petra north ridge tombs 1 and 2: preliminary report

Petra North Ridge Tombs 1 and 2: Preliminary ReportAuthor(s): Patricia Maynor Bikai and Megan A. PerrySource: Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 324, Nabataean Petra (Nov.,2001), pp. 59-78Published by: The American Schools of Oriental ResearchStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1357632 .

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Petra North Ridge Tombs 1 and 2:

Preliminary Report

PATRICIA MAYNOR BIKAI*

American Center of Oriental Research P.O. Box 2470

Amman 11181, Jordan [email protected]

MEGAN A. PERRY* American Center of Oriental Research

P.O. Box 2470 Amman 11181, Jordan

[email protected]

In 1998-99, two Nabataean tombs were excavated in Petra. One contained intact burials that provide insight into the lives of one extended family: they led healthy, active lives, with few signs of stress or bony responses to chronic diseases, but fractures and other injuries show that they were occasionally prone to nonfatal falls. With age, they experienced degenerative conditions, such as degenerative joint disease (DJD) and vertebral osteophytosis. The individuals were buried during a short period of time with some interred simultaneously, but there were no signs of a shared traumatic event in the skeletal remains. Although the tombs were disturbed in antiquity, they yielded quantities of ceramics. These indicate that the tombs are from successive but overlapping time periods, and belong, in general, to the first century A.D.

Comparison of the two groups gives insight into the development of Nabataean ceramics and places some of the well-known painted pottery into a context that includes the much more numerous plain wares.

INTRODUCTION

he North Ridge Project began in 1994 with the excavation of the Ridge Church. In 1998, two Nabataean tombs, one on either side of

the church, were uncovered (figs. 1-2). Named North Ridge Tombs 1 and 2, both were opened that year, but only the first was completely excavated. Tomb 2 was excavated in 1999. Both are chamber tombs reached by vertical shafts. Though they yielded quantities of artifacts, mainly restorable ceramics, both were disturbed in antiquity. The following is a preliminary report on the excavation and a selective presentation of the skeletal material and the major ceramic types.

THE EXCAVATION

Tomb 1

Cut into the sandstone under the north part of the Ridge Church, this tomb has four loculi in the chamber. The shaft is 3.1 m deep. About 1.4 m down, the chamber opens to the (conventional) south; it mea- sures approximately 3.5 m east-west by 2.3 to 2.5 north-south. The loculi, laid out north-south, are cut about 1 m in depth below the level of the bottom of the shaft. The shaft was originally capped with stones, one of which was found displaced just adja- cent to it. The tomb was robbed in antiquity, perhaps multiple times. It was known to the builders of what would become the north wall of the Ridge Church, as they had to build a pillar to support that wall as it crossed the shaft of the tomb. Within the material of that pillar was a lamp dated (by D. Barrett, personal communication) to the late fourth century. The construction of that pillar and the fill put into the rest of the shaft and tomb sealed it from further looting.

*To reach the authors by mail, use the following U.S. ad- dress: American Center of Oriental Research, ACOR at Boston University, 656 Beacon St., 5th Floor, Boston, MA 02215- 2010.

59



60 BIKAI AND PERRY BASOR 324

Ridge Church

Petra

Church

Temple

Theater C

Treasury 0 500 m I I

Fig. 1. The project area.

The tomb did flood periodically, however, as indicated by water lines on the walls and the amount of fine silt. The ancient robbers had turned over all the material in the tomb, leaving some semi-intact pottery along the walls. Stratigraphically, there were only two deposits: the material in the shaft including the pillar, and the material in the tomb itself, which was initially excavated in more than 30 units but was found to be so mixed that it was, during the pro- cessing of the materials recovered, consolidated into a single group.

Tomb 2

This tomb was also cut into the natural sandstone bedrock, with a shaft of around 3.76 m in depth, measuring 2.12 m long and 0.60 m wide. Some 1.70 m down into the shaft, the tomb opened to the west into a chamber measuring 5.50 m east-west and 5 m north-south, with a height on average of 1.60 m. The chamber was a plain, square room with no features for the interment of deceased individuals, such as loculi, arcosolia, or even benches along the walls. A small room measuring 2.25 m north-south and 2.60 m east-west and 1.20 m high opened off to the north, through a doorway approximately 0.80 m in width and 1.20 m in height. As with the main chamber, the room was a plain, essentially square space with no features cut into it. The small room was accessed by a step, about 0.40 m deep. In the northwest corner of the room running along the western

wall remained a 0.40 m x 1.50 m uncarved chunk of sandstone, some 0.40 m in height.

Overlying the floor of the main chamber and the small room was a thin layer of loose, silty sand which was most likely deposited during the final phase of construction in the tomb and before the tomb was actually used. In the northwest corner of the main chamber and extending into the small room to the north was a layer of sandstone rubble about half a meter thick. That deposit and the unfinished state of the smaller room make it clear that the laborers never completed the construction of the tomb; this may also explain the lack of loculi or other constructed tomb features.

On the floor of the tomb was a surprising find: eight intact burials. Intact burials in Petra are extremely rare. It appears that, for whatever reason, tomb construction halted and a number of individuals were interred within the tomb within a very short time. The earliest burial was of a poorly preserved 18- to 20-year-old female (Burial 8). Her cranium and lower limbs were disturbed, perhaps by the placement of another burial or by later intrusive activity in the tomb. Shortly after that interment, four more individuals were placed in the tomb at the same time: a 20- to 24-year-old female (Burial 1) along with a 6-month-old infant (Burial 9), and a 45- to 49-year-old adult of indeterminate sex (Burial 2) holding a newborn baby (Burial 10) in his or her arms. Again, immediately subsequent to the placement of these individuals, three more burials were placed within the tomb: a 25- to 29-year-old male (Burial 4), a 55- to 59-year-old female (Burial 5), and a 35- to 39-year-old female (Burial 6). Burials 4 and 6 were placed on their sides, with Burial 6 em- bracing Burial 4 (with Burial 6's front to Burial 4's back). The only artifacts found obviously associated with these burials were a complete Nabataean bowl found near Burial 1 (fig. 9:3) and traces of wood coffins found around Burials 1 and 10, and possibly Burial 8.

The layers above the burials and the fill in the rest of the chamber consisted of debris from successive periods of intrusive activity into the tomb. The lower levels of fill contained a large amount of commingled human skeletal material and ceramic sherds. The first episodes of tomb disturbance may have occurred relatively soon after the burial of the individuals, for a few skeletal elements in the disturbed fill were found semi-articulated, which essentially means that there still had to have been soft tissue on



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the skeletal remains to hold them together as they were moved. The human skeletal material points to at least 28 additional individuals having been interred within the tomb, most likely at the same time as the intact burials. The preservation of the intact burials was due to the collapse of a large chunk of

sandstone from the ceiling. This large piece fell some time after the tomb was used but before late sixth- to eighth-century debris was deposited in the upper levels of fill. Apparently, intruders into the tomb skirted the large fallen ceiling piece, disturb- ing the surrounding burials but leaving the ones




immediately under and just to the west of the ceiling piece alone.

The upper layers of tomb fill yielded a rich cor-

pus of architectural and decorative materials apparently coming from the Ridge Church, probably in a deliberate use of the tomb as a dump by the post- church occupants of the North Ridge. Elements such as pieces of the chancel screens, glass chandeliers, and tesserae from the wall and floor mosaics of the church were found in these layers. See table 1 for a locus summary.

There is no direct evidence as to why it was used for burials before completion, but we can hypothe- size that a catastrophic event, such as an epidemic or an earthquake, made the owners of the tomb stop construction and place a number of burials within the chamber, some in wooden coffins. Skeletal ana-

lysis has indicated that there were at least 36 individuals, of which only 8 survived intact. The fact that a number of these burials-Burials 4, 5, and 6, 1 and 9, and 2 and 10-were placed in the tomb at the same time suggests that a fatal event or series of events occurred in a relatively short time frame.

After the tomb went out of use, periodic episodes of disturbance occurred, the first possibly soon after the individuals were buried. The tomb was forgotten during the period the Ridge Church was in use, as the church was constructed on strata that covered the tomb after its abandonment. Then, when the church was abandoned, the tomb was reopened, probably looted again, and used as a dump for debris from the church and occupational rubbish from the inhabi- tants of the area. Eventually, the tomb began to fill with waterborne silt and was covered with wind- blown sand and left undisturbed until it was redis- covered in 1998.

HUMAN SKELETAL MATERIAL

Tomb 1

The remains from Tomb 1 were in poor, fragmen- tary condition, and most of the skeletal elements from the interred individuals were missing. Possible explanations include breakage due to continuous looting of the tomb and water seepage during rainy months which would have caused deterioration of many of the skeletal elements. Thus, only a few observations can be made. After sorting the skeletal fragments by element and by side, the minimum number of individuals, or MNI, in the tomb was cal-

TABLE 1. Tomb 2 Locus Summary

Layer Locus No. and Description

10 (Abandonment) 710, 903: Fill in shaft

10 (Abandonment) 905, 906: Fill in shaft-western end (includes displaced capstones)

10 (Abandonment) 907: Fill in shaft-eastern end (possible robber shaft?)

9 (Natural deposit) 914A-B, 950 B-E: Waterborne silt-

uppermost layer within the chamber

8 (2d disturbance) 908A-D, 951, 960: Fill in shaft and into the two chambers-disturbed

7 (1st disturbance) 912: Dark soil fill layer-disturbed 7 (1st disturbance) 913, 916: Disturbed sandy layer at

bottom of the shaft

7 (1st disturbance) 913, 916A, 952B-D: Layer of possibly disturbed loose soil on floor of the chamber south and north of burials

6 (Burials) 918, 955: Soil around Burials 4, 5, 6, and 7

5 (Burials) 919, 958: Soil around Burials 2 and 9

4 (Burials) 920, 954: Soil around Burials 1 and 10

3 (Burials) 924, 957: Soil around Burial 8

2 (Natural deposit) 923, 956B-D: Silty, sandy layer, probably naturally deposited

1 (Construction rubble) 953, 959: Rubble from unfinished tomb construction in SE corner of main chamber and in the small room

culated to be four. Two of these were adults, most likely a male and a female as determined by cranial morphology (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: 20). No age determination of the adult individuals could be made. In addition, at least two subadults were interred into the tomb (table 2). One was an infant, aged 6 months to 1 year according to the stage of epiphyseal union of the elements (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: 43). The second was approximately 3 to 4 years, based on epiphyseal union (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: 43) and dental development (Ube- laker 1989: fig. 71). No unusual or pathological conditions were found on the skeletal elements recovered.

Tomb 2

At least 36 individuals (8 females, 5 males, 17 adults of indeterminate sex, and 6 subadults) were interred within Tomb 2 (table 3). More detailed information on the demographic profile and the general quality of health of the individuals within the tomb is discussed below within a regional context.




TABLE 2. Tomb 1 Commingled Burials

Individual Age Sex

Adult 1 Indeterminate Female

Adult 2 Indeterminate Male

Subadult 1 6 mos.-1 yr. Indeterminate

Subadult 2 3-4 years Indeterminate

As there are very few burials for comparison, we do not know whether the skeletal sample within this tomb is reflective of the population in Petra and its environs in terms of population structure and any other biological information. The age-at-death of this sample was compared with other communal tombs dating from the first century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. in Jordan and Israel: the Late Hellenis- tic tombs from French Hill, Meiron, and Givcat Ha- Mivtar in Israel, a Nabataean tomb found near Wadi Musa in Jordan, and the Roman and Byzantine tombs from Pella, Hesban, and Abila in Jordan. While no statistical tests were run on the samples, the shapes of the age-at-death curves from these skeletal samples are strikingly similar (fig. 3). Thus, we can reasonably assume that this tomb displays a demographic profile that one would expect in the region during this time period in communal tombs.

Observations of pathological lesions and other anomalous bone conditions were recorded following the scoring procedure in Standards for Data Collec- tion from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: 114-15) and are listed in tables 4 and 5. In general, the pathological conditions seen in the Tomb 2 skeletal sample are either degenerative conditions due to age, or are (probably) caused by living in a rugged environment. The most prevalent pathologies seen were degenerative joint disease (DJD), kyphosis (vertebral wedging), and vertebral osteophytosis, all degenerative conditions (Aufder- heide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998: 315). The prevalence of these pathologies suggests a vigorous lifestyle, either occupation-related or due to living in rugged terrain. In other populations in Jordan and Israel, a high prevalence of vetebral wedging, vertebral osteophytosis, and DJD has also been noted (Smith 1976: 107-8; Haas 1970: 40-49; Smith and Zias 1980: 113; Perry 1998: 2; Stirling 1978: 256- 57; Browne 1992: 228-29; Nabulsi and Humbert 1996: 316; Kick 1986: 262; Frohlich 1987: 52; Grauer and Armelagos 1998: 116-17; Perry, personal observation). The presence of DJD in the foot,

TABLE 3. Tomb 2 Burials

Articulated Burials

Burial No. Age Sex

Burial 1 20-24 years Female

Burial 2 45-49 years Indeterminate

Burial 4 25-29 years Male



Burial 8 Young adult Female Burial 9 6 months Indeterminate

Burial 10 Newborn Indeterminate

Commingled Burials

Individual Age Sex

Adult 1 25-29 years Female



Adult 4 60+ years Female

Adult 5 45-49 years Male




Adult 9 20-24 years Indeterminate Adult 10 30-34 years Indeterminate

Adult 11 25-29 years Indeterminate Adult 12 30-34 years Indeterminate Adults 13-22 Indeterminate Indeterminate

Subadult 1 2-3 years Indeterminate

Subadult 2 18 mos.-2 yrs. Indeterminate

Subadult 3 10-11 years Indeterminate Subadult 4 4-5 years Indeterminate Subadult 5 NB-0.5 years Indeterminate Subadult 6 0.5-1 year Indeterminate

elbow, and wrist (e.g., in Burial 6) is indicative of occupational stress in some individuals (Aufder- heide and Rodriguez-Martin 1998: 94-95). What is interesting, however, is that the high quality of the construction of Tomb 2, as well as its central location within Petra, would lead us to believe that the individuals buried within it were upper-class and probably not involved in heavy labor. Unfortunately, we know very little about the labor structure within the social and economic groups of Petra.

Fractures were the next most common condition seen in the Petra sample, but were already healed at death and thus were not caused by fatal traumatic episodes. Fractures were not unexpected in ancient populations in Jordan and Israel (e.g., Browne 1992:




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Petra North Ridge sample does not include 3 individuals of unknown age.

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Fig. 3. Age at death in communal tombs in Jor- dan and Israel.

228-29; Kick 1986: 262; Stirling 1978: 257; Smith and Zias 1980: 113; Haas 1970: 41-49; Smith 1976: 108; Perry 1998: 2; Frohlich 1987: 52). In general, the sample from Petra seems to have a higher fre- quency of fractures than other populations in the region, with the exception perhaps of the Queen Alia Airport cemetery. There are a number of examples in the Petra sample of fractures resulting from minor falls, such as the rib fractures and fractures of the distal radius (Colle's fractures). Falls such as these are not unexpected in an area of rugged terrain such as Petra.

TABLE 4. Pathological Observations in Articulated Burials

Burial Observations

No. 1 None

No. 2 Degenerative osteophytosis-cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae

Degenerative joint disease (DJD)-femur, patella, ulna

Possible abscess near lower left M2

No. 4 Wedged vertebrae with degenerative osteophytosis- T10 and LI

No. 5 Healed fracture-2d metacarpal

Partially healed fracture of sacrum with traumatic

myositis ossificans

DJD of radius, ulna, and articular facets of lumbar vertebrae

Osteoporosis No. 6 Dental caries

Kyphosis of T10-T12 with degenerative osteophytosis

Degenerative osteophytosis-L l-L3 Bilateral DJD of humerii, radii, ulnae, metacarpals, femora, patellae, tibiae, tarsals, and metatarsals

Osteoporosis No. 8 None

No. 9 None

No. 10 None

Besides degenerative and activity-related conditions, the individuals from the tomb had a fairly healthy lifestyle and diet. Nonspecific indicators of stress, such as dental enamel hypoplasias (DEHs), show that these individuals were under little physi- cal or biological stress, such as malnutrition, disease, or psychological stress. Comparing these stress indicators with another regional subpopulation, that of nearby Wadi Musa, shows that the Petra individuals enjoyed better health.

This material in Tomb 2 provides interesting insight into the life history of one extended family who lived in first-century A.D. Petra. It seems that these individuals led healthy, active lives, with few signs of nonspecific indicators of stress or bony responses to chronic diseases. As they aged, they experienced age-related degenerative conditions, such as DJD and vertebral osteophytosis, probably accelerated by habitual occupational activities. It is interesting that the individuals from this particular tomb displayed signs of heavy labor and activity, which may suggest that those interred within the well-constructed tomb did not originally contract for the construction of the tomb. Additionally, fractures and other injuries show




TABLE 5. Pathological Observations in Commingled Burials

Pathology No. Ob.

Degenerative osteophytosis-cervical vertebrae 4

Degenerative osteophytosis-thoracic vertebrae 2

Degenerative osteophytosis-lumbar vertebrae 16

Kyphosis-cervical vertebrae 1

Kyphosis-lumbar vertebrae 4

DJD-articular facets of cervical vertebrae 6

DJD-on Cl at articulation of dens of C2 1

DJD-on dens of C2 at articulation with Cl 2

DJD-ulna 1

DJD-lst metacarpal 1

DJD-clavicle 1

DJD-patella 6

DJD-humerus 1

DJD-calcaneus 1

DJD-talus 1

Healed fracture with traumatic arthritis-fibula 1

Healed fracture with traumatic arthritis-distal radius 2

Healed fracture-humerus 1

Healed fracture-ribs 3-10 5

Partially healed fracture-ribs 3-10 1

Abnormal bone loss-medial end of clavicle 1

Abnormal curvature-ulna 1

Abnormal curvature-sternum 1

Abnormal curvature-fiibula 1

Periostisis-ribs 3-10 1

Periostisis-humerus 1

that they were occasionally prone to nonfatal falls in the rugged terrain of Petra.

The age-at-death profile of the individuals in the tomb follows what is seen in other commingled, communal tombs in the region, and only differs from an expected pattern by the lack of infants and new- borns in the sample. This may be due to a number of sampling factors seen in communal tombs. It is also possible that the sample from Petra could reflect a natural catastrophe that hit the region, resulting in a number of deaths at one period of time. This is sup- ported by the archaeological evidence which suggests that the individuals were buried during a short period of time, with some individuals buried together simultaneously. Hypothetical reasons for this range from death due to an earthquake to acute in- fectious disease, such as the plague. Pathologically, no signs of a shared traumatic event were seen in the skeletal remains. This does not negate a tragic occur-

rence, but simply indicates that the possible condition was not one that left its mark on the skeletal material. In fact, no obvious signs of cause of death were seen in any of the individuals.

CERAMICS

Introduction

The two tombs presented here were seriously disturbed in antiquity. Nevertheless, upon rediscovery in 1998-99 they still contained large quantities of ceramics, including painted wares. The painted corpus consisted of types found in great abundance in the tomb, in addition to rather rare types. The

painted pottery of figure 4 is representative of the

range of such pottery in that tomb. The painted pottery of figure 7 is also representative of what is in the tomb, although the types represented by figure 7:4, 5, 9, and 10 are much less common in the tomb than the type represented by figure 7:7-8.

The painted wares that are common in each tomb indicate that, by chance, the two tombs are from successive but overlapping time periods covering, in general, the first century A.D. That dating follows the proposal of Schmid (1996: 173-74) in regard to the painted pottery. In that chronology, Tomb 1 cov- ers Phases 2c (A.D. 0-20) and at least the beginning of 3a (A.D. 20-70/80), although some of the painted pottery in Tomb 1 (e.g., fig. 4:1) could be as early as the end of Phase 2b (30/20-0 B.c.). Tomb 2 belongs (in the main) to the later part of Schmid's Phase 3a (A.D. 20-70/80), and to Phase 3b (A.D. 70/80-100) with a few later pieces. The bowls of figure 7:4-5 are probably the earliest painted types in Tomb 2; similarly decorated vessels occurred at Oboda in a context dated to before A.D. 50 (Negev 1974: 45-50, pl. 10.30; 1986: nos. 300-310, and see especially no. 318 which appears to be identical to our fig. 7:5). The same type of decoration appears in the earliest levels at Mampsis (Erickson-Gini 1999: 83, figs. 1.1-1.5) which is thought to have been founded in the middle of the first century A.D. Thus the type occurs around A.D. 50, meaning that it is likely that Tomb 2 came into use at about that time; the existence of some identical types of pottery in both tombs makes it likely that Tomb 1 did not go out of use until after A.D. 50. The chronology pro- posed here on the basis of the ez-Zantur materials agrees with preliminary information in regard to both tombs, namely, that all the lamps appear to




belong to the first century A.D. (D. Barrett, personal communication).

Final publication of these tombs will include a

quantitative presentation of the all of the sherds in the form of a type series; however, the broad out- lines of what that quantitative study is likely to show are already visible in regard to some types.

Individual Types

Bowls. Figure 5:1-4 shows the common ware bowl of Tomb 1: flaring body walls and a vertical rim. The only type of pottery that has already been counted is this form, and there are over 10,000 rim sherds of the type from Tomb 1. Figure 5:5-6 is a variant with a rounded rim edge and is much rarer

(and earlier?). Tomb 2 contains what appears to be

exactly the same bowl, but the Tomb 2 examples are larger in diameter and deeper (fig. 9:1-3); addi-

tionally, the join between the rim and body wall tends to have more of a "fold" in it. The bowl type represented by figure 9:4-6 has grooves around the exterior of the rim and appears most commonly associated with a base that has rouletted decoration. A few of these rims appear in Tomb 1 (and could be intrusive there), but they are very common in Tomb 2.

The same rouletted base appears on the bowls with vertical sides in Tomb 2 (e.g., fig. 8:2, 6-7). Such rouletting does occur, if rarely, in Tomb 1 (e.g., fig. 5:10), while such bowls with plain bases do occur in Tomb 2 (fig. 8:3). In Tomb 1, the body walls of the bowl with vertical sides (fig. 5:11-13) are rounded; the version common in Tomb 2 has body walls that tend to be more squared (fig. 8:2, 6-7). Some of the distinctions seen here among these bowls have already been noted in regard to materials from ez-Zantur (see Schmid 1995: figs. 2, 3, 9).

A number of examples of the large bowl with everted rim (fig. 8:4) occur in Tomb 2.

Cooking Pots. Figure 6:9-12 shows the types of cooking pots in Tomb 1 (figs. 6:10 and 6:12 are less common types). The rims of the pots in Tomb 1 are generally vertical and convex; the Tomb 2 rims (fig. 9:13-14, 16-18) are similar, but they are higher and turn inward. Additionally, the Tomb 2 cooking pot rims generally have a narrow folded- down collar around the exterior of the upper rim edge (fig. 9:14, 16-18); this cooking pot seems to be an indicator of Phase 3b. Pots with rims of the

type are found in a "very early" second-century A.D. destruction layer at ez-Zantur (Stucky et al. 1994: 287, fig. 16B, E).

Unguentaria. As figure 6:6-7 shows, the Tomb 1 unguentaria have piriform bodies and plain everted rims. The Tomb 2 unguentaria (fig. 9:7, 11-12) have

straighter bodies and can have narrower, more rounded rims.

Pitchers, Jugs, Juglets, and Storage Jars. There is a clear development in the large pitcher forms represented here by figure 5:20 from Tomb 1 and figure 8:14 from Tomb 2. They are similar in

having ring bases, ridged strap handles, and red slip, but the Tomb 2 form is much wider and squatter than the Tomb 1 examples. There is a similar widen-

ing in what are obviously the stoppers for these

pitchers (figs. 5:17-18, 8:13). The jar with a short neck and no handle (fig. 8:12) from Tomb 2 seems to be a related form; the unusual "bowl" with a wide rim (fig. 8:11) may have served as a cover for that

jar. Few jugs have been identified as diagnostic of

their era. Figure 9:17 from Tomb 2 is the only one that occurs in enough numbers to constitute a diagnostic for its horizon. Figure 5:19 is a smaller and

plainer version of figure 5:20 and thus belongs with the Tomb 1 horizon. Figure 8:8 from Tomb 2 is very similar, although figure 8:8 has a longer neck and a

plain handle. Figures 6:1 and 6:5 from Tomb 1 are not common types. Figures 6:2 and 6:3 are the Petra versions of the common dipper juglet of the era; no successor has been identified in Tomb 2 unless the

larger figure 9:15 is the dipper of that era. Figure 5:16, also from Tomb 1, is a rare instance of a form that also occurs in fine ware (fig. 5:14), but neither occurs in any numbers.

There are several examples in Tomb 1 of the storage jar of figure 6:13. A storage jar typical of Tomb 2 has not yet been identified.

Small Jars. Figures 6:4 and 6:8 show two of the many varieties of these small jars that appeared in Tomb 1. Some of these are clearly related to the common Tomb 1 cooking pot (cf. figs. 6:4 and 6:12). The Tomb 2 examples (see fig. 9:9-10) are smaller and much more standardized.

Fine Ware. The fine ware of Tomb 2 tends to have impressed and/or rouletted decoration (figs. 7:1-




3, 6; 8:1, 5, 9-12; the rouletted bowl bases have already been noted). Khairy (1982) presents many similar examples from Peter Parr's excavation at Pe- tra (Parr 1970). The impressed decoration in Tomb 2 is often combined with a red slip (fig. 8:2, 5, 9-10, 12) and, in general, red slip is more common in Tomb 2 than in Tomb 1. While fine ware vessels with impressed decoration do occur in Tomb 1 (fig. 4:7), Tomb 1 contains mainly plain (and very elegant) fine wares such as figure 5:14-15.

The fine ware bowls with handles typified by figure 5:7-9 also occur with painted interiors (fig. 5:3, 6). The version with just a slip on the exterior is very common in Tomb 1. By the time of Tomb 2, the vertical rim and strap handle have become mere vestiges and are apparently disappearing. Figure 7:8 is a painted example, of which there are only a few in Tomb 2; fewer than a dozen rims from plain examples of the type have been counted from that tomb.

There are no parallels in Tomb 2 for the extra- ordinarily thin-walled painted cups such as figure 4:4. The chalice (fig. 4:10, Tomb 1; fig. 7:1, 6) is rare in both tombs.

The painted bowl with a ring base and (often) handles (fig. 4:8-9, 11) does not find a successor in Tomb 2 unless the bowl of figure 7:5, which does have a high rim (but not a ring base), originally had a handle. The other painted bowls (fig. 4:2, 5 from Tomb 1 and fig. 7:4, 7, 9-10 from Tomb 2) can be dis- tinguished on the basis of the painted decoration, but aside from the paint, the Tomb 2 examples are larger, heavier, and deeper than the Tomb 1 examples.

Conclusion

The largest groups of pottery in these tombs are the bowls with flaring walls and vertical rims, and the cooking pots. Other types occur in association with these but not in great quantities. There are developments in certain of these common types that (in these tombs) seem just as clear as developments in the forms and decoration of the much-studied painted vessels. Indeed, the indications are that these two tombs present two distinct Nabataean ceramic horizons of the first century A.D. These groups include not just the relatively well-known painted wares, but also a broad range of other vessels; these will assist in moving toward a chronology of all the major forms of Nabataean pottery. They also allow, even at this stage, some observations on the differ-

ences between the two groups: the tendency over time is to more rouletting and red slip and to larger and heavier vessels. This has been viewed as a deterioration of the pottery of the "classic" Nabataean period, as represented by Tomb 1. Anyone who has actually handled some of the very thin pottery of the Tomb 1 era knows that it is beautiful and a technical marvel, but it is also extremely impractical. So while the types represented here by Tomb 2 have sometimes been described as debased, a case can be made that they are actually-from a consumer's point of view-a substantial improvement.

CATALOG

Tomb 1

Fig. 4

1. Bowl; D. at the rim: 18 cm; H.: 4.9 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5R 6/8 pale red on rim exterior; paint: 10R 4/4 weak red.

2. Bowl; D. at the rim: 17.3 cm; H.: 3.6 cm; ware:

10R 6/8 light red; core: even; paint: 10R 4/4 weak red; 1 mm thick in places.

3. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 16.1 cm; H.: 4.1 cm; ware: 10R 5/8 red; core: even; paint: 10R 4/6 red; could have had two handles.

4. Cup; D. at the rim: 9.8 cm; H.: 7.1 cm; ware:

10R 6/6 light red; core: even; paint: 5R 5/4 weak red; less than 1 mm thick in places.

5. Bowl; D. at the rim: 17.9 cm; H.: 4.5 cm extant; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; paint: 7.5YR 5/4 weak red.

6. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 15.3 cm; H.: 3.2 cm; ware: 10R 6/6 light red; core: even; paint: 10R 4/4 weak red.

7. Jar; D. at the rim: 7.2 cm; H.: 5.7 cm extant; ware: 7.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; polished exterior; four handles.

8. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 14.1 cm; H.: 5.1 cm; ware: 10R 5/6 red; core: even; paint: 10R 5/4 weak red and 10R 5/8 red; had one handle and could have had two.

9. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 12 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; paint: 10R 4/4 weak red; impressed decoration on lower exterior; could have had one handle.

10. Chalice; D. at the rim: 12.7 cm; H.: 9.7 cm extant; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip:



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Fig. 4. Ceramics from Tomb 1.




10YR 8/4 very pale brown; paint: 7.5YR 4/4 weak red; impressed decoration on lower body; incised lines on upper body; the base, which was undoubtedly splayed, is lacking.

11. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 12.4 cm; H.: 4.5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/8 red; core: even; slip: 10R 4/8 red (upper exterior); paint: 5R 4/4 weak red; incised spiral on base; two incised rings define the outer edge of the base; could have had two handles.

Fig. 5

1. Bowl; D. at the rim: 13.8 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: gray; slip: 10YR 5/2 grayish brown (on rim exterior).

2. Bowl; D. at the rim: 12.8 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware:

10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 10YR 8/1 white (on rim exterior).

3. Bowl; D. at the rim: 14 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: gray; slip: 10YR 8/2 white (on rim exterior).


10R 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 5Y 8/2 white (on rim exterior).


10R 6/8 red; core: even; slip: 5Y 8/1 white. 6. Bowl; D. at the rim: 14.2 cm; H.: 3.6 cm; ware:

10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 2.5Y 7/2 light gray.

7. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 12.3 cm; H.: 4.5 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5R 5/6 red to 7.5R 6/6 light red (on rim exterior only); small incised circle on base; complete.

8. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 12.3 cm; H.: 5.5 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: red to 5YR 8/3 pink (on exterior rim only); two handles.

9. Bowl with vertical sides; D. at the rim: 15 cm; H.: 5 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5R 5/6 red (on rim exterior only); one handle only.

10. Bowl; D. at the rim: 10.2 cm; H.: 5.7 cm; ware: 10R 5/8 red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white (upper rim exterior).

11. Bowl; D. at the rim: 10.2 cm; H.: 5.9 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 10YR 8/1 white (upper rim exterior).

12. Bowl; D. at the rim: 6 cm; H.: 3.6 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: cannot be seen.

13. 13. Bowl; D. at the rim: 6.9 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware:

10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 8/2

pinkish white. 14. Juglet; D. at the rim: 5.5 cm; H.: 17.4 cm; ware:

10R 6/8 light red; core: even; very light ribbing on upper body; exterior surface polished.

15. Juglet; D. at the rim: 6.7 cm; H.: 13.3 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; polished; incised spiral on base.

16. Juglet; D. at the rim: 4.8 cm; H.: 15.51 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 5Y 8/2 white; slip on exterior and over the rim into the neck.

17. Stopper; D. at the rim: 9.3 cm exterior; H.: 6.6 cm; ware: 10YR 5/2 grayish brown; core:

gray; slip: 10R 6/6 light red; slip on upper exterior and into the interior.

18. Stopper; D. at the rim: 7.8 cm exterior; H.: 5.7; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; slip on upper exterior and into the interior.

19. Jug; D. at the rim: 3.4 cm; H.: 22.9 cm; ware: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; core: gray; slip: 5Y 8/2 white; patchy surface.

20. Pitcher; D. at the rim: 11.2 cm exterior; H.: 33 cm; ware: 10R 5/6 red; core: even; slip: 10R 5/8 red; the red slip is on the upper body; lower body: 10YR 8/3 very pale brown; very light ribbing.

Fig. 6

1. Juglet; D. at the rim: 2.4 cm exterior; H.: 8.8 cm extant; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: gray; slip: 7.5YR 6/3 pinkish gray/light brown; slip on exterior and over rim.

2. Juglet; D. at the rim: 5 cm; H.: 13.6 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: gray; slip: 2.5Y 8/2 white; slip: all of the exterior and the rim interior.

3. Juglet; D. at the rim: 5 cm; H.: 12.5 cm; ware: 5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: not visible; exterior and interior surfaces: 7.5YR 5/1 gray.

4. Cup; D. at the rim: 9.7 cm; H.: 10.6 cm; ware: 10R 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 10YR 8/1 white.

5. Pitcher; D. at the rim: 2.9 cm exterior; H.: 13.5 cm; ware: 5YR 7/6 reddish yellow; core: even; slip: 2.5Y 8/2 white; slip on all of the exterior and interior neck and rim.

6. Unguentarium; D. at the rim: 2.5 cm; H.: 6.7 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even.



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7. Unguentarium; D. at the rim: 3.1 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; traces of burning on exterior; complete.

8. Cup; D. at the rim: 8 cm; H.: 9.5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: even; slip: 10YR 8/3 very pale white; misshapen; folded over on one side.

9. Cooking pot; D. at the rim: 12 cm exterior; H.: 15.6 cm; ware: 10YR 8/4 very pale brown; core: even; slip: 5Y 8/2 white; burned exterior.

10. Jar; D. at the rim: 9 cm; H.: 12.5 cm; ware:

10R 6/8 light red; core: even; complete; patchy surface.

11. Cooking pot; D. at the rim: 14.1 cm; H.: 18.8 cm extant; ware: 5YR 4/6 light reddish brown; core: gray; slip: 5Y 8/2 white; burned exterior.

12. Jug; D. at the rim: 9.5 cm; H.: 10.2 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: even; slip: 2.5Y 7/2 light gray; only one handle; burned exterior.

13. Storage Jar; D. at the rim: 12.8 cm; H.: 40 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 4/2 dark brown (except on the base); slightly misshapen, particularly at the rim.

Tomb 2

Fig. 7

1. Chalice; locus: 908 shaft; D. at the rim: 11 cm; H.: 10.8 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 10R 5/8 red (upper exterior); impressed decoration; had one set of double handles, but could have had two sets.

2. Cup; locus: 908, 908B; D. at the rim: 10.5 cm; H.: 8 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/8 red; core: even; polished exterior; impressed decoration; finger ridges on interior.

3. Jar; locus: 912, 913; D. at the rim: 11.2 cm; H.: 11.4 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 red; core: even; not polished ware, but decorated as though it were; the horizontal lines are combed.

4. Bowl; locus: 913; D. at the rim: 20 cm; H.: 4.6 cm extant; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 5R 4/3 weak red on rim exterior; paint: 5R 4/3 weak red.

5. Bowl with vertical sides; locus: 913, 923; D. at the rim: 14 cm; H.: 5.2 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 2.5YR 6/8 light red (on rim exterior); paint: 7.5R 4/4 weak red; no

evidence for handles, but it could have had one or even two.

6. Chalice; locus: 908A-B, 913; D. at the rim: 7.4 cm; H.: 16 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 2.5YR 5/6 red (exterior only); polished exterior; had two sets of double handles.

7. Bowl; locus: 912, clean-up; D. at the rim: 20 cm; H.: 5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: gray; bub- bled; paint: 2.5YR 4/4 reddish brown.

8. Bowl with vertical rim; locus: 908, 908B, 912; D. at the rim: 18 cm; H.: 5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: even; paint: 2.5YR 4/2 weak red; could have had a second handle.

9. Bowl; locus: 908A-D, 913, 951A-B, 957, 959; D. at the rim: 19 cm; H.: 5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: even; paint: 2.5YR 4/3 weak red/ reddish brown.

10. Bowl; locus: 922, 950C, 951, 951B-C, 952; D. at the rim: 20.8 cm; H.: 5.2 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; paint: 5YR 4/1 dark gray.

Fig. 8

1. Bowl with vertical sides; locus: 908, 908A; D. at the rim: 17 cm; H.: 6.8 cm; ware: 2.6YR 6/6 light red; core: gray; slip: 2.5Y 8/2 white (on rim exterior only); impressed decoration on exterior.

2. Bowl; locus: 908, 908A; D. at the rim: 12 cm; H.: 6 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: even; slip: 2.5YR 5/8 red; rouletted base.

3. Bowl; locus: 908A-B; D. at the rim: 6.8 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: gray.

4. Bowl with everted rim; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 21.4 cm; H.: 15 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: gray; slip: 2.5Y 8/2 white (on rim only); base piece does not actually join the body.

5. Jar; locus: 908, 912; D. at the rim: 6.8 cm; H: 6.9 cm; ware: 5YR 6/2 pinkish gray; core: uneven; slip: 10R 6/4 pale red; one handle only.

6. Bowl; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 6.2 cm; H.: 3.6 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: even; rouletted base.

7. Bowl; locus: 908B; D. at the rim: 7 cm; H.: 3.4 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/7 red/light red; core: gray; paint: 2.5YR 5/4 reddish brown; rouletted base.

8. Jug; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 4 cm; H.: 21.7 cm; ware: 5YR 5/6 yellowish red; core: even; slip: 10YR 8/3 very pale brown; very light ribbing.



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9. Jar; locus: 908A-B, 951B; D. at the rim: 9.8 cm; H.: 10.4 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 10R 5/8 red; impressed decoration; spiral groove on the base.

10. Juglet; locus: 908B, 951B and D, 952; D. at the rim: 5.2 cm; H.: 13.4 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: uneven (lower body); slip: 2.5YR 6/6

light red (slip extends to upper interior); lightly polished; impressed decoration.

11. Bowl (cover?) with horizontal rim; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 13 cm; H.: 3.8 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: gray; slip: 10YR 8/2 white; impressed decoration on exterior.

12. Jar; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 13 cm; H.: 22.5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/5 red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 8/4 pink; impressed decoration which allows the ware to show through the slip.

13. Stopper; locus: 908 and clean-up; D. at the rim: 12 cm; H: 8.95 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: uneven; slip: 7.5R 6/4 pale red (on exterior and over the rim to the interior).

14. Pitcher; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 12.8 cm at exterior rim; H.: 32.2 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5R 5/6 red; slip is on exterior, handle, rim, and neck interior.

Fig. 9

1. Bowl; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 16 cm; H.: 4 cm; ware: 10R 6/6 light red; core: gray; slip: 2.5Y 8/2 white (on rim exterior only).

2. Bowl; locus: 913; D. at the rim: 17 cm; H.: 6.1 cm; ware: 7.5YR 4/4 brown/dark brown; core: even; rim area appears burned.

3. Bowl; locus: 916A; D. at the rim: 16.9 cm; H.: 5.1 cm; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 2.5Y 8/2 white (on rim exterior only).

4. Bowl; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 18.4 cm; H.: 5 cm; ware: 10R 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 8/2 white (on rim exterior only); rouletted base.

5. Bowl; locus: 908B; D. at the rim: 18 cm; H.: 5.5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white (on rim exterior only); rouletted base.

6. Bowl; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 18 cm; H.: 4.8 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even;

slip: 7.5YR 8/2 pinkish white (on rim exterior only); rouletted base; rouletting on exterior, above the base.

7. Unguentarium; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 1.2 cm; H.: 7.5 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even.

8. Unguentarium; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 2 cm; H.: 6 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: even.

9. Cup; locus: 912; D. at the rim: 6.8 cm; H.: 7.6 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/8 light red; core: even; slip: 10YR 7/3 very pale brown; patchy surface.

10. Cup; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 6.8 cm; H.: 7.9 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/6 red; core: gray; slip: 10YR 8/3 very pale brown; patchy surface.

11. Unguentarium; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 2.4 cm; H.: 8.4 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/4 light reddish brown; core: gray.

12. Unguentarium; locus: 908; D. at the rim: 2.8 cm; H.: 13.8 cm; ware: 10R 6/6 light red; core: gray; slip: 10YR 5/2 grayish brown (on exterior, rim, and upper neck interior).

13. Cooking pot; locus: 908, 908B and D; D. at the rim: 7.8 cm; H.: 11.7 cm; ware: 2.5YR 6/6 light red; core: even; slip: 7.5YR 7/2 (upper exterior); patchy, uneven surface; traces of burning.

14. Cooking pot; locus: 908A-B; D. at the rim: 13.4 cm; H.: 16.5 cm; ware: 10R 5/6 red; core: even; slip: 10YR 7/3 very pale brown; traces of burning.

15. Jug; locus: 908, 950, 951; D. at the rim: 6.5 cm at rim exterior; H.: 19.8 cm; ware: 10R 6/6 light red; core: even.

16. Cooking pot; locus: 908A; D. at the rim: 17.9 cm; H.: 24.6 cm; ware: 10YR 8/2 very pale brown; core: even; slip: 10YR 8/2 very pale brown; traces of burning.

17. Juglet; locus: 912; D. at the rim: 2 cm; H: 12.05 cm; ware: 2.5YR 5/8 red; core: uneven; slip: 10Y 8/2 white; patchy, uneven surface.

18. Cooking pot; locus: 908, 912, 913; D. at the rim: 20 cm; H.: 22.2 cm extant; ware: 10R 6/8 light red; core: gray; slip: 10YR 8/2 white (exterior); burned.



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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors appreciate the assistance of the staff of the American Center of Oriental Research in Amman, the many volunteers who helped at the site, and the Bidul, Sacydeen, Amareen, and Liyatna who worked on the excavation under foreman Hussein Hamad. The project was conducted in cooperation with the Department of Antiqui- ties of Jordan under Directors Dr. Ghazi Bisheh and Dr. Fawwaz al-Khraysheh, and with the assistance of the

representative at Petra, Suleiman Farajat. The plan of figure 2 is by Megan A. Perry and Pierre M. Bikai. The pottery is being restored by Naif Zaban. The pottery was drawn by Pierre M. Bikai and Patricia M. Bikai. The pho- tographs are by Patricia M. Bikai. Work in 1999 was undertaken with funding from ACOR's Petra Endowment, a grant from the United States Agency for International Development.

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petra north ridge tombs 1 and 2: preliminary report

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