A

literature review of ENR, Cost Engineering Magazine and the classified

advertisements for most project management organizations, indicated little or no need

for restrictions. The only analysis which indicated some cause for concern lay with

the advertisements in PMI’s magazines for PMP exam courses.

Table 5.5 Comparison of codes of ethics

Key Words phrases AIC AIPM ASCE INCOSE AACE CMAA IEEE PMI AIA ALPA Average Rankpublic interest 1 5 18 2 10 1 0 1 2 1 4.1 1 honest 0 2 5 2 3 1 2 13 4 0 3.2 2 objective or truthful 0 1 7 2 2 2 0 2 3 0 1.9 3 professional reputation 3 0 3 0 1 1 0 6 2 3 1.9 4 dignified or modest 0 1 7 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 1.3 5 advertising 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0.2 6 total occurrences 4 9 42 6 22 5 2 22 12 4 12.6 total key words in doc. 174 466 2199 406 1661 571 268 3946 2639 1407 1373.7 key words/total words 2.30% 1.93% 1.91% 1.48% 1.32% 0.88% 0.75% 0.56% 0.45% 0.28% 0.92% ranking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 profession ? No ? Yes Discipline No No Yes ? Yes Yes

The results are not conclusive one way or another. The two organizations in this

listing who are most likely to ‘hang out their own shingle’ and do work on a fee for

services basis are the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) who ranked #3 of

10 based on key words. Contrast this against the American Institute of Architects

(AIA), which ranked #9 of 10. However, only three organizations even mentioned the

word ‘advertising’ in their codes of conduct/ethics – ASCE, AACE and AIA.

Consider also that the Construction Management Association of America (CMAA),

which specifically represents companies which provide both ‘at risk’ and ‘fee based’

construction management, ranks below average in this area and fails to even mention

advertising in its code of ethics/code of conduct.


5.1.12 Key question 12 Is (or should) use of the title ‘project manager’ be restricted by law?

Exhibit 5.12 Key word analysis to answer key question 12 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Use of title is restricted by law


KQ12 Is (or should) use of the title ‘project manager’ be restricted by law?

Hypothesis As the term ‘project manager’ is so ubiquitous, there is no way at this point it could be restricted.

Survey question Key word analysis of the term ‘project manager’

The next trait to be explored is laws to limit or otherwise restrict or control how the

title or designation is used. Under the auspices of protecting the public from fraud,

charlatans or impostors, the use of certain job titles or descriptors are prohibited by

law. As an example, in the US, it is unlawful to use the designation ‘MD’ after your

name, unless you are a licensed medical doctor. The same applies to engineers. You

are not allowed to call yourself an engineer unless you have graduated from an ABET

accredited engineering curriculum.

Worth noting, the use of title restrictions is becoming less popular, as the ascendancy

of board certifications is becoming preferred to giving preference to an entire class of

practitioner. The Commonwealth Nations in particular seem to be loathe to encourage

or otherwise support professional title restrictions and other forms of restraint of trade

(ERAS, 2003; NSW, 2005].

The policy of the American Society of Civil Engineers provides some solid

guidelines for the use of the term engineer:

Use of the Term ‘Engineer’ Approved by the Committee on Professional Practice on January 17, 2004 Approved by the Board Policy Committee on March 12, 2004 Adopted by the Board of Direction on May 14, 2004

Policy The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) believes that the following standards are the only basis on which any title or designation should include the term ‘engineer’.

Graduation from an ABET accredited engineering program with a degree in engineering;

Registration as a professional engineer or engineer-in-training under a state engineering registration law; or,


An official ruling designating an individual or a group in an engineering capacity as meeting the definition of ‘Professional Engineer’ under the Taft-Hartley Act or the Fair Labor Standards Act.

Only persons in one of these categories should be designated by the title ‘engineer’ or ‘professional engineer’. This policy shall not be construed to prohibit using the word ‘engineering’ as a modifier in titles such as ‘engineering assistant’, ‘engineering aide’ and ‘engineering technologist’ where the title clearly implies that the duties of the position are not those of professional engineer.

ASCE further encourages registered professionals to always use their P.E. title on all professional correspondence and communication.

Issue Improper use of the term ‘engineer’ is sometimes confusing or misleading to the public. Employers and employees misuse the term in titles and resumes. This misuse of the title by groups and people who are usually knowledgeable tends to diminish the value of the title which should be applied to people qualified professionally by accepted standards of education, law and/or engineering practice.

Rationale There is a need within ASCE as well as within government and other organizations with practicing professional engineers to provide employee titles and/or classifications that properly identify the individual’s level of responsibility or expertise within that organization. A title such as ‘designer’ is not proper for a graduate engineer with several years of experience; ‘associate engineer’ or similar title as used by ASCE in designating professional grades is more appropriate and strongly encouraged. (American Society of Civil Engineers, online, n.d)

At this point, given the lack of any single definition of either project or project

manager and given the widespread use of the term, attempting to claim jurisdiction

over the name appears practically impossible.

The next best approach is that taken by the North American Real Estate sector. Given

that real estate agent was not possible to restrict, they took the next best approach,

which was to trademark the term realtor, thus restricting the use of that term only to

those who belong to the organization of realtors. Over the years, a brand image of

excellence has been realized by the realtors and for over 30 years, the brand has

gained in prominence and respect.


5.1.13 Key question 13 Are symbolic costumes, uniforms or other identifying insignia necessary to define a profession?


Key finding Symbolic costumes/uniforms


KQ13 Are symbolic costumes, uniforms or other identifying insignia necessary to define a profession?

Hypotheses Costumes and symbolic uniforms or paraphernalia are necessary to define or identify a professional project manager.

Survey question SQ17 When in a work environment, I am able to identify other project managers in my organization by the clothes they wear or some other identifiable part of their costume. (i.e. special tie, rings, headgear or other unique part of their dress or appearance)

An interesting attribute which was not very highly regarded or ranked by project

managers, but one that has significance in most professions, is the wearing of

symbolic costumes or uniforms. While easy to shrug off as being meaningless or

irrelevant, when one walks into a hospital, there is no doubt who the doctors and

nurses are. When you board a commercial airliner, the flight officers are readily

distinguishable from the flight crew. In construction, the engineers traditionally wear

white hard hats, and the superintendent or construction project manager often sport

gold hard hats. Other examples of symbolic uniforms which are seen frequently are

judges wearing black robes (and powdered wigs in most Commonwealth nations) or

Canadian engineers wearing an iron ring.

So while the issue of symbolic costumes or uniforms is unlikely to make a difference

in determining if an occupation is a profession, once established, it serves as an

important means of marking the territory and identifying oneself with a particular

occupation and/or rank in that occupation. The question is whether having a

distinctive PMP or other pin indicating certification by other credentialing bodies

constitutes a ‘symbolic uniform’. And is the need for a uniform or costume any

longer considered necessary as a means to lay claim to professional status?

Consistent with Abbott (1988), given that territoriality is the nature of the professions

and the organizations which represent them, then a uniform of some type becomes an

extremely important non-verbal means to immediately claim territory.


To test this hypothesis, survey question 17 asked whether a project manager can or

cannot be identified by his uniform. The resultant responses indicated the obvious,

that project managers do not have a uniform (Figure 5.22).


Whether or not pins such as those issued by PMI indicating PMP status or AACE

indicating the wearer holds their CCC/E will become the equivalent to the airline

pilot captain’s wings, or the smock worn by doctors remains to be seen, but remains

highly unlikely. However, as noted in previous discussions on this topic earlier in the

research, the importance of a uniform to the perception of an occupation as a

profession cannot and should not be underestimated.

5.1.14 Key question 14 Should project managers be licensed?


Key finding Practice limited by govt. license


KQ14 Should project managers be licensed?

Hypothesis Licensing project managers will protect the consuming public.

Survey question SQ37 I believe the primary purpose of occupational licensing of any profession is to protect the public from quacks, charlatans or incompetence. SQ38 I believe that licensing of project managers will lead to projects being completed on time, within budget and substantially fulfilling all technical requirements. SQ44 I believe occupational licensing of any type results in a monopoly and a form of restraint of trade.


The question of licensing is clearly a contentious one. Economists in particular are

generally not in favor of licensing. As indicated through earlier discussions, the noted

economist Eliott Friedson (1994) sums it up quite effectively by stating ‘professionals

differ from trade unions only in their sanctimoniousness’. The primary purpose of a

license is to protect the consuming public from fakes, charlatans and frauds. So the

primary question remains, will licensing deliver better project management?

Perhaps the most contentious yet important attribute defining a profession is the issue

of licensing. To test the sentiment of respondents, three types of questions were asked

(Figures 5.23 , 5.24 , and 5.25 ).

straightforward

obliquely from the perspective of whether licensing would result in projects being delivered faster or cheaper

a question to gauge sentiment on how project managers view licensing in general.





Given that responding practitioners, by a two to one margin, don’t perceive licensing

negatively as a form of monopoly or restraint of trade, and believe overwhelmingly

that licensing will serve to ‘weed out’ those who are incompetent, it would appear as

though licensing is perceived favorably by most practitioners. However, the fact that

those practitioners are mixed on their opinion that licensing will result in projects

being better run presents an interesting quandary. Given that licensing is generally

considered out of favour (Finnochio, Dower, Blick, & Gragnola, 1998; Cox, C. &

Foster, S, 1990) and is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future (Zwerman et al.,

2004), it may be unrealistic for practitioners to rely on licensing to guarantee

competence in the occupation.

However, the fact that South Africa has formally licensed construction project

managers may well indicate that one of the most mature users of project management

as a delivery system is also an early harbinger of changing attitudes.

As these questions on such an important topic indicate confusion, an appropriate role

of the project management professional organizations would be to educate their

members on what licensing is and what it is not, and come out with a position paper

on it, much along the lines of the American Society of Civil Engineers policy on

licensure:

Licensure

All states have laws that govern the practice of civil engineering. Known as ‘Engineering Practice Acts,’ the primary purpose of this legislation is to protect the health, safety and welfare of the citizens of that state.


Having an engineering license means more than just meeting a State’s minimum requirements. It means you have accepted both the technical and the ethical obligations of the engineering profession.

In many states, the typical requirements to obtain your professional engineer’s license include:

ABET accredited baccalaureate degree in engineering

Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination

4 years of engineering experience under the supervision of a licensed engineer

Principles and Practices (PE) examination

Each state sets its own requirements for licensure and individuals seeking licensure should verify the specific requirements in the jurisdiction in which they seek licensure. (American Society of Civil Engineers: Licensure, online, n.d.)

5.1.15 Key question 15 Should project managers be required to carry professional liability insurance?

Exhibit 5.15 Generation of survey questions 18 and 26 to answer key question 15 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Requires professional liability insurance


KQ15 Should project managers be required to carry professional liability insurance?

Hypothesis Project managers should carry professional liability insurance only if they are held responsible AND financially accountable.

Survey question SQ18 I believe that project managers should be held financially accountable for mistakes they/their teams are responsible for when managing a project.

SQ26 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ responsibility for the decisions I make related to the execution of the Project for which I am in charge.

Of all the attributes which lead to an occupation being recognized as a profession,

being held financially accountable for errors and omissions is probably the most

credible (Polelle, 1999; Gawley, 2002). Yet, given the fact that project managers are

rarely involved in the up front processes associated with creating projects:

less than 50% of the time- the sales and marketing people are normally charged with this responsibility from the contractors perspective and from an owner’s organization perspective, it is usually senior management who conceive projects, with little or no input from the PM until such time as the project has formally been decided on. (Schoppman et al., 2006, p. 6)

is it appropriate that the PM be held financially accountable for something he/she had

little or no input in defining?


Furthermore, with accountability also goes control. Not withstanding the results of

survey question 19, few project managers have full and total control over the

resources necessary to execute projects. So without input at the early stages to

determine delivery dates, cost budgets, technical specifications and methodology, and

without controlling the resources necessary to execute the projects, how can any

project manager be held financially accountable? To complicate the issue even more,

exactly what should a project manager be held accountable for? On time? Within

budget? Substantially conforming to specifications? For the purposes of the current

research, as time, cost and specifications were the standard used by Standish (1994)

in the Chaos Report and FMI (2006) in their Construction Survey, it will continue to

be applied here, recognizing that not all agree this is correct or appropriate, especially

from an owner’s perspective.

Should the project manager be held accountable for the functional viability, that is,

the products or deliverables of the project? Or should the project manager be held

accountable for following the proper process only, regardless of the outcome?

Looking to the medical profession, was the operation a success if the patient dies?

And if the patient dies, should the doctor be held liable? In this instance, US, UK and

Australian case law holds that as long as the doctor followed ‘generally accepted’

practices, and committed no errors of judgment or procedure, and the patient died,

then he/she is not liable (Polelle, 1999; Gawley, 2002).

Worth noting is the standard against which a doctor is judged is the normal and

customary practice, as determined by a peer review board, not best practice, but

normal and customary, and a review not by an independent body, but by peers. Thus

in order to develop a profession, the key elements of having a ‘proven’ or accepted

methodology, having substantial control over what is done, when it is done and how

it is done (resources), and being held accountable for following the established

procedures is the essence of having accountability. These are inextricably linked. Yet,

the only true non-proprietary ‘methodology’ in project management is PRINCE2.

Does that mean if you followed the PRINCE2 methodology without deviation and

your project failed, that one would not be accountable for the failure?

Further complicating this issue is the fact that the PMBOK Guide up until 2000 did

not claim to be a methodology. It was only the body of knowledge. The third edition


of the PMBOK Guide, however, looks more like a methodology. Assuming one did

accurately follow the process outlined in the PMBOK Guide, would that be sufficient

to absolve a practitioner from any liability should the project fail? And has the

implied methodology outlined in the Guide ever been tested, either in practice or

through simulation?

Applying the basic practices found in law and medicine, new procedures in medicine

are carefully tested, often on animals, before ever being tried on humans. Likewise, in

the case of the legal profession, the body of case law is an ever evolving, dynamic

process. The fact that any organization (be it PMI, PRINCE2 or any other entity)

should develop a methodology, and place it untested and unproven in the

marketplace, then imply by claiming those who subscribe to that methodology or

belief are ‘professionals’, borders on misfeasance17, especially in light of the Chaos

Report (Standish, 1994; FMI, 2006).

The results for survey question 18 represent one of the more interesting aspects of the

research (Figure 5.26).


17 Misfeasance is defined to be ‘Performing a legal action in an improper way. This term is frequently

used when a professional or public official does his job in a way that is not technically illegal, but is nevertheless mistaken or wrong. Here are some examples of misfeasance in a professional context: a lawyer who is mistaken about a deadline and files an important legal document too late, an accountant who makes unintentional errors on a client’s tax return or a doctor who writes a prescription and accidentally includes the wrong dosage’. (Nolo law dictionary)


In terms of financial accountability, 60% feel that practitioners should be held

financially accountable for ‘errors and omissions’, while 87% believe they have full

responsibility for the decisions they make (Figure 5.27).


While in terms of financial accountability, respondents meet the preponderance of the

evidence test, they do not meet the clear and convincing evidence standard of 80%.

However, responsibility for the decisions does meet that test. After analysis of this

result, a flaw was detected in this line of questioning. By not defining the scope of

decisions for which they were responsible, nor ascertaining whether the project

manager was accountable for resources, but without ultimate authority for making

decisions on the use of those resources, the question was rendered less than ideal.


5.1.16 Key question 16 Given autonomy in decision making is a key attribute of a profession, do project managers have autonomy in making decisions?

Exhibit 5.16 Generation of survey questions 19, 25, 27 to answer key question 16 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Autonomy in decision making


KQ16 Given autonomy in decision making is a key attribute of a profession, do project managers have autonomy in making decisions?

Hypothesis Autonomy in making decisions is a required element of a profession.

Survey question SQ19 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ autonomy in making decisions related to the execution of the Project I am responsible for. SQ25 In fulfilment of my duties in the role of a project manager, I feel I am able to consistently exercise discretionary judgment in how the project gets executed. SQ27 People who use my services as a project manager are not concerned about how I execute the project as long as the project is successful (using their definition of success).

Survey questions 19, 25 and 27 were designed to explore how practitioners perceived

their autonomy in decision making. As autonomy is generally considered to be one of

the pillars of an occupation being recognized and accepted as a profession (Schein,

1976; Abbot, 1988; Haga, 1972; Polelle, 1999) this series of questions was

exceptionally important (Figures 5.28, 5.29 and 5.30).

Autonomy is one of the elements necessary in order to expect financial accountability

of any manager (Figure 5.28). This means autonomy in determining the resources

necessary as well as in determining the timing and budgets. The average score of 3.85

out of a possible 5 (77.6%) while certainly meeting the ‘preponderance of the

evidence’ test (Nolo, 2006) and approaching the ‘clear and convincing evidence’ of

~80% (Tillers, 2005) is still not the kind of autonomy necessary to assume substantial

financial responsibility for a project.



The reader is asked what sort of control (autonomy) would he or she require in order

to be willing to assume financial responsibility for a project? 51% (preponderance of

the evidence)? ~80%? (clear and convincing). Or would you expect ‘beyond a

reasonable doubt’ (=>95%) (Saunders, 2003)?

In response to question 25 (Figure5.29), over 85% of the respondents reported being

able to exercise discretionary judgment in how their projects were executed. As in

previous questions, while certainly indicating a move in the professionalization of

project management, further research is necessary in order to determine better what

types of discretionary judgment project managers have been granted.



Responses to question 26 (Figure 5.30) also presented an encouraging picture, with

an average of 4.34 out of a possible 5.0, indicating a positive trend towards trusting

project managers.


The responses to questions 19, 25 and 27 warrant further research and confirmation.

What decisions (budgetary? time? resource? other?) have been delegated to the

project manager/project team to make? A look at Agile or eXtreme project

management methodologies or philosophies indicates that project managers do not

have control over either scope or costs. Assuming the pentagonal trade off remains

valid (the theoretical algebraic relationship between scope, cost, time, quality and

risk) (Wideman, 2004), the question of just how much actual control project

managers have over time, costs, human resources remains an important question yet

to be answered, for responsibility without authority doesn’t work (Drucker, 2001, p.

119).

Compare the responses on the part of project managers against the concept of the

‘pilot in command’ principle which forms the foundation for the commercial airline

pilot:










Finally, he must be ready during every second of his working life to defeat the ultimate emergency he may encounter at any time.

These responsibilities are recognized in the definition of his title of ‘Captain’, which means ‘in command’ and as such legally the final responsibility for the safety of the aircraft rests solely with the pilot in command.

It is these professional responsibilities that not only make pilots sui generis18, but also worth every cent of their pay and conditions. (Paterson, citing Captain Dick Holt, online, n.d.)

The statement by exemplifies the fact of autonomy for airline pilots. If project

managers were as autonomous in executing the projects charged to them, they should

also be held legally and financially accountable if they should fail to execute them

appropriately.

Consistent with the theme running through this entire research, the key lies in the

semantics. As was illustrated in FMI’s 2006 research, few of today’s project

managers, even those in construction management, with relatively high autonomy

(FMI, 2006), have anywhere near the accountability, nor the level of responsibility,

accorded a commercial airline pilot. Having stated that, the core attributes necessary

to establishing project management as a profession lie with the issue of autonomy and

its alter ego, financial and legal accountability (Polelle, 1999; Gawley, 2002).

18 sui generis: Latin for ‘of its own kind,’ used to describe something that is unique or different


5.1.17 Key question 17 Given identifying with the occupation and not with an employer is a key attribute of a profession, who do project managers identify with?


Key finding Identity not with employer but profession


KQ17 Given Identifying with the occupation and not with an employer is a key attribute of a profession, who do project managers identify with?

Hypothesis Project managers do not identify with their employer, but with the occupation of project management.

Survey question SQ16 I consider project management to be my life’s work. SQ20 I relate more to being a project manager than I do to working for any particular employer SQ24 When I introduce myself to people, I would be more likely to do so by stating ‘I am a project manager who works for XYZ company’ OR ‘I work for XYZ company as a project manager’

The next attribute or trait common to most professions is a lifetime commitment.

Given the investment in both time and money necessary to prepare oneself to practice

in most professions is quite high, the tendency for people to choose carefully before

making such an investment results in a relatively high satisfaction level as well as a

willingness to stay with your chosen profession once you have ‘arrived’. This has

particular relevance to project management, as it has developed a reputation of being

an ‘accidental profession’. Whether the perception comes about because project

management offers such a low barrier to entry, because of a lack of clear

understanding by senior managers about the qualifications necessary to effectively

manage projects or some other reason is unknown. However, as responses to the

survey questions show, answers to questions relating to one’s identity as a project

manager offer many discrepancies. A series of three questions (randomly interspersed

in the survey) was specifically designed to address the issue of the ‘accidental project

manager’ (Figure 5.31).

As can be seen from the responses, the messages are mixed. On one hand, some 73%

consider project management to be their life’s work and about the same percentage

relate more to being a project manager than they do working for any particular

employer (Figures 5.31 and 5.32).




When asked a question about how they would introduce themselves, however, 57%

responded in a manner indicating they relate more to a company than to their selected

vocation (Figure 5.33).



5.1.18 Key question 18 Those in existing professions enjoy high community esteem. What is the community esteem of project managers?


Key finding Held in high esteem by the community


KQ18 Those in existing professions enjoy high community esteem. What is the community esteem of project managers?

Hypothesis Project managers are not held in the same high esteem as existing professionals.

Survey question SQ21 As a project manager, I consider myself to be held in ______ esteem in my home (non-working) community because of the work I do as a project manager.

To paraphrase this question, would your mother be likely to be bragging to her

friends and acquaintances about ‘my son/daughter’ the project manager’? If the

answer to this simple question is no, then clearly, project management has yet to

arrive as an honored profession. Despite Fortune magazine (Stewart, 1995) calling

project management the career choice of the 90s and beyond, the hype has far

exceeded any reality supported by facts. Research published by the Tasmanian

(Australia) state government indicates( eGovernment, online, n.d.).

Research by HCI (2001) indicates that 85-90% of projects fail to deliver on time, on budget, and to the quality of performance expected. (HCI Journal, online, 2001)

KPMG’s International 2002-2003 Program Management Survey (2003) reported that in the 12 months prior to the survey, 57% of organizations surveyed internationally experienced at least one project failure. (KPMG, online, 2003)

A review of studies conducted by IT Cortex (2003) found that IT projects are more likely to fail than succeed and that the larger the project the more likely it is to fail. (IT Cortex, online, n.d.)

FMI, a management consulting firm and investment banker specializing in the construction sector, in their 2006 survey, discovered that only31% of construction projects finished on time and only 8% finished within budget. (Shoppmann et al., 2006)

Similar studies by Gartner Group (2003), Standish Group (1994), Engineering News

Record (ENR) and other reputable sources (Lewis, 2003; CIO Magazine 2003)

indicate that anywhere between 20% to 70% of projects are either canceled or ‘fail’,

with failure defined to be late, over budget or not delivering substantially what the

end user wanted, needed or expected.


To test this hypothesis, respondents were questioned about whether they felt they

were respected in their community (Figure 5.34). Note that when the survey was

being designed, it was anticipated that a cross section of respondents from outside the

world of project management would respond, and comparisons between the

perceptions of profession would be enabled. Unfortunately a cross section of

individuals failed to respond. While this thesis can report on the perception of project

managers among project managers, no crosswise comparison is able to be conducted.


While PMI in particular has done an outstanding job of ‘marketing’ project

management as a career choice, in order to move beyond the hype and earn the right

to be called a profession, the project delivery success rate must be substantially

improved by people becoming prouder and associating more definitively with their

occupation.

First hand experience indicates that while working on a successful project is

something one will always be proud of and remember, the rewards for someone on

the project team may have little or nothing to do with the success or failure of the

project and more to do with the environment in which the project was executed. It is

possible to work on a project team executing a failed project and still come away with

pride and satisfaction.


Compare this to a medical doctor who operates on a patient with a negative outcome.

A poignant example is the operation by Singapore’s Dr. Goh in June of 2003 on

Iranian twins co-joined at the head:

I asked and prayed about this quite intensely. At the end of doing my own post-mortem on the case, I think that looking back at the situation it was the correct thing to do.

It was done with the best of intentions, and with the best available medical plan that anybody could have made.

Although the outcome was the death of the twins, I think that we learnt so much from this case that it would benefit patients in future, and that it was probably an operation that carried a lot of benefits. (BBC: Hardtalk, online, n.d.)

This example illustrates yet another source of confusion in the practice of project

management. If one subscribes to Fayol’s (1896-97) element of prevoyance, the

strategic decisions identifying and selecting which projects should be done lie with

management. Stated another way, it should not be the project manager who is held

accountable for the failure (or the success) o of the project unless he/she plays an

integral role in the decision making process. In the case of Dr. Goh operating on the

Bijani twins, he and his team, along with the twins themselves, clearly understood the

risks involved and the odds of the project succeeding (separation), including one or

both of them suffering brain damage or, as happened, not surviving at all. Until or

unless a project manager is involved in the Strategic decisions, he/she should only be

held accountable for the planning, controlling, execution, and closing of the project.

Whether the product fails or succeeds should not be on the project manager’s

scorecard.

Compare this also to the Aloha Airlines example concluding the case study of airline

piloting. In order for project management to be enjoy high status in the community,

there must be solid evidence showing that projects succeed much more frequently

than they actually do. The real or perceived failure rate of projects is perhaps the

single leading reason why project management has not and should not be perceived

as a profession.


5.1.19 Key question 19 Those in existing professions earn higher than average salaries. What is the perception of project managers in terms of the salaries they earn?


Key finding Earn higher than average compensation


KQ19 Those in occupations recognized as professions earn higher than average salaries. What is the perception of project managers in terms of the salaries they earn?

Hypothes1s Project managers earn higher than average salaries.

Survey question SQ22 Compared to other people of my age and education level, in my position as a project manager, I feel I am compensated ___________ for my services. This important attribute was confirmed /reinforced by comparing the results of AACE's annual salary survey.

Compensation is one of the more traditional measures of having achieved

professional status. The response to this survey indicates 142/309 respondents

(~46%) believe they earn only average compensation (Figure 3.5). And 62% feel they

earn average or less compensation. While not being the primary determinant, these

figures certainly don’t indicate project management has achieved professional

standing.

Note that as data from this question was being analyzed, it became clear that the

salaries as a demographic were going to have limited value because of the multitude

of situations in which the respondents found themselves working.



Assuming that Haga’s (1974) posit that money comes as a result of autonomy and the

ability to intimidate clients, employers, governments is correct, however, it would

seem that the results from the survey question relating to autonomy are questionable,

particularly as those results do not match observations and private discussions with

many global project managers, and compensation is average at best.

In light of these contradictions and the failure of responses to question 22 to generate

adequate data, a global survey conducted annually by AACE was interrogated as it

was more representative and contained a better statistical analysis of the data than was

possible from the survey instrument developed for the current research.

Upon analysis, and comparing the results of the two surveys, a clear discrepancy

between the results of the AACE annual study and the current research was apparent.

The AACE survey data indicated above average salaries and a high level of job

satisfaction (Figures 5. 36, 5.37, 5.38 and 5.39) compared with the results from the

survey used in the current research, which had indicated only average compensation.

Figure 5.36 Salary by industry sector


Figure 5.37 Salary by project type

Figure 5.38 Job satisfaction by salary, all respondents

Of particular interest is the data taken from the AACE Annual Survey for Project

Managers only. Clearly, job satisfaction is not a function of salary, but something

else. This data is also interesting in that nearly 75% of project management

practitioners report they are somewhat or very satisfied with their jobs.

Figure 5.39 Job satisfaction by salary, project managers only

Compare the results from those holding the title of project manager vs. the results

from the total population of respondents to AACE’s survey and it would appear as

though project managers, despite getting more money, tend to be very dissatisfied and

at the upper end, comparing the general population vs. project managers, 79% report

being somewhat or very satisfied vs. 75% for project managers alone. Insignificant,

perhaps, but it may indicate at least a certain amount of frustration or stress for which

money alone is not able to compensate.


Part of the problem may be that project managers, rather than being compensated on a

fee for services basis, are, in fact, employees and are compensated more like nurses,

teachers and airline pilots, rather than doctors, lawyers or professional engineers.

However, as more doctors start to work for HMOs, and lawyers work for large firms,

this distinction may be blurring. However, if Tom Osenton in Death of demand

(2004) is correct, and the trend towards outsourcing continues, practitioners in all

sorts of occupations may find themselves to be essentially independent contractors

and not employees. If that happens, it will probably hasten the professionalization of

many occupations, for when one’s reputation and future work lie in their most recent

success (or failure, as the case may be), project managers, among others, will find

themselves under more direct pressure to deliver successful projects, which includes

the very important option of rejecting engagements which are not likely to succeed.

Of all the drivers which will lead to better project management, and stand to improve

the image of project management as a profession, this may well be the most

significant.

5.1.20 Key question 20 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the mystique which surrounds it. Does project management have mystique?


Key finding Mystique (average of 15, 23 and 0) (highly ritualistic procedures)


KQ20 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the mystique which surrounds it. Does project management have mystique?

Hypotheses Project management does not have mystique.

Survey question SQ23 People not familiar with project management consider what practitioners do to be mystical and/or highly ritualistic

This attribute is the first of the intrinsic traits, and perhaps one of the most intriguing.

When you are sick, and go to your doctor, do you ask to see his/her credentials or

CV? Do you question his/her every move? Do you haggle with him/her over the

amount of time it will take for you to get better? Do you ask for an estimate of cost up

front? And assuming you get one, do you arbitrarily and unilaterally tell your doctor

to reduce the cost by 20% and that you want to get better in half the time he/she tells

you it will take to get well again?


When you get on an airplane, do you tell the pilot that because you are in a hurry, you

expect him/her to land at your destination an hour early? Do you question the route

she is flying? Or the altitude? Or the speed?

The answers to these questions (one would hope) are of course no. When you seek

out the services of a professional, you rely on their reputation, (usually passed along

via word of mouth from someone you know and trust) and when you seek out their

services, the estimate (if one is even provided to you) is an approximation, and based

on their reputation and your comfort level (trust) in them. You accept whatever they

say, both in terms of time and cost.

Now, you may get a second opinion, but usually that applies more to the

appropriateness of the ‘solution’ than it is to the price and/or time. And most people

would laugh at the prospect of putting their next operation on Ebay. Yet that is

exactly what is happening today in the world of project management. As the

telecommunications and the IT sector regularly procure professional services for

project management using online auctions or e-Procurement methodologies. As it

seems highly unlikely that project management will ever develop the kind of

‘mystique’ where people will procure the services on a fee basis, and allow the time

and to a large degree the cost, to be determined by the practitioner, is highly unlikely.

To better appreciate the role that mystique plays in defining a profession, consider

each April (for Americans) when you go to see your accountant or tax advisor.

Because of the complexity of the tax laws, you, as the consumer, need to trust your

tax professional implicitly, providing him/her with your most private information,

faithfully following their advice in order to minimize the tax you have to pay. While

you may have an idea of the amount, rarely do you negotiate in advance for either

time or money.

As can be seen in Figure 5.40, the intrinsic attributes of implicit trust, a BoK which is

unique, esoteric and abstruse, as well as the cruciality are ranked #2, #3 and #6

respectively. This provides empirical evidence supporting the position of Zwerman,

Thomas et al. (2004) that there is something better than the traditional trait models to

define a profession. Whether this supports the ‘control’, ‘feminist’ or ‘conflict’

theories outlined by Zwerman, Thomas et al. (2004), or if it supports the findings of


Haga (1974) will have to remain for subsequent research, but regardless, the evidence

is clearly showing that some model other than the traditional extrinsic indicators is at

work.

As mystique consists of three sub-elements:

body of knowledge which is secret, esoteric or abstruse

highly ritualistic procedures

access to knowledge limited or restricted,

I used the same results from key question 5, body of knowledge for the purposes of

calculating mystique. To test the ritualistic element, the question was asked whether

project management is mystical or highly ritualistic.

Given that access to the knowledge of project management is definitely not limited or

restricted (just look in any magazine related to project management and this will be

abundantly clear), I felt this point was moot, and didn’t even measure it, simply

accepted it as valid in support of the hypothesis.

While it could be argued that the fact the occupation is known as the ‘accidental

profession’ stands as prima facie evidence in support of the argument that project

management could not possibly have mystique, the question needed to be asked.



The fact that 63% responded close to ‘not sure’ raises some question about the

wording of the question about the wording, as I thought it would be a more clearly

defined response. (Either a strong yes or a strong no) but that failed to happen.

Analysis of the data could find no meaningful correlation between any demographic

group.

While it could be argued that the fact the occupation is known as the ‘Accidental

Profession’ stands as prima facie evidence in support of the argument that project

management could not possibly have mystique, the question needed to be asked.

However, based on the BoK not being unique, esoteric, secret, abstruse or

complicated, a ‘not sure’ response to the ritualistic element and the undeniable fact

that access to the knowledge is not restricted, can only lead to the conclusion that

project management does not have mystique.

5.1.21 Key question 21 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the cruciality (criticality) of the services. Does project management have criticality?


Key finding Cruciality a. immediacy of need b. Importance of need


KQ21 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the cruciality (criticality) of the services. Does project management have criticality?

Hypothesis Project management does have cruciality/criticality.

Survey question SQ33 People who use the services of a project manager generally consider those services critical to the success of their project.

Cruciality is another of the intrinsic or intangible attributes. This attribute says that I

need your services now and no one else will do. An example of this is your favorite

hair stylist. Yes, you can use just about anyone who is available, but your favorite

stylist knows exactly what you want, understands you and has established a

professional bond or relationship. Examples of attempts to create this relationship

abound in the corporate world, with the creation of ‘customer care’ departments and

customer relationship management (CRM) software.. However, as a project, is by


definition a unique, one of a kind event, the ability for a project manager to develop a

long term bond, where the customer calls on the project manager for repeat business

is relatively rare.

Another example is the relationship built up with your family doctor. In many

instances, two, three or even four generations are being looked after by the same

physician. As noted previously, the very nature of projects doesn’t lend themselves to

developing a long term relationship, at least not with a specific project manager. So

while a client may have a fair amount of ‘brand loyalty’ to the company providing the

products or services, it would be unlikely to for that loyalty to extend to a specific

project manager, at least not over a long period of time.

So what about a company? Using the same analogy, do you develop the same kind of

loyalty to an HMO that you had for your family doctor? Professional services are

very much an individual thing, based on relationships. The Chinese call this guan xi

and while it plays a lesser role in Western cultures, it forms an integral part of most

Eastern cultures. If you are using a ‘Big 8 less 4’ accounting firm, is your trust in the

name of the firm or the individual who is responsible to provide services to you? If

that individual were to leave, would you be likely to follow him to another company,

or would you stick with the ‘Big 8 -4’ accounting firm?

While the answer to this question is patently obvious, (isn’t one of the major tools and

techniques associated with project management known as the ‘critical path method’?)

the question about the perceived criticality did need to be asked. As with previous

constructs, the assumption was that respondents would be coming not only from

project management, but from other professions as well, providing the ability to make

comparisons. As this didn’t happen, only a one sided picture can be presented (Figure

5.41).



The results, with 56% of respondents agreeing that their services are critical, still does

not reconcile the ‘accidental’ project manager. (If the services of a professional

practitioner were so important, how could an organization apparently randomly select

someone to provide those services?) In retrospect, the results of this question are

somewhat suspect. However, of the three intrinsic attributes – mystique, criticality

and dénouement – probably cruciality is the strongest of the three.

5.1.22 Key question 22 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the dénouement or the ability to produce positive results very quickly and without limited involvement of the consumer of the services. Does project management have dénouement?


Key finding Denouement quick solutions to problems


KQ 22 A leading intrinsic attribute for a profession is the dénouement or the ability to produce positive results very quickly and without limited involvement of the consumer of the services. Does project management have dénouement?

Hypotheses Project management does not have dénouement.

Survey question SQ19 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ autonomy in making decisions related to the execution of the Project I am responsible for. SQ25 In the fulfilment of my duties in the role of a project manager, I feel I am able to consistently exercise discretionary judgment in how the project gets executed. SQ26 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ responsibility for the decisions I make related to the execution of the project for which I am in charge.


Denouement is defined to be ‘the outcome or result of any complex situation or

sequence of events’ (Merriam-Webster, 2003). In today’s world it is often

exemplified by total customer care or Deming’s total customer satisfaction. In the

professional world of project management, it can be illustrated through this story, a

classic example of the principle of dénouement, the famous 1982 Tylenol poisoning

case.

The Tylenol crisis occurred in the autumn of 1982, when seven people in the Chicago area in the United States died after ingesting Extra Strength Tylenol medicine capsules which had been laced with potassium cyanide poison. This incident was the first known case of death caused by deliberate product tampering. The perpetrator has never been caught, but the incident led to reforms in the packaging of over-the-counter substances and to federal anti-tampering laws. At the request of later Chairman Joseph Chiesa, new product consultant Calle & Company rescued the brand with the invention of Tylenol Gelcaps, the first inherently tamper-proof [enrobed]capsule, recapturing the 92% of capsule segment sales lost to product tampering.

The management of Johnson & Johnson did not seek to blame, worry about

qualifications, specifications or cost. Their primary consideration was reputation and

the need to minimize the impact of the incident (make the pain go away and do so as

quickly as possible using whatever methods deemed appropriate and necessary),

using all the available talent in their organizational system.

Johnson & Johnson was praised by the media at the time for its handling of the incident. While at the time of the scare the market share of Tylenol collapsed from 35% to 8%, it rebounded in less than a year, a move credited to J&J's prompt and aggressive reaction. In November it reintroduced capsules, but in a new, triple-sealed package, coupled with heavy price promotions, and within several years Tylenol had become the most popular over-the-counter analgesic in the US.

Abbot (2006), in The systems of professions elaborates on the importance of ‘using

these metaphors as a means of promoting respect’ (p. 200). Through the use of

storytelling such as this, linking the profession of medicine to the work of project

management has proven to be an effective tool to not only build a culture within the

organization, but also to pass along the ‘lessons learned’. The effectiveness of this

methodology can be found in the Biblical parables.

In the event outsourcing becomes more of a norm than it is now, and assuming more

project managers truly do ‘hang out their shingles’, given human nature to


procrastinate, the professionalization of project management may very well develop

or evolve based on this model or scenario.

I strongly suspect that dénouement is what our clients and managers really want from

project managers. They want to give their project managers a project and then

magically, within their (often unrealistic) budgets, time frames and willingness to

commit resources expect the project to simply ‘happen’, with as little aggravation and

involvement as possible.

While the concept of dénouement is easy enough to explain through examples, it

becomes very difficult to measure.

Below are the actual questions as asked in the survey. Because of the difficulty in

translating dénouement into a simple English word or phrase, based on the work of

Freidson (1994, pp. 160, 163; 2001, p. 34), Abbot (1994, p. 163) and Haga (1974),

autonomy + responsibility + discretionary judgment were taken as a means of

measuring ‘dénouement’. But in fact, dénouement is more than that.

Based on the example of the toothache, the results by the respondents to the

autonomy question indicate practitioner, as practitioners, do not enjoy the kind of

autonomy in making decisions which is necessary to meet the standards of a

‘profession’ (Figure 5.42).


While the average results approach meeting the test of clear and decisive evidence,

tipping point or Pareto’s 80% rule, the results of this question are highly suspect.

Given that most knowledge workers today are employees and not independent


practitioners working on a fee-for-service basis, it seems highly unlikely that

management is willing to delegate decisions to project managers normally made by

C- or near C-Level Senior. Freidson (1994) is especially critical of this

misinterpretation of autonomy when he writes:

The substance (of the professionals) work under an employee-employer relationship is both created and evaluated by the employer, and their leeway, flexibility or freedom the may have in executing their jobs is a function of the goodwill and convenience of their employers….While such professionals, as a class, often have elements of discretion in the execution of their tasks, they are hardly so significant as to warrant the term ‘autonomy’. (p. 163)


As with the commentary above, Freidson (1994) is skeptical of claims made by

‘professionals’ who are working as employees and not on a ‘fee for services’ basis,

for only they realize the cause and effect relationship between their success in the

market place and the decisions they make today.



Interesting to note that the average score for responsibility is higher than that of

autonomy and considerably exceeds the ‘clear and conclusive’ evidence test, it seems

as though current project management practitioners feel they have more responsibility

than they do autonomy. Given the difficulties in testing for dénouement are so

subjective in the context of project management, (i.e. the same project executed for

the same person under differing circumstances may well experience different levels

of dénouement).

An example of the application of absolute responsibility can best be evidenced

through the principle of the ‘pilot in command’. Christopher McKenna (2006) hinted

at the importance of accepting responsibility by stating in the world’s newest

profession – management consulting, that ‘when the time came to reshape their

professional image at the end of the 20th Century, consultants shrank from their

definitive organizational challenge’ (McKenna, 2006, p. 251). What McKenna is

alluding to that management consultants, while offering advice, do not shoulder the

burden of failure if their advice is wrong. So it would appear as though one of the

bright line themes evolving from this research is the need for project managers to be

willing to accept responsibility for their projects. Some interesting anecdotal evidence

can be found if we look to the key words contained in Table 5.6, and see that

‘responsibility’ only ranked 11 out of 20 in terms of frequency of occurrence in the

various codes of ethics.

Table 5.6 Codes of ethics sorted by frequency of words and ratio of key words to total words

Key words phrases INCOSE ASCE AIPM IEEE CMAA AACE AIC AIA PMI ALPA Average Rank

ethics or ethical 8 8 2 2 3 2 0 15 13 2 5.5 1 safety, health, welfare 2 18 3 3 1 9 0 3 0 10 4.9 2 public interest 2 18 5 0 1 10 1 2 1 1 4.1 3 skill, knowledge 3 6 2 1 1 5 0 11 6 4 3.9 4 honest 2 5 2 2 1 3 0 4 13 0 3.2 5 conflict of interest 3 3 1 1 3 2 0 1 18 0 3.2 6 competence 1 7 0 1 2 2 0 4 1 1 1.9 7 objective or truthful 2 7 1 0 2 2 0 3 2 0 1.9 8 professional reputation 0 3 0 0 1 1 3 2 6 3 1.9 9 integrity 3 4 1 0 3 1 0 5 1 0 1.8 10 responsibility 1 0 2 1 0 1 0 1 7 4 1.7 11 fiduciary, agent, trustee 0 6 2 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1.3 12 kickback, bribe, gratuity 0 10 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1.3 13 dignified or modest 0 7 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1.3 14 confidential 0 1 0 0 1 4 1 4 2 0 1.3 15 sustainable development 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.9 16


Key words corrupt 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.7 17 self or personal interest 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0.3 18 whistle blower 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.1 19 governance 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0.1 20 total occurrences 27 119 22 12 19 52 5 55 77 25 41.3 total key words in doc. 406 2199 466 268 571 1661 174 2639 3946 1407 1373.7 key words/total words 6.65% 5.41% 4.72% 4.48% 3.33% 3.13% 2.87% 2.08% 1.95% 1.78% 3.64% ranking 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

profession ? Discipline Yes ? Yes No No No Yes ? Yes

5.1.23 Key question 23 How does the fiduciary responsibility of project managers compare against that of established professions?

Exhibit 5.23 Generation of survey questions 18, 19, 25 and 26 to answer key question 23 (Question details: Appendix A)

Key finding Fiduciary obligation to the public Question generated by the key finding

KQ23 How does the fiduciary responsibility of project managers compare against that of established professions?

Hypothesis Project managers do not exhibit a level of fiduciary responsibility comparable to that of established professions.

Survey questions SQ18 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ responsibility for the decisions I make related to the execution of the project for which I am in charge. SQ19 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ autonomy in making decisions related to the execution of the Project I am responsible for SQ25 In the fulfilment of my duties in the role of a project manager, I feel I am able to consistently exercise discretionary judgment in how the project gets executed. SQ26 As a project manager, I feel I have ________________ responsibility for the decisions I make related to the execution of the Project for which I am in charge.

Measuring fiduciary responsibility represents a major challenge. As Zwerman (2004)

pointed out, ‘project managers have never claimed that they are providing an

altruistic service’ (p. 173). Yet, at the same time, Polelle (1999), Gawley (2002) and

Rotunda (1997) all state in one way or another that fiduciary responsibility (which

Zwerman et al. (2004) refers to as ‘norm of altruism’) is one of the ‘bright line tests’

to determine a profession from a mere occupation. Based on the work of Wideman,

(2006) Kerzner, (2004) Louis (2003) and a host of others who advocate the ‘tetrad

trade-off’ or ‘iron triangle’ between scope, time, cost and quality, certainly implies a

fiduciary obligation of sorts, as the responsibility of the project manager is to


negotiate expectations between stakeholders who have competing or often mutually

exclusive needs, wants and expectations. Given that codes of ethics adopted by those

organizations representing project managers do not address the issue of fiduciary

responsibility directly, and the question of fiduciary responsibility is generally not

understood by the general public (Polelle, 1999; Gawley, 2002), I thought it

inappropriate to measure this attribute directly through a survey question.

This hypothesis is grounded on the work of Polelle (1999), Gawley (2002) and

Rotunda (1997) who all see the bright line test in legal parlance being the degree of

fiduciary responsibility to the end user of the product or services- i.e. the consuming

public. While the ‘tetrad trade-off’ implies some degree of fiduciary responsibility to

a variety of stakeholders, there is not clear distinction between which one takes

precedence and to whom the primary responsibility is owed. For that reason, it is

argued that project managers do not meet Polelle’s bright line test (Polelle, 1999;

Gawley, 2002; Rotunda, 1997).

Ultimately, the ideal test for this is attribute is defined by Polelle (1999) with his

statement:

the judiciary should decertify a profession for malpractice purposes if the profession eliminated or diluted it’s fiduciary obligation or else turned its enforcement mechanism into a sham. (Lexis/Nexus, online, Conclusion)

As Polelle (1999), Gawley (2002) and Rotunda (1997) all link fiduciary responsibility

to ethics, financial liability and autonomy, the results of survey questions addressing

the key questions around these concepts have been chosen to represent the numeric

value of fiduciary responsibility.

Based on the example of the toothache, the results by the respondents to the

autonomy question indicate practitioners do not enjoy the kind of autonomy in

making decisions which is necessary to meet the standards of a ‘profession’.



While the average results approach meeting the test of clear and decisive evidence,

tipping point or Pareto’s 80% rule, the results of this question are highly suspect.

Given that most knowledge workers today are employees and not independent

practitioners working on a fee-for-service basis, it seems highly unlikely that

management is willing to delegate decisions to project managers normally made by

C- or near C-level seniors. Freidson (1994) was especially critical of this

misinterpretation of autonomy, writing:

The substance (of the professional’s) work under an employee-employer relationship is both created and evaluated by the employer, and their leeway, flexibility or freedom the may have in executing their jobs is a function of the goodwill and convenience of their employers. (p. 161)

He goes on to conclude: While such professionals, as a class, often have elements of discretion in the execution of their tasks, they are hardly so significant as to warrant the term ‘autonomy’. (p. 163)



As with the commentary above, Freidson (1994) is skeptical of claims made by

‘professionals’ who are working as employees and not on a ‘fee for services’ basis,

for only they realize the cause and effect relationship between their success in the

market place and the decisions they make today.


Interesting to note that the average score for responsibility is higher than that of

autonomy and considerably exceeds the ‘clear and conclusive’ evidence test, it seems

as though current project management practitioners feel they have more responsibility

than they do autonomy. Given the difficulties in testing for dénouement are so

subjective in the context of project management, (i.e. the same project executed for

the same person under differing circumstances may well experience different levels

of dénouement).

An example of the application of absolute responsibility can best be evidenced

through the principle of the pilot in command. Christopher McKenna hinted at the

importance of accepting responsibility by stating in the World’s newest profession –

management consulting, that ‘when the time came to reshape their professional image

at the end of the 20th Century, consultants shrank from their definitive organizational

challenge’ (McKenna, 2006, p. 251). What McKenna is alluding to is that

management consultants, while offering advice, do not shoulder the burden of failure

if their advice is wrong. So it would appear as though one of the bright line themes

evolving from this research is the need for project managers to be willing to accept

responsibility for their projects. Some interesting anecdotal evidence can be found

when considering the key words in Table 5.6, where ‘responsibility’ only ranked 11

out of 20 in terms of frequency of occurrence in the various codes of ethics.


5.2 Summary of key question results

As we can see from the survey results, project management is not perceived by

practitioners to be a profession, but as a process, methodology or system. This leads

to the conclusion that people confuse the noun, profession with the adjective and

nouns, professional. We also see using three different approaches and removing bias,

that practitioners consistently rated project managers lower than MBAs but higher

than electricians. If nothing else, this will serve as a benchmark for future research to

see if project management is gaining or losing credibility as a profession. However,

while we know the rank order of project management as compared against other

occupations, we cannot tell just how much more or less of a profession these other

occupations are. To address this important piece of research , an attempt was made to

produce a true ratio scale. While the survey did produce a Professionalization Index

value for project management of 33.7%, without values from other occupations

against which to compare it, the results were only partially successful.

Figure 5.48 sums up graphically the three phases of the research that resulted in the

outcome outlined in Table 5.7.

Figure 5.48 Three phases of the research

276

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277

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n ag

ains

t the

bas

elin

e of

a fr

esh

grad

uate

of a

4 y

ear

univ

ersi

ty, w

ith n

o ex

perie

nce

and

no lic

ense

, mar

king

how

muc

h m

ore

you

perc

eive

the

rela

tive

valu

e of

the

occu

patio

n co

mpa

red

agai

nst t

he fr

esh

univ

ersi

ty

grad

uate

in te

rms

of p

rofe

ssio

nal

imag

e or

pre

stig

e.

SQ

s 39

, 40,

41

and

42

List

ed b

elow

are

pai

rs o

f oc

cupa

tions

. Fro

m e

ach

pair,

m

ark

the

circ

le th

at b

est

repr

esen

ts y

our i

deal

imag

e or

im

pres

sion

of h

ow m

uch

of a

pr

ofes

sion

eac

h oc

cupa

tion

is

rela

tive

to th

e ot

her.

if yo

u co

nsid

er th

em e

qual

, mar

k th

e 0%

.

SQ

47

Ran

k th

e fo

llow

ing

list o

f pr

ofes

sion

s in

the

orde

r you

pe

rcei

ve th

em to

repr

esen

t you

r pr

ofes

sion

al id

eal.

(1 b

eing

mos

t pr

ofes

sion

al, 2

1 be

ing

leas

t pr

ofes

sion

al)

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Pr

ojec

t man

ager

s ar

e pe

rcei

ved

to b

e co

nsid

erab

ly m

ore

prof

essi

onal

than

ele

ctric

ians

but

le

ss s

o th

an M

BAs

and

even

m

ore

less

so

than

pro

fess

iona

l en

gine

ers.

Doc

tor R

anke

d #1

/21

Airli

ne P

ilot R

anke

d #2

/21

Law

yer R

anke

d #3

/21

Proj

ect M

anag

er R

anke

d #1

4/21

Bu

s D

river

Ran

ked

#21/

21

278

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

Rel

ativ

e va

lue

or w

eigh

ting

of

each

attr

ibut

e K

Q3

Intu

itivel

y, n

ot a

ll attr

ibut

es a

re o

f eq

ual v

alue

. Wha

t is

the

actu

al

num

eric

val

ue fo

r eac

h at

tribu

te

by re

spon

dent

s?

Each

attr

ibut

e ha

s a

num

eric

va

lue

whi

ch c

an b

e ca

lcul

ated

an

d th

at th

e su

m to

tal o

f the

at

tribu

tes

will

prod

uce

a ‘p

rofe

ssio

nal I

ndex

’

SQs4

5/46

Be

low

is a

list o

f 22

attri

bute

s no

rmal

ly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith a

n oc

cupa

tion

bein

g re

cogn

ized

or

acce

pted

as

bein

g a

‘pro

fess

ion’

. Fr

om th

e se

lect

ion

belo

w, p

leas

e in

dica

te th

e re

lativ

e w

eigh

ting

or

impo

rtanc

e yo

u gi

ve to

eac

h of

th

ese

attri

bute

s. Y

ou c

an m

ark

any

valu

e be

twee

n 0

(No

impo

rtanc

e to

eva

luat

ing

or

dete

rmin

ing

a pr

ofes

sion

), to

a

max

imum

of 1

00 p

oint

s (E

ssen

tial

attri

bute

nec

essa

ry to

be

cons

ider

ed a

pro

fess

ion)

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Th

e ra

nkin

g of

attr

ibut

es b

y pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent p

ract

itione

rs

shou

ld p

rovi

de m

eani

ngfu

l gu

idan

ce to

thos

e or

gani

zatio

ns

com

petin

g fo

r the

hea

rts, m

inds

an

d m

oney

of p

ract

itione

rs.

Cod

e of

Eth

ics

was

rank

ed #

1/22

Tr

ust w

as ra

nked

#2/

22

Uni

que

BoK

was

rank

ed #

3/22

Pr

o Bo

no W

ork

was

rank

ed

#20.

22

Title

Res

trict

ions

was

rank

ed

#21/

22

Uni

form

s w

as ra

nked

#22

/2

Body

of k

now

ledg

e a.

uni

que

b. e

sote

ric/

com

plic

ated

/ se

cret

KQ

4 Is

the

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t bod

y of

kno

wle

dge

uniq

ue?

The

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t bod

y of

kn

owle

dge

is N

OT

uniq

ue.

SQ15

Pl

ease

eva

luat

e th

e fo

llow

ing

term

s or

phr

ases

by

how

uni

que

you

cons

ider

eac

h as

they

are

us

ed in

pro

ject

man

agem

ent

com

pare

d to

gen

eral

usa

ge

IMPO

RTA

NT

Whi

le th

e bo

dy o

f kno

wle

dge

did

mee

t the

pre

pond

eran

ce o

f the

ev

iden

ce te

st fo

r bei

ng u

niqu

e, it

di

d no

t mee

t the

cle

ar a

nd

conv

inci

ng e

vide

nce

stan

dard

. Fu

rther

rese

arch

indi

cate

d th

e re

sear

ch w

as fl

awed

in

mea

surin

g un

ique

ness

.

75.6

% R

ank

PM B

oK a

s U

niqu

e

Long

per

iod

of tr

aini

ng

KQ

5 H

ow m

uch

expe

rienc

e/ap

pren

tices

hip/

educ

atio

n is

ass

ocia

ted

with

the

term

pr

ofes

sion

?

A pr

ofes

sion

requ

ires

at le

ast a

4

year

deg

ree

AND

4 y

ears

of

prac

tical

exp

erie

nce.

SQ34

H

ow m

any

year

s of

edu

catio

n be

yond

hig

h sc

hool

doe

s it

take

to

pro

duce

a p

rofe

ssio

nal

prac

titic

ing

proj

ect m

anag

er?

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T It

is v

ery

clea

r tha

t pra

ctio

ners

te

nd to

bel

ieve

that

a 4

yea

r de

gree

or b

ette

r is

requ

ired

to b

e a

proj

ect m

anag

er. N

ot q

uite

cl

ear a

nd c

onvi

ncin

g ev

iden

ce,

but v

ery

clos

e.

74.3

% =

>4 y

ears

279

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

a. h

ighe

r edu

catio

n

SQ

43

How

man

y ye

ars

of u

nive

rsity

le

vel e

duca

tion

do y

ou a

ssoc

iate

w

ith th

e te

rm ‘p

rofe

ssio

n”?

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T R

epon

ses

to th

is q

uest

ion

prov

ide

clea

r and

con

vinc

ing

evid

ence

that

a 4

yea

r deg

ree

is

the

Min

imum

requ

irem

ent f

or

proj

ect m

anag

ers

to b

e co

nsid

ered

pro

fess

iona

ls.

84.8

%=>

4 ye

ars

b. a

ppre

ntic

eshi

p/in

tern

ship

/ re

side

ncy

SQ35

H

ow m

any

year

s of

wor

k ex

perie

nce

does

it ta

ke to

pr

oduc

e a

prof

essi

onal

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t pra

ctitio

ner?

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Th

is q

uest

ion

very

cle

arly

su

ppor

ts a

3 y

ear m

inim

um

expe

rient

ial b

ased

trai

ning

re

quire

men

t. (A

ppro

achi

ng

beyo

nd a

reas

onab

le d

oubt

)

90.2

%=>

3 ye

ars

SQ

36

How

man

y ye

ars

of

appr

entic

eshi

p, in

tern

ship

or

supe

rvis

ed w

ork

expe

rienc

e do

yo

u as

soci

ate

with

the

term

‘p

rofe

ssio

n’?

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T R

espo

nden

ts p

rovi

ded

clea

r and

co

nvin

cing

evi

denc

e th

at 3

yea

rs

or m

ore

of a

ppre

ntic

eshi

p sh

ould

be

requ

ired

befo

re a

pra

ctitio

ner

can

be c

onsi

dere

d a

prof

essi

onal

.

76.3

% =

>3 y

ears

Life

tim

e co

mm

itmen

t K

Q6

Is p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t a c

allin

g?

The

term

‘acc

iden

tal p

rofe

ssio

n’

com

mon

ly a

pplie

d to

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t ind

icat

es th

at

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t is

not a

pr

ofes

sion

.

SQ16

I c

onsi

der p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t to

be m

y life

’s w

ork

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Th

e re

sults

of Q

uest

ion

#16

and

20 in

dica

te th

at p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

do h

ave

a life

time

com

mitm

ent,

ye

t whe

n as

ked

how

they

in

trodu

ce th

emse

lves

, (SQ

#24)

57

% s

aid

they

rela

ted

mor

e to

th

eir c

ompa

nies

than

to th

eir j

ob

title

. Giv

en p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t is

kno

wn

as th

e ‘A

ccid

enta

l Pr

ofes

sion

’ thi

s ne

eds

mor

e re

sear

ch.

73.0

% Y

es

280

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

SQ

20

I rel

ate

mor

e to

bei

ng a

pro

ject

m

anag

er th

an I

do to

wor

king

for

any

parti

cula

r em

ploy

er

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Th

e re

sults

of Q

uest

ion

#16

and

20 in

dica

te th

at p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

do h

ave

a life

time

com

mitm

ent,

ye

t whe

n as

ked

how

they

in

trodu

ce th

emse

lves

, (SQ

#24)

57

% s

aid

they

rela

ted

mor

e to

th

eir c

ompa

nies

than

to th

eir j

ob

title

. Giv

en p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t is

kno

wn

as th

e ‘a

ccid

enta

l pr

ofes

sion

’ thi

s ne

eds

mor

e re

sear

ch.

70.5

% re

spon

ded

agre

e or

st

rong

ly a

gree

SQ

24

Whe

n I i

ntro

duce

mys

elf t

o pe

ople

, I w

ould

be

mor

e lik

ely

to

do s

o by

sta

ting:

‘I

am a

pro

ject

man

ager

who

w

orks

for X

YZ c

ompa

ny’ O

R ‘I

w

ork

for X

YZ c

ompa

ny a

s a

proj

ect m

anag

er’

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Th

e re

sults

of Q

uest

ion

#16

and

20 in

dica

te th

at p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

do h

ave

a life

time

com

mitm

ent,

ye

t whe

n as

ked

how

they

in

trodu

ce th

emse

lves

, (SQ

#24)

57

% s

aid

they

rela

ted

mor

e to

th

eir c

ompa

nies

than

to th

eir j

ob

title

. Giv

en p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t is

kno

wn

as th

e ‘a

ccid

enta

l pr

ofes

sion

’ thi

s ne

eds

mor

e

57.1

% w

ould

intro

duce

th

emse

lves

as

proj

ect

man

ager

s.

Adhe

ring

to a

cod

e of

eth

ics

KQ

7 H

ow d

o pr

ojec

t man

ager

s pe

rcei

ve th

e pr

actic

e of

indi

vidu

al

ethi

cs?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

have

pr

ofes

sion

al le

vel e

thic

s.

SQ27

Pe

ople

who

use

my

serv

ices

as

a pr

ojec

t man

ager

are

not

co

ncer

ned

abou

t how

I ex

ecut

e th

e pr

ojec

t as

long

as

the

proj

ect

is s

ucce

ssfu

l (us

ing

thei

r de

finitio

n of

suc

cess

).

IMPO

RTA

NT

56%

of r

espo

nden

ts c

laim

ed th

eir

clie

nts

did

not c

are

how

they

ex

ecut

ed th

e w

ork.

Giv

en

Sarb

anes

Oxl

ey h

as ra

ised

the

pote

ntia

l con

sequ

ence

s fo

r pr

ojec

t man

ager

s; it

may

wel

l be

a le

ad in

to fi

duci

ary

resp

onsi

bility

56.1

% S

ay th

eir c

lient

s do

not

ca

re h

ow th

e ac

hiev

e th

e go

als

and

obje

ctiv

es.

281

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

and

finan

cial

acc

ount

abilit

y. T

his

elem

ent b

ears

wat

chin

g as

it m

ay

wel

l fur

ther

the

‘pro

fess

iona

lizat

ion’

of p

roje

ct

man

agem

ent.

Serv

ice

to th

e pu

blic

(pro

bon

o w

ork)

K

Q8

How

do

proj

ect m

anag

ers

com

pare

aga

inst

oth

er

prof

essi

onal

s in

term

s of

pro

bon

o w

ork?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

mee

t or

exce

ed th

e to

tal n

umbe

r of

pers

on h

ours

don

ated

by

esta

blis

hed

prof

essi

ons.

SQ29

D

urin

g th

e pa

st y

ear,

I hav

e do

nate

d th

e fo

llow

ing

num

ber o

f ho

urs

perfo

rmin

g vo

lunt

ary,

un

com

pens

ated

com

mun

ity

serv

ice

requ

iring

the

use

of m

y pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent s

kills

INTE

RES

TIN

G

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

did

not

mea

sure

up

favo

rabl

y ag

ains

t do

ctor

s an

d la

wye

rs in

term

s of

pr

o bo

no w

ork.

Whi

le n

ot a

dire

ct

mea

sure

men

t of p

rofe

ssio

nalis

m,

pro

bono

wor

k sp

eaks

to th

e fid

ucia

ry re

spon

sibi

lity o

f a

prof

essi

onal

to th

e co

nsum

ing

publ

ic in

exc

hang

e fo

r lim

ited

antit

rust

pro

tect

ion.

20.2

% =

>40

hour

s (ta

rget

for

doct

ors/

law

yers

) O

nly

20.2

% o

f pr

ojec

t man

ager

s m

et o

r ex

ceed

ed th

e ta

rget

ed id

eal f

or

doct

ors/

law

yers

.

Prof

essi

onal

ass

ocia

tion

KQ

9 (o

rigin

al)

How

do

orga

niza

tions

re

pres

entin

g pr

actit

ione

rs

com

pare

aga

inst

oth

er

orga

niza

tions

in te

rms

of e

thic

s?

Ther

e is

a d

iffer

ence

bet

wee

n th

e co

des

of e

thic

s/co

des

of c

ondu

ct

of o

rgan

izat

ions

whi

ch a

re

reco

gniz

ed a

s pr

ofes

sion

s fro

m

thos

e w

hich

are

not

This

was

not

on

the

regu

lar t

est

inst

rum

ent

This

was

ans

wer

ed th

roug

h em

ails

sen

t to

the

exec

utiv

e di

rect

ors/

CEO

s of

maj

or

prof

essi

onal

org

aniz

atio

ns

repr

esen

ting

proj

ect m

anag

ers.

Al

thou

gh re

spon

ses

wer

e lim

ited,

it

appe

ars

as th

ough

mos

t of t

he

prof

essi

onal

org

aniz

atio

ns

repr

esen

ting

proj

ect m

anag

ers

do

NO

T ag

gres

sive

ly en

forc

e th

eir

code

s of

eth

ics,

at l

east

not

in th

e co

ntex

t of p

rote

ctin

g th

e co

nsum

ing

publ

ic. F

irst h

and

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T It

appe

ars

from

the

limite

d re

spon

ses

that

cod

es o

f eth

ics

are

not e

nfor

ced,

and

if e

nfor

ced,

ar

e en

forc

ed p

rimar

ily to

kee

p co

ntro

l of t

heir

own

mem

bers

, an

d no

t to

prot

ect t

he c

onsu

min

g pu

blic

. Thi

s is

indi

cativ

e of

the

prof

essi

onal

org

aniz

atio

n fu

nctio

ning

as

a un

ion.

Ba

sed

on th

e fa

ct a

ll or

gani

zatio

ns a

re c

laim

ing

to

have

set

sta

ndar

ds, b

ut th

ere

is

0% C

onfir

med

enf

orce

men

t for

vi

olat

ions

per

tain

ing

to th

e co

nsum

ing

publ

ic

282

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

expe

rienc

e an

d lim

ited

resp

onse

s in

dica

te th

ey u

se th

e C

oE

prim

arily

to c

ontro

l the

ir m

embe

rshi

p.

no c

omm

onal

ity o

r bas

elin

e ye

t, I

arbi

traril

y an

d un

ilate

rally

gav

e th

is a

val

ue o

f 80%

, con

sist

ent

with

cle

ar a

nd c

ompe

lling

evid

ence

, but

cou

ld n

ot ju

stify

be

yond

a re

ason

able

dou

bt, d

ue

to th

e qu

estio

ns o

f com

pete

ncy

vs k

now

ledg

e an

d m

etho

dolo

gies

vs

bod

ies

of k

now

ledg

e.

a. e

nfor

ces

code

of e

thic

s

K

Q9

(sub

stitu

te q

uest

ion)

If

a ro

bust

cod

e of

eth

ics

play

s a

key

role

in d

eter

min

ing

a pr

ofes

sion

, how

do

vario

us C

oEs

appl

icab

le to

pro

ject

man

agem

ent

com

pare

aga

inst

acc

epte

d pr

ofes

sion

s?

A co

de o

f eth

ics

adop

ted

for

proj

ect m

anag

ers

whi

ch c

lear

ly

focu

ses

on th

e he

alth

, saf

ety

and

wel

fare

of t

he c

onsu

min

g pu

blic

w

ill be

a c

lear

indi

catio

n th

at

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t is

a pr

ofes

sion

.

Not

a te

st q

uest

ion;

inve

stig

ated

th

roug

h ke

y w

ord

anal

ysis

of

prof

essi

onal

soc

iety

cod

es o

f et

hics

IND

ETER

MIN

ATE

Whi

le th

ere

are

indi

catio

n th

at

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t cod

es o

f et

hics

are

wea

k in

term

s of

fo

cusi

ng o

n th

e he

alth

saf

ety

and

wel

fare

of t

he c

onsu

min

g pu

blic

, no

cor

rela

tion

coul

d be

foun

d be

twee

n ke

y w

ords

and

the

perc

eive

d pr

ofes

sion

al im

age.

M

ore

rese

arch

nee

ds to

be

done

on

com

parin

g th

e co

des

of e

thic

s to

act

ual p

erfo

rman

ce to

reac

h m

ore

conc

lusi

ve re

sults

.

Base

d on

key

wor

d an

alys

is

usin

g to

tal n

umbe

r of k

ey

wor

ds/to

tal w

ords

IN

CO

SE w

as ra

nked

#1/

10

ASC

E w

as ra

nked

#2/

10

AIPM

was

rank

ed #

3 of

10

PMI w

as ra

nked

#9/

10

b. e

stab

lishe

s ac

cept

able

st

anda

rds

i. pe

rform

ance

sta

ndar

ds

ii. pr

oced

ural

sta

ndar

ds

(met

hodo

logy

)

This

attr

ibut

e w

as ig

nore

d fo

r the

pu

rpos

es o

f thi

s re

sear

ch, a

s th

e qu

estio

n of

kno

wle

dge

base

d st

anda

rds

(test

) vs

com

pete

ncy

base

d st

anda

rds

is a

stu

dy u

nto

itsel

f and

is b

eing

rese

arch

ed b

y ot

hers

.

N/A

N

/A

283

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

Publ

ishi

ng in

lear

ned

jour

nals

K

Q10

D

o pr

ojec

t man

ager

s pu

blis

h pa

pers

in p

eer r

evie

wed

jour

nals

?

If pr

ojec

t man

agem

ent i

s a

prof

essi

on, t

hen

proj

ect

man

ager

s pu

blis

h in

pee

r re

view

ed jo

urna

ls

SQ32

D

urin

g th

e pr

evio

us 3

yea

rs, I

ha

ve w

ritte

n an

d pu

blis

hed

the

follo

win

g nu

mbe

r of a

rticl

es in

pr

ofes

sion

al jo

urna

ls/p

ublic

atio

ns.

INTE

RES

TIN

G

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

did

not

mea

sure

up

favo

rabl

y ag

ains

t do

ctor

s, la

wye

rs a

nd o

ther

oc

cupa

tions

acc

epte

d as

pr

ofes

sion

s in

term

s of

pub

lishi

ng

pape

rs.

20.2

0% P

ublis

h 1

pape

r per

3

year

s, v

s 1

per y

ear f

or

doct

ors/

layw

ers

Adve

rtisi

ng n

ot p

erm

itted

or

rest

ricte

d K

Q11

D

oes

adve

rtisi

ng b

y pr

ojec

t m

anag

ers

conf

orm

to o

ther

pr

ofes

sion

al n

orm

s?

As

few

pro

ject

man

ager

s w

ork

on a

‘fee

for s

ervi

ces

basi

s’ th

is

ques

tion

was

dee

med

irre

leva

nt

to th

is re

sear

ch..

N/A

N

OT

REL

EVAN

T As

ide

from

con

stru

ctio

n m

anag

emen

t whi

ch is

don

e pr

imar

ily b

y fir

ms,

few

indi

vidu

al

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t pra

ctitio

ners

pr

ovid

e pr

ofes

sion

al s

ervi

ces

on

a fe

e ba

sis.

As

such

, res

trict

ions

on

adv

ertis

ing

have

little

or n

o di

rect

bea

ring

on th

e pr

ofes

sion

aliz

atio

n of

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t, at

leas

t at t

his

poin

t.

0% a

s fe

w p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

wor

k on

a fe

e fo

r ser

vice

s ba

sis

Use

of t

itle is

rest

ricte

d by

law

K

Q12

Is

(or s

houl

d) u

se o

f the

title

‘p

roje

ct m

anag

er’ b

e re

stric

ted

by

law

?

As th

e te

rm ‘p

roje

ct m

anag

er’ is

so

ubi

quito

us, t

here

is n

o w

ay a

t th

is p

oint

it c

ould

be

rest

ricte

d.

Key

wor

d an

alys

is o

f the

term

‘p

roje

ct m

anag

er’

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T As

the

defin

itions

of ‘

proj

ect

man

ager

’, ‘p

roje

ct m

anag

er’ o

r ev

en ‘p

roje

ct’ h

ave

yet t

o be

es

tabl

ishe

d or

gen

eral

ly

acce

pted

, ra

ises

que

stio

ns a

bout

th

e ab

ility

of th

e oc

cupa

tion

to

defin

e bo

unda

ries

or ‘t

urf’.

0% a

s tr

ying

to c

ontro

l the

term

at

this

poi

nt w

ould

be

prac

tical

ly

impo

ssib

le

284

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

Sym

bolic

cos

tum

es/u

nifo

rms

KQ

13

Are

sym

bolic

cos

tum

es, u

nifo

rms

or o

ther

iden

tifyi

ng in

sign

ia

nece

ssar

y to

def

ine

a pr

ofes

sion

?

Cos

tum

es a

nd s

ymbo

lic u

nifo

rms

or p

arap

hern

alia

are

nec

essa

ry to

de

fine

or id

entif

y a

prof

essi

onal

pr

ojec

t man

ager

.

SQ17

W

hen

in a

wor

k en

viro

nmen

t, I

am a

ble

to id

entif

y ot

her p

roje

ct

man

ager

s in

my

orga

niza

tion

by

the

clot

hes

they

wea

r or s

ome

othe

r ide

ntifia

ble

part

of th

eir

cost

ume.

(i.e

. spe

cial

tie,

ring

s,

head

gear

or o

ther

uni

que

part

of

thei

r dre

ss o

r app

eara

nce)

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T W

hile

the

ques

tion

of u

nifo

rms

seem

s on

the

surfa

ce to

be

irrel

evan

t and

alm

ost l

augh

able

, th

e ro

le u

nifo

rms

play

in a

n oc

cupa

tion

bein

g pe

rcei

ved

as a

pr

ofes

sion

is a

sub

tle y

et s

erio

us

one.

6.20

% s

aid

Yes

they

wer

e ab

le to

id

entif

y co

lleag

ues

by th

eir

unifo

rm o

r cos

tum

e.

Prac

tice

limite

d by

gov

t. lic

ense

K

Q14

Sh

ould

pro

ject

man

ager

s be

lic

ense

d?

Lice

nsin

g pr

ojec

t man

ager

s w

ill pr

otec

t the

con

sum

ing

publ

ic.

SQ37

I b

elie

ve th

e pr

imar

y pu

rpos

e of

oc

cupa

tiona

l lice

nsin

g of

any

pr

ofes

sion

is to

pro

tect

the

publ

ic

from

qua

cks,

cha

rlata

ns o

r in

com

pete

nce.

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T U

ltimat

ely,

licen

sing

bec

omes

on

e of

the

defa

cto

crite

ria fo

r an

occu

patio

n to

take

the

first

pr

elim

inar

y st

eps

tow

ards

be

com

ing

a pr

ofes

sion

. lic

ensi

ng,(l

imite

d an

ti-tru

st

prot

ectio

n) fi

duci

ary

resp

onsi

bility

an

d fin

anci

al a

ccou

ntab

ility

form

th

e th

ree

prim

ary

pilla

rs o

f any

oc

cupa

tion

bein

g re

cogn

ized

and

ac

cept

ed a

s a

prof

essi

on.

Whi

le 8

7.10

% s

aid

Yes,

they

be

lieve

d oc

cupa

tion

licen

sing

will

prot

ect t

he c

onsu

min

g pu

blic

……

.

SQ

38

I bel

ieve

that

licen

sing

of p

roje

ct

man

ager

s w

ill le

ad to

pro

ject

s be

ing

com

plet

ed o

n tim

e, w

ithin

bu

dget

and

sub

stan

tially

fulfil

ling

all t

echn

ical

requ

irem

ents

.

…

. onl

y 43

% b

elie

ve lic

ensi

ng w

ill he

lp d

eliv

er p

roje

cts

on ti

me,

w

ithin

bud

get w

hile

sub

stan

tially

co

nfor

min

g to

requ

irem

ents

w

hile

…

SQ

44

I bel

ieve

occ

upat

iona

l lice

nsin

g of

an

y ty

pe re

sults

in a

mon

opol

y an

d a

form

of r

estra

int o

f tra

de.

…

.. 72

.8%

of r

espo

nden

ts d

o N

OT

belie

ve lic

ensi

ng re

sults

in a

re

stra

int o

f tra

de…

…

285

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

Req

uire

s pr

ofes

sion

al lia

bility

in

sura

nce

KQ

15

Shou

ld p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

be

requ

ired

to c

arry

pro

fess

iona

l lia

bility

insu

ranc

e?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

shou

ld c

arry

pr

ofes

sion

al lia

bility

insu

ranc

e on

ly if

they

are

hel

d re

spon

sibl

e AN

D fi

nanc

ially

acc

ount

able

.

SQ18

I b

elie

ve th

at p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

shou

ld b

e he

ld fi

nanc

ially

ac

coun

tabl

e fo

r mis

take

s th

ey/th

eir t

eam

s ar

e re

spon

sibl

e fo

r whe

n m

anag

ing

a pr

ojec

t.

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Al

ong

with

licen

sing

and

fina

ncia

l re

spon

sibi

lity fo

r one

s er

rors

and

om

issi

ons,

fid

ucia

ry re

spon

sibi

lity

to th

e co

nsum

ing

publ

ic b

ecom

es

one

of th

e de

fact

o cr

iteria

for a

n oc

cupa

tion

to e

arn

reco

gnitio

n as

a

prof

essi

on.

Onl

y 60

.4%

of r

espo

nden

ts

agre

ed th

ey s

houl

d be

hel

d fin

anci

ally

acc

ount

able

for t

heir

erro

rs a

nd o

mis

sion

s, w

hile

….

SQ

26

As a

pro

ject

man

ager

, I fe

el I

have

___

____

____

____

_ re

spon

sibi

lity fo

r the

dec

isio

ns I

mak

e re

late

d to

the

exec

utio

n of

th

e pr

ojec

t for

whi

ch I

am in

ch

arge

.

…

. on

aver

age,

som

e 87

% fe

lt th

ey h

ad fu

ll or n

early

full

resp

onsi

bility

for t

he d

ecis

ions

th

ey m

ade.

Auto

nom

y in

dec

isio

n m

akin

g K

Q16

G

iven

aut

onom

y in

dec

isio

n m

akin

g is

a k

ey a

ttrib

ute

of a

pr

ofes

sion

, do

proj

ect m

anag

ers

have

aut

onom

y in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s?

Auto

nom

y in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s is

a

requ

ired

elem

ent o

f a

prof

essi

on.

SQ19

As

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

feel

I ha

ve _

____

____

____

___

auto

nom

y in

mak

ing

deci

sion

s re

late

d to

the

exec

utio

n of

the

Proj

ect I

am

resp

onsi

ble

for.

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Au

tono

my

in d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

is a

co

re e

lem

ent o

f bot

h fid

ucia

ry

resp

onsi

bility

and

it's

alte

r ego

, fin

anci

al re

spon

sibi

lity. (

How

can

on

e be

hel

d fin

anci

ally

or m

oral

ly

resp

onsi

ble

over

that

whi

ch th

ere

is n

o co

ntro

l?)

On

aver

age,

the

resp

onde

nts

scor

ed 3

.85/

5 or

77%

that

they

ha

ve a

uton

omy,

whi

le…

..

286

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

SQ

25

In th

e fu

lfilm

ent o

f my

dutie

s in

th

e ro

le o

f a P

roje

ct M

anag

er, I

fe

el I

am a

ble

to c

onsi

sten

tly

exer

cise

dis

cret

iona

ry ju

dgm

ent

in h

ow th

e pr

ojec

t ge

ts e

xecu

ted

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Tr

ying

to p

hras

e th

e qu

estio

n an

othe

r way

, res

pond

ents

in

dica

ted

they

feel

they

do

have

di

scre

tiona

ry ju

dgem

ent i

n ru

nnin

g th

eir p

roje

cts.

How

ever

, as

few

hav

e co

ntro

l ove

r bud

gets

, re

sour

ces

or ti

min

g, th

is q

uest

ion

indi

cate

s a

wea

knes

s in

the

wor

ding

. Per

haps

with

in th

e co

nstra

ints

set

by

othe

rs th

ey

have

dis

cret

ion,

but

que

stio

nabl

e if

they

hav

e th

e sa

me

disc

retio

n ty

pica

lly a

scrib

ed to

trad

itiona

l pr

ofes

sion

s

….p

hras

ed a

noth

er w

ay, 8

5% o

f re

spon

dent

s in

dica

ted

they

felt

they

DO

hav

e di

scre

tiona

ry

resp

onsi

bility

in m

akin

g de

cisi

ons…

SQ

27

Peop

le w

ho u

se m

y se

rvic

es a

s a

Proj

ect M

anag

er a

re n

ot

conc

erne

d ab

out h

ow I

exec

ute

the

proj

ect a

s lo

ng a

s th

e pr

ojec

t is

suc

cess

ful (

usin

g th

eir d

efin

ition

of s

ucce

ss

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Al

ong

with

licen

sing

and

fina

ncia

l re

spon

sibi

lity fo

r one

s er

rors

and

om

issi

ons,

fidu

ciar

y re

spon

sibi

lity

to th

e co

nsum

ing

publ

ic b

ecom

es

one

of th

e de

fact

o cr

iteria

for a

n oc

cupa

tion

to e

arn

reco

gnitio

n as

a

prof

essi

on.

…ho

wev

er,

whe

n as

ked

abou

t w

heth

er th

eir c

lient

s ca

red

abou

t ho

w th

ey e

xecu

ted

the

proj

ect,

the

scor

e dr

oppe

d to

3.2

5/5

or

65%

, ind

icat

ing

som

e tre

pida

tion.

Iden

tity

not w

ith e

mpl

oyer

but

pr

ofes

sion

K

Q17

G

iven

Iden

tifyi

ng w

ith th

e oc

cupa

tion

and

not w

ith a

n em

ploy

er is

a k

ey a

ttrib

ute

of a

pr

ofes

sion

, who

do

proj

ect

man

ager

s id

entif

y w

ith?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

do n

ot id

entif

y w

ith th

eir e

mpl

oyer

, but

with

the

occu

patio

n of

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t.

SQ16

I c

onsi

der p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t to

be m

y life

’s w

ork

Whi

le 7

3% s

aid

yes,

pro

ject

m

anag

emen

t was

thei

r life

’s

wor

k, a

nd…

…..

SQ

20

I rel

ate

mor

e to

bei

ng a

pro

ject

m

anag

er th

an I

do to

wor

king

for

any

parti

cula

r em

ploy

er

…77

% c

laim

ed to

rela

te m

ore

to

thei

r jo

b as

pro

ject

m

anag

ers,

……

.

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Th

e co

mpi

latio

n of

this

rese

arch

pr

oduc

ed C

ON

FLIC

TIN

G re

sults

. Th

e fa

ct th

e re

sults

are

in c

onflic

t do

es h

ave

mea

ning

in th

e co

ntex

t of

the

rese

arch

. It

wou

ld a

ppea

r as

thou

gh th

ere

may

be

bias

in

the

phra

sing

of t

he q

uest

ion.

287

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

SQ24

W

hen

I int

rodu

ce m

ysel

f to

peop

le, I

wou

ld b

e m

ore

likel

y to

do

so

by s

tatin

g

‘I am

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er w

ho

wor

ks fo

r XYZ

com

pany

’ OR

‘I

wor

k fo

r XYZ

com

pany

as

a pr

ojec

t man

ager

’

…

..yet

, whe

n as

ked

how

they

w

ould

intro

duce

them

selv

es, o

nly

43%

wou

ld in

trodu

ce th

emse

lves

as

pro

ject

man

ager

s,

Hel

d in

hig

h es

teem

by

the

com

mun

ity

KQ

18

Thos

e in

exi

stin

g pr

ofes

sion

s en

joy

high

com

mun

ity e

stee

m.

Wha

t is

the

com

mun

ity e

stee

m o

f pr

ojec

t man

ager

s?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

are

not h

eld

in

the

sam

e hi

gh e

stee

m a

s ex

istin

g pr

ofes

sion

als.

SQ21

As

a p

roje

ct m

anag

er, I

con

side

r m

ysel

f to

be h

eld

in _

____

_ es

teem

in m

y ho

me

(non

-w

orki

ng) c

omm

unity

bec

ause

of

the

wor

k I d

o as

a p

roje

ct

man

ager

.

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T In

term

s of

def

inin

g an

y oc

cupa

tion

as a

pro

fess

ion,

es

teem

is a

n im

porta

nt o

ne fr

om

a so

ciol

ogic

al p

ersp

ectiv

e. T

he

dang

er in

usi

ng th

is a

s a

‘brig

ht

line’

test

lies

in th

e fa

ct th

at b

eing

a

perc

eptio

n, it

is s

ubje

ct to

m

anip

ulat

ion

and

mar

ketin

g hy

pe.

70.4

0% t

hey

are

held

in h

igh

este

em in

thei

r com

mun

ity.

Earn

hig

her t

han

aver

age

com

pens

atio

n K

Q19

Th

ose

in o

ccup

atio

ns re

cogn

ized

as

pro

fess

ions

ear

n hi

gher

than

av

erag

e sa

larie

s. W

hat i

s th

e pe

rcep

tion

of p

roje

ct m

anag

ers

in

term

s of

the

sala

ries

they

ear

n?

Proj

ect m

anag

ers

earn

hig

her

than

ave

rage

sal

arie

s.

SQ22

C

ompa

red

to o

ther

peo

ple

of m

y ag

e an

d ed

ucat

ion

leve

l, in

my

posi

tion

as a

pro

ject

man

ager

, I

feel

I am

com

pens

ated

__

____

____

_ fo

r my

serv

ices

. Th

is im

porta

nt a

ttrib

ute

was

co

nfirm

ed /r

einf

orce

d by

co

mpa

ring

the

resu

lts o

f AAC

E's

annu

al s

alar

y su

rvey

.

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Fr

om a

pra

gmat

ic p

ersp

ectiv

e,

sala

ry is

one

of t

he m

ost a

ccur

ate

dete

rmin

ants

of a

n oc

cupa

tion

bein

g re

cogn

ized

as

a pr

ofes

sion

. If

you

are

able

to c

omm

and

a hi

gh s

alar

y in

the

mar

ketp

lace

du

e to

dem

and

for y

our p

artic

ular

se

rvic

es, t

hen

you

are

a pr

ofes

sion

al a

t wha

t you

do.

The

da

nger

lies

if th

e m

arke

t is

artif

icia

lly lim

ited

by lic

ense

or

othe

r cav

eats

.

Onl

y 38

.20%

con

side

r the

y ar

e co

mpe

nsat

ed a

bove

ave

rage

288

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

Mys

tique

(ave

rage

of 1

5, 2

3 an

d 0)

(hig

hly

ritua

listic

pro

cedu

res)

K

Q20

A

lead

ing

intri

nsic

attr

ibut

e fo

r a

prof

essi

on is

the

mys

tique

whi

ch

surro

unds

it. D

oes

proj

ect

man

agem

ent h

ave

mys

tique

?

Proj

ect m

anag

emen

t doe

s no

t ha

ve m

ystiq

ue.

SQ23

Pe

ople

not

fam

iliar w

ith p

roje

ct

man

agem

ent c

onsi

der w

hat

prac

titio

ners

do

to b

e m

ystic

al

and/

or h

ighl

y rit

ualis

tic.

SIG

NIF

ICAN

T Fr

om a

sem

antic

per

spec

tive,

m

ystiq

ue is

the

elem

ent w

hich

en

able

s an

occ

upat

ion

to

dem

and

and

rece

ive

both

hig

h sa

larie

s an

d re

spec

t and

est

eem

in

the

com

mun

ity.

Mys

tique

con

sist

s of

thre

e el

emen

ts: 1

) The

bod

y of

kn

owle

dge

is d

iffic

ult t

o m

aste

r; 2)

Th

ere

are

high

ly rit

ualis

tic

proc

edur

es w

hich

the

initia

ted

are

unab

le to

read

ily fo

llow

or

com

preh

end,

and

; 3) A

cces

s to

th

e kn

owle

dge

is lim

ited,

eith

er

due

to th

e lo

ng a

mou

nt o

f tim

e re

quire

d to

obt

ain

it, o

r bec

ause

it

is in

acce

ssib

le to

the

aver

age

pers

on.

Out

of a

pos

sibl

e 10

0%,

resp

onde

nts

say

proj

ect

man

agem

ent i

s on

ly 6

3%

mys

tical

, whi

le 7

5.50

% s

aid

the

BoK

was

uni

que.

At t

he s

ame

time,

the

scor

e gi

ven

to h

ighl

y rit

ualis

tic p

roce

dure

s w

as z

ero,

ba

sed

on c

omm

on s

ense

ob

serv

atio

ns.

The

aver

age

scor

e fo

r mys

tique

loo

king

at a

ll thr

ee

elem

ents

res

ults

in a

sco

re fo

r m

ystiq

ue o

f onl

y 46

.2%

. ((7

6.6%

+

63%

+ 0

%)/3

)

Th

eattr

ibut

e of

hig

hly

ritua

listic

pr

oced

ures

was

so

pate

ntly

ob

viou

s th

at it

was

giv

en a

val

ue

of z

ero

for t

he p

urpo

ses

of th

e re

sear

ch. N

ot o

nly

is th

e bo

dy o

f kn

owle

dge

an a

gglo

mer

atio

n co

min

g fro

m a

mul

titud

e of

so

urce

s, a

s m

ost o

f the

BoK

de

rives

from

gen

eral

bus

ines

s te

achi

ngs,

acc

ess

is fa

r fro

m

limite

d.

N/A

N

/A

IMPO

RTA

NT

As s

how

n pr

evio

usly

, whi

le th

e bo

dy o

f kno

wle

dge

did

mee

t the

pr

epon

dera

nce

of th

e ev

iden

ce

test

for b

eing

uni

que,

it d

id n

ot

mee

t the

cle

ar a

nd c

onvi

ncin

g ev

iden

ce s

tand

ard.

Fur

ther

re

sear

ch in

dica

ted

the

rese

arch

w

as fl

awed

in m

easu

ring

uniq

uene

ss.

The

scor

e fo

r hig

hly

ritua

listic

pr

oced

ures

is 0

, bas

ed o

n th

e ob

viou

s.

289

Cha

pter

5: S

urve

y de

velo

pmen

t and

ana

lysi

s, Pa

rt 2

Key

find

ings

(fro

m

liter

atur

e re

sear

ch)

Que

stio

ns g

ener

ated

by

the

key

findi

ngs

(KQ

) – to

be

addr

esse

d by

a v

arie

ty o

f te

st q

uest

ions

Hyp

othe

ses

base

d on

the

key

findi

ngs,

to b

e te

sted

as

par

t of a

ddre

ssin

g K

Qs

Surv

ey q

uest

ions

Q

ualit

ativ

e An

alys

is

Sum

mar

y Q

uant

itativ

e R

esul

ts fr

om

Surv

ey In

stru

men

t Su

mm

ariz

ed

SQ

15

Plea

se e

valu

ate

the

follo

win

g te

rms

or p

hras

es b

y ho

w u

niqu

e yo

u co

nsid

er e

ach

as th

ey a

re

used

in p

roje

ct m

anag

emen

t co

mpa

red

to g

ener

al u

sage

IMPO

RTA

NT

Whi

le th

e bo

dy o

f kno

wle

dge

did

mee

t the

pre

pond

eran

ce o

f the

ev

iden

ce te

st fo

r bei

ng u

niqu

e, it

di

d no

t mee

t the

cle

ar a

nd

conv

inci

ng e

vide

nce

stan

dard

. Fu

rther

rese

arch

indi

cate

d th

e re

sear

ch w

as fl

awed

in

mea

surin

g un

ique

ness

.

75.6

% ra

nk P

M B

oK a

s un

ique

Cru

cial

ity

a. im

med

iacy

of n

eed

b. Im

porta

nce

of n

eed

KQ

21

A le

adin

g in

trins

ic a

ttrib

ute

for a

pr

ofes

sion

is th

e cr

ucia

lity

(crit

ical

ity) o

f the

ser

vice

s. D

oes

proj

ect m

anag

emen

t hav

e cr

itical

ity?

Proj

ect m

anag

emen

t doe

s ha

ve

cruc

iality

/crit

ical

ity.

SQ33

Pe

ople

who

use

the

serv

ices

of a

pr

ojec

t man

ager

gen

eral

ly co

nsid

er th

ose

serv

ices

crit

ical

to

the

succ

ess

of th

eir p

roje

ct.

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

Th

is a

spec

t of t

he re

sear

ch

prod

uced

CO

NFL

ICTI

NG

or a

t le

ast i

ncon

clus

ive

resu

lts. A

s th

e cr

ucia

lity is

sub

ject

ive

and

cont

extu

al, t

he re

sear

ch a

s se

t up

was

flaw

ed in

not

bei

ng a

ble

to

capt

ure

the

esse

nce

of c

ruci

alty

be

tter.

66.8

% M

ean

Scor

e 56

% A

gree

fully

An

othe

r 29%

agr

ee in

par

t

Den

ouem

ent

quic

k so

lutio

ns to

pro

blem

s. T

o ca

ptur

e th

e es

senc

e of

D

enou

men

t, I c

ombi

ned

the

resu

lts o

f SQ

19, S

Q25

and

SQ

26

KQ

22

A le

adin

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t for

whi

ch I

am in

ch

arge

.

292 Chapter 6: Discussion

CHAPTER 6

Discussion

6.1 Introduction In Chapter 5, we explored the individual results from each of the survey questions

and were able to answer the questions, Is project management a profession? (no) and

If project management is not a profession, what is it? (a process or methodology).

Data outlined in Chapter 5 also indicated where project management lies compared to

other occupations on a continuum of professionalization of various occupations (less

of a profession than being an MBA but more of a profession than being an

electrician). What could not be measured was just how much more, or how much

less, of a profession project management is than the occupation of electrician or the

professions of medicine and law.

In Chapter 6, Discussion, the results discussed throughout the thesis will be

considered both qualitatively and quantitatively, and their synthesis highlighted. In

Chapter 7, recommendations arising from the findings outlined in the Discussion with

regard to project management will be offered to the stakeholders identified in Chapter

1. To accomplish this, the results of the survey instrument have been used to create

the Professionalization Index, which can produce a true ratio scale, not only to

measure how much more or less project management is a profession than the other

occupations, but also to serve as a standardized approach by which to measure the

standing of any occupation travelling the road to professionalization.

6.2 Summary of quantitative results In ‘Exploring the role of formal bodies of knowledge in defining a profession – The

case of project management’ (Morris et al., 2006, p. 719) the researchers identify

several areas of research which this survey answers at least in part. Specifically, they

ask What do the traits of project management as a profession, semi-profession or

commercial profession signify to the different actors involved? Exhibit 6.1

summarizes and answers that question, at least from the perspective of project

management practitioners.


Based on the responses to each survey question and the subsequent analysis, a

numerical score was calculated for each of the 22 attributes originally extrapolated

from the literature as representative of professionalization of an occupation. In

analyzing the survey data, three ‘tests’ commonly used in courts of law were applied

in order to assign a degree of significance to data from each individual survey

question. The three tests from law are the test of:

preponderance of the evidence (>51% but <77.5%)

clear and convincing evidence (~=>77.5% but <=95%)

beyond a reasonable doubt (>95%)

Consistent with the concept of tipping points (Gladwell, 2002) and Pareto’s Law,

(Pareto, 1897) it was calculated that the minimum percentage required to indicate that

an occupation should be considered a profession would be 80%, or in legal parlance,

‘clear and convincing evidence’. Anything less would be to invite skepticism and

doubt, even if viewed from a post-positivist perspective. While this approach is

rooted in positivist thinking (the total being equal to the parts), there is simply nothing

to generate any confidence that a tipping point is even close.

We can see in Exhibit 6.1 that of the 22 main or primary attributes of an occupation

being recognized as a profession, only one of them (dénouement) is considered to be

important enough to meet the 80% or ‘clear and convincing’ evidence test. All

remaining attributes only meet the ‘preponderance of the evidence’ test (yellow) or

fail to even meet the preponderance test (red).


Exhibit 6.1 Summary of average scores from survey respondents

Item Attributes of a profession Preponderance Clear/

Convincing Beyond Doubt

# Extrinsic >51% but <=77.5%

>77.5% but <95% =>95%

1 Body of Knowledge (Average of 1a + 1b) 75.6% 1a a. Unique 75.6% 1b b. Esoteric/Complicated/Secret 75.6% 2 Long Period of Training (Average of 2A + 2B) 79.2% 2a a. Higher Education 78.3% 2b b. Apprenticeship/Internship/Residency 80.2% 3 Life Time Commitment 69.0% 4 Adhering to a Code of Ethics 65.0% 5 Fiduciary Obligation to the Public 0.0% 6 Service to the Public (Pro Bono Work) 20.2% 7 Professional Association (Average of 7a + 7b) 53.3% 7a a. Enforces Code of Ethics 0.0% 7b b. Establishes Acceptable Standards 7bi i. Performance Standards 80.0% 7bii ii. Procedural Standards 80.0% 8 Publishing in Learned Journals 27.9% 9 Advertising Not Permitted or Restricted 0.0% 10 Use of Title is Restricted by law 0.0% 11 Symbolic Costumes/Uniforms 6.2% 12 Practice Limited by Govt. License 52.5% 13 Requires Professional Liability Insurance 73.8% 14 Autonomy in Decision Making 74.1% 15 Identity not with Employer but Profession 69.0% 16 Held in High Esteem by the Community 70.4% 17 Earn Higher Than Average Compensation 38.2% Intrinsic

18 Mystique (Average of 18a + 18b + 18c) 46.2%

18a a. Body of Knowledge is Esoteric/Abstruse/Secret 75.6%

18b b. Highly Ritualistic Procedures 63.0% 18c c. Access to Knowledge is limited 0.0% 19 Cruciality (Average of 19a + 19b) 66.8% 19a a. Immediacy of Need 66.8% 19b b. Importance of Need 66.8% 20 Denouement- Quick Solutions to Problems 82.9%

Does not meet preponderance of the evidence test

Meets ‘preponderance of the evidence’ test

Meets ‘clear and compelling’ evidence test

Meets ‘beyond a reasonable doubt’ test


6.3 Summary of qualitative results compared against case studies As discussed in Chapter 3 the qualitative data relating to the professionalization of an

occupation depended on how the 22 attributes derived from the literature, and

considered the most salient characteristics of a profession (Exhibit 6.2) manifested

themselves.

Exhibit 6.2 The 22 attributes of a profession as identified during the literature research


To assist in considering the nature of a profession from a post positivist perspective,

knowing that construction project management is not considered to be a profession,

although commercial aircraft piloting is, in spite of not being recognized legally as a

profession, the qualitative results were compared to see if those elements could be

isolated which are unique only to aircraft piloting and not construction project

management or project management (Exhibit 6.3).


Exibit 6.3 also addresses at least in part another research question posed by Morris et

al. (2006, p. 719) How important are the attributes of traditional professionalism that

project managers would seem to be missing? By comparing commercial airline

piloting (which is generally considered to be a profession) against construction

project management we can get at least an idea of what attributes ‘count’ in today’s

world vs those which are superficial or superfluous.

Exhibit 6.3 Comparison between survey responses, construction project managers and airline pilots

Item Attributes of a profession

# Extrinsic

Project Managers (From survey Instrument)

Construction management

Commercial airline pilot

1 Body of Knowledge 1a a. Unique No No Yes 1b b. Esoteric/Complicated/Secret No No Yes 2 Long Period of Training 2a a. Higher Education Yes Yes No 2b b. Apprenticeship/Internship/Residency No No Yes 3 Life Time Commitment No No Yes 4 Adhering to a Code of Ethics Yes Yes Yes 5 Fiduciary Obligation to the Public No No Yes 6 Service to the Public 6a a. Pro Bono Work No No No 7 Professional Association 7a a. Enforces Code of Ethics Yes Yes Yes 7b b. Establishes Acceptable Standards Yes Yes No 7bi i. Performance Standards Yes Yes No 7bii ii. Procedural Standards (Methodology) Yes Yes No 8 Publishing in Learned Journals Yes Yes No 9 Advertising Not Permitted or Restricted No No No 10 Use of Title is Restricted by law No No No 11 Symbolic Costumes/Uniforms No No Yes 12 Practice Limited by Govt. License No No Yes 13 Requires Professional Liability Insurance No Yes Yes 14 Autonomy in Decision Making Moderate High Total 15 Identity not with Employer but Profession No No Yes 16 Held in High Esteem by the Community Moderate Moderate High 17 Earn Higher Than Average Compensation No No Yes Intrinsic

18 Mystique

18a a. Body of Knowledge is Esoteric/Abstruse/Secret No No Yes

18b b. Highly Ritualistic Procedures No Some Yes 18c c. Access to Knowledge is limited No No No 19 Cruciality (What you do for work is something I need NOW) 19a a. Immediacy of Need Moderate Moderate Yes 19b b. Importance of Need Moderate Moderate Yes 20 Denouement

20a a. Application of ‘Mysterious Principles’ for quick solutions No No Yes


Those attributes highlighted in green are the characteristics that an occupation which

is perceived to be a profession is thought to consistently exhibit, such as commercial

aircraft piloting; whereas they are not exhibited by construction management. Those

differences highlighted in green have been determined to be root causes, while those

in yellow are viewed as being symptomatic or manifested effects rather than

causative. Characteristics highlighted in blue indicate areas where commercial aircraft

pilots do not do something that is common to construction project management or

project management in general. Particularly worth noting is that the performance and

procedural standards for commercial aircraft pilots are set by government agencies

(i.e. Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) in the USA), who are independent of both the

airlines and pilots unions. Interestingly, an independent organization – the Global

Alliance for Project Performance Standards (GAPPS) (www.globalpmstandard.org) –

has been formed to establish at least the minimum performance (competency)

standards for project managers. To respond to the questions posed by Morris et al.

(2006) – How important are the attributes of traditional professionalism that project

management would seem to be missing? and What if anything should be done to fill

the gaps? – it would certainly appear as though having an independent standard

setting organization would be a gap which needs filling (p. 719). However, consistent

with the Pew Task Force Report on Consumer Protection, whatever standard setting

agency or entity should consist of 51% consumers (Finnochio et al., 1998, p. 60).

Reviewing the key differences from Exhibit 6.3, we see the following qualitative

differentiators:

body of knowledge As has been shown in the body of this research, the body of knowledge related to project management, while certainly meeting Turner’s criteria as having a theoretical base, empirically tested and proven to be scientific and predicative, is hardly unique, esoteric or secret or mystical. On the other hand, the body of knowledge involved in aircraft piloting is unique as well as being esoteric. In addition to having a theoretical basis in the theory of flight, it is knowledge that is empirically tested by planes flying daily with few crashes being and has proven to be scientific and predicative. Consistent with Aldridge, Hugman and Labaree (as cited in Zwerman et al., 2004, p. 40), as well as Abbott (1988), control over the body of knowledge is essential to claiming professional status.


higher education Masters and PhD degrees exist for both project management and construction project management, yet one does not need even a high school diploma to obtain a commercial pilot’s license. However, for practical purposes, nearly all commercial airlines require a minimum of a Bachelor’s degree to apply for a job as a pilot, and both undergraduate and graduate level courses for pilots are offered. The official requirements to earn a pilot’s license and those required to actually obtain a job need to be taken into consideration, therefore.

apprenticeship/internship/residency As commercial aircraft piloting is dependent on not just a body of theoretical knowledge, but also requires a deeply practical competency, the process of ‘building hours’ is far more important than having a specific degree. All else being equal, this is one of the most important changes project management could make to increase the professionalism of the occupation. An increased focus on competency rather than merely knowledge-based certifications would enhance practice in the occupation.

lifetime commitment As in medicine, law and teaching, one does not see ‘accidental’ commercial airline pilots, anymore than one sees ‘accidental’ doctors or lawyers. Because of the high level of dedication necessary to obtain the specialized knowledge and build competency, a person attracted to these job specialties tends to make a long term, if not life-long, commitment to mastering the applied skills and knowledge. The commitment of the practitioners appears to be a major differentiator in the professionalization of an occupation. Like the schools of civil engineering and architecture, who gave birth to construction project management, so too we see evidence of other technical disciplines (IT, telecommunications, aeronautical engineering) offering project management courses as part of their curricula.

fiduciary responsibility Fiduciary responsibility is one of the more important differentiators between a mere occupation and a true profession. Fiduciary responsibility is the obligation of the practitioner to put the best interests of the client first and foremost, above those of the practitioner him/herself or of the organization employing the practitioner. This is exemplified by the principle of the pilot-in-command. Until or unless project managers can achieve this level of control and responsibility, they cannot expect their employment to be perceived as a profession.


role of professional associations For commercial pilots, the standards of performance are set by relevant government agencies. While pilot associations have considerable input into the development of the standards and methodologies, because of the global nature of commercial air transportation and the sensitivity of the general public to accidents and issues, government bodies are required to coordinate these standards and establish the minimum acceptable competencies of the pilots, who, by the very nature of aircraft piloting, may be called upon to fly through and land in jurisdictions far from where they were trained or licensed. Implicit in this is the importance of reciprocity; that is, each country must be willing to accept pilots licensed in a different country piloting a plane into their jurisdiction. For project managers, there is only one body which has embarked on developing a similar approach, which is the Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards (GAPPS). Whether this standard approach will work remains to be seen, but nonetheless, it stands as an important step in the journey towards professionalization.

publishing in learned journals While there are no refereed journals devoted to aircraft piloting, each and every incident involving an air disaster or even a close call is investigated and reported on, with the intent to capture lessons learned. Additionally, pilots are encouraged to file pilot reports (PIREPS) while in flight of real time conditions, such as air turbulence or icing which may negatively impact flight operations. In project management, this would be tantamount to ‘lessons learned’ being delivered in real time. So while there is less theoretical research, there is a major focus on forensic review and real time information exchange. These practices are something project management should consider carefully, especially for those wanting to increase the level of professionalism.

symbolic costumes/uniforms While it is unlikely that project managers will ever have a costume or uniform, this attribute should not be taken lightly. One possible way to address this is to develop a suitable competency based credential which would have a distinctive logo or pin to generate immediate recognition and respect for the holder.

government licensing Given that commercial aircraft piloting requires practitioners to cross through many different state, provincial or country boundaries, holding a government license makes sense, to ensure that global minimum standards of competency are


developed and that practitioners have met and continue to meet those standards. Although government licensing is something which is not favored, at least in the developed nations, the need for an independent organization to fulfil the same or similar role to ensure that practitioners meet some minimum levels of competency will always be necessary. As noted previously, fledgling efforts to create a global, independent set of standards for project management practitioners have been established, which seems like a step in the right direction to meet the requirement for consistent standards, provided as noted by Finnochio et al. (1998) in the Pew Task Force Report on Consumer Protection (p. 60) that significant input, participation and oversight be provided from or by consumer representation on the oversight board.

requires professional liability insurance If a practitioner has fiduciary responsibility and somehow violates or fails to exercise this responsibility appropriately, he or she is open to litigation. In order to protect clients from insolvent practitioners, insurance is required to ensure that if a person is harmed by the actions of a practitioner, that funds to ‘make them whole’ are available.

autonomy in making decisions For commercial pilots, this is the principle of the pilot-in–command, which stands as yet another key differentiator between a mere job and having your job recognized as a profession. Despite the results of the survey indicating that project managers feel they have considerable autonomy, this does not in reality seem to be the case. Clients determine the dates of performance; the clients set the fees; they determine budgets and in many cases, control over the available resources. Of all the attributes that project management seems to lack, autonomy stands as one of the major limitations.

identifying with the occupation, not the employer A person who is willing to invest considerable time, money and effort to master an occupation, such as a commercial pilot, before knowing for whom he or she will work will be inclined to be loyal to the occupation rather than the employer. This attitude and behavior also reflects the nature of the present job market with its emphasis on contract work rather than devotion to a particular company.

intrinsic differentiators Lastly, we can see from the qualitative analysis that commercial aircraft piloting meets most if not all the important attributes related to the intrinsic or non-traditional evolution of the occupation as a profession. The body of knowledge is clearly unique, esoteric or difficult; the cruciality/criticality of the services of a


pilot are greater than those of a construction project manager or generic project manager; and perhaps most importantly, the average person does not pretend to know how to fly a plane, and almost certainly, without considerable training, could not possibly do so. So at least dénouement is clearly one of the most important of the intrinsic attributes that is missing in project management.

To summarize the finding from Exhibit 6.3, we can see clearly that some attributes

are more important than others. How practitioners perceive these attributes sets the

stage to create a Professionalization Index. Consistent with the fundamentals of multi-

attribute modelling, by using the relative ranking of the attribute and multiplying that

by the score for each of the attributes, we can develop a weighted score. I am

proposing this to be the basis for turning the qualitative analysis of professionalization

into a quantitative model.

6.4 Weight adjusted professionalization index One of the primary aims from this research was to create a Professionalization Index

which would serve as a standardized approach to quantifying how ‘professional’ a

given occupation was at any point in time, using a true ratio scale. The need to

develop the index became apparent during the literature research which showed that

not only was there no ‘bright line’ test legally, but that neither economists,

sociologists or semanticists could agree on a definition of the term profession.

Furthermore, according to Polelle (1999), ‘Politicians preferred to stay away from

such a highly charged responsibility to define which occupations are and which are

not, considered professions’ (University of San Francisco Law Review, online, n.d.).

Abbot (1988) based most of his theories about professional organizations around the

idea that in order to be a profession, practitioners must establish the boundaries of

their practice. The first step in this process is to use the body of knowledge as the

basis for establishing the sphere of influence of an occupation. This was supported by

Aldridge, Hugman and Labaree (cited in Zwerman et al, 2004)) who continue to

argue that a ‘unique body of knowledge is the key to professional status’ (p. 40).

On the other hand, Polelle, (1999), Gawley (2002) and Rotunda (2007) play down the

importance of boundaries. Consistent with Freidson (1994) and MacDonald’s (1995)

attempts to take a systems approach to looking at professions; consistent with

Polelle’s (1999), Gawley’s (2002) and Rotunda’s (1997) search for a ‘bright line’

test; consistent with Haga (1974) and Cogan’s (1955) desire to incorporate the


semantic perspective, it is proposed that in the future, a weighted average model,

taking the actual scores generated by the practitioners themselves, and weighted by

their own valuation of each of the attributes compared against each other, should be

used to produce an index of professionalization, figures from which can be used to

indicate the level of professionalization reached by any particular occupation.

Lacking any quantifiable approach, I adopted for this research an approach common

to multi-attributed decision making. The work of Montgomery (1992) sums the

approach up rather succinctly:

Pure utility theory fails to address certain decision problems. Such problems arise when there exist conditions on the attributes reflecting that they are more or less worth in different situations. One example could be that a certain attribute is not worth anything before a certain utility value is reached (an apartment is worthless if it is not located within 10 kilometers from work). Another example could be that the utility of a certain attribute diminishes when its utility grows (it is more useful to come a kilometer closer to work for a person that lives two kilometers away than for a person that lives one kilometer away). In Cognitive Psychology other decision-making principles have been used as an alternative to the pure utility maximization theory. (pp. 171-172)

Montgomery (1992, cited by Brynielsson & Wallenius, n.d., online) lists the

following six decision rules that can be used:

The dominance rule means that if one strategy is better than all the other strategies in at least one attribute and at least equivalent with the other strategies in all other attributes; then this attribute should be chosen. The dominance rule seems to be obviously correct, but can only be used in some certain situations when a strategy ‘dominates’ the other strategies.

The conjunctive rule means that the utility in each attribute is not allowed to be below a certain threshold value that is specific for each attribute. The conjunctive rule may be especially suitable in situations where the strategies are not given in advance; but are obtained gradually. The disjunctive rule states that the utility in at least one attribute within the chosen strategy should exceed a certain threshold value that is specific for this attribute.

The lexicographic rule requires, unlike the previous rules, that the attributes be ranked with respect to how important they are. Making a decision means choosing the strategy that is best in the most important attribute.


Choice of the alternative with the most attractive value of a single attribute means that one chooses the strategy that has the highest utility value on a single attribute over all other attributes and strategies.

The addition rule requires both that attributes can be compared to each other and, unlike previous rules, that it is possible to sum together the utility values. The rule means that all the attribute utility values for a certain strategy are added together in order to choose the strategy that yields the greatest sum.

Obviously these criteria cannot be combined so that they are all fulfilled at the same

time. However, it can be argued that these criteria should be used as a basis for a

preference function that makes use of all these criteria to some extent.

In this case, I have chosen to use the lexicographic rule which ranks the attributes in

two dimensions: the actual score taken from the responses to the survey instrument

and the weighting factor taken from the results of survey question 45/46 (Figure 5.3,

this document)

By multiplying the actual value (results from the survey questions for the 22

attributes) X the weighting factor, (which also was provided by the respondents

through survey questions 45/46) the ‘addition rule’ can then be applied to compare

the relative professionalization index score between any two or more occupations.

This approach would provide a true zero point, meaning the ratio between any two or

more occupations could be stated with certainty. Explained another way, using

lexicographics and applying the additive rule, not only could the rank order of any

occupation be established versus another, but how far one was from the other could

also be deduced. Had this approach been completely successful, it would have been

possible to measure how much more or less project management was a profession

than the MBA or electrician or any other occupation covered in the research.

Unfortunately, as there were insufficient respondents to the survey instrument who

were not project managers (i.e respondents coming from law, medicine, commercial

piloting, trades) to compare, it was only possible to calculate the value for project

managers. As shown in Exhibit 6.4, the lexicographic and additive approach, with the

resulting weight adjusted factor for project managers was 33.7%. Not having

sufficient responses from other occupational specialties prevented the approach from


being validated through a comparison of the results of survey questions 30/31, 39-/42

and 47 with results obtained for other occupations. However, the approach itself

remains valid and forms the basis for follow on research using multi-objective

program analysis tools and techniques as the basis to validate a Professionalization

Index.

Exhibit 6.4 Weight adjusted professionalization index score

Item Attributes of a profession Average PM Weighting Weight adjusted

# Extrinsic Score From Factor Value Survey From Q 30-31 Col. E X Col. G

1 Body of Knowledge (Average of 1a + 1b) 75.6% 70.7% 53.4%

1a a. Unique 75.6% 70.7% 53.4%

1b b. Esoteric/Complicated/Secret 75.6% 70.7% 53.4%

2 Long Period of Training (Average of 2A + 2B) 78.3% 53.9% 42.2%

2a a. Higher Education 74.3% 58.8% 43.7%

2b b. Apprenticeship/Internship/Residency 82.2% 53.9% 44.3%

3 Life Time Commitment 73.0% 49.6% 36.2%

4 Adhering to a Code of Ethics 65.0% 77.5% 50.4%

5 Fiduciary Obligation to the Public 62.2% 68.2% 42.4%

6 Service to the Public (Pro Bono Work) 20.2% 35.8% 7.2%

7 Professional Association (Average of 7a + 7b) 53.3% 66.3% 35.4%

7a a. Enforces Code of Ethics 0.0% 63.6% 0.0%

7b b. Establishes Acceptable Standards

7bi i. Performance Standards 80.0% 69.0% 55.2%

7bii ii. Procedural Standards (Methodology) 80.0% 69.0% 55.2%

8 Publishing in Learned Journals 20.2% 40.8% 8.2%

9 Advertising Not Permitted or Restricted 0.0% 26.1% 0.0%

10 Use of Title is Restricted by law 0.0% 49.1% 0.0%

11 Symbolic Costumes/Uniforms 6.2% 14.3% 0.9%

12 Practice Limited by Govt. License 52.5% 37.8% 19.8%

13 Requires Professional Liability Insurance 73.8% 46.8% 34.5%

14 Autonomy in Decision Making 74.1% 61.8% 45.8%

15 Identity not with Employer but Profession 69.0% 60.3% 41.6%

16 Held in High Esteem by the Community 70.4% 54.7% 38.5%

17 Earn Higher Than Average Compensation 38.2% 55.1% 21.0%

Intrinsic

18 Mystique (Average of 18a + 18b + 18c) 46.2% 70.7% 32.7%

18a a. Body of Knowledge is Esoteric/Abstruse/Secret 75.6% 70.7% 53.4%

18b b. Highly Ritualistic Procedures 63.0% 70.7% 44.5%

18c c. Access to Knowledge is limited 0.0% 70.7% 0.0%

19 Cruciality (Average of 19a + 19b) 66.8% 67.8% 45.3%

19a a. Immediacy of Need 66.8% 67.8% 45.3%

19b b. Importance of Need 66.8% 67.8% 45.3%

20 Denouement- Quick Solutions to Problems 82.9% 76.4% 63.3%

TOTAL 33.7%


Without more data, it is difficult to determine exactly the percentage required to

confer the status of profession , but applying the previously referenced criteria, the

score by project management practitioners does not even meet the ‘preponderance of

the evidence’, much less approach the previously targeted ‘clear and decisive’ test of

80% Pareto, which was assumed to be a tipping point, consistent with Gladwell

(2002). Applying this standard, it appears obvious that a weight adjusted score of

only 33.7% doesn’t even qualify project management as meeting the preponderance

of the evidence standard or test.

6.5 Considering the attributes on the whole To conclude the assessment of the data, the various attributes are considered in the

context of the summation of all the evidence:

1 Higher education vs. apprenticeship While commercial pilots are encouraged to have degrees, to become a commercial pilot and obtain work does not require a degree. however, the focus is on ‘building hours’ which implies a strong focus on demonstrated competency.

2 Lifetime commitment Research showing about 8-10% of doctors and lawyers give up their practices for whatever reasons to do something else still means that 90% or more remain as lifelong practitioners. Likewise, pilots rarely give up flying unless forced to by health restrictions. Compare this against the ‘accidental project manager’ who neither consciously seeks nor identifies with the role particularly strongly during his or her working life.

3 Fiduciary obligation to the public This was Polelle’s (1999) suggested ‘bright line’ test that courts adopt, and represents the alter ego to competency. (If one is truly competent, then he/she should not be unwilling to be held accountable by the consuming public.)

4 Symbolic uniforms While this has important implications in terms of professional identity and control, uniforms alone are unlikely to be a primary differentiator. However, as pointed out in research by Randolph, the issue of wearing a uniform is not something to be dismissed without serious consideration.


5 Practice limited by government license While this is one of the ‘bright line’ tests used in a court of law, as evidenced by airline cases licensing alone does not make a profession.

6 Requires professional liability insurance This is the alter-ego of fiduciary obligation. When a practitioner is competent, he/she should be willing/able to be held financially accountable for errors and omissions, but only for those errors and omissions for decisions over which he/she has direct control.

7 Autonomy in decision making This is one of the major differentiators between pilots, construction managers and project managers. The concept of ‘pilot in command’ and the implications of this authority and the inherent responsibility which goes with it are phenomenal.

8 Cruciality The services offered are important and needed immediately. While the cruciality of services provided by a commercial pilot would not likely be on par with those of an emergency room doctor, few of us voluntarily fly just for the fun of getting from point A to point B. Normally, there is some element of cruciality behind the need to fly, either in terms of importance or immediacy or both. Thus cruciality is likely to be a key differentiator. Furthermore, only a licensed pilot can fly the plane, so his or her presence is crucial.

9 Dénouement This dimension can best be described quoting Dick Holt (2000), describing the roles and responsibilities of a commercial airline pilot.

He must create an aura of efficiency and capability such that the passengers stream on and off the aircraft without even a thought about what is occurring at the front of the aircraft. (Airmanship, online)

Restated, a practitioner has achieved dénouement in their craft or occupation when the person who is receiving their services remains totally aware the services are being rendered, but acts as an uninvolved bystander, trusting that the practitioner knows what he or she is doing and will do the right thing, with no questions, no challenges and no unsolicited inputs.

This research started out attempting to answer two fundamental questions.

1 Is project management a profession? And if not;

2 What is it?


Is project management a profession?

Based on both qualitative and quantitative analysis, and viewed in the context of both

positivist and post-positivist perspectives, project management cannot be considered a

profession. This provides quantitative support to the work of Zwerman, Thomas et al.

(2004) and supports the wisdom of the recent legal ruling in the UK holding that

project management is not a profession.

What is it?

Responses by approximately 400 global practitioners clearly indicate that project

management is a process, methodology or system. That being the case, the

organization most accurately reflecting this position is the International Council of

Systems Engineers (INCOSE) which states:

Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful systems. It focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem:

operations cost & schedule performance training & support test disposal manufacturing

Systems Engineering integrates all the disciplines and specialty groups into a team effort forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation. Systems Engineering considers both the business and the technical needs of all customers with the goal of providing a quality product that meets the user needs.

When you consider therefore the definition of project management from Chapter 1

Project + Management The administration supervision or executive function to plan, organize, coordinate, direct and control an undertaking to achieve a particular aim or objective, with some reasonable expectation for success, through the skilful handling or use of resources and the successful organization, administration and controlling these affairs in a business-like manner, to produce results….

are there really any significant differences between the semantic definition from

Chapter 1 and what INCOSE is claiming (below)?

INCOSE’s Explanation- Relation to Project Management

With this notion of engineering integration discussed above, it may appear that there is an inherent conflict between systems engineering and project


management. In practice, this conflict often leads to confusion over roles and responsibilities and, as a result, the project suffers in terms of low morale, lower productivity, and inferior quality product.

In reality there should be no conflict. There is a need for both project management and systems engineering on development projects. The project manager should focus on the acquisition of resources (people, tools, facilities, funds, etc.), the protection of these resources from competing projects, and the management of these resources. He acts as the chief spokesman to upper management as to the importance and criticality of the project and how it fits into the overall strategic intent of the enterprise.

The systems engineer, on the other hand, is responsible for the efficient and effective use of these resources (working closely with the program manager), in addition to making sure the system meets the needs and expectations of the client.

INCOSE further states:

The International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) is a not-for-profit membership organization founded in 1990. Our mission is to advance the state of the art and practice of systems engineering in industry, academia, and government by promoting interdisciplinary, scaleable approaches to produce technologically appropriate solutions that meet societal needs.

Important to note is that unlike those organizations purporting to represent project management, INCOSE does NOT claim what we do is a profession, but a practice.

Again, this seems to be much more consistent with the philosophies of Plato and

Hippocrates.

309 Chapter 7: Conclusion

CHAPTER 7

Conclusion

7.1 Introduction Initially, I had identified five primary objectives of this research:

1. answer the question Is project management a profession?

2. determine what project management is, if not a profession

3. ascertain where project management stands in relation to other emerging occupations claiming to be professions

4. determine what can be done, if anything, to enhance the image of the occupation

5. decide what, if anything, can be done to improve the delivery of successful projects.

To start with, from a broad and diverse review of relevant literature, I identified 22

traditional and non-traditional attributes of professions. To address concerns that the

traditional attributes may no longer accurately reflect the status of an occupation as

being a profession, I looked to acupuncture, chiropractic and Chinese herbal medicine

to see how those occupations became to be recognized as ‘professions’. The answer

to that became very obvious. They earned the right to be recognized as professions by

delivering consistent, positive results to the consuming public, over an extended

period of time.

To validate the 22 traditional and non-traditional attributes, I ‘pre-tested’ them against

two occupations that I have first hand knowledge of – construction project

management, which meets many of the traditional attributes of a profession but has

not earned recognition as a profession equal to that of architecture or engineering,

from which construction project management derived and against commercial aircraft

piloting, which, despite not even requiring a high school diploma, has earned the

recognition and status as a highly ranked professional occupation. This comparison

led to the creation of a Professionalization Index, which would enable a quantitative

analysis of any occupation based on the actual score for each of the 22 attributes

(from the respondents of the survey) X the relative importance of that attribute to the

occupation (also ranked by the respondents to the survey instrument)


Using the 22 traditional and non-traditional attributes, I developed a web based

survey instrument, designed to compare how project management and non-project

management practitioners viewed project management. This survey attracted nearly

400 respondents over a nine month period, from nearly all continents and sub-

continents. Using the results of this global survey as the basis and applying a variety

of both qualitative and quantitative analyses, I can conclude that:

1. Project management is not yet a profession.

2. It is a process, methodology or system, and as such may never become a profession.

3. Project management is considered by practitioners to be less of a profession than being an MBA but more of a profession than being an electrician, with the ranking closer to MBA than to electrician.

4. That in order to enhance the image (‘professionalization’) of project management, it becomes imperative that, like chiropractic, acupuncture and Chinese herbal medicine, project management practitioners need to focus on improving the consistent, repeatable delivery of ‘successful’ projects. And that in order to realize more successful projects, we need to

5. Match project manager accountability with a commensurate level of authority- over time, resources and quality by enabling the project managers in our organization to make autonomous decisions in the best interests of the consuming public. The more the employer and employee contract and communicate with one another in an open and honest fashion, and the more the principles of contract are applied in accordance with agency theory (Muller & Turner), the more professional the context of project management will become and the more professional the project manager. An alliance contract would ensure that all parties take responsibility for their part in the project and in the decision making and should be the contract of choice for project managers if they aspire to professionalization.

Unfortunately, because the survey instrument did not attract sufficient number of non-

project management respondents, the creation of a Professionalization Index was only

partially successful. Although I was able to calculate a Professionalization Index

value for project managers, I was not able to validate that value against other known

professions. However, with the inclusion of the non-traditional attributes of a


profession, I believe the concept of a Professionalization Index to be an appropriate

means of quantifying the relative professionalization of any occupation, and would

urge others to consider using it in the future.

The need for some means to consistently measure the relative professionalization of

an occupation becomes important, especially in the context of a ‘bright line test’ for

the purposes of establishing legal accountability, and for this reason, despite not

having been fully successful in testing and validating the Professionalization Index, I

believe the approach I have taken in creating one represents something new and

important to economists, sociologists, semanticists and legal experts alike and goes

well beyond the application only to project management.

7.2 Limitations of this research As the common quote goes, ‘hindsight is always 20:20 vision’ and in the case of this

effort, it is no different. While many of the original objectives of the research were

achieved, others were not when unexpected events took place or unanticipated results

were generated. Some pieces of information were also perplexing, and the scope of

the research did not allow their investigation.

7.2.1 Lack of significant demographic differences

Few observations were of greater surprise than that fact that there were no statistically

meaningful differences between any of the demographic sub-sets. I ran correlations

on the data at the global level, on the question basis and then again on selected

population subsets where I thought there should be some differences, but did not turn

up anything which could lend insight or help in identifying any trends. This still

surprises me and has left me with more questions than it answers.

Another aspect of the demographics which proved to be disappointing was the fact

that insufficient non-project managers responded to the survey. This limited

comparisons of other occupations to project management. Despite significant efforts

to seek out other professions not normally associated with project management

(teachers, aircraft pilots, financiers and nurses), only 10 non-project management

responses were received. There was no meaningful data generated when correlations

were run on this sub-group.


7.2.2 Bias in the key word analysis of the body of knowledge

In setting up the survey instrument, the most frequently occurring words from the

project management body of knowledge were selected to form the kernel of questions

about BoK. and asked whether or not they were considered ‘unique’ to project

management, expecting that the demographics would enable me to eliminate any bias

or at least identify it. Because of this, I believe the score on the body of knowledge is

too high and needs to be used with caution. I tried to mitigate this with secondary

research on the sources of many of these terms, which supports my concern that the

quantitative results from this survey contain bias, but does nothing to help arrive at

the ‘right’ or appropriate value.

7.2.3 More research on the effectiveness of licensing

As both the Ukraine and South Africa have implemented the licensing of construction

project managers, it would have been interesting to review research on if and how

licensing had been successful. Anecdotal evidence from talking with Dr. Sergei

Bushyev and several of his ‘Young Crew’ students from the Ukraine indicated that

the licensing processes were working, but no research supporting his opinion could be

found. Reports from South Africa, which has only had licensing in place for three

years as this paper is written, indicate not all is going smoothly, but, again there is no

research evidence to either confirm or disclaim these observations.

7.2.4 Development of a true ratio scale

While it is pleasing that an interval scale could be developed during the course of this

research against which the standing of project management vis a vis other

occupations could be measured, in hindsight it seems that a true zero scale could have

been created. Considering the data upon completion of the study, it became apparent

that doctors were consistently appearing at the top end of the scale. Therefore, instead

of seeking out a baseline at the bottom, it would have been more useful to doctors at

the top as zero and work backwards.

7.2.5 Data mining to research ethics questions

It is difficult to set up a survey instrument to test for ethics. As demonstrated by the

classic example of the lawyer who asks the defendant ‘Have you stopped beating

your wife yet?’, no matter how the defendant answers, he is damned. The same


analogy applies to asking about ethics. If the question is asked outright, then the

respondent would be a fool to answer negatively, even if that was the honest answer.

If the question is posed more subtly, the response becomes subject to a myriad

interpretations. This dilemma proved very challenging and methods of dealing with it

were not, on the whole, satisfactory.

Of all the exciting opportunities that were stumbled upon during the research, the

question linking the various codes of ethics to the real and perceived perception of an

occupation as a profession seemed the most interesting. Were the research to be

conducted again, more attention would be paid to the actual records of the

organizations in how many ethical violations they processed and the actual nature of

those violations. Experience indicated that Haga (1974) is correct in pointing out that

professional organizations appear more concerned about using the organizational

codes of ethics as a means of controlling their own membership than they are with

protecting the consuming public from quacks, charlatans and frauds.

7.3 Reflections

7.3.1 Project management: Not a profession

Applying the ‘clear and convincing evidence’ test, and looking at both extrinsic and

intrinsic attributes, this current study appears to have been successful in quantifying

what Zwerman et al. (2004) have established qualitatively: that project management

is not now a profession. The fact that organized project management, as evidenced by

the existence of professional organizations, has been around for well over 50 years,

and based on the collective opinions registered by practitioners, it appears that

Zwerman et al.’s (2004) finding that this occupation will most likely never become a

fully-fledged profession is correct. The current study has been successful, however, in

identifying where along a professionalization continuum project management dwells

in relation to other occupations.

7.3.2 Observations from the literature

From the literature research, came several profound revelations that, while not

addressed specifically to project management, have such a direct bearing on the study

that they demand inclusion in this concluding discussion.


Perhaps the most important observation with regard to this current study was that of

Eliot Freidson (1994), who notes that:

Without sufficient time, equipment, assistance and other resources, once cannot do one’s work well and one’s freedom to employ discretion becomes meaningless. If there are not enough resources available and the work must be done in any case, it is inevitable that it can be done only by the use of short cuts and gross formulas that border upon mechanical and only marginally acceptable technique. This threatens the professional character of the work itself. (p. 210)

This statement accurately describes the nature of project management in nearly all its

manifestations, and is a good indication of why project management cannot be a

profession. Freidson (1994) goes on to say:

Professionalism can only flourish when practitioners in an organization have a firm, but by no means absolute support, from their employer for the consequential exercise of judgment independent of their clients. (p. 211)

Unless project managers and other interested parties can change the mindset of clients

who want projects done faster, cheaper, better, and the attitudes of employers who

pander to unrealistic demands from clients, the prospects for ever seeing the

professionalization of project management remain dim at best. This is further

exacerbated by the ‘flat world’ scenario described by Friedman (2006) or the ‘98.5%

factor’ of Tom Peters, (2003, p. 50) echoed by Tom Osenton (2004) and Tom

Maloney (2004), where most employment will part time in a contingent work force,

and project management will not be a profession but a way of life. There will no

longer be jobs; everyone will be working on projects (Casey, 1995; Sabel, 1995).

Despite this being an academic research project, as a successful project management

consultant and teacher, it would be remiss of me not to conclude with some

observations that may guide the activities and thinking of all categories of major

stakeholders identified earlier in the thesis. This also is consistent with the question

posed by Morris et al. (2006, p. 719) What if anything, should be done to fill the

gaps?


7.3.3 For those stakeholders who believe project management is NOT a profession

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

Just because project management is not a profession does not mean the world is no

longer going to need professional managers capable of initiating, planning, executing

controlling and closing projects. The words of Roland Rotunda (1997) have special

meaning for project management:

The only fruitful use of the term profession today relates to individuals, not groups. (Lexus-Nexus)

This opinion has been backed up by research by the American Bar Association. It is

further supported by Freidson (1994), who, in predicting the future of

professionalism, concludes:

If we are to be mere passive employees, without a strong organized voice in the allocation of resources that are essential for doing good work, we will find it difficult to remain committed to doing good work. If we are to play the role of merely providing whatever is demanded by consumers and authorized by those who pay for it, we will find it difficult to preserve a sense of the value of our schooled judgment. If we are to be merely loyal servants of the interests of our employers or of our own businesses, then we will have difficulty sustaining any independent commitment to serving the good of both individual clients and the public. And if we are to be required to work within an ultimately mechanical, albeit permissive standard established and enforced by professionals who act as our administrating and cognitive superiors, we will have to forsake the communal or collegiate principles that are distinctive of the professional mode of organizing work. (p. 215)

Given the words of Rotunda (1997) and Friedson, (1994), practitioners have no need

to worry about whether project management is or is not recognized as a profession.

What is more important is that the truly dedicated practitioner focuses on being a

professional in creed, word and action.

FOLLOW ON RESEARCH TOPICS: FOR THOSE WHO BELIEVE PROJECT

MANAGEMENT IS NOT A PROFESSION

To understand the future role of project managers, the work of John Sterman (2003)

at MIT’s Sloan School should be considered, along with that of the Santa Fe Institute.

Furthermore, the work of several members of the project management community is

worth examining. Terry Williams (2002) with his ‘Modeling of complex projects’, as

well as Schlomo Globerson (2005), Avraham Shtube (2005) and Johathan Bard


(2005), are all exploring the future of project management, featuring the use of

simulation. And the very essence of simulation is that no two models will be exactly

the same. This means that instead of the approaches taken by PRINCE2 and AACE’s

Total Cost Management Framework, there will be many possible processes, each one

tailored to meet a specific project. Analogous to a pilot being required to take so

many hours of simulated flight training, future research needs to be done to explore

professionalism in the context of simulated project management. In support of this,

simulation training should be incorporated into all educational programs and into the

knowledge based examinations.

7.3.4 For those who believe project management IS a profession

There will remain individuals who believe that project management is a profession in

spite of the research reported here. It behooves them to strengthen the practices’s

standing and professionalism. Michael Polelle (1999) has proposed a ‘bright line’

incentive, built around fiduciary responsibility as being the true differentiator between

occupations being merely businesses and those seeking justification in claiming to be

a profession. He states:

In conclusion, the fundamental and implied bargain between a free society and its professions is defined by effective codes of fiduciary ethics that rise above the minimal ethical norms of other occupations in that society. (University of San Francisco Law Review, online)

He goes on to explain further that:

In return for allowing professions the special privileges of self policing and peer review, society rightfully demands something in return. That ‘something’ is by vigorously policing our own for fiduciary violations of express codes of ethics, the professions relieve the state (court systems) from having to deal with the nuances of problems best addressed within the profession. (University of San Francisco Law Review, online)

Summarized, Polelle (1999) sees a true professional as a guardian:

interposed between a state, ever inclined to extend its centralized power on one hand, while ensuring that the consumer of the goods and services provided by the professional is protected on the other, which results in more freedom for everyone in the society. (University of San Francisco Law Review, online)


This same theme is addressed by Freidson (1994) in his description of a ‘professional

as a trusted servant’, where he states:

professionalism entails commitment to a particular body of knowledge and skill, both for it’s own sake and for the use to which it is put, which is to say, commitment to preserve, refine and elaborate that knowledge and skill, to do good work, and, where it has application to worldly problems, to perform it well for the benefit of others – to do Good Works. (pp. 208-210)

For those who wish to enhance the professional image of project management focus

might best be directed to ‘doing good works’. An example of this is the American

Society of Civil Engineers committing to zero tolerance on corruption in construction

projects or their commitment to sustainable development. Attention to ‘doing good

works’ would include incorporating appropriate elements of the millennium

development goals into a professional organization’s mission statement and/or code

of conduct/code of ethics and attempting to realising them.

Like Polelle, Freidson has developed several ‘bright line tests’ which he proposes

organizations employ to see if their employees have the discretion to qualify as being

true professionals or whether they are they merely well educated mechanics or

technicians. Freidson (1994) asks:

Can employed professionals undertake activities which violate established organizational policies which they (professional) believe to be against the best interests of their client or the public?

Does the fiduciary relationship professionals have with their employer supersede the fiduciary relationship with the client or with the public at large?

Is it corporate policy to substitute the discretionary judgment of the consumer over that of the professional?

Does the professional have sufficient time, equipment, assistance and other resources to perform the work up to professional standards?

Is there a non-hierarchical method of regulating the execution of work based not on standardized methodologies but on peer reviewed ‘best practices’? (p. 212)

To the questions developed by Freidson, another can be proposed: Would you, as an

individual, be willing to put your own savings and professional reputation on the line

for the project you are currently working on?


For those individuals committed to raising the professional image of project

management, these are the areas which, if appropriately addressed, are most likely to

raise the real or perceived professional image of project management. When the point

has been reached at which a clear and unequivocal ‘yes’ can be answered in response

to each of the above questions, then project management can claim to be a profession.

To conclude this recommendation, from Christopher McKenna (2006) is supplied. In

his current book The world’s newest profession – Management consulting in the 20th

century, McKenna notes: ‘The world’s newest profession will have to wait until the

next (21st) Century…’ (p. 251). It would seem that Project Management too will have

to wait until the 21st Century to realize any dreams for the professionalization of what

it is we do, and that like Chiropractors, Acupuncturists and Chinese Herbal Medicine,

the success of professionalizing project management will hinge directly on our ability

to deliver value to the end user, consistently and repeatedly.

FOLLOW ON RESEARCH FOR THOSE WHO BELIEVE PROJECT

MANAGEMENT IS A PROFESSION

In the development of this research, a simple ‘key word’ analysis of various codes of

ethics/codes of conduct was undertaken. There is considerable value to be gained by

looking at key words or key phrases to determine the relative sophistication of a

collection of practitioners and their relative positions on a professionalization index,

like that developed in this study. While the results of the limited key word analysis

proved inconclusive in the current study, more sophisticated software and a focus on

key words as an aspect of a research project might generate some very interesting

results with regard to the way professions operate and see themselves.

Consistent with the concepts of capability maturity models, the examination of key

words in a context of semiotics seems ripe for further exploration and analysis. Such

an examination may well prove to be an important element measuring the capability

or maturity of an organization. Conducting key word or key phrase analysis from

large numbers of significant documents, when placed in context of the ‘bright line

tests’ of professions could potentially produce results that could or should play a

prominent role in the crafting of vision, mission and value statements, as well as

codes of conduct/codes of ethics.


Another important area of research for those who believe project management to be a

profession lies with measuring the success of projects. While the Standish (2004),

Gartner (2005) FMI (2005) and more recently, Parity Group (2007)research all point

to less than exemplary success rates, what should we be measuring? Is ‘on time,

within budget, conforming to specifications while delivering the functionality which

was desired’ reasonable and sufficient? More research needs to be done on defining

what can ‘reasonably’ be expected, assuming the five ‘bright line tests’ identified by

Freidson (1994) are answered affirmatively.

7.3.5 For those who believe it doesn’t matter

Individuals who believe the professional image of project management doesn’t matter

would appear to be either lying to themselves, to have a hidden agenda or to be

passing through project management as a step on a career path to someplace else. For

those who see project management as a small element in a long career path, its level

of professionalism should actually matter very much. Assuming Tom Peters (2003),

Tom Osenton (2004), Tom Maloney (2005) and Tom Friedman (2006) are even close

to correct in their collective predictions about the future or work, project management

is going to become far more pervasive than it is now as a delivery system of choice.

Freidson (1994) notes:

we are living in a time when many are looking closely at the professions, their costs and benefits and when a variety of methods are being considered to make their services more accessible to those who need them and to provide assurance that they are reliable and well considered. (p. 214)

For any individuals claiming the level of professionalization in project management

doesn’t matter, but who speak for or represent professional organizations, the

question is: Why, then, do so many organizations purporting to represent project

management make unsubstantiated claims that it is already a profession, when there is

no empirical evidence supporting these claims? Those representing the various

organizations intent on representing the ‘hearts, minds and money’ of those practicing

project management, need to look more closely at the work of Haga (1974) and

Abbott (1988).


In 1974, Haga was especially forthright (almost brutally so) as he wrote:

The utility of distinguishing true professions from merely would be professions can be appreciated when one looks at why so many occupations pursue the elusive status of profession. Here are the chief things that occupational groups seek when they undertake professionalization:

– Above all else, they want autonomy- the freedom to carry out their jobs as they see fit and appropriate;

– They want recognition of themselves, not based upon the name of their employer, but based upon their occupational identity;

– They want the power to determine who is ‘in’ their group and who is ‘out’. They want to establish a monopoly over their work, freeing it from outside influence. They do not want to share the occupations work ideology;

– They want the power to discipline ‘wayward’ colleagues who do not share the occupations work ideology;

– Autonomy is the key and the key to autonomy is intimidation – of clients; of employees; of members; of anyone who stands to threaten the occupation’s autonomy. (p. 7)

Freidson (1994) states:

Professionalism is under attack today….When leaders of any profession invoke ethics and the values of professionalism critics declare it a self serving ideology that masks the reality of naked self interest….(p. 169)

Abbot (1988) was also rather blunt in his restatement of Theodore Caplow’s theory

about the role of professional organizations, which he says ‘set up a code of ethics to,

amongst other things, reduce internal competition’ (p. 11).

Abbot (1988) goes on to further discuss the social and cultural controls:

A profession is not prevented from founding a national association, because others exist. It can create schools, journals, ethics case as well, but it cannot occupy a jurisdiction without either finding one vacant or fighting for one. (p. 86)

Implicit in this is a commercial interest by the association itself in ‘global

domination’.

Especially in the developing nations, first hand experience has shown that

professional organizations are being used by some, with the explicit or implicit

knowledge of the leadership, as a front for business interests. The fact that

organizations purporting to represent the practitioners of project management are


perceived to be doing so ‘for the money’ destroys the efforts of those who truly want

to professionalize project management, by losing the focus described earlier as

‘Doing Good Works’. For this reason, I would urge any organizations which have

amassed money far in excess of one years operating capital, to turn the remaining

money back to the consuming public in the form of funding for projects in support of

the millennium development goals.

FOLLOW ON RESEARCH

There is a burning need for further research on how the various professional

organizations representing the practitioners of project management are being run. As

most of them hold not for profit status, yet many of them are in fact, big businesses,

there are ethical questions which need to be explored in greater detail. There are also

questions about how much money is necessary and appropriate for a not for profit

professional organization to carry forward in cash or near cash instruments.

Other areas for research on the role of the professional organization are whether or

not the organization is obligated to reflect the values of its members/owners? Can an

occupational specialty cum profession have one set of beliefs while the organization

which represents it has another?

322 References

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Osenton, T. (2004). The death of demand. New York: Prentice Hall.

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Appendices

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Appendix A: Survey instrument 411 responses

Privacy Statement

The purpose of this survey is to collect data for Paul Giammalvo, CDT, PMP, CCE, MScPM, PhD Candidate to conduct research to evaluate whether Project Management is a stand-alone profession, and if not, what is it?

This research is being conducted under the supervision of Dr. Christophe N. Bredillet, IPMA Level A, CCE, Director of Project/Program Management, ESC-Lille University,

This comprehensive survey will take approximately one hour to complete. You must complete it in one sitting. You can not save your results and log back at a later time. For those expecting to claim PDU/CEU's, you will also be expected to read the survey results and reflect on them.

You have three options to participate:

1) You can participate completely anonymously. As the demographic information is an essential part of this research, if you do NOT want your demographic information linked to your name, then choose this option, which will preclude you from claiming either PDU's or the T-Shirt OR receiving the results via email.

2) You can participate and earn 2 Professional Development Units (PDU’s) or .2 Continuing Education Units (CEU’s); (NOTE: For those collecting PDU's for PMI, they must be recorded and collected under Category 2-SDL) The breakdown of the PDU's is: 1 hour or PDU to actually participate in the survey, and; 1 hour or PDU to read and reflect on it as part of your self directed learning.

3) You can participate and receive a complimentary "Project Management- Art? Science? Or Bull....." T-Shirt;

Should you choose to participate under Options 2 (PDU’s) or 3 (T-Shirt), it will be necessary for us to collect your name and physical mailing address from you.

You will also have the option to receive “soft copy” of the results of the survey via email.

Our online survey asks respondents for contact information, financial information, and demographic information. This information is used in the aggregate exclusively. The data collected is used for the stated purpose only and is not sold, leased or used for any other purposes. The research will not disclose information about individual respondents or share any personal information with outside parties.

Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

I Agree 100.0 405

Total responses: 405

2 /27

2) You have three options to participate:

Anonymously- If you choose this option, do NOT provide any personal contact information at all. Choosing this option will preclude you from receiving PDU/CEU's, T-Shirt OR the results of the survey and analysis via email. Should you choose the Anonymous option, DO fill out the demographics, as that is a key element of the research.

PDU's/CEU's- If you choose this option, you must provide a mailing address in order to receive a Certificate of Participation. For PMI Members wishing to claim the PDU's towards their recertification, you must do so under Category 2-SDL. You may use the online self reporting form: http://www.pmi.org/info/PDC_CCRReportingForms.asp. However, you will receive a Certificate of Participation, serving as evidence that you did participate in the full survey, which is worth 1.0 PDU. The claim for the second PDU will need to come from your reading and reflecting on the results of the survey. (Estimated to be ~1 hour or 1.0 PDU's) These PDU's will NOT be able to be claimed until AFTER the release of the Survey Results in late 3Q 2005. As the Demographics is an essential part of the research, should you choose this option, I will be able to link your demographics to your name, so make the selection carefully. This information will not be shared with anyone, and will only be used in the aggregate.

T-Shirt- Should you choose this option you will need to provide me with your size and physical mailing address. As the Demographics is an essential part of the research, should you choose this option, I will be able to link your demographics to your name, so make the selection carefully. This information

will not be shared with anyone, and will only be used in the aggregate. Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

I want to participate anonymously 6.8 26

I want to participate and receive Professional Development Units (PDU’s) or Continue Education Units (CEU's))

46.3 177

I want to participate and receive a T-Shirt. 46.9 179


3) If you choose to earn 2 Professional Development Units (PDU’s) or .2 Continuing Education Units (CEU’s) or if you choose to earn a T Shirt then please provide your name and physical mailing address.

Example if you choose to earn PDU/CEU: SEND ME A PDU/CEU CERTIFICATE Name : John Doe Address : Orchard 60A Orchard Road Singapore 238890

3 /27

NOTE: Should you choose this option, while you will receive a certificate attesting to your participation, that will only be valid for the estimated time to fill in the survey, 1.0 hours. To earn the second hour or PDU, will require you to read and interpret the results. To claim the full 2.0 PDU's for PMI will require you to do so under Category 2-Self Directed Learning. To access this form, point your browser to: http://www.pmi.org/info/PDC_CCRReportingForms.asp.

Example if you choose to receive the T-Shirt: SEND ME A (pick your size) SMALL, MEDIUM, LARGE, EXTRA LARGE, XX LARGE, T-SHIRT Name : John Doe Address : Orchard 60A Orchard Road Singapore 238890

Please provide a valid address and write down "SEND ME A PDU/CEU CERTIFICATE" or "SEND ME A T-SHIRT" with your preferred "SIZE", so we know your choice.

4) Do you also want to receive the results of the survey?

As the Demographics is an essential part of the research, should you choose this option, I will be able to link your demographics to your name, so make the selection carefully. This information will not be shared with anyone, and will only be used in the aggregate. IF you do NOT want your demographic linked to

your name, go back and select the "Anonymous" option. Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes, send me the results by email 100.0 371


5) If you want to receive the results of the survey, then please provide your valid email address.

As the Demographics is an essential part of the research, should you choose this option, I will be able to link your demographics to your name, so make the selection carefully. This information will not be shared with anyone, and will only be used in the aggregate. IF you do NOT want your demographic linked to your name, go back and select the "Anonymous" option.

(The last five responses are given)

- [email protected]

- [email protected]

- [email protected]

- [email protected]

- [email protected]

4 /27

6) Age : Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

19-24 3.5 14

25-30 17.1 69

31-36 27.0 109

37-42 19.8 80

43-48 15.1 61

49-54 8.2 33

55-60 6.4 26

61-66 1.5 6

>66 1.5 6


7) Sex: Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Female 23.9 96

Male 76.1 306


8) Education Level: Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

High School 6.7 27

Bachelors Degree 45.3 182

Masters Degree 43.3 174

PhD 4.7 19


9) Certifications: IF you do not currently hold a Professional Certification or Credential, SKIP THIS QUESTION.

If you DO hold MORE THAN ONE Professional Certification, select the "Other" option and list them.

OR, if you prefer to choose only a single credential, select the one having the most real

or perceived value to you. Chart Wizard

5 /27

Percentage

Responses

PE 3.4 9

PMP 65.3 171

CCE 1.1 3

RegPM 2.3 6

IPMA Level 1 0.8 2

Other 27.1 71


Click to view all OTHER text responses

10) Years PM Experience: Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

<5 28.1 112

6-10 34.8 139

11-15 16.3 65

16-20 8.0 32

21-25 6.8 27

26-30 3.3 13

31-35 1.5 6

>35 1.3 5


11) Salary Range (in Thousands USD): Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

<20 19.9 80

21-40 18.4 74

41-60 14.2 57

61-80 13.9 56

81-100 17.7 71

>100 15.9 64


6 /27

12) What best describes the industry you work in? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

General Construction 7.4 30

Oil, Gas, Petrochemical or Natural Resources 6.7 27

Telecommunications 12.7 51

IT/IS 24.8 100

Pharmaceuticals 1.7 7

Management Services 3.0 12

Banking 4.0 16

Consulting 15.6 63

Other 24.1 97



13) What best describes your JOB TITLE? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Project Manager 51.4 207

Functional Manager 5.5 22

Cost Estimator/Scheduler 2.7 11

Finance/Accounting 0.5 2

Sales and Marketing 2.5 10

Training, Mentoring or Consulting 7.7 31

Human Resources 0.5 2

Engineering/Technical Support 6.5 26

Procurement/Purchasing/Expediting 0.5 2

Other 22.3 90



7 /27

14) What best describes the part of the world you originate from? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

North America 26.8 108

Central/South America 5.5 22

European Union 8.4 34

Russia 0.7 3

Middle East 2.5 10

Africa 16.4 66

Asia Pacific 39.7 160


15) -IF YOU DO NOT HOLD THE JOB TITLE OF PROJECT MANAGER OR FUNCTION IN THE ROLE OF A PROJECT MANGAGER, SKIP THIS QUESTION- Please evaluate the following terms or phrases by how UNIQUE you consider each as

they are used in PROJECT MANAGEMENT compared to General Usage : Chart Wizard

1 More

Commonly Use For General

Business

2 3

Used Equally by Both

4 5

Unique ONLY to Project

Management Responses Average

Score

a. Stakeholder

28 (9.03%) 15 (4.84%) 169 (54.52%) 81 (26.13%) 17 (5.48%) 310 3.14 / 5 (62.80%)

b. Work Breakdown Structure

2 (0.64%) 3 (0.96%) 44 (14.15%) 83 (26.69%) 179 (57.56%) 311 4.40 / 5 (88.00%)

c. Earned Value 8 (2.59%) 12 (3.88%) 71 (22.98%) 72 (23.30%) 146 (47.25%) 309 4.09 / 5

(81.80%)

d. Team Building 23 (7.42%) 35 (11.29%) 209 (67.42%) 22 (7.10%) 21 (6.77%) 310 2.95 / 5

(59.00%)

e. Risk Analysis 13 (4.18%) 21 (6.75%) 185 (59.49%) 71 (22.83%) 21 (6.75%) 311 3.21 / 5

(64.20%)

f. Cost Estimating 8 (2.59%) 22 (7.12%) 207 (66.99%) 51 (16.50%) 21 (6.80%) 309 3.18 / 5

(63.60%)

g. Effective Communications

15 (4.84%) 31 (10.00%) 241 (77.74%) 15 (4.84%) 8 (2.58%) 310 2.90 / 5 (58.00%)

h. Actual Cost of Work Performed

3 (0.96%) 15 (4.82%) 68 (21.86%) 90 (28.94%) 135 (43.41%) 311 4.09 / 5 (81.80%)

i. Activity 12 (3.90%) 14 (4.55%) 172 (55.84%) 71 (23.05%) 39 (12.66%) 308 3.36 / 5 (67.20%)

j. Administrative Closure

10 (3.23%) 28 (9.03%) 75 (24.19%) 98 (31.61%) 99 (31.94%) 310 3.80 / 5 (76.00%)

k. Baseline 3 (0.97%) 7 (2.27%) 92 (29.87%) 87 (28.25%) 119 (38.64%) 308 4.01 / 5

8 /27

Cost Budget

(80.20%)

l. Cost Control 7 (2.25%) 22 (7.07%) 226 (72.67%) 31 (9.97%) 25 (8.04%) 311 3.14 / 5

(62.80%)

m. Deliverables

7 (2.28%) 8 (2.61%) 145 (47.23%) 88 (28.66%) 59 (19.22%) 307 3.60 / 5 (72.00%)

n. Duration Estimate 2 (0.65%) 3 (0.97%) 87 (28.16%) 109 (35.28%) 108 (34.95%) 309 4.03 / 5

(80.60%)

o. Finish to Finish Relationship

1 (0.32%) 4 (1.30%) 28 (9.09%) 50 (16.23%) 225 (73.05%) 308 4.60 / 5 (92.00%)

p. Integrated Change Control

2 (0.65%) 7 (2.29%) 52 (16.99%) 88 (28.76%) 157 (51.31%) 306 4.28 / 5 (85.60%)

q. Free Float 5 (1.63%) 7 (2.28%) 35 (11.40%) 51 (16.61%) 209 (68.08%) 307 4.47 / 5

(89.40%)

r. Network Logic 5 (1.63%) 8 (2.61%) 51 (16.67%) 82 (26.80%) 160 (52.29%) 306 4.25 / 5

(85.00%)

s. Organizational Breakdown Struct

10 (3.26%) 26 (8.47%) 138 (44.95%) 66 (21.50%) 67 (21.82%) 307 3.50 / 5 (70.00%)

t. Performance Reporting

12 (3.92%) 18 (5.88%) 211 (68.95%) 40 (13.07%) 25 (8.17%) 306 3.16 / 5 (63.20%)

u. Project Plan 4 (1.29%) 4 (1.29%) 91 (29.45%) 79 (25.57%) 131 (42.39%) 309 4.06 / 5

(81.20%)

v. Quantitative Risk Analysis

5 (1.62%) 16 (5.19%) 114 (37.01%) 101 (32.79%) 72 (23.38%) 308 3.71 / 5 (74.20%)

w. Resource Leveling

2 (0.65%) 6 (1.95%) 55 (17.92%) 73 (23.78%) 171 (55.70%) 307 4.32 / 5 (86.40%)

x. Schedule Baseline

2 (0.65%) 5 (1.63%) 44 (14.33%) 87 (28.34%) 169 (55.05%) 307 4.36 / 5 (87.20%)

y. Target Completion Date

3 (0.97%) 7 (2.27%) 166 (53.90%) 61 (19.81%) 71 (23.05%) 308 3.62 / 5 (72.40%)

z. Work Package 4 (1.31%) 7 (2.29%) 71 (23.20%) 95 (31.05%) 129 (42.16%) 306 4.10 / 5

(82.00%)

3.78 / 5 (75.60%)

9 /27

16) -IF YOU DO NOT HOLD THE JOB TITLE OF PROJECT MANAGER OR FUNCTION IN THE ROLE OF A PROJECT MANGAGER, SKIP THIS QUESTION-

I consider Project Management to be my life’s work : Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 73.0% 227

No 27.0% 84


17) -IF YOU DO NOT HOLD THE JOB TITLE OF PROJECT MANAGER OR FUNCTION IN THE ROLE OF A PROJECT MANGAGER, SKIP THIS QUESTION- When in a work environment, I am able to identify other project managers in my organization by the clothes they wear or some other identifiable part of their costume. (i.e. special tie, rings, headgear or other unique part of their dress or appearance):

Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 6.2% 19

No 93.8% 289


18) -IF YOU DO NOT HOLD THE JOB TITLE OF PROJECT MANAGER OR FUNCTION IN THE ROLE OF A PROJECT MANGAGER, SKIP THIS QUESTION- I believe that Project Managers should be held financially accountable for mistakes

they/their teams are responsible for when managing a project : Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 60.4% 186

No 39.6% 122


10 /27


As a Project Manager, I feel I have ________________ autonomy in making decisions

related to the execution of the Project I am responsible for : Chart Wizard

1 No 2 3

Limited 4 5 Full Responses Average

Score

1 (0.32%) 7 (2.27%) 80 (25.97%) 169 (54.87%) 51 (16.56%) 308 3.85 / 5

(77.00%) Chart

3.85 / 5 (77.00%)


I relate more to being a project manager than I do to working for any particular

employer : Chart Wizard

1 Strongly Disagree

2 3 Not Sure 4

5 Strongly

Agree Responses Average

Score

6 (1.95%) 32 (10.39%) 53 (17.21%) 127 (41.23%) 90 (29.22%) 308 3.85 / 5

(77.00%) Chart

3.85 / 5 (77.00%)


As a Project Manager, I consider myself to be held in ______ esteem in my home (non-

working) community because of the work I do as a Project Manager : Chart Wizard

1 Low 2 3

Moderate 4 5 High Responses Average

Score

6 (1.94%) 16 (5.16%) 139 (44.84%)

110 (35.48%) 39 (12.58%) 310 3.52 / 5

(70.40%) Chart

3.52 / 5 (70.40%)


Compared to other people of my age and education level, in my position as a project

manager, I feel I am compensated ___________ for my services : Chart Wizard

11 /27

1 Below

Average 2 3

Average 4 5

Above Average

Responses Average Score

19 (6.15%) 30 (9.71%) 142 (45.95%) 92 (29.77%) 26 (8.41%) 309 3.25 / 5

(65.00%) Chart

3.25 / 5 (65.00%)


People not familiar with Project Management consider what practitioners do to be

mystical and/or highly ritualistic. Chart Wizard

1 Strongly Disagree

2 3 Not Sure 4

5 Strongly

Agree Responses Average

Score

20 (6.49%) 65 (21.10%) 103 (33.44%) 90 (29.22%) 30 (9.74%) 308 3.15 / 5

(63.00%) Chart

3.15 / 5 (63.00%)


When I introduce myself to people, I would be more likely to do so by stating : Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

I am a project manager who works for XYZ company. 42.9 132

I work for XYZ company as a project manager. 57.1 176



In the fulfillment of my duties in the role of a Project Manager, I feel I am able to

consistently exercise discretionary judgment in how the project gets executed : Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 85.0% 261

No 15.0% 46


12 /27


As a Project Manager, I feel I have ________________ responsibility for the decisions I

make related to the execution of the Project for which I am in charge : Chart Wizard

1 No 2 3

Partial 4 5 Full Responses Average

Score

0 (0.00%) 1 (0.32%) 39 (12.66%) 121 (39.29%)

147 (47.73%) 308 4.34 / 5

(86.80%) Chart

4.34 / 5 (86.80%)


People who use my services as a Project Manager are not concerned about how I execute the project as long as the project is successful (using their definition of

success) : Chart Wizard

1 Disagree 2 3

Not Sure 4 5 Agree Responses Average

Score

41 (13.23%) 78 (25.16%) 17 (5.48%) 110 (35.48%) 64 (20.65%) 310 3.25 / 5

(65.00%) Chart

3.25 / 5 (65.00%)

28) Below are 8 definitions. Please rank the definition that MOST represents your definition, understanding or interpretation of PROJECT MANAGEMENT as it is practiced by you or within your organization. Mark 1 being the “best” definition, 2 being the second best and so on, with 8 representing the least appropriate definition in your opinion.

NOTE. Please give a different rank for each option. Do not use the same number

twice. Chart Wizard

Average Score

Responses

“a subject, field or duties executed within my existing occupation or profession” 4.57 / 8 400

“a way of doing something or carrying something out, according to a plan” 2.95 / 8 401

“to produce something in a particular or standardized way” 4.33 / 8 399

“the job by which a person earns a living” 6.83 / 8 399

“an occupation that requires long and specialized education or training” 5.20 / 8 398

“activity(ies) that somebody does regularly for pay 6.89 / 8 399

“a method or set of procedures for achieving or producing something” 3.04 / 8 400

“a series of actions directed towards achieving a specific aim or objective” 1.99 / 8 400

1.99 / 8

13 /27

29) During the past year, I have donated the following number of hours performing voluntary, uncompensated community service requiring the use of my Project

Management skills. Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

0 26.9 108

1-20 36.7 147

21-40 16.2 65

41-60 5.0 20

>60 15.2 61


14 /

27

30)

Bel

ow is

a lis

t of 21 o

ccupat

ions

gen

eral

ly c

onsi

der

ed t

o b

e “P

rofe

ssio

ns”

base

d u

pon t

he

requirem

ent

of

a lic

ense

to

pra

ctic

e.

Com

par

e ea

ch o

ccupat

ion a

gain

st t

he

bas

elin

e of

a fr

esh g

raduate

of a

4 y

ear

univ

ersi

ty,

with n

o e

xper

ience

and n

o lic

ense

, m

arki

ng

how

much

more

you

per

ceiv

e th

e RELA

TIV

E V

ALU

E o

f th

e occ

upat

ion c

om

par

ed a

gai

nst

the

fres

h u

niv

ersi

ty g

raduat

e in

ter

ms

of

PRO

FESSIO

NAL

IMAG

E o

r PR

ESTIG

E.

EXAM

PLE:

Com

par

ing a

fre

sh g

raduat

e of

a 4

yea

r U

niv

ersi

ty a

gai

nst

a C

andle

stic

k M

aker

, by

mar

king t

he

“40%

” box,

you

are

sa

ying t

hat

in y

our

opin

ion,

the

Can

dle

stic

k M

aker

is

per

ceiv

ed b

y yo

u t

o b

e fo

rty

per

cent

mor

e o

f a

pro

fess

ion t

han

the

fres

h

gra

duat

e (o

ut

of a

poss

ible

max

imum

of 100%

).

C

har

t W

izar

d

1

Equa

l 2

10%

3

20%

4

30%

5

40%

6

50%

7

60%

8

70%

9

80%

10

90

%

11

100%

R

espo

nses

Ave

rage

Sc

ore

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- C

omm

erci

al

Airl

ine

Pilo

t

6 (1

.52%

) 10

(2.5

4%)

7 (1

.78%

) 22

(5.5

8%)

7 (1

.78%

) 27

(6.8

5%)

30 (7

.61%

) 43

(1

0.91

%)

85

(21.

57%

) 46

(1

1.68

%)

111

(28.

17%

) 39

4 8.

46 /

11

(76.

91%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- C

ertif

ied

Pub

lic

Acc

ount

ant

4 (1

.02%

) 11

(2.7

9%)

16 (4

.06%

)15

(3.8

1%)

25 (6

.35%

) 27

(6.8

5%)

36 (9

.14%

) 47

(1

1.93

%)

87

(22.

08%

) 43

(1

0.91

%)

83

(21.

07%

) 39

4 8.

06 /

11

(73.

27%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- C

omm

erci

al

Trac

tor T

raile

r Tr

uck

Driv

er

83

(21.

07%

) 61

(1

5.48

%)

69

(17.

51%

) 51

(12.

94%

)38

(9.6

4%)

33 (8

.38%

) 17

(4.3

1%)

13 (3

.30%

) 11

(2.7

9%)

10 (2

.54%

) 8

(2.0

3%)

394

3.84

/ 11

(3

4.91

%)

15 /

27

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- B

arbe

r/Cos

met

olog

ist

75

(18.

99%

) 59

(1

4.94

%)

70

(17.

72%

) 48

(12.

15%

)52

(1

3.16

%)

35 (8

.86%

) 22

(5.5

7%)

12 (3

.04%

) 12

(3.0

4%)

5 (1

.27%

) 5

(1.2

7%)

395

3.87

/ 11

(3

5.18

%)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- M

BA/

Bus

ines

s C

onsu

ltant

11

(2.7

9%)

7 (1

.78%

) 26

(6.6

0%)

19 (4

.82%

) 25

(6.3

5%)

46

(11.

68%

) 45

(1

1.42

%)

55

(13.

96%

) 59

(1

4.97

%)

55

(13.

96%

) 46

(1

1.68

%)

394

7.42

/ 11

(6

7.45

%)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- Li

brar

ian

39

(9.9

2%)

33 (8

.40%

) 61

(1

5.52

%)

41 (1

0.43

%)

48

(12.

21%

) 60

(1

5.27

%)

42

(10.

69%

) 25

(6.3

6%)

24 (6

.11%

) 11

(2.8

0%)

9 (2

.29%

) 39

3 5.

02 /

11

(45.

64%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- C

ivil

Eng

inee

r/Lan

d Su

rvey

or

8 (2

.05%

) 10

(2.5

6%)

15 (3

.84%

)20

(5.1

2%)

30 (7

.67%

) 47

(1

2.02

%)

46

(11.

76%

) 48

(1

2.28

%)

79

(20.

20%

) 42

(1

0.74

%)

46

(11.

76%

) 39

1 7.

49 /

11

(68.

09%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- P

lum

ber

45

(11.

48%

) 39

(9.9

5%)

53

(13.

52%

) 46

(11.

73%

)59

(1

5.05

%)

52

(13.

27%

) 29

(7.4

0%)

31 (7

.91%

) 16

(4.0

8%)

10 (2

.55%

) 12

(3.0

6%)

392

4.85

/ 11

(4

4.09

%)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- E

lect

ricia

n

36

(9.1

8%)

28 (7

.14%

) 52

(1

3.27

%)

47 (1

1.99

%)

58

(14.

80%

) 52

(1

3.27

%)

43

(10.

97%

) 30

(7.6

5%)

20 (5

.10%

) 13

(3.3

2%)

13 (3

.32%

) 39

2 5.

18 /

11

(47.

09%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- D

entis

t

9 (2

.28%

) 5

(1.2

7%)

12 (3

.05%

)17

(4.3

1%)

18 (4

.57%

) 35

(8.8

8%)

21 (5

.33%

) 45

(1

1.42

%)

65

(16.

50%

) 70

(1

7.77

%)

97

(24.

62%

) 39

4 8.

33 /

11

(75.

73%

)

6.

25 /

11 (5

6.82

%)

31)

CO

NTIN

UED

- Bel

ow

is

a lis

t of

21 o

ccupat

ions

gen

eral

ly c

onsi

der

ed t

o b

e “P

rofe

ssio

ns”

bas

ed u

pon t

he

requirem

ent

of a

licen

se t

o pra

ctic

e. C

om

par

e ea

ch o

ccupat

ion a

gai

nst

the

bas

elin

e of

a fre

sh g

raduat

e of a

4 y

ear

univ

ers

ity,

with n

o e

xperien

ce a

nd n

o lic

ense

, m

arki

ng h

ow m

uch

more

you

per

ceiv

e th

e RELA

TIV

E V

ALU

E o

f th

e occ

upation c

om

par

ed a

gai

nst

the

fres

h u

niv

ersi

ty g

raduat

e in t

erm

s of

PRO

FESSIO

NAL

IMAG

E o

r PR

ESTIG

E.

16 /

27

EXAM

PLE:

Com

par

ing a

fre

sh g

raduat

e of

a 4

yea

r U

niv

ersi

ty a

gai

nst

a C

andle

stic

k M

aker

, by

mar

king t

he

“40%

” box,

you

are

say

ing

that

in y

our

opin

ion,

the

Can

dle

stic

k M

aker

is

per

ceiv

ed b

y yo

u t

o be

fort

y per

cent

more

of

a pro

fess

ion t

han

the

fres

h g

raduat

e (o

ut

of a

poss

ible

max

imum

of 100%

).

C

har

t W

izar

d

1

Equa

l 2

10%

3

20%

4

30%

5

40%

6

50%

7

60%

8

70%

9

80%

10

90

%

11

100%

R

espo

nses

Ave

rage

Sc

ore

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- La

wye

r

6 (1

.53%

) 12

(3.0

6%)

8 (2

.04%

) 11

(2.8

1%)

12 (3

.06%

) 45

(1

1.48

%)

22 (5

.61%

) 42

(1

0.71

%)

76

(19.

39%

) 57

(1

4.54

%)

101

(25.

77%

) 39

2 8.

38 /

11

(76.

18%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- M

edic

al

Doc

tor

4 (1

.02%

) 6

(1.5

3%)

9 (2

.30%

) 7

(1.7

9%)

4 (1

.02%

) 20

(5.1

2%)

17 (4

.35%

) 33

(8.4

4%)

48

(12.

28%

) 84

(2

1.48

%)

159

(40.

66%

) 39

1 9.

25 /

11

(84.

09%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- H

igh

Sch

ool

Prin

cipa

l

11 (2

.81%

) 18

(4.5

9%)

19 (4

.85%

) 31

(7.9

1%)

21 (5

.36%

) 60

(1

5.31

%)

51

(13.

01%

) 56

(1

4.29

%)

63

(16.

07%

) 32

(8.1

6%)

30 (7

.65%

) 39

2 6.

93 /

11

(63.

00%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- C

onst

ruct

ion

Man

ager

5 (1

.28%

) 10

(2.5

5%)

18 (4

.59%

) 27

(6.8

9%)

33 (8

.42%

) 53

(1

3.52

%)

62

(15.

82%

) 70

(1

7.86

%)

58

(14.

80%

) 32

(8.1

6%)

24 (6

.12%

) 39

2 7.

07 /

11

(64.

27%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- P

roje

ct

Man

ager

4 (1

.02%

) 9

(2.3

0%)

9 (2

.30%

) 17

(4.3

4%)

14 (3

.57%

) 48

(1

2.24

%)

51

(13.

01%

) 75

(1

9.13

%)

63

(16.

07%

) 54

(1

3.78

%)

48

(12.

24%

) 39

2 7.

82 /

11

(71.

09%

)

17 /

27

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- S

choo

l Bus

D

river

111

(28.

39%

) 72

(1

8.41

%)

66

(16.

88%

) 43

(1

1.00

%)

26 (6

.65%

) 22

(5.6

3%)

22 (5

.63%

) 6

(1.5

3%)

9 (2

.30%

) 8

(2.0

5%)

6 (1

.53%

) 39

1 3.

37 /

11

(30.

64%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- C

ompu

ter/

Sof

twar

e E

ngin

eer

18 (4

.62%

) 12

(3.0

8%)

36 (9

.23%

) 34

(8.7

2%)

38 (9

.74%

) 51

(1

3.08

%)

57

(14.

62%

) 46

(1

1.79

%)

59

(15.

13%

) 24

(6.1

5%)

15 (3

.85%

) 39

0 6.

37 /

11

(57.

91%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- R

egis

tere

d N

urse

11 (2

.81%

) 22

(5.6

1%)

31 (7

.91%

) 47

(1

1.99

%)

40

(10.

20%

) 52

(1

3.27

%)

44

(11.

22%

) 47

(1

1.99

%)

45

(11.

48%

) 23

(5.8

7%)

30 (7

.65%

) 39

2 6.

37 /

11

(57.

91%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- R

eal E

stat

e B

roke

r/App

rais

er

42

(10.

74%

) 42

(1

0.74

%)

48

(12.

28%

) 44

(1

1.25

%)

57

(14.

58%

) 58

(1

4.83

%)

31 (7

.93%

) 21

(5.3

7%)

29 (7

.42%

) 12

(3.0

7%)

7 (1

.79%

) 39

1 4.

92 /

11

(44.

73%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- In

sura

nce

Age

nt

58

(14.

83%

) 48

(1

2.28

%)

62

(15.

86%

) 54

(1

3.81

%)

51

(13.

04%

) 44

(1

1.25

%)

28 (7

.16%

) 15

(3.8

4%)

16 (4

.09%

) 6

(1.5

3%)

9 (2

.30%

) 39

1 4.

33 /

11

(39.

36%

)

Fres

h U

nive

rsity

G

radu

ate

- E

lect

rical

/Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ions

E

ngin

eer

6 (1

.54%

) 18

(4.6

3%)

20 (5

.14%

) 35

(9.0

0%)

44

(11.

31%

) 51

(1

3.11

%)

38 (9

.77%

) 50

(1

2.85

%)

56

(14.

40%

) 42

(1

0.80

%)

29 (7

.46%

) 38

9 6.

88 /

11

(62.

55%

)

6.

52 /

11 (5

9.27

%)

18 /27

32) During the previous 3 years, I have written and published the following number of

articles in professional journals/publications. Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

0 72.1 287

1 13.6 54

2 5.3 21

3 2.3 9

>3 6.8 27


33) People who use the services of a Project Manager generally consider those services

critical to the success of their project. Chart Wizard

1 Agree 2 3

Not Sure 4 5 Disagree Responses Average

Score

223 (56.31%)

117 (29.55%) 29 (7.32%) 22 (5.56%) 5 (1.26%) 396 1.66 / 5

(33.20%) Chart

1.66 / 5 (33.20%)

34) How many years formal EDUCATION beyond High School do you believe it takes to produce a competent practitioner, worthy of the title of “Professional Project Manager”

? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

2 11.4 45

3 14.4 57

4 26.3 104

5 16.9 67

>5 31.1 123


19 /27

35) How many years working EXPERIENCE do you believe it takes to produce a

competent practitioner, worthy of the title of “Project Manager” ? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

0-1 0.8 3

2-3 9.1 36

3-4 20.2 80

4-5 21.5 85

>5 48.5 192


36) How many years of apprenticeship, internship or supervised work experience

(Residency) do you think of when you see the word “Profession”? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

2 23.7 94

3 25.9 103

4 20.2 80

5 12.1 48

>5 18.1 72


37) I believe the primary purpose of occupational licensing of any profession is to

protect the public from quacks, charlatans or incompetence . Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 87.1% 345

No 12.9% 51


38) I believe that licensing of Project Managers will lead to projects being completed on

time, within budget and substantially fulfilling all technical requirements . Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 43.0% 169

No 57.0% 224


20 /

27

39)

List

ed b

elow

are

pai

rs o

f occ

upations.

Fro

m e

ach p

air,

mar

k th

e ci

rcle

that

bes

t re

pre

sents

your

idea

l IM

AG

E o

r IM

PRESSIO

N o

f how

much

of

a PR

OFE

SSIO

N e

ach o

ccupat

ion is

rela

tive

to

the

oth

er.

If y

ou c

onsi

der

them

EQ

UAL,

mar

k th

e 0%

.

EXAM

PLE-

Bas

ed o

n t

he

sele

ctio

n in t

he

sam

ple

answ

er b

elow

, yo

u a

re s

ayin

g t

hat

in y

our

opin

ion,

a Bake

r is

perc

eiv

ed b

y yo

u t

o be

80%

more

of a

pro

fess

ion t

han

that

of

a Can

dle

stic

k M

aker

C

har

t W

izar

d

1 10

0%

2 80

%

3 60

%

4 40

%

5 20

%

6 Eq

ual

7 20

%

8 40

%

9 60

%

10

80%

11

10

0%

Res

pons

esA

vera

ge

Scor

e

Plu

mbe

r -

Airl

ine

Pilo

t 3

(0.7

7%)

2 (0

.51%

) 3

(0.7

7%)

10 (2

.57%

) 10

(2.5

7%)

62

(15.

94%

) 22

(5.6

6%)

38 (9

.77%

) 61

(1

5.68

%)

119

(30.

59%

) 59

(1

5.17

%)

389

8.54

/ 11

(7

7.64

%)

Med

ical

D

octo

r -

Acc

ount

ant

19 (4

.88%

) 62

(1

5.94

%)

41

(10.

54%

) 56

(1

4.40

%)

35 (9

.00%

) 13

9 (3

5.73

%)

5 (1

.29%

) 6

(1.5

4%)

11 (2

.83%

) 10

(2.5

7%)

5 (1

.29%

) 38

9 4.

72 /

11

(42.

91%

)

Acc

ount

ant

- Law

yer

1 (0

.26%

) 2

(0.5

2%)

10 (2

.58%

) 13

(3.3

6%)

13 (3

.36%

) 19

6 (5

0.65

%)

48

(12.

40%

) 44

(1

1.37

%)

33 (8

.53%

) 21

(5.4

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6 (1

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) 38

7 6.

69 /

11

(60.

82%

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Law

yer -

R

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stat

e A

gent

31 (8

.03%

) 10

1 (2

6.17

%)

77

(19.

95%

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(1

6.84

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35 (9

.07%

) 46

(1

1.92

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8 (2

.07%

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(1.0

4%)

7 (1

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3 (0

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6 3.

75 /

11

(34.

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Med

ical

D

octo

r -

Law

yer

15 (3

.86%

) 35

(9.0

0%)

37 (9

.51%

) 46

(1

1.83

%)

42

(10.

80%

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0 (5

1.41

%)

2 (0

.51%

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(1.2

9%)

4 (1

.03%

) 1

(0.2

6%)

2 (0

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) 38

9 4.

92 /

11

(44.

73%

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Rea

l Est

ate

Age

nt -

Bui

ldin

g C

ontra

ctor

1 (0

.26%

) 3

(0.7

8%)

6 (1

.55%

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(2.8

5%)

27 (6

.99%

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1 (3

6.53

%)

67

(17.

36%

) 50

(1

2.95

%)

53

(13.

73%

) 23

(5.9

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4 (1

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6 6.

92 /

11

(62.

91%

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Med

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D

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Airl

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Pilo

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10 (2

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38 (9

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36 (9

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6 (4

8.06

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11 (2

.84%

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2 (0

.52%

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3 (0

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7 5.

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11

(46.

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Rea

l Est

ate

2 (0

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(0.5

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4 (1

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(2.0

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5 (1

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46

67

94

70

47

38

7 8.

39 /

11

21 /

27

Age

nt -

Eng

inee

r (1

0.85

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(11.

89%

) (1

7.31

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(24.

29%

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8.09

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(12.

14%

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6.27

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Med

ical

D

octo

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Rea

l Est

ate

Age

nt

116

(29.

90%

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9 (2

8.09

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64

(16.

49%

) 34

(8.7

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19 (4

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) 28

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1 (0

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(0.7

7%)

4 (1

.03%

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4 (1

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8 2.

82 /

11

(25.

64%

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Med

ical

D

octo

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Pro

ject

M

anag

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16 (4

.16%

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1.95

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57

(14.

81%

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9.22

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58

(15.

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3 (2

6.75

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7 (1

.82%

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(2.0

8%)

5 (1

.30%

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4 (1

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5 4.

56 /

11

(41.

45%

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Acc

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ant

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l E

stat

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gent

22 (5

.67%

) 55

(1

4.18

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83

(21.

39%

) 90

(2

3.20

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58

(14.

95%

) 66

(1

7.01

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8 (2

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(0.2

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2 (0

.52%

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(0.7

7%)

0 (0

.00%

) 38

8 3.

97 /

11

(36.

09%

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Med

ical

D

octo

r -

Bui

ldin

g C

ontra

ctor

64

(16.

54%

) 11

0 (2

8.42

%)

61

(15.

76%

) 56

(1

4.47

%)

32 (8

.27%

) 45

(1

1.63

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5 (1

.29%

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(1.5

5%)

1 (0

.26%

) 6

(1.5

5%)

1 (0

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) 38

7 3.

32 /

11

(30.

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5.

31 /

11 (4

8.27

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40)

CO

NTIN

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the

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pre

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you

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N o

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If

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EXAM

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22 /

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1 10

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6 Eq

ual

7 20

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Res

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vera

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Scor

e

Med

ical

D

octo

r -

Eng

inee

r 10

(2.5

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31 (7

.93%

) 47

(12.

02%

)79

(20.

20%

)66

(16.

88%

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7 (3

7.60

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3 (0

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4 (1

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1 (0

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1 4.

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Acc

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ldin

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7

(1.7

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32 (8

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) 55

(14.

10%

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(17.

69%

)81

(20.

77%

)85

(21.

79%

)25

(6.4

1%)

18 (4

.62%

) 11

(2.8

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4 (1

.03%

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(0.7

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390

4.92

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Rea

l Est

ate

Age

nt -

Ele

ctric

ian

1 (0

.26%

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(1.2

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15 (3

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(3.6

0%)

32 (8

.23%

) 10

5 (2

6.99

%)

83 (2

1.34

%)

83 (2

1.34

%)

34 (8

.74%

) 13

(3.3

4%)

4 (1

.03%

) 38

9 6.

75 /

11

(61.

36%

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Acc

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ant

- Plu

mbe

r 19

(4.8

6%)

53 (1

3.55

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60 (1

5.35

%)

75 (1

9.18

%)

83 (2

1.23

%)

72 (1

8.41

%)

9 (2

.30%

) 10

(2.5

6%)

6 (1

.53%

) 3

(0.7

7%)

1 (0

.26%

) 39

1 4.

32 /

11

(39.

27%

)

Acc

ount

ant

- Airl

ine

Pilo

t 2

(0.5

1%)

9 (2

.31%

) 11

(2.8

3%)

21 (5

.40%

) 31

(7.9

7%)

112

(28.

79%

) 42

(10.

80%

) 55

(14.

14%

)51

(13.

11%

)41

(10.

54%

)14

(3.6

0%)

389

6.99

/ 11

(6

3.55

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Plu

mbe

r -

Pro

ject

M

anag

er

1 (0

.26%

) 6

(1.5

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6 (1

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(1.5

4%)

10 (2

.56%

) 45

(11.

54%

)34

(8.7

2%)

52 (1

3.33

%)

82 (2

1.03

%)

98 (2

5.13

%)

50 (1

2.82

%)

390

8.45

/ 11

(7

6.82

%)

Bui

ldin

g C

ontra

ctor

- E

ngin

eer

2 (0

.51%

) 5

(1.2

9%)

10 (2

.57%

) 11

(2.8

3%)

15 (3

.86%

) 86

(22.

11%

)53

(13.

62%

) 87

(22.

37%

)67

(17.

22%

)35

(9.0

0%)

18 (4

.63%

) 38

9 7.

44 /

11

(67.

64%

)

Eng

inee

r -

Ele

ctric

ian

18 (4

.62%

) 47

(12.

05%

) 72

(18.

46%

)72

(18.

46%

)54

(13.

85%

)82

(21.

03%

)11

(2.8

2%)

12 (3

.08%

) 16

(4.1

0%)

3 (0

.77%

) 3

(0.7

7%)

390

4.51

/ 11

(4

1.00

%)

Rea

l Est

ate

Age

nt -

Plu

mbe

r 3

(0.7

8%)

9 (2

.33%

) 21

(5.4

3%)

27 (6

.98%

) 60

(15.

50%

)11

2 (2

8.94

%)

68 (1

7.57

%)

47 (1

2.14

%)

28 (7

.24%

) 8

(2.0

7%)

4 (1

.03%

) 38

7 6.

18 /

11

(56.

18%

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Bui

ldin

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ontra

ctor

- E

lect

ricia

n 5

(1.2

9%)

10 (2

.57%

) 20

(5.1

4%)

47 (1

2.08

%)

52 (1

3.37

%)

144

(37.

02%

) 51

(13.

11%

) 41

(10.

54%

)12

(3.0

8%)

5 (1

.29%

) 2

(0.5

1%)

389

5.81

/ 11

(5

2.82

%)

Acc

ount

ant

- Pro

ject

M

anag

er

0 (0

.00%

) 8

(2.0

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13 (3

.33%

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(6.9

2%)

38 (9

.74%

) 13

1 (3

3.59

%)

33 (8

.46%

) 47

(12.

05%

)42

(10.

77%

)37

(9.4

9%)

14 (3

.59%

) 39

0 6.

79 /

11

(61.

73%

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6.

08 /

11 (5

5.27

%)

23 /

27

41)

CO

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sted

bel

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re p

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of

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m e

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mar

k th

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rcle

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AG

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N o

f how

much

of a

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ach o

ccupat

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rela

tive

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EXAM

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in y

our

opin

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perc

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that

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1 10

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2 80

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3 60

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4 40

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5 20

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6 Eq

ual

7 20

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10

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Res

pons

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Ave

rage

Sc

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Law

yer -

Bu

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ontra

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32

(8.2

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70

(17.

95%

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(2

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62

(15.

90%

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(1

3.59

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53

(13.

59%

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(2.3

1%)

9 (2

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(3.0

8%)

3 (0

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(0.7

7%)

390

4.00

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6.36

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Acco

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nt

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inee

r 1

(0.2

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1 (0

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26 (6

.70%

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(6.7

0%)

180

(46.

39%

) 45

(1

1.60

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48

(12.

37%

) 35

(9.0

2%)

11 (2

.84%

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(0.5

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388

6.45

/ 11

(5

8.64

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Elec

trici

an -

Airli

ne P

ilot

2 (0

.51%

) 3

(0.7

7%)

4 (1

.03%

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(3.6

0%)

7 (1

.80%

) 56

(1

4.40

%)

52

(13.

37%

) 67

(1

7.22

%)

71

(18.

25%

) 81

(2

0.82

%)

32 (8

.23%

)38

9 8.

09 /

11

(73.

55%

)

Law

yer -

En

gine

er

2 (0

.51%

) 12

(3.0

8%)

27 (6

.92%

)47

(1

2.05

%)

51

(13.

08%

) 17

6 (4

5.13

%)

30 (7

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) 19

(4.8

7%)

18 (4

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)4

(1.0

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4 (1

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) 39

0 5.

68 /

11

(51.

64%

)

Elec

trici

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Plum

ber

1 (0

.26%

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(2.3

1%)

9 (2

.31%

) 29

(7.4

4%)

44

(11.

28%

) 28

0 (7

1.79

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9 (2

.31%

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(1.7

9%)

1 (0

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1 (0

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0 5.

64 /

11

(51.

27%

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Build

ing

Con

tract

or

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Pilo

t

4 (1

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(0.7

8%)

8 (2

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(1.5

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12 (3

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(1

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40

(10.

34%

) 81

(2

0.93

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68

(17.

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(2

1.96

%)

25 (6

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7 8.

04 /

11

(73.

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Law

yer -

El

ectri

cian

30

(7.7

1%)

61

(15.

68%

) 75

(1

9.28

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85

(21.

85%

) 47

(1

2.08

%)

49

(12.

60%

) 14

(3.6

0%)

9 (2

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) 13

(3.3

4%)

2 (0

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) 4

(1.0

3%)

389

4.11

/ 11

(3

7.36

%)

Law

yer -

Pl

umbe

r 39

(1

0.03

%)

67

(17.

22%

) 91

(2

3.39

%)

66

(16.

97%

) 46

(1

1.83

%)

45

(11.

57%

) 14

(3.6

0%)

7 (1

.80%

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(2.0

6%)

3 (0

.77%

) 3

(0.7

7%)

389

3.85

/ 11

(3

5.00

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Engi

neer

- Ai

rline

Pilo

t 1

(0.2

6%)

9 (2

.31%

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(5.1

4%)

39

(10.

03%

) 31

(7.9

7%)

130

(33.

42%

) 53

(1

3.62

%)

48

(12.

34%

) 36

(9.2

5%)

15 (3

.86%

)7

(1.8

0%)

389

6.37

/ 11

(5

7.91

%)

24 /

27

Build

ing

Con

tract

or

- Plu

mbe

r 8

(2.0

7%)

9 (2

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) 49

(1

2.69

%)

69

(17.

88%

) 73

(1

8.91

%)

126

(32.

64%

) 30

(7.7

7%)

14 (3

.63%

)6

(1.5

5%)

2 (0

.52%

) 0

(0.0

0%)

386

5.09

/ 11

(4

6.27

%)

Engi

neer

- Pr

ojec

t M

anag

er

1 (0

.26%

) 7

(1.8

1%)

13 (3

.36%

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(8.2

7%)

39

(10.

08%

) 13

3 (3

4.37

%)

42

(10.

85%

) 51

(1

3.18

%)

39

(10.

08%

) 24

(6.2

0%)

6 (1

.55%

) 38

7 6.

55 /

11

(59.

55%

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5.

81 /

11 (5

2.82

%)

42)

CO

NTIN

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- Li

sted

bel

ow a

re p

airs

of

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m e

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mar

k th

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AG

E o

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PRESSIO

N o

f how

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of a

PRO

FESSIO

N e

ach o

ccupation is

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tive

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EXAM

PLE-

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ed o

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d

1

100%

2

80%

3

60%

4

40%

5

20%

6

Equa

l 7

20%

8

40%

9

60%

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80

%

11

100%

R

espo

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s A

vera

ge

Scor

e

Law

yer -

Airl

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Pilo

t 4

(1.0

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19 (4

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(6.1

2%)

34 (8

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)39

(9.9

5%)

132

(33.

67%

) 46

(1

1.73

%)

33 (8

.42%

)31

(7.9

1%)

20 (5

.10%

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5%)

392

6.15

/ 11

(5

5.91

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Acco

unta

nt -

Elec

trici

an

11 (2

.81%

) 24

(6.1

2%)

60

(15.

31%

) 79

(2

0.15

%)

87

(22.

19%

) 88

(2

2.45

%)

18 (4

.59%

) 12

(3.0

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26 /27

43) How many years of formal (university level) education do you think of when you

see the word “Profession”? Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

2 5.3 21

3 9.9 39

4 44.2 174

5 18.8 74

>5 21.8 86


44) I believe occupational licensing of any type results in a monopoly and a form of

restraint of trade. Chart Wizard

Percentage

Responses

Yes 27.4% 107

No 72.6% 284


45) Below is a list of 11 attributes normally associated with an occupation being recognized or accepted as being a “Profession”. From the selection below, please indicate the relative weighting or importance you give to each of these attributes. You can mark any value between 0 (No importance to evaluating or determining a profession), to a maximum of 100 points (Essential attribute necessary to be considered a profession)

Click to view ALL responses

46) (Continued from #45) Below is the next list of 11 attributes normally associated with an occupation being recognized or accepted as being a “Profession”. From the selection below, please indicate the relative weighting or importance you give to each of these attributes. You can mark any value between 0 (No importance to evaluating or determining a profession), to a maximum of 100 points (Essential attribute necessary to be considered a profession)

Click to view ALL responses

27 /27

47) Rank the following list of professions in the order you perceive them to represent your professional ideal. (1 being most professional, 21 being least professional)

NOTE. Please give a different rank for each question. Do not use the same number

twice. Chart Wizard

Average Score

Responses

Aircraft Pilots (Commercial Jet) 5.48 / 21 392

Accountant (Certified Public) 7.05 / 21 391

Commercial Tractor Trailer Truck Driver 16.39 / 21 386

Barber/Cosmetologists 16.75 / 21 387

MBA’s/Business Consultants 8.77 / 21 388

Librarians 13.77 / 21 387

Civil Engineers/Land Surveyors 8.45 / 21 388

Dentists 5.54 / 21 390

Lawyers 6.52 / 21 391

Physicians (Medical Doctors) 3.41 / 21 390

High School Principal 11.48 / 21 389

Construction Managers 10.12 / 21 388

Project Managers 7.36 / 21 388

School Bus Drivers 16.99 / 21 384

Computer/Software Engineers 9.99 / 21 388

Electricians 13.17 / 21 385

Plumbers 14.44 / 21 385

Registered Nurses 10.03 / 21 388

Real Estate Brokers/Appraisers 15.48 / 21 384

Insurance Agents 15.79 / 21 384

Electrical/Telecommunication Engineers 9.69 / 21 387

9.69 / 21

Appendix B: Codes of ethics

INCOSE Code of Ethics

This Code is concerned with how certain fundamental imperatives apply to one's conduct as an engineering professional. These imperatives are expressed in a general form to emphasize that principles which apply to engineering ethics are derived from more general ethical principles.

It is understood that some words and phrases in a code of ethics are subject to varying interpretations, and that any ethical principle may conflict with other ethical principles in specific situations. Questions related to ethical conflicts can best be answered by thoughtful consideration of fundamental principles, rather than reliance on detailed regulations. Preamble Engineering is a profession that requires its practitioners to be well educated and knowledgeable. Systems Engineering, in particular, is a unique discipline in that 1) it is highly integrative, spanning elements of many activities, 2) often provides representation of stakeholders' interests other than employer or client, and 3) operates in largely international arenas where value systems, beliefs and customs vary widely. The practice of Systems Engineering can result in significant social and environmental benefits, but only if unintended and undesired effects are considered and mitigated. Fundamental Principles Systems Engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering profession by:

• Being honest and impartial; • Maintaining the highest levels of integrity and keeping abreast of the knowledge of

their disciplines; • Striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession; and • Supporting the educational institutions, the professional societies and technical

societies of their disciplines.

Fundamental Duties to Society and Public Infrastructure

• Guard the public interest and protect the environment, safety and welfare of those affected by engineering activities and technological artifacts.

• Accept responsibility for your actions and engineering results, including being open to ethical scrutiny and assessment.

• Proactively mitigate unsafe practice. • Manage risk using knowledge granted by a whole system viewpoint and

understanding of systemic interfaces. • Promote the understanding, implementation, and acceptance of prudent Systems

Engineering measures .

Rules of Practice

• Act legally, honorably, honestly, justly, and responsibly. • Respect, protect, and preserve the intellectual properties of others. • Honor all legal contracts and agreements. • Treat all constituents fairly. • Give prudent advice. Be truthful, objective, and maintain your professional and

technical integrity.

• Provide diligent and competent services to the best of your ability. • Respect the trust and the privileges granted to you. • Avoid conflicts of interest and the appearance thereof.

ASCE Code of Ethics Fundamental Principles2

Engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering profession by:

1. using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare and the environment;

2. being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public, their employers and clients;

3. striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession; and 4. supporting the professional and technical societies of their disciplines.

Fundamental Canons

1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development3 in the performance of their professional duties.

2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. 3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. 4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful

agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. 5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and

shall not compete unfairly with others. 6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity,

and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption.

7. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision.

Guidelines to Practice Under the Fundamental Canons of Ethics

CANON 1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties.

a. Engineers shall recognize that the lives, safety, health and welfare of the general public are dependent upon engineering judgments, decisions and practices incorporated into structures, machines, products, processes and devices.

b. Engineers shall approve or seal only those design documents, reviewed or prepared by them, which are determined to be safe for public health and welfare in conformity with accepted engineering standards.

c. Engineers whose professional judgment is overruled under circumstances where the safety, health and welfare of the public are endangered, or the principles of sustainable development ignored, shall inform their clients or employers of the possible consequences.

d. Engineers who have knowledge or reason to believe that another person or firm may be in violation of any of the provisions of Canon 1 shall present such information to the proper authority in writing and shall cooperate with the proper authority in furnishing such further information or assistance as may be required.

e. Engineers should seek opportunities to be of constructive service in civic affairs and work for the advancement of the safety, health and well-being of their communities, and the protection of the environment through the practice of sustainable development.

f. Engineers should be committed to improving the environment by adherence to the principles of sustainable development so as to enhance the quality of life of the general public.

CANON 2. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence.

a. Engineers shall undertake to perform engineering assignments only when qualified by education or experience in the technical field of engineering involved.

b. Engineers may accept an assignment requiring education or experience outside of their own fields of competence, provided their services are restricted to those phases of the project in which they are qualified. All other phases of such project shall be performed by qualified associates, consultants, or employees.

c. Engineers shall not affix their signatures or seals to any engineering plan or document dealing with subject matter in which they lack competence by virtue of education or experience or to any such plan or document not reviewed or prepared under their supervisory control.

CANON 3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.

a. Engineers should endeavor to extend the public knowledge of engineering and sustainable development, and shall not participate in the dissemination of untrue, unfair or exaggerated statements regarding engineering.

b. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements, or testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports, statements, or testimony.

c. Engineers, when serving as expert witnesses, shall express an engineering opinion only when it is founded upon adequate knowledge of the facts, upon a background of technical competence, and upon honest conviction.

d. Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on engineering matters which are inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they indicate on whose behalf the statements are made.

e. Engineers shall be dignified and modest in explaining their work and merit, and will avoid any act tending to promote their own interests at the expense of the integrity, honor and dignity of the profession

CANON 4. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.

a. Engineers shall avoid all known or potential conflicts of interest with their employers or clients and shall promptly inform their employers or clients of any business association, interests, or circumstances which could influence their judgment or the quality of their services.

b. Engineers shall not accept compensation from more than one party for services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the same project, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed to and agreed to, by all interested parties.

c. Engineers shall not solicit or accept gratuities, directly or indirectly, from contractors, their agents, or other parties dealing with their clients or employers in connection with work for which they are responsible.

d. Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a governmental body or department shall not participate in considerations or actions with respect to services solicited or provided by them or their organization in private or public engineering practice.

e. Engineers shall advise their employers or clients when, as a result of their studies, they believe a project will not be successful.

f. Engineers shall not use confidential information coming to them in the course of their assignments as a means of making personal profit if such action is adverse to the interests of their clients, employers or the public.

g. Engineers shall not accept professional employment outside of their regular work or interest without the knowledge of their employers.

CANON 5. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others.

a. Engineers shall not give, solicit or receive either directly or indirectly, any political contribution, gratuity, or unlawful consideration in order to secure work, exclusive of securing salaried positions through employment agencies.

b. Engineers should negotiate contracts for professional services fairly and on the basis of demonstrated competence and qualifications for the type of professional service required.

c. Engineers may request, propose or accept professional commissions on a contingent basis only under circumstances in which their professional judgments would not be compromised.

d. Engineers shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their academic or professional qualifications or experience.

e. Engineers shall give proper credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and shall recognize the proprietary interests of others. Whenever possible, they shall name the person or persons who may be responsible for designs, inventions, writings or other accomplishments.

f. Engineers may advertise professional services in a way that does not contain misleading language or is in any other manner derogatory to the dignity of the profession. Examples of permissible advertising are as follows:

o Professional cards in recognized, dignified publications, and listings in rosters or directories published by responsible organizations, provided that the cards or listings are consistent in size and content and are in a section of the publication regularly devoted to such professional cards.

o Brochures which factually describe experience, facilities, personnel and capacity to render service, providing they are not misleading with respect to the engineer's participation in projects described.

o Display advertising in recognized dignified business and professional publications, providing it is factual and is not misleading with respect to the engineer's extent of participation in projects described.

o A statement of the engineers' names or the name of the firm and statement of the type of service posted on projects for which they render services.

o Preparation or authorization of descriptive articles for the lay or technical press, which are factual and dignified. Such articles shall not imply anything more than direct participation in the project described.

o Permission by engineers for their names to be used in commercial advertisements, such as may be published by contractors, material suppliers, etc., only by means of a modest, dignified no4tation acknowledging the engineers' participation in the project described. Such permission shall not include public endorsement of proprietary products.

g. Engineers shall not maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, injure the professional reputation, prospects, practice or employment of another engineer or indiscriminately criticize another's work.

h. Engineers shall not use equipment, supplies, laboratory or office facilities of their employers to carry on outside private practice without the consent of their employers.

CANON 6. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption.

a. Engineers shall not knowingly engage in business or professional practices of a fraudulent, dishonest or unethical nature.

b. Engineers shall be scrupulously honest in their control and spending of monies, and promote effective use of resources through open, honest and impartial service with fidelity to the public, employers, associates and clients.

c. Engineers shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption in all engineering or construction activities in which they are engaged.

d. Engineers should be especially vigilant to maintain appropriate ethical behavior where payments of gratuities or bribes are institutionalized practices.

e. Engineers should strive for transparency in the procurement and execution of projects. Transparency includes disclosure of names, addresses, purposes, and fees or commissions paid for all agents facilitating projects.

f. Engineers should encourage the use of certifications specifying zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption in all contracts.

CANON 7. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision.

a. Engineers should keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature, and attending professional meetings and seminars.

b. Engineers should encourage their engineering employees to become registered at the earliest possible date.

c. Engineers should encourage engineering employees to attend and present papers at professional and technical society meetings.

d. Engineers shall uphold the principle of mutually satisfying relationships between employers and employees with respect to terms of employment including professional grade descriptions, salary ranges, and fringe benefits.

1. As adopted September 2, 1914; amended November 10, 1996; and most recently July, 2006.

2. The American Society of Civil Engineers adopted THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE abet Code of Ethics of Engineers as accepted by the

Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology, Inc. (ABET). (By ASCE Board of Direction action April 12-14, 1975)

3. In November 1996, the ASCE Board of Direction adopted the following definition of Sustainable Development: "Sustainable Development is the challenge of meeting human needs for natural resources, industrial products, energy, food, transportation, shelter, and effective waste management while conserving and protecting environmental quality and the natural resource base essential for future development."

4. As adopted September 2, 1914; amended November 10, 1996; and most recently amended July, 22-23, 2006.

Guidelines and Policies Encouraging "Zero Tolerance" for Bribery1

ASCE, in cooperation with others, has begun a journey that will lead over time to the development of principles of professional conduct that will help reduce corruption in all its forms, such as fraud, bribery and other unethical and illegal practices in the engineering and construction industry. Only with openness and transparency in the procurement and delivery of engineering services can resources be efficiently allocated for their intended purpose. As a direct result, with the additional financial resources available, sustainable development and the welfare of the world's population can improve and the quality of life for people everywhere be achieved. The American Society of Civil Engineers is joining the consulting engineering profession, the construction industry, major lenders, the legal profession, and organizations committed to the battle against worldwide corruption. To meet this challenge, the Society pledges the development of principles and over time adoption of guidelines and policies for ethical professional practice by members of engineering societies in the U.S. and worldwide. These guidelines and policies will include zero tolerance for bribery and promote effective programs for reporting unethical behavior. The Society will consider the best practices adopted by the engineering and construction industry in developing or benchmarking anti-bribery programs. ASCE, supported by the Task Committee on Global Principles for Professional Conduct, will provide -- through its media outreach and forums of leaders, and other avenues -- a global communications platform for the issue. Our work will be performed in an open and transparent manner to encourage good faith discussion and negotiations leading to principles and policies that other societies could adopt.

AIPM Code of Ethics Preamble Project Managers, in the pursuit of their profession, affect the quality of life for all people in society. It is therefore vital that project managers conduct their work in an ethical manner to earn and maintain the confidence of team members, colleagues, employees, employers, clients and the public.

Article 1 Project managers shall actively maintain high standards of personal and professional conduct and:

(a) accept responsibility for their advice, actions and omissions;

(b) undertake projects and accept responsibility only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure to their employers or clients of pertinent qualifications;

(c) maintain their professional skills at 'state-of-the-art' level and recognize the importance of continued personal development and education;

(d) advance the integrity and prestige of the profession by practicing in a dignified manner;

(e) support the Australian Institute of Project Management by actively participating and encouraging colleagues and co-workers to participate;

(f) obey the laws of the country in which work is being performed, and

(g) be aware and respectful of the culture of other countries in which work is being performed.

Article 2 In their work, project managers shall:

(a) provide the necessary project leadership to promote maximum productivity while striving to minimize costs;

(b) apply state-of-the-art project management tools and techniques to ensure quality, cost and time objectives in the project plan are met;

(c) treat all project team members, colleagues and co-workers fairly, regardless of race, religion, sex, age or national origin;

(d) seek, accept and offer honest criticism of work and properly credit the contribution of others; and

(e) assist project team members, colleagues and co-workers in their professional development.

Article 3 In their relations with their employers and clients, project managers shall:

(a) act as faithful agents or trustees for their employers and clients in professional or business matters;

(b) keep information on the business affairs or technical processes of an employer or client in confidence at all times until such information is properly released;

(c) inform their employers, clients, professional societies or public agencies of which they are members, or to which they may make any presentations, of any circumstance that could lead to a conflict of interest;

(d) neither give or accept, directly or indirectly, any gift, payment or service of more than nominal value to or from those having business relationships with their employers or clients; and

(e) be honest and realistic in reporting project quality, cost and time.

Article 4 In fulfilling their responsibilities to the community, project managers shall:

(a) protect the safety, health and welfare of the public and speak out against any abuse which has an affect on the public interest; and

(b) seek to extend public knowledge and appreciation of the project management profession and its achievements.

IEEE Code of Ethics

We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in affecting the quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:

1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;

2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected parties when they do exist; 3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data; 4. to reject bribery in all its forms; 5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential consequences; 6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations; 7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions of others; 8. to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or national origin; 9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action; 10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and to support them in following this code of ethics.

Approved by the IEEE Board of Directors February 2006

CMAA Code of Ethics Since 1982, the Construction Management Association of America (CMAA) has taken a leadership role in regard to critical issues impacting the construction and program management industry, including the setting of ethical standards of practice for the Professional Construction Manager. The Board of Directors of CMAA has adopted the following Code of Professional Ethics of the Construction Manager (CODE) which apply to CMAA members in performance of their services as Construction and Program Managers. This Code applies to the individuals and to organizations who are members of CMAA.

All members of the Construction Management Association of America commit to conduct themselves and their practice of Construction and Program Management in accordance with the Code of Professional Ethics of the Construction Manager. As a professional engaged in the business of providing construction and program management services, and as a member of CMAA, I agree to conduct myself and my business in accordance with the following: 1. Client Service. I will serve my clients with honesty, integrity, candor, and objectivity. I will provide my services with competence, using reasonable care, skill and diligence consistent with the interests of my client and the applicable standard of care. 2. Representation of Qualifications and Availability. I will only accept assignments for which I am qualified by my education, training, professional experience and technical competence, and I will assign staff to projects in accordance with their qualifications and commensurate with the services to be provided, and I will only make representations concerning my qualifications and availability which are truthful and accurate. 3. Standards of Practice. I will furnish my services in a manner consistent with the established and accepted standards of the profession and with the laws and regulations which govern its practice. 4. Fair Competition. I will represent my project experience accurately to my prospective clients and offer services and staff that I am capable of delivering. I will develop my professional reputation on the basis of my direct experience and service provided, and I will only engage in fair competition for assignments. 5. Conflicts of Interest. I will endeavor to avoid conflicts of interest; and will disclose conflicts which in my opinion may impair my objectivity or integrity. 6. Fair Compensation. I will negotiate fairly and openly with my clients in establishing a basis for compensation, and I will charge fees and expenses that are reasonable and commensurate with the services to be provided and the responsibilities and risks to be assumed. 7. Release of Information. I will only make statements that are truthful, and I will keep information and records confidential when appropriate and protect the proprietary interests of my clients and professional colleagues. 8. Public Welfare. I will not discriminate in the performance of my Services on the basis of race, religion, national origin, age, disability, or sexual orientation. I will not knowingly violate any law, statute, or regulation in the performance of my professional services. 9. Professional Development. I will continue to develop my professional knowledge and competency as Construction Manager, and I will contribute to the advancement of the construction and program management practice as a profession by fostering research and education and through the encouragement of fellow practitioners. 10. Integrity of the Profession. I will avoid actions which promote my own self-interest at the expense of the profession, and I will uphold the standards of the construction management profession with honor and dignity.

AACE Code of Ethics Introduction I. Relations With the Public II. Relations With Employers and Clients III. Relations With Other Professionals IV. Standards of Professional Performance

Introduction

The AACE member, to uphold and advance the honor and dignity of Cost Engineering and the Cost Management profession and in keeping with the high standards of ethical conduct will (1) be honest and impartial and will serve employer, clients, and the public with devotion; (2) strive to increase the competence and prestige of their profession; and (3) will apply knowledge and skill to advance human welfare.

I. Relations With the Public

A. Members will hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public, including that of future generations.

B. Members will endeavor to extend public knowledge and appreciation of cost engineering and cost management and its achievements, and will oppose any untrue, unsupported, or exaggerated statements regarding cost engineering and cost management.

C. Members will be dignified and modest, ever upholding the honor and dignity of their profession, and will refrain from self-laudatory advertising.

D. Members will express an opinion on a cost engineering or cost management subject only when it is founded on adequate knowledge and honest conviction.

E. On cost engineering or cost management matters, members will issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments that are inspired or paid for by an interested party or parties, unless they preface their comments by identifying themselves, by disclosing the identities of the party or parties on whose behalf they are speaking, and by revealing the existence of any pecuniary interest they may have in matters under discussion.

F. Members will approve or seal only those documents, reviewed or prepared by them, which are determined to be safe for public health and welfare in conformity with accepted cost engineering, cost management and economic standards.

G. Members whose judgment is overruled under circumstances where the safety, health, and welfare of the public are endangered shall inform their clients or employers of the possible consequences.

H. Members will work through professional societies to encourage and support others who follow these concepts.

I. Members will work only with those who follow these concepts.

J. Members shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements, or testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports, statements, and testimony.

II. Relations With Employers and Clients

A. Members will act in all matters as a faithful agent or trustee for each employer or client.

B. Members will act fairly and justly toward vendors and contractors and will not accept any commissions or allowances from vendors or contractors, directly or indirectly.

C. Members will inform their employer or client of financial interest in any potential vendor or contractor, or in any invention, machine, or apparatus that is involved in a project or work for either employer or client. Members will not allow such interest to affect any decisions regarding cost engineering or cost management services that they may be called upon to perform.

D. When, as a result of their studies, members believe a project(s) will not be successful, or if their cost engineering and cost management or economic judgment is overruled, they shall so advise their employer or client.

E. Members will undertake only those cost engineering and cost management assignments for which they are qualified. Members will engage or advise their employers or clients to engage specialists whenever their employer’s or client’s interests are served best by such an arrangement. Members will cooperate fully with specialists so engaged.

F. Members shall treat information coming to them in the course of their assignments as confidential and shall not use such information as a means of making personal profit if such action is adverse to the interests of their clients, their employers, or the public.

1. Members will not disclose confidential information concerning the business affairs or technical processes of any present or former employer or client or bidder under evaluation, without consent, unless required by law.

2. Members shall not reveal confidential information or finding of any commission or board of which they are members, unless required by law.

3. Members shall not duplicate for others, without express permission of the client(s), designs, calculations, sketches, etc., supplied to them by clients.

4. Members shall not use confidential information coming to them in the course of their assignments as a means of making personal profit if such action is adverse to the interests of their clients, employers, or the public.

G. Members will not accept compensation—financial or otherwise—from more than one party for the same service, or for other services pertaining to the same work, without the consent of all interested parties.

H. Employed members will engage in supplementary employment or consulting practice only with the consent of their employer.

I. Members shall not use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office facilities of their employers to carry on outside private practice without the consent of their employers.

J. Members shall not solicit a contract from a governmental body on which a principal officer or employee of their organization serves as a member.

K. The member shall act with fairness and justice to all parties when administering a construction (or other) contract.

L. Before undertaking work for others in which the member may make improvements, plans, designs, inventions, or records that may justify copyrights or patents, the member shall enter into a positive agreement regarding the rights of respective parties.

M. Members shall admit and accept their own errors when proven wrong and refrain from distorting or altering the facts to justify their decisions.

N. Members shall not attempt to attract an employee from another employer by false or misleading representations.

O. Members shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees and shall avoid conflicts of interest.

1. Members shall avoid all known or potential conflicts of interest with their employers or clients and shall promptly inform their employers or clients of any business association, interests, or circumstances that could influence their judgment or the quality of their services.

2. Members shall not solicit or accept gratuities, directly or indirectly, from contractors, their agents, or other parties dealing with their clients or employers in connection with work for which they are responsible.

III. Relations With Other Professionals

A. Members will take care that credit for cost engineering and cost management work is given to those to whom credit is properly due.

B. Members will provide prospective employees with complete information on working conditions and their proposed status of employment. After employment begins, they will keep the employee informed of any changes in status and working conditions.

C. Members will uphold the principle of appropriate and adequate compensation for those engaged in cost engineering and cost management work, including those in subordinate capacities.

D. Members will endeavor to provide opportunity for the professional development and advancement of individuals in their employ or under their supervision.

E. Members will not attempt to supplant other cost engineers or cost management professionals in a particular employment after becoming aware that definite steps have been taken toward the others’ employment or after they have been employed.

F. Members shall not maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, injure the professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of another, nor shall they indiscriminately criticize another’s work. Proof that another cost professional has been unethical, illegal, or unfair in his/her practice shall be cause for advising the proper authority.

G. Members will not compete unfairly with other cost professionals.

H. Members will cooperate in advancing the cost engineering and cost management profession by interchanging information and experience with other cost professionals and students, by contributing to public communication media and to cost engineering, cost management and scientific societies and schools.

I. Members will not request, propose, or accept professional commissions on a contingent basis under circumstances that compromise their professional judgments.

J. Members will not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their own or their associates’ academic or professional qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their degrees or responsibility in or for the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other presentations incident to the solicitation of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees, associates, joint ventures, accomplishments, or membership in technical societies.

K. Members will prepare articles for the lay or technical press that are only factual, dignified, and free from ostentatious or laudatory implications. Such articles shall not imply credit to the cost professionals for other than their direct participation in the work described unless credit is given to others for their share of the work.

L. Members will not campaign, solicit support, or other wise coerce other cost professionals to support their candidacy or the candidacy of a colleague for elective office in a technical association.

IV. Standards of Professional Performance

A. Members shall be dignified and modest in explaining their work and merit and will avoid any act tending to promote their own interests at the expense of the integrity, honor, and dignity of the profession.

B. Members, when serving as expert witnesses, shall express a cost engineering and cost management opinion only when it is founded upon adequate knowledge of the facts, upon a background of technical competence, and upon honest conviction.

C. Members shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those cost professionals under their supervision.

1. Members should keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional practice, participating in continuing education courses, reading in the technical literature, and attending professional meetings and seminars.

2. Members should encourage their cost engineering and cost management employees to become certified at the earliest possible date.

3. Members should encourage their cost engineering and cost management employees to attend and present papers at professional and technical society meetings.

4. Members shall uphold the principle of mutually satisfying relationships between employers and employees with respect to terms of employment including professional grade descriptions, salary ranges, and fringe benefits.

AIC Code of Ethics

I. A member shall have full regard to the public interest in fulfilling his or her responsibilities to the employer or client.

II. A member shall not engage in any deceptive practice, or in any practice which

creates an unfair advantage for the member or another.

III. A member shall not maliciously or recklessly injure or attempt to injure, whether directly or indirectly, the professional reputation of others.

IV. A member shall ensure that when providing a service which includes advice,

such advice shall be fair and unbiased.

V. A member shall not divulge to any person, firm, or company, information of a confidential nature acquired during the course of professional activities.

VI. A member shall carry out responsibilities in accordance with current professional

practice, so far as it lies within his or her power.

VII. A member shall keep informed of new thought and development in the construction process appropriate to the type and level of his or her responsibilities and shall support research and the educational processes associated with the construction profession.

PMI Code of Ethics 1.0 Introduction This Code of Professional Conduct is based on the ethical behaviors that PMI members identified as being most important to them in their professional roles. Those key values are: responsibility, respect, fairness and honesty. These values define professionalism in the practice of project management.

This Code employs these values to describe the ideal ethical behaviors that we, as practitioners of project management and volunteers in PMI aspire to, both in the professional workplace and in the volunteer environment.

The Code also sets forth behaviors that are unacceptable for professionals and unacceptable for PMI volunteers. Compliance with those sections of the Code describing unacceptable behaviors will be enforced by PMI through its Ethics Enforcement Process, as described [citation to be inserted].

1.1 Purpose of the Code of Professional Conduct The Primary purpose of the Code is to promote a fair business environment for project management. That is an environment in which the guidelines for professional activity are clear, understood, and embraced. The Code also protects the practitioner of project management from pressure to compromise professional or personal standards by establishing a profession-wide understanding of appropriate behavior. Finally, the Code establishes expectations for individuals in their roles as PMI volunteers both when working on global projects, such as standards development, and when fulfilling a leadership role in PMI and its component organizations.

1.2 The Ethical Values that Support this Code Professionalism is one of PMI’s core values as defined in the Strategic Plan. The components of “professionalism” are further explained as “competence, ethical behavior, and honesty.” In member surveys and focus groups the most important ethical behaviors are represented by the following ethical values:

• Responsibility – being accountable for our actions both as to developing our competencies as project manager practitioners and in conducting ourselves in the workplace and as volunteers.

• Respect – conduct towards others that promotes an environment of cooperation and trust.

• Fairness - conduct towards others that shows we make decisions on impartial and objective criteria for the common good and not on personal favoritism or personal self-interest.

• Honesty - speaking the truth and acting in a truthful manner, not withholding information that would mislead others regarding the truth.

2.0 Professionalism in the Workplace. 2.1 The standard will apply to the following people: “Practitioner” which is defined as an individual who is engaged in a professional or management activity that contributes to the execution of a project, portfolio or programs management. The term “project” for purposes of this Code includes a single project, portfolios and programs.

The Code applies to the Practitioners who are PMI members (regardless of whether they have obtained a PMI certification or not) and Non-members who hold PMI certification(s).

Comment: In the past PMI had separate ethics standards for members and for certificants. Stakeholders who contributed input to develop this code agreed that having several codes

was confusing. Therefore, this Code is applicable to both PMI members and individuals who have been certified by PMI, regardless of their membership in the Institute.

2.2. Professional Conduct in the Workplace 2.2.1 As Practitioners, we are responsible. • We only undertake activities for which we are competent to perform;

• We are accountable for the roles to which we have been assigned, ensuring that we understand our authority and the boundaries of our role.

• We avoid conducting ourselves in a manner that interferes with or inhibits the legitimate roles and responsibilities of others.

• When we are assigned to an activity to which we do not reasonably believe that we are competent to perform or to which we are unclear as to our authority, responsibility or the boundaries, we seek direction from the appropriate stakeholder.

Comment: Projects are a team effort. An individual practitioner, who fails to take responsibility for personal conduct on a project, is jeopardizing the success of the entire project. As stated in this section that personal responsibility includes ensuring that the practitioner is competent to perform the assigned project activities. The PMBOK® Guide defines “competency” as “ The skills and capacity required to complete a project activity.” (PMBOK® Guide (Third Edition) at 2.1.3) When a practitioner has been assigned to a task that the individual does not feel qualified or is unsure as to the nature, scope and authority regarding the activity, the Practitioner has a duty to inform the appropriate stakeholder of those questions and seek an appropriate resolution. If the stakeholder is unwilling to provide an adequate answer to those questions, the practitioner should then take those concerns to higher levels of management until the issues are resolved.

2.2.2 As practitioners, we treat other individuals with respect and avoid conduct that is discourteous or abusive and that may jeopardize the success of the project. Likewise, a practitioner does not reciprocate when experiencing disrespectful conduct.

Comment: The PMBOK® Guide states that “By understanding the sentiments of project team members, anticipating their actions, acknowledging their concerns and following up on their issues, the project management team can greatly reduce problems and increase cooperation.” (PMBOK® Guide at 9.3.2) In surveying stakeholders in the process of developing this Code, lack of respect was identified as a significant problem.

A practitioner who fails to act in a respectful manner towards others, is jeopardizing the success of the project.

2.2.3 As practitioners, we treat individuals with whom we work with fairness: • We provide access to information to all who have a legitimate need for the information, without violating any duty of confidentiality.

• We do not abuse our authority by favoring specific individuals based on personal friendship, personal gain or other reasons that are not based on the success of the project.

2.2.4 Practitioners shall be honest and not withhold the truth. Practitioners will not knowingly: • Make false statements regarding project activities for which he has accountability.

• Fail to disclose facts that are necessary for the superiors and other stakeholders to know in order to access the true status of the project and the likelihood that the project will be performed in accordance with the project plan.

• Offer any statement of fact that while not false but in the totality of the project is intended to mislead stakeholders as to the true status of the project.

Comment: Practitioner must develop trust by accurately providing information concerning the status of the project activities for which he is responsible. Half-truths and non-disclosures intended to mislead stakeholders as to progress of a project are as unprofessional as affirmatively making misrepresentations.

2.2.5 If we become aware that others are engaging in activities which are intended to misrepresent or hide the truth from the customer or other stakeholder, we will report the facts relating to the non-disclosure to appropriate management and, if necessary, to those who are impacted by the conduct. Comment: Customers and other stakeholders must have trust in the integrity of the practitioner. Since the corporate scandals of the early 2000’s, many organizations have, adopted “ Whistleblower” policies to protect employees who reveal the truth about illegal or unethical activities. Governments have also adopted legislation to protect employees who come forward with the truth. In line with these trends, if a practitioner should report any illegal or untruthful conduct to management. If no satisfaction is achieved, the practitioner should ideally to report the conduct to those whom the conduct will adversely impact, such as the customer.

2.2.6 The Practitioner recognizes, avoids and discloses conflicts of interest. Comment: The Practitioner owes a duty of loyalty to the customer and the Practitioner’s employer. The Practitioner also has loyalty to his own family and self. There is nothing wrong with having multiple loyalties. It is unavoidable. However, a potential “conflict of interest” occurs when the Practitioner is responsible for decisions that involved conflicting needs and expectations of those to whom the Practitioner has a duty of loyalty. A Practitioner recognizes these divergent interests and avoids making decisions that would create an actual conflict of interest by making the stakeholders aware of the conflict and cooperating with the stakeholders in finding ways to mitigate the conflict by either abstaining from the decision or advising the client of the potential conflict.

2.3 Prohibited Behaviors in the Workplace. 2.3.1 We will not engage in any illegal behavior, including theft, fraud, corruption, bribery, kickbacks and embezzlement. When there is a conflict between the laws of the country in which the project is being conducted and the laws of the country in which we live, we will obey the laws of country, which sets the highest standard of conduct.

2.3.2 We will not engage in, or allow our subordinates to engage in, abusive behavior towards our co-workers and other persons in the work place. Abusive conduct includes, screaming at co-workers, harassment by words or conduct and sexual harassment.

2.3.3 We will not engage in hiring based on favoritism, payments or other considerations other than the best interest for the success of the project. 2.3.4 Conflict of interest. We will not participate in a project activity when we have a conflict of interest or there is an appearance of a conflict of interest, unless:

• Full disclosure of the conflict or apparent conflict has been made to all stakeholders and the stakeholders have in writing agreed to the practitioner continuing in that role; or

• A plan has been developed in writing to mitigate any conflict of interest or potential conflict of interest, including the delegation of authority for particular activities to other non-conflicted team members, and that plan has been approved by all stakeholders.

2.3.5 Dishonesty and withholding the truth. When we are aware that our employer is engaging in activities, which are intended to misrepresent or hide the truth from the customer

or ultimate stakeholder, we have an obligation to report the facts relating to the dishonest action to the next level of management, and if no resolution is achieved, to the highest governing body of our employer, such as its Board of Directors. If the activity is illegal, we must comply with the law and make disclosures as the law may require.

Comment: While the practitioner should ideally do whatever is necessary to correct illegal or other behavior, at some point the matter rises above the responsibility of the individual to that of the overall organization. Therefore, the practitioner has an obligation to ensure that management is aware of the issue. If necessary, this may mean raising the matter with the top level of management, including the Board of Directors. Moreover, where there is a more stringent duty of disclosure imposed by law other professional requirements. The practitioner should follow these requirements as well. Section 2.2.5, above, states the inspirational goal that the practitioner will advise those impacted by the conduct if no satisfactory resolution is achieved through reporting the conduct to management.

3.0 Professionalism in Volunteer Efforts in the Project Management Organizations 3.1. Applicability of this Standard Section 3 of this Code applies to all “Volunteers” participating in PMI sponsored activities, whether they are members or not. “PMI sponsored activities” includes, but is not limited to, participation on a Member Advisory Group, activities engaged in under the auspices of a chartered PMI component organization (whether it is in a leadership role in the component or another type of component educational activity or event) and working on other volunteer activities such as a standards development team. The term “organization” is used below to include both PMI and its components.

3.2 Professional Conduct as Volunteers 3.2.1. Responsibility. We place the good of the profession above considerations of personal gain.

Comment: Individuals join professional organizations for numerous valid reasons such as the betterment of the profession, the creation of tools and knowledge that will benefit all participants in the profession. Valid motivations also include personal considerations, such as networking, career advancement and promotion of the individual’s own work. While those personal motivations are valid, individuals should not allow personal considerations to influence the outcome of volunteer work so that personal gain overrides the good of the profession.

3.2.2 Respect: We show respect for others with whom we are working on volunteer activities.

Comment: Respect allows volunteers to work together with effectiveness and enthusiasm. People are valued for their unique contributions. Volunteer work is about giving beyond self. The Volunteer considers other people’s time valuable and trusts other volunteers to deliver on their commitments and provides constructive criticism when it is required.

3.2.3 Fairness: We treat others fairly and do not allow personal favoritism to influence their treatment.

Comment: Fairness must govern professional associations—it provides the incentive for greater effort. Rules must be applied equally to everyone. Leadership positions are available to everyone with appropriate skill and experience. Volunteer leaders assign project opportunities based on merit without regard for personal relationships and share the credit for success. Equally, constructive criticism is shared with everyone.

3.2.4 Honesty: We are honest in all volunteer dealings.

Comment: Shared honesty in the association builds trust among members and trust of leadership. In turn, trust allows groups of people to achieve results far beyond the best

efforts of untrusting individuals. Honest volunteers give accurate financial reports and truthful assessments of association projects. They disclose conflicts of interest and apparent conflicts of interest.

3.3. Unacceptable behaviors for PMI volunteers 3.3.1. We will follow the rules established by the organization for participation in the Volunteer activity, including by-laws, charters and other governing documents. Comment: It is the duty of every Volunteer to be familiar with the rules by which the Volunteer activity is governed. This includes the affirmative duty to inquire in situations where the Volunteer is unclear of the rules. 3.3.2 We will not engage in conduct that is disrespectful or abusive of the rights of others, including: • Volunteer work is expected to take place in a civil, safe environment. Applying leverage, misusing confidential information, or a threatening posture to sway the direction of a decision is not at all appropriate for a professional organization.

• Undermining authority of the leadership by talking behind other’s backs or by spreading false statements or by taking actions calculated to damage the Volunteer activity.

• Attacking another Volunteer, PMI staff or other persons engaged in the Volunteer activity with name calling, verbal, emotional, or physical abuse.

3.3.3 Lying and Dishonesty. We will not commit any dishonest acts while engaging in Volunteer activities, including the following: • We are responsible for submitting accurate and timely documentation, such as expense reports, disclosure forms, and conflict of interest forms. Comment: Submitting inappropriate expense reports or expenses without receipts raises questions about the credibility of the person or group submitting the report. Approving such a report is clearly in violation of the rules governing travel. • We will not knowingly, or without reasonable belief, make false ethics accusations against others in the PMI organization. Comment: The issue of “reasonable” belief is an objective standard as to what a person of reasonable mind, acting in good faith, would consider to be a possible ethics violation. The term “possible” is used, because an individual does not have to know with absolute certainty that there was a violation, only that upon a plain reading of the text of the Code, there is a reasonable question of whether an ethics violation has occurred. It is for the PMI ethics processes to determine whether the conduct actually constitutes a violation. • We will not fail to disclose to the organization the full truth about our relationships with vendors or suppliers. Comment: There is nothing wrong with an appropriate relationship with a vendor as long as that relationship does not damage PMI, the component or its members with exaggerated pricing and incomplete or low-quality services. Hiding such a relationship is not appropriate regardless of the quality of service, because the organization has the right to know that such relationships exist and to consider that information when selecting vendors. The failure to disclose may also imply that harm is being done and that the relationship is inappropriate. Such conduct may also constitute a conflict of interest. • Falsely accusing leaders to remove them from leadership. 3.3.4 We will not take the property of the association and use it for the Volunteer’s own personal benefit, including:

• Taking a business opportunity that was made available to the organization and that we discovered in our position as a Volunteer and using that business opportunity for our own self-interest. Comment: Individuals may come upon a business opportunity that was presented to the organization, but which the volunteer sees as a possibility for the volunteer’s own business advancement. If the volunteer became aware of the business activity independently of the individual’s volunteer activities, then the volunteer may pursue it. If the activity was one that came to the individual as an opportunity for the organization, then the individual cannot take the opportunity from the organization. • Using the organization’s intellectual property, such as books, reports, trademarks and other works commissioned and owned by the organization without permission and attribution. Comment: The organization creates intellectual property by the work of its members for the benefit of its members and for the advancement of the profession. Such intellectual property has value that results from its content and the organization’s name. Individuals who attempt to use intellectual property for their own benefit are not only doing so at the expense of the members, but also threaten the reputation of the Institute and confuse the public as to the source of the goods and services. Individuals have a duty to check beforehand to understand their rights before reprinting and selling material they created but sold to PMI. Such misappropriation includes, for example, setting up a website that has the name of a PMI component in the URL, and using educational materials that were developed by a component without getting the component’s permission and without giving attribution to the source. 3.3.5 Conflict of interest. We will not participate in a Volunteer activity when we have a conflict of interest or there is an appearance of a conflict of interest, unless: • Full disclosure of the conflict or apparent conflict has been made to the organization and the organization has agreed in writing to our volunteer continuing in that role; • A plan has been developed in writing to remove potential negative impact of the conflict of interest or potential conflict of interest, including the delegation of authority for particular activities to other non-conflicted Volunteers, and that plan has been approved by the organization. Comment: Whenever a person is in a conflict of interest or an apparent conflict of interest, the individual has a duty to inform the organization of the conflict and allow the organization, free of any influence by the individual, to determine what remedial action is needed to ensure that the conflict does not adversely affect the organization. The remedy may be to resign from office where the conflict is pervasive or to withdraw from the particular decision being made, where the conflict is narrow and relates only to one issue. 3.3.6 Unfair Behavior. As Volunteers we will not engage in any unfair behaviors towards others, including: • Exhibiting favoritism towards any person or group to the detriment of others based on personal friendship or other personal interest. Comment: Volunteers, including component leaders and others who are entrusted with authority by the organization are required to act fairly when making work assignments, approving travel, and offering opportunities for advancement. It is important to take into account the skills, enthusiasm, and years of service when making choices for volunteer opportunities and carefully balancing people’s abilities and needs.

• Use a position of leadership in a volunteer activity to promote one’s own company or services. Comment: Such conduct is both a conflict of interest and an abuse of authority. Promoting self-interest in a volunteer role damages the image and the professional credibility of the organization. Decisions made by leaders who are looking for personal gain are adverse to the needs of the organization and the profession. • Discrimination based on gender, race, religion, nationality, or sexual preference. Comment: The PMI environment at its best is a cooperative organization. A PMI member or volunteer must not deny opportunities to others for advancement or travel based on gender, race, religion, nationality, or sexual preference. Volunteers must not withhold information or work around fellow volunteers who exhibit these differences. • Failure to apply the rules of the organization fairly and equally to all for whom the rules were intended to apply. Comment: Allowing some to bend the rules is an elementary leadership mistake. If the rules were not applied to all for whom they were intended, members would become cynical about the quality of leadership, and the organization’s governance processes. Leaders must hold themselves to higher standards of behavior, applying their own rules justly and evenly among themselves or face the possibility of losing the moral support of the Volunteers and the larger society. • Engaging in the selection of vendors for the organization where preferences are given to a particular vendor based on consideration other than the best interest of the organization. Comment: Giving preferential treatment to some vendors by hiring them without a bidding process or by using a favorite vendor exclusively when there are other vendors as competent, effective, and efficient is short-sighted for the long-term good of the organization. If the favorite vendor provides lower quality or higher prices compared to his competition, then PMI’s resources are being abused in the short term and the long term. This could also be considered a conflict of interest, especially when the favorite vendor is related to the buyer or is a friend, or if the buyer and the vendor have an off-the-books arrangement for returning some of the fee to the buyer. 4.0 Professionalism in the Certification Process. 4.1 Applicability of this Section. This Section 4 is applicable to all persons who apply to commence the certification process with PMI, by their agreement in their application to abide by the Code (‘Applicants”) and to all individuals who have received and currently maintain a certification from PMI (“Certificants”).

4.2 Prohibited Conduct Related to Certification. 4.2.1 Certificants and applicants shall not disclose the content of the certification examination to anyone. Comment: For purposes of this section, the term “content” includes the exact questions on the examination or any paraphrase of the question, answers to a question, including both the substance of the answer or the lettered or numbered identifier used on the examination to identify the answer or any other information directly related to the content of an examination, that would assist a person taking the examination to get a better score.

4.2.2 Certificants and applicants shall disclose to the Institute any violation they encounter of other certificants disclosing examination content to third parties. 4.2.3 Certificants and applicants shall disclose to the Institute any attempt by educational providers to obtain from them the content of the examination. 4.2.4 Certificants and applicants will be honest and accurate in providing information regarding their experience in project management, including, but not limited to answering questions on application forms for the certification. Comment: The public’s trust in individuals holding a certification and in the validity of the certification is undermined when individuals who do not have the appropriate experience or knowledge obtain the certification by other means. It is in the best interest of all certificants, as well as the public that certificants have achieved the certification on individual knowledge and experience.

4.2.5 Certificants will accurately report all Professional Development Units (PDUs) and will report to PMI any instance where a provider of educational services is offering PDUs that do not accurately reflect the hours required to actually complete the work. ALPA Code of Ethics Code of Ethics

An Air Line Pilot will keep uppermost in his mind that the safety, comfort, and well-being of the passengers who entrust their lives to him are his first and greatest responsibility.

• He will never permit external pressures or personal desires to influence his judgment, nor will he knowingly do anything that could jeopardize flight safety.

• He will remember that an act of omission can be as hazardous as a deliberate act of commission, and he will not neglect any detail that contributes to the safety of his flight, or perform any operation in a negligent or careless manner.

• Consistent with flight safety, he will at all times operate his aircraft in a manner that will contribute to the comfort, peace of mind, and well-being of his passengers, instilling in them trust in him and the airline he represents.

• Once he has discharged his primary responsibility for the safety and comfort of his passengers, he will remember that they depend upon him to do all possible to deliver them to their destination at the scheduled time.

• If disaster should strike, he will take whatever action he deems necessary to protect the lives of his passengers and crew.

An Air Line Pilot will faithfully discharge the duty he owes the airline that employs him and whose salary makes possible his way of life.

• He will do all within his powers to operate his aircraft efficiently and on schedule in a manner that will not cause damage or unnecessary maintenance.

• He will respect the officers, directors, and supervisors of his airline, remembering that respect does not entail subservience.

• He will faithfully obey all lawful directives given by his supervisors, but will insist and, if necessary, refuse to obey any directives that, in his considered judgment, are not lawful or will adversely affect flight safety. He will remember that in the final analysis the responsibility for safe completion of the flight rests upon his shoulders.

• He will not knowingly falsify any log or record, nor will he condone such action by other

crew members.

• He will remember that a full month’s salary demands a full and fair month’s work. On his days off, he will not engage in any occupation or activity that will diminish his efficiency or bring discredit to his profession.

• He will realize that he represents the airline to all who meet him and will at all times keep his personal appearance and conduct above reproach.

• He will give his airline, its officers, directors, and supervisors the full loyalty that is their due, and will refrain from speaking ill of them. If he feels it necessary to reveal and correct conditions that are not conducive to safe operations and harmonious relations, he will direct his criticism to the proper authorities within ALPA.

• He will hold his airline’s business secrets in confidence, and will take care that they are not improperly revealed.

An Air Line Pilot will accept the responsibilities as well as the rewards of command and will at all times so conduct himself both on duty and off as to instill and merit the confidence and respect of his crew, his fellow employees, and his associates within the profession.

• He will know and understand the duties of each member of his crew. If in command, he will be firm but fair, explicit yet tolerant of deviations that do not affect the safe and orderly completion of the flight. He will be efficient yet relaxed, so that the duties of the crew may be carried out in a harmonious manner.

• If in command, he will expect efficient performance of each crew member’s duties, yet he will overlook small discrepancies and refrain from unnecessary and destructive criticism, so that the crew member will retain his self-respect and cooperative attitude. A frank discussion of minor matters of technique and performance after the flight will create goodwill and a desire to be helpful, whereas sharp criticism and peremptory orders at the moment will result only in the breakdown of morale and an inefficient, halting performance of future duties.

• An Air Line Pilot will remember that his is a profession heavily dependent on training during regular operations and, if in command, will afford his flight crew members every reasonable opportunity, consistent with safety and efficiency, to learn and practice. He will endeavor to instill in his crew a sense of pride and responsibility. In making reports on the work and conduct of his crew members, he will avoid personal prejudices, make his reports factual and his criticisms constructive so that actions taken as a result of his reports will improve the knowledge and skill of his crew members, rather than bring discredit, endanger their livelihood, and threaten their standing in the profession.

• While in command, the Air Line Pilot will be mindful of the welfare of his crew. He will see to it that his crew are properly lodged and cared for, particularly during unusual operating conditions. When cancellations result in deadheading, he will ensure that proper arrangements are made for the transportation of his crew before he takes care of himself.

An Air Line Pilot will conduct his affairs with other members of the profession and with ALPA in such a manner as to bring credit to the profession and ALPA as well as to himself.

• He will not falsely or maliciously injure the professional reputation, prospects, or job security of another pilot, yet if he knows of professional incompetence or conduct detrimental to the profession or to ALPA, he will not shrink from revealing this to the proper authorities within ALPA, so that the weak member may be brought up to the standards demanded, or ALPA and the profession alike may be rid of one unworthy to share its rewards.

• He will conduct his affairs with ALPA and its members in accordance with the rules laid down in the Constitution and By-Laws of ALPA and with the policies and interpretations

promulgated there from. Whenever possible, he will attend all meetings of ALPA open to him and will take an active part in its activities and in meetings of other groups calculated to improve air safety and the standing of the profession.

• An Air Line Pilot shall refrain from any action whereby, for his personal benefit or gain, he take advantage of the confidence reposed in him by his fellow members. If he is called upon to represent ALPA in any dispute, he will do so to the best of his ability, fairly and fearlessly, relying on the influence and power of ALPA to protect him.

• He will regard himself as a debtor to his profession and ALPA, and will dedicate himself to their advancement. He will cooperate in the upholding of the profession by exchanging information and experience with his fellow pilots and by actively contributing to the work of professional groups and the technical press.

An Air Line Pilot the honor of his profession is dear, and he will remember that his own character and conduct reflect honor or dishonor upon the profession.

• He will be a good citizen of his country, state, and community, taking an active part in their affairs, especially those dealing with the improvement of aviation facilities and the enhancement of air safety.

• He will conduct all his affairs in a manner that reflects credit on himself and his profession.

• He will remember that to his neighbors, friends, and acquaintances he represents both the profession and ALPA, and that his actions represent to them the conduct and character of all members of the profession and ALPA.

• He will realize that nothing more certainly fosters prejudices against and deprives the profession of its high public esteem and confidence than do breaches in the use of alcohol.

• He will not publish articles, give interviews, or permit his name to be used in any manner likely to bring discredit to another pilot, the airline industry, the profession, or ALPA.

• He will continue to keep abreast of aviation developments so that his skill and judgment, which heavily depend on such knowledge, may be of the highest order.

Having Endeavored to his utmost to faithfully fulfill the obligations of the ALPA Code of Ethics and Canons for the Guidance of Air Line Pilots, a pilot may consider himself worthy to be called…an AIRLINE PILOT.

AIA Code of Ethics 2004 Code of Ethics & Professional Conduct Preamble Members of The American Institute of Architects are dedicated to the highest standards of professionalism, integrity, and competence. This Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct states guidelines for the conduct of Members in fulfilling those obligations. The Code is arranged in three tiers of statements:

Canons, Ethical Standards, and Rules of Conduct: � Canons are broad principles of conduct. � Ethical Standards (E.S.) are more specific goals toward which Members should aspire in professional performance and behavior. � Rules of Conduct (Rule) are mandatory; violation of a Rule is grounds for disciplinary action by the Institute. Rules of Conduct, in some instances, implement more than one Canon or Ethical Standard.

The Code applies to the professional activities of all classes of Members, wherever they occur. It addresses responsibilities to the public, which the profession serves and enriches; to the clients and users of architecture and in the building industries, who help to shape the built environment; and to the art and science of architecture, that continuum of knowledge and creation which is the heritage and legacy of the profession. Commentary is provided for some of the Rules of Conduct. That commentary is meant to clarify or elaborate the intent of the rule. The commentary is not part of the Code. Enforcement will be determined by application of the Rules of Conduct alone; the commentary will assist those seeking to conform their conduct to the Code and those charged with its enforcement. Statement in Compliance With Antitrust Law The following practices are not, in themselves, unethical, unprofessional, or contrary to any policy of The American Institute of Architects or any of its components: (1) submitting, at any time, competitive bids or price quotations, including in circumstances where price is the sole or principal consideration in the selection of an architect; (2) providing discounts; or (3) providing free services. Individual architects or architecture firms, acting alone and not on behalf of the Institute or any of its components, are free to decide for themselves whether or not to engage in any of these practices. Antitrust law permits the Institute, its components, or Members to advocate legislative or other government policies or actions relating to these practices. Finally, architects should continue to

consult with state laws or regulations governing the practice of architecture. CANON I General Obligations Members should maintain and advance their knowledge of the art and science of architecture, respect the body of architectural accomplishment, contribute to its growth, thoughtfully consider the social and environmental impact of their professional activities, and exercise learned and uncompromised professional judgment. E.S. 1.1 Knowledge and Skill: Members should strive to improve their professional knowledge and skill. Rule In practicing architecture, 1.101 Members shall demonstrate a consistent pattern of reasonable care and competence, and shall apply the technical knowledge and skill which is ordinarily applied by architects of good standing practicing in the same locality. Commentary: By requiring a "consistent pattern" of adherence to the common law standard of competence, this rule allows for discipline of a Member who more than infrequently does not achieve that standard. Isolated instances of minor lapses would not provide the basis for discipline. E.S. 1.2 Standards of Excellence: Members should continually seek to raise the standards of aesthetic excellence, architectural education, research, training, and practice. E.S. 1.3 Natural and Cultural Heritage: Members should respect and help conserve their natural and cultural heritage while striving to improve the environment and the quality of life within it. E.S. 1.4 Human Rights: Members should uphold human rights in all their professional endeavors. Rule Members shall not discriminate in 1.401 their professional activities on the basis of race, religion, gender, national origin, age, disability, or sexual orientation. 1

2 0 0 4 C O D E O F E T H I C S A N D P R O F E S S I O N A L C O N D U C T E.S. 1.5 Allied Arts & Industries: Members should promote allied arts and contribute to the knowledge and capability of the building industries as a whole. CANON II Obligations to the Public Members should embrace the spirit and letter of the law governing their professional affairs and should promote and serve the public interest in their personal and professional activities. E.S. 2.1 Conduct: Members should uphold the law in the conduct of their professional activities. Rule Members shall not, in the conduct 2.101 of their professional practice, knowingly violate the law. Commentary: The violation of any law, local, state or federal, occurring in the conduct of a Member's professional practice, is made the basis for discipline by this rule. This includes the federal Copyright Act, which prohibits copying architectural works without the permission of the copyright owner: Allegations of violations of this rule must be based on an independent finding of a violation of the law by a court of competent jurisdiction or an administrative or regulatory body. Rule Members shall neither offer nor 2.102 make any payment or gift to a public official with the intent of influencing the official's judgment in connection with an existing or prospective project in which the Members are interested. Commentary: This rule does not prohibit campaign contributions made in conformity with applicable campaign financing laws. Rule Members serving in a public 2.103 capacity shall not accept payments or gifts which are intended to influence their judgment. Rule Members shall not engage in 2.104 conduct involving fraud or wanton disregard of the rights of others. Commentary: This rule addresses serious misconduct whether or not related to a

Member's professional practice. When an alleged violation of this rule is based on a violation of a law, or of fraud, then its proof must be based on an independent finding of a violation of the law or a finding of fraud by a court of competent jurisdiction or an administrative or regulatory body. Rule If, in the course of their work 2.105 on a project, the Members become aware of a decision taken by their employer or client which violates any law or regulation and which will, in the Members’ judgment, materially affect adversely the safety to the public of the finished project, the Members shall: (a) advise their employer or client against the decision, (b) refuse to consent to the decision, and (c) report the decision to the local building inspector or other public official charged with the enforcement of the applicable laws and regulations, unless the Members are able to cause the matter to be satisfactorily resolved by other means. Commentary: This rule extends only to violations of the building laws that threaten the public safety. The obligation under this rule applies only to the safety of the finished project, an obligation coextensive with the usual undertaking of an architect. Rule Members shall not counsel or 2.106 assist a client in conduct that the architect knows, or reasonably should know, is fraudulent or illegal. E.S. 2.2 Public Interest Services: Members should render public interest professional services and encourage their employees to render such services. E.S. 2.3 Civic Responsibility: Members should be involved in civic activities as citizens and professionals, and should strive to improve public appreciation and understanding of architecture and the functions and responsibilities of architects.

Rule Members making public 2.301 statements on architectural issues shall disclose when they are being compensated for making such statements or when they have an economic interest in the issue. CANON III Obligations to the Client Members should serve their clients competently and in a professional manner, and should exercise unprejudiced and unbiased judgment when performing all professional services. E.S. 3.1 Competence: Members should serve their clients in a timely and competent manner. Rule In performing professional 3.101 services, Members shall take into account applicable laws and regulations. Members may rely on the advice of other qualified persons as to the intent and meaning of such regulations. Rule Members shall undertake to 3.102 perform professional services only when they, together with those whom they may engage as consultants, are qualified by education, training, or experience in the specific technical areas involved. Commentary: This rule is meant to ensure that Members not undertake projects that are beyond their professional capacity. Members venturing into areas that require expertise they do not possess may obtain that expertise by additional education, training, or through the retention of consultants with the necessary expertise. Rule Members shall not materially 3.103 alter the scope or objectives of a project without the client's consent. E.S. 3.2 Conflict of Interest: Members should avoid conflicts of interest in their professional practices and fully disclose all unavoidable conflicts as they arise. 2 2 0 0 4 C O D E O F E T H I C S A N D P R O F E S S I O N A L C O N D U C T Rule A Member shall not render 3.201 professional services if the Member's professional judgment

could be affected by responsibilities to another project or person, or by the Member's own interests, unless all those who rely on the Member's judgment consent after full disclosure. Commentary: This rule is intended to embrace the full range of situations that may present a Member with a conflict between his interests or responsibilities and the interest of others. Those who are entitled to disclosure may include a client, owner, employer, contractor, or others who rely on or are affected by the Member's professional decisions. A Member who cannot appropriately communicate about a conflict directly with an affected person must take steps to ensure that disclosure is made by other means. Rule When acting by agreement of the 3.202 parties as the independent interpreter of building contract documents and the judge of contract performance, Members shall render decisions impartially. Commentary: This rule applies when the Member, though paid by the owner and owing the owner loyalty, is nonetheless required to act with impartiality in fulfilling the architect’s professional responsibilities. E.S. 3.3 Candor and Truthfulness: Members should be candid and truthful in their professional communications and keep their clients reasonably informed about the clients’ projects. Rule Members shall not intentionally 3.301 or recklessly mislead existing or prospective clients about the results that can be achieved through the use of the Members’ services, nor shall the Members state that they can achieve results by means that violate applicable law or this Code. Commentary: This rule is meant to preclude dishonest, reckless, or illegal representations by a Member either in the course of soliciting a client or during performance. E.S. 3.4 Confidentiality: Members should safeguard the trust placed in them

by their clients. Rule Members shall not knowingly 3.401 disclose information that would adversely affect their client or that they have been asked to maintain in confidence, except as other wise allowed or required by this Code or applicable law. Commentary: To encourage the full and open exchange of information necessary for a successful professional relationship, Members must recognize and respect the sensitive nature of confidential client communications. Because the law does not recognize an architect-client privilege, however, the rule permits a Member to reveal a confidence when a failure to do so would be unlawful or contrary to another ethical duty imposed by this Code. CANON IV Obligations to the Profession Members should uphold the integrity and dignity of the profession. E.S. 4.1 Honesty and Fairness: Members should pursue their professional activities with honesty and fairness. Rule Members having substantial 4.101 information which leads to a reasonable belief that another Member has committed a violation of this Code which raises a serious question as to that Member’s honesty, trustworthiness, or fitness as a Member, shall file a complaint with the National Ethics Council. Commentary: Often, only an architect can recognize that the behavior of another architect poses a serious question as to that other's professional integrity. In those circumstances, the duty to the professional's calling requires that a complaint be filed. In most jurisdictions, a complaint that invokes professional standards is protected from a libel or slander action if the complaint was made in good faith. If in doubt, a Member should seek counsel before reporting on another under this rule. Rule Members shall not sign or seal 4.102 drawings, specifications, reports, or other professional work for

which they do not have responsible control. Commentary: Responsible control means the degree of knowledge and supervision ordinarily required by the professional standard of care. With respect to the work of licensed consultants, Members may sign or seal such work if they have reviewed it, coordinated its preparation, or intend to be responsible for its adequacy. Rule Members speaking in their 4.103 professional capacity shall not knowingly make false statements of material fact. Commentary: This rule applies to statements in all professional contexts, including applications for licensure and AIA membership. E.S. 4.2 Dignity and Integrity: Members should strive, through their actions, to promote the dignity and integrity of the profession, and to ensure that their representatives and employees conform their conduct to this Code. Rule Members shall not make 4.201 misleading, deceptive, or false statements or claims about their professional qualifications, experience, or performance and shall accurately state the scope and nature of their responsibilities in connection with work for which they are claiming credit. Commentary: This rule is meant to prevent Members from claiming or implying credit for work which they did not do, misleading others, and denying other participants in a project their proper share of credit. Rule Members shall make reasonable 4.202 efforts to ensure that those over whom they have supervisory authority conform their conduct to this Code. Commentary: What constitutes "reasonable efforts" under this rule is a common sense matter. As it makes sense to ensure that those over whom the architect exercises supervision be made generally aware of the Code, it can also make sense

to bring a particular provision to the attention of a particular employee when a situation is present which might give rise to violation. 3 2 0 0 4 C O D E O F E T H I C S A N D P R O F E S S I O N A L C O N D U C T CANON V Obligations to Colleagues Members should respect the rights and acknowledge the professional aspirations and contributions of their colleagues. E.S. 5.1 Professional Environment: Members should provide their associates and employees with a suitable working environment, compensate them fairly, and facilitate their professional development. E.S. 5.2 Intern and Professional Development: Members should recognize and fulfill their obligation to nurture fellow professionals as they progress through all stages of their career, beginning with professional education in the academy, progressing through internship and continuing throughout their career. E.S. 5.3 Professional Recognition: Members should build their professional reputation on the merits of their own service and performance and should recognize and give credit to others for the professional work they have performed. Rule Members shall recognize and 5.301 respect the professional contributions of their employees, employers, professional colleagues, and business associates. Rule Members leaving a firm shall not, 5.302 without the permission of their employer or partner, take designs, drawings, data, reports, notes, or other materials relating to the firm’s work, whether or not performed by the Member. Rule A Member shall not unreasonably 5.303 withhold permission from a departing employee or partner to

take copies of designs, drawings, data, reports, notes, or other materials relating to work performed by the employee or partner that are not confidential. Commentary: A Member may impose reasonable conditions, such as the payment of copying costs, on the right of departing persons to take copies of their work. RULES OF APPLICATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND AMENDMENT Application The Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct applies to the professional activities of all members of the AIA. Enforcement The Bylaws of the Institute state procedures for the enforcement of the Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct. Such procedures provide that: (1) Enforcement of the Code is administered through a National Ethics Council, appointed by the AIA Board of Directors. (2) Formal charges are filed directly with the National Ethics Council by Members, components, or anyone directly aggrieved by the conduct of the Members. (3) Penalties that may be imposed by the National Ethics Council are: (a) Admonition (b) Censure (c) Suspension of membership for a period of time (d) Termination of membership (4) Appeal procedures are available. (5) All proceedings are confidential, as is the imposition of an admonishment; however, all other penalties shall be made public. Enforcement of Rules 4.101 and 4.202 refer to and support enforcement of other Rules. A violation of Rules 4.101 or 4.202 cannot be established without proof of a pertinent violation of at least one other Rule. Amendment The Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct may be amended by the convention of the Institute under the same

procedures as are necessary to amend the Institute's Bylaws. The Code may also be amended by the AIA Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote of the entire Board.

*2004 Edition. This copy of the Code of Ethics is current as of September 2004. Contact the General Counsel's Office for further information at (202) 626-7311. 4

1 ASCE Zero Tolerance Policy http://www.asce.org/professional/zero.cfm

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