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SUPPLEMENT ON MIKMAQ

Prepared By

PETER CHRISTMAS, (B.A., B.E.d)©Mikmaq Association for Cultural Studies

1977

3. Education

(a) Bows and Arrows(b) Lances(c) Cradles(d) Canoe(e) Snowshoes(f) Medical and First Aid Practices(g) Wigwam and Other Forms of Shelter(h) Methods of Fishing

(i) Methods of Small and Big Game Hunting(j) How to Prepare and Preserve Food(k) Dress and Ornaments(l) Telling Time

4. Religion

(a) One God(b) Deities(c) Soul(d) Soul After Death(e) Resurrection(f) Reincarnation

5. Language

Test Your Knowledge on the Mi'kmawSchool or Classroom Projects

6. Appendix I

The Early Contact

With the Beothuks and the Eskimo (present day Inuit), the Mi'kmaw share whateverdistinction there is in having been the first to be "discovered by the Europeans." For the Mi'kmaw, the contact apparently began with the exploration of Cape Breton by the French Bretons in the early fifteen hundreds.At first sight there must have been mutual curiosity about each other's appearance - the European with his quaint style of dress and the Mi'kmaw with his partial regalia of loin cloth, buckskin leggings, moccasins, leather bracelet, shell e

arrings, and necklace.At this time the Mi'kmaw had his own civilization - a system of government, education, economy, social order, religion and language. Proud was the Mi'kmaw then



as he is proud today when he stated in the Introduction of the Nova Scotia Aboriginal Rights Position Paper:

"Prior to the coming of the European immigrants, our ancestors exercised all theprerogatives of nationhood. We had our land and our own system of land holding.We made and enforced our own laws in our own ways. The various tribal nations dealt with one another according to accepted codes. We protected our distinctive

languages. We practiced our own religious beliefs and customs. We developed ourown set of cultural habits and practices according to our particular circumstances. We, in fact, had our own social, political, economic, educational and property systems. We exercised the rights and prerogatives of a nation and existed asa nation.

It was as nations our forefathers dealt with the European immigrants. It is as nations we exist today. It is our desire to continue to exist as a nation of Micmacs."

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1. Land

At the time of the first contact the Mi'kmaw already occupied an area which nowcorresponds to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and southern parts of the Gaspe. This area was divided into seven chieftaincy districts with appropriate Mi'kmaw place names.

Wunama'kik is now Cape Breton which, in the eyes of the Mi'kmaw, was the "head"and the mainland Nova Scotia was the "torso," or the body.Piktukewaq (where explosions are made) and Epekwitk (lying in the water) represented areas of Pictou and Prince Edward Island respectively.Eskikewa'kik (skin dressers territory) stretched from Guysborough to Halifax counties.Sipekne'katik (ground nut place) extended over the counties of Halifax, Lunenburg, Kings, Hants, and Colchester.Kespukwitk covered the counties of Queens, Shelburne, Yarmouth, Digby, and Annapolis.Sikniktewaq included Cumberland and the New Brunswick counties of Westmoreland,

Albert, Kent, St. Hohn, Kings and Queens.Kespe'kewaq (the last land) was the district north of the Richibucto, its alliedRivers and parts of Gaspe which were not occupies by the Iroquois (Kwetejk).



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2. Political Structure

In 1497 when John Cabot (Giovanni Cabotto Montecalunya) discovered Newfoundland,the Mi'kmaw were very well organized to combat the harsh elements which were to

be encountered by the first explorers and settlers.In the Mi'kmaw land game was not always plentiful. Heavy snowfalls and extreme cold temperatures practically decimated the moose herds, a chief source of winterfood supply. Other weather occurrences such as floods, hurricanes, droughts andlightning storms, which caused forest fires, disturbed the delicate balance ofnature. Any minute disruption of the food chains spelled starvation for both manand beast.From time immemorial the Mi'kmaw had learned to understand and respect the lawsof nature. Scarcity of game not only brought on famine but also inadequate supply of furs and skins needed for clothing and winter warmth in a wigwam.Conservation and resourceful use of game were indeed the major concern of the aboriginal tribal governments. The Council of Chiefs designated well-defined hunti

ng and fishing districts and enacted tribal laws regulating the hunting seasons.(Insert diagram/photo/digital image of 7 chieftancy districts here)Hunting for pleasure was disrespectful. Over-kill of game contradicted the "waste not, want not" philosophy of the Mi'kmaw. The practice of sharing food, skinsand other possessions was one of the highest virtues advocated by the chiefs.The Council of Chiefs divided the chores among the men, women and children of the tribe. In this way there was continual hunting and fishing, food was preparedand preserved, clothing was made, camps were pitched or transported, hunting implements and tools were fashioned, and canoes, showshoes and toboggans were manufactured.The influence of the Council of Chiefs through time enabled the Mi'kmaw to survive the severest Canadian elements. The European had to learn much from him before he could establish successful year-round settlements.

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(a) Character of a Chief

Accustomed to the concept that a King's absolute powers were given to him by God, the European failed to appreciate the Chief's influence over his people. Unlik

e a King, the Chief deliberately humbled himself in dress and life-style to showthat the well-being of his own people came first. He cherished his people's custom in sharing worldly possessions. He shared his food with the indigent even wi



th those in the nearby villages. When he and his family paid the usual summer visits, gifts of meats and furs were taken along.His generosity was not supported by taxing the people. No one in the village wasobligated to provide him with food or furs. Because he was the best hunter, hecould easily acquire these necessities.However humble he was, he commanded respect and authority, especially from the young men who were eager to become as skilled as he. These young men, who were us

ually orphaned from wars, apprenticed under him, much in the same manner as thesquire served a knight in the Middle Ages. In return for his education, food andlodging, the youth agreed to serve the Chief in the following ways:

1. He must strictly obey the orders of the Chief.2. In times of war, he must fight according to the strategies laid down by the head of the Council of War.3. He must relinquish all his possessions and prizes of the chase to the Chief until he marries.

This arrangement enabled the Chief to rule with a "great heart" (meski'k wkamlamun). He was guaranteed enough food and furs to fulfill his obligations of caring

for the poor, the aged, tho orphaned and the disabled.Despite his modest ways, a Chief was given great attention. His words and opinion carried weight. Undistinguished young men, women and children remained silentwhen he spoke. At feasts, he and the elders were served the choicest pieces of meat or other such delicacies as roasted porcupines, young fetuses of bears, moose, otters, beavers and porcupines, and the entrails of bears. They were always seated in the place of honor and were the first served.

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(b) Role of the Chief in the Mi'kmaw Society

There were three main types of chief:

1) the local chief



2) the district chief3) the grand chief

1) The Local Chief looked after the immediate affairs of the summer village inhabitants of the district. He presided over the "Council of Elders" which was thegoverning body of that village. Family heads or representatives made up the council of elders. It was his duty to provide dogs for the chase, canoes for transpo

rtation, provisions for hunting expeditions and emergency food supplies in timesof need.

2) Each of the seven Mi'kmaw districts had a Chief (Saqamow) who usually was theeldest son of some powerful kin group. He derived much of his power from the size of his family. To maintain a large family, the Chief took several wives. There appeared to be no jealousy among them because it was considered an honor to bea Chief's wife.

The District Chief presided over the Council of Chiefs within his domain. The Council met usually in spring or autumn to resolve such issues as peace, truce andwar. Decisions in the Council were reached by a unanimous vote. Women, children

and young men who had not yet killed their first moose had no say in the Council.

3) When the Mi'kmaw wished to deal with issues affecting the whole nation, a Grand Council consisting of all types of Chiefs and their families would be convened by a Grand Chief. He was a District Chief designated by the Grand Council to be its chief spokesman.

For many years Chief Membertou served as Grand Chief, at a time when the Fench colony was being established at Port Royal. On June 24, 1610 at Port Royal Membertou became the first Mi'kmaw to be baptized into the Catholic religion. Lescarbot described him to be at least a hundred years old at his conversion. He had "....sufficient power to harangue, advise and lead them to war, to render justice t

o one who has a grievance, and like matters. He does not impose taxes upon the people, but if there are any profits from the chase he has a share of them, without being obliged to take part in it." His powers as a prophet gave him the reputation as the strongest Sagamore in the country.

Besides assigning hunting and fishing territories to the Chiefs and their families, the Grand Council ratified treaties of friendship with other tribes, and later with the Colonial government of Nova Scotia.

The Mi'kmaw were friendly with the French in their struggles with the English. Led by the French Missionary, Abbe Le loutre, they constantly harassed the English settlers. Nova Scotia sought to end the Mi'kmaw hostilities and the French influence on them by entering into "treaties of friendship" in 1725, 1728, 1749, 1752 and 1760. In return for the promise to "bury the hatchet," the Mi'kmaw were guaranteed that their basic rights to hunting, fishing and fowling territories would not be affected. For example, the treaty of 1725 established truckhouses toencourage Anglo-Mi'kmaw trade. At no time did the Chiefs sign treaties which surrendered their traditional use and occupancy of these lands.

A favorite Grand Council meeting place was Fraser's Point near Trenton, N.S. Gatherings at Middle River Point in Pictou County were discontinued when a vessel with small pox was sent there to be quarantined.

Grand Council meetings today are religious in nature and are held annually in July on Indian Island, Merigomish or Chapel Island, near the town of St. Peter's.

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(c) Qualities of a Good Chief

Chieftancy was inherited. By deliberate and constant education and training thisposition was usually passed on to the eldest son, but not always. He had to qualify; otherwise, someone else in the kin group would receive the title.The qualities that the Mi'kmaw sought in the Chief were comparable to those we s

eek in our present-day leaders. The Chief must have possessed these characteristics:

a) ability to lead men and inspire confidenceb) superior intelligence, insight and knowledgec) a grave and dignified demeanor (to "act like a Chief")d) a great generosity toward his peoplee) a concern for the well-being of allf) the greatest courage and valor in warfareg) superior ability in hunting

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3. Education

The purpose of Mi'kmaw education was not at all different from the purpose today- to teach the skills necessary for a full and rewarding life. The skills required then were quite different from today's. A youth needed to know how to make various implements like bows, arrows, lances, shields, fish-traps and weirs, snow

shoes, canoes, axes and knives. Woodlore was extremely important. Methods of hunting, fishing, trailblazing and preparation of food, clothing, and shelter werebasic. It was important to know how to tell time.Children were taught according to their future roles. The tasks of the individuals within the Mi'kmaw tribe were determined by sex.Men did the hunting and made the bows, arrows, lances, shields, fish-traps and weirs, showshoe frames and canoes. They also manufactured the cradleboards and all other articles of wood, even the tobacco pipe.Women carried game back to the camp, transported all the camp equipment, prepared and preserved the food, made birchbark dishes, weaved mats from rushes, made robes of goose feathers, made the sleeves, the stockings and the moccasins, corded the snowshoes, moved and set up the wigwams, fetched the water and took care o

f the children.

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(a) Bows and Arrows:

Mi'kmaw took pride in their bows which they made from an unsplit piece of maple.They were first roughly shaped with a stone axe (tmi'kn) and a knife (wagn). For a finer finish and polish, oyster shells were used. Arrows were made of cedar.Cedar has the quality of splitting straight and being light. Bones were used for the tip but later replaced by iron. Eagle tail feathers were prized for guiding the arrow straight.

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(b) Lances:

Lances were made of beech and were used for spearing moose, salmon, trout and beaver. They were usually bone-tipped.

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(c) Cradles:

Cradles were smooth boards with a tumpline strap fastened to the two upper corners. With the board and the baby behind her shoulders, and the strap on her forehead, the mother could go about her work without the need of a baby-sitter.

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(d) Canoe:

In canoe-making, they sought the largest birch trees from which to obtain bark for an eighteen to twenty-four foot canoe which was about two feet wide in the middle. Mi'kmaw used the brightness of the firefly as an indicator of when the bar

k would be the easiest to remove. Cedar slats were used for the inside lining and for the ribs. Fir roots were used as thread to sew the canoe. For waterproofing, fir gum chewed daily by the women and girls served the purpose better than pitch. The paddles were of beech. One of the distinguishing features of the Mi'kmaw canoe was the elevated gunwhale which prevented waves from splashing inward.The canoe was an ideal form of travel in the Mi'kmaw country where rivers and lakes abounded. The Mi'kmaw could travel by river routes from one side of Nova Scotia to the other, or could pass from the Bay of Fundy, or from the St. John River, to the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

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(e) Snowshoes:

Jesuit Missionaries described the snowshoe as a "broad piece of network;" Mi'kmaw called it "aqam," indicating that the aboriginal snowshoe may have been made from white ash (aqamoq). Later, beech was used.Men worked the thick wooden strips into oval frames which measured waist high. The curved ends were then bound together with leather made from dressed moose skins. For central support, two slats of wood were fastened about two hands apart across each frame.Women corded the three parts - toe, central support and the heel - in a criss-cross and a diagonal fashion. The design enabled a hunter to walk in deep, soft snow. For durability, thicker strips of leather were used to fill the central support. An opening in front of the central support accommodated the toe of the moccasin. In this way a hunter was able to walk rhythmically without lifting the heel of the snowshoe.The Mi'kmaw snowshoe may not have been built for speed, but it proved very formidable against snowbound game such as the caribou and the moose.

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(f) Medical and First Aid Practices:

At the time of contact, cures for many diseases were still unknown in the Old World. Cartier credits an Indian brew made from alder bark with saving his crew from scurvy.Mi'kmaw relied on plants and animals for medicines and first-aid treatment, andthe youth were occasionally instructed in the medicinal values of each plant andanimal.Like the early European, the Mi'kmaq resorted to the supernatural or magic for treatment of mysterious illnesses. Modern scientists have effected many cures fro

m the extracts of herbs which the Indians used long ago.Mi'kmaw not only used herbs for minor illnesses such as head colds, coughs and stomach disorders, but also practiced blood-letting, applied poultices, used emetics and took sweat baths.The emetics induced vomiting and were made from roots of various milk weeds, seeds of leather wood and black alder.For any swelling or boils, several incisions were made to draw out the blood.For an open wound, the favorite remedy was the application of a slice of beaver's kidney which absorbed blood and pus. A poultice made from fir balsam was usedto dress the wound.Broken bones were set with a three-layered splint. First, the reset bones were padded with fine moss, which was saturated with balsam or a turpentine-like mixture. This layer was wrapped with soft birch bark. Hard pieces of bark were then t

ied securely around the fractured limb.One of the most important medical practices was the use of the sweat lodge. Today, saunas are used for much the same purpose. The aboriginal Mi'kmaw, however, used his sweat lodge with some reverence.The lodge consisted of a wigwam frame which was completely covered with birch bark and skins; a shallow pit in the centre of the lodge held the red-hot, fire-heated stones. Eight or more men sat naked around the pit for an hour or two, chanting, recounting legends and meditating. Periodically, they poured water on thehot stones. At the end of the ritual, each man dashed into a nearby lake or river or rolled in the snow, then dressed and retired to his wigwam, refreshed bothphysically and spiritually.Massaging the body is practised today to relieve pressure and tension. The Mi'kmaw massaged themselves with seal oil to withstand a variety of temperatures andto relieve the sting of insect bites. Seal oil on the hair prevented it from becoming entangled in the bush.The Mi'kmaw spent much of his life on or near the water. Canoes capsized and some drownings were inevitable. It must have been quite an experience for the European to witness the Mi'kmaw method of reviving a victim.Men took turns in quickly filling the bladder of the bowel of some animal with tobacco smoke. A wooden injection tube was attached to the opening of the bladderand inserted into the backside of the victim. The smoke was hand pumped into his bowels. Afterward, he was hung by the feet from the nearest tree and kept under observation. Almost always, the drowning victim quickly revived.

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(g) Wigwam and other forms of shelter:

The Mi'kmaw were nomadic people. This doesn't mean that they moved around haphazardly without respect for each other's hunting and fishing territories. On the contrary, for economy reasons, regional districts were recognized through the "Co

uncil of Chiefs" meetings. Within those areas, the camps were established wherefood supply was plentiful.With the coming of Spring and Summer, preparations had to be made to move to thesea coast for the fish runs. Wigwams were set up in the coves, bays, estuariesand river mouths.After the Chief was satisfied with the new location, the women and girls transported the belongings by foot, canoe or toboggan. These included the wigwam, the dishes, the bags, the skins, the robes, and everything else. There the wigwam (not tipi) would be the first to be constructed. Poles obtained by the women were stuck into the ground in a pyramid fashion around the fire. Bark, skins and matting brought from the previous camp were affixed to the poles, rendering the wigwam totally waterproof.Nicholas Denys gives this impression of the wigwam:

"...If the family is a large one they make it (the wigwam) long enough for two fires; otherwise they make it round, just like our military tents, with only thisdifference that in place of canvas they are of barks of birch. These are so well fitted that it never rains into their wigwams. The round kind holds ten to twelve person, the long twice as many. The fires are made in the middle of the round kind, and at the two ends of the long sort."(Denys, 1908, pp. 405-406).

In the winter, there would be time enough for the women to decorate the wigwam with various designs of birds, moose, otters and beavers.

Besides the circular and conical wigwam used in hunting and in winter residence,other more make-shift arrangements included lean-tos and shelters consisting ofhollows dug into the snow and covered with fir branches around a central fire.



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(h) Methods of Fishing

Dependence upon the sea and its products was high in the Mi'kmaw world, for it s

upplied about 90% of his available food. Hunting for game required more skill than fishing (fish were extremely plentiful); consequently a good hunter was heldin high esteem. The Mi'kmaw brave prided himself on being a good provider for his family and the village.Just like any fishing activity today, certain preparations had to be made: repair the fishing tackle, condition the canoes or make new ones, and replace the weirs (nets) and fishtraps which may not have survived the winter.When the fish spawned in the world of the aboriginal Mi'kmaw, the sight must have been something to behold. Biard, the earliest French missionary arriving in Port Royal in 1611, gives this account:

"...In the middle of March, fish begin to spawn, and to come up from the sea into certain streams, often so abundantly that everything swarms with them. Anyonewho has not seen it could scarcely believe it. You cannot put your hand into thewater, without encountering them. Among these fish the smelt is the first; thissmelt is two and three times as large as that in our rivers; after the smelt comes the herring at the end of April; and at the same time bustards, which are large ducks, double the size of ours, come from the south and eagerly make their nests upon the Islands. Two bustard eggs are fully equal to five hen's eggs. At the same time come the sturgeon, and salmon, and the great search through the islets for eggs, as the waterfowl, which are there in great numbers, lay their eggsthen, and often cover the islets with their nests. From the month of May up tothe middle of September, they are free from all anxiety about their food; for the cod are upon the coasts, and all kinds of fish and shellfish; and the French ships with which they traffic, and you may be sure that they understand how to ma

ke themselves courted."(Biard, 1616, in Jr., Vol.3, pp. 79-80).



While preparing for this spectacle, however, the Mi'kmaw lived on the shallow-water fish, notably the flounder, which was exposed by melting ice. Along the Maritime coasts the flounder spawns in March and April. Up until then it lives on mudflats in the low-tide zone and in the mouths of rivers and estuaries where it can be speared, caught on hooked lines or trapped in weirs.

1) Weirs, consisting of stakes driven side by side, were placed almost erect andsupported by wooden bars with only enough space for the fish to enter. Sometimes stones were used for buttresses. The latter structure was first observed by the crew of the Marigold at the northern tip of Cape Breton Island in 1593.

2) For the spawning runs, the Mi'kmaw relied upon fishtraps. Nicholas Denys describes this process:

"...at the narrowest place of the rivers, where there is the least water, they make a fence of wood clear across the river to hinder the passage of a fish. In the middle of it they leave an opening which they place a bag-net like those used

in France, so arranged that it is inevitable the fish should run into them. These bag-nets, which are larger than ours, they raise two or three times a day, and always find fish therein. It is in spring that the fish ascend, and in autumnthey descend and return to the sea. At that time they placed the opening of their bag-net in the other direction."(Denys, 1908, p. 437).

3) For large fish like the sturgeon and the salmon (plamu), the Mi'kmaw used theharpoon which consisted of a wooden staff, a pointed bone at one end and a lineat the other so that the harpoon could be attached to the canoe. At night, torches of birch were used for the sturgeon. Being a curious fish, it would circle around the canoe and when harpooned would swim with great fury; dragging the cano

e unit, it became exhausted. This method of fishing, knows as "saqsikwemk," is still being carried on today.For the squid, a fire was lit on the shore at high tide. But for some strange reason it only attracted the young squid which were stranded when the tide ebbed.

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(i) Methods of Small and Big Game Hunting:

Ruffed grouse (plawej) hunting was simple. They are easily detected because at mating time the male thumps its breast with its wings, causing a loud drumming sound. Mi'kmaw would use a leather noose attached to a pole to snare the partridgeat close range.Nicholas Denys provides an account of an interesting method of catching geese and ducks:

"...In certain closed coves which are under cover from the wind, the wild geesethe brant, and the ducks go to sleep out upon the surface, for on land they would not be safe because of the foxes. To those places the Indians went, two or three in a canoe; with torches of wax. Reaching the place where all these birds are, they laid down in the canoe, which they allowed to drift without their being seen. The current carried them right into the midst of all these birds, which hadno fear of them, supposing them to be logs of wood which the seas was carryingfrom one place to another, something that often happens, which makes them accustomed to it. When the Indians were in their midst they lighted their torches all

at once. This surprised the birds and obliged them all at the same moment to rise into the air. The darkness of the night makes this light very conspicuous, sothat they suppose it is the sun or other (such) thing. They all proceeded to whe



el in confusion around the torches which an Indian held, always approaching thefire, and so close that the Indians, with sticks they held, knocked them down asthey passed. Besides, by virtue of much wheeling about, these became dizzy, sothat they fell as if dead; then the Indians took them and wrung their necks. Asa result in a single night they filled their canoes..."(Denys, 1908, pp. 435-436).

Because moose hunting was held in high esteem, the Mi'kmaw hunter had to masterthree ways of hunting moose (tia'm):

(1) Tracking He had to be able to identify various feeding grounds. Tracks and even the dung indicated the sex and age of the moose. Having positioned themselves below the wind from the moose, they would stalk it within fifty paces where mastery with the bow ensured an eventual kill. Rarely, however, would the moose fall to a single arrow, and further tracking was necessary.

(2) Head Snares Rare, but nevertheless important, was the use of nooses made from large leather thongs set in game paths.

(3) Moose Calling This method was most successful. Father Christien LeClercq describes it in his early writings. He was born around 1641. He entered the Recollect Order and landed for the first time in Canada in 1675 to take up a post in the Gaspe - Cape Breton mission.

"...The hunters, knowing the place on the river where it (the moose) is accustomed to resort when in heat, embark at night in a canoe, and, approaching the meadow where it has its retreat, browses, and usually sleeps, one of them imitates the cry of the female, while the other at the same time takes up water in a barkdish, and lets it fall drop by drop, as if it were the female relieving herselfof her water. The male approached, and the Indians who are on the watch kill with shots from their guns. The same cunning and dexterity they also use with respe

ct to the female, by counter-feiting the cry of the male..."(LeClerq, 1910, p. 276).

In the tracking method, the Mi'kmaw used their own aboriginal breed of dog (small in comparison to the European dog) which had a narrow head, long nose, large teeth and a howl instead of a bark. In the winter especially, and with the aid ofsnowshoes and the dogs, the moose was easy game because it was not as swift inthe heavy snow. If there were several, the Indians took advantage of the mooses habit of "yarding," that is, of following each other in single file along a widely circular path. One Indian would chase the herd along the "yard" while others would lie in ambush and spear each moose.Nicholas Denys informs us that before the contact period the Indians killed animals only in proportion to their needs. They were astonished by the European's lust for beaver skins.In the summer and autumn, the beaver (kopit) usually was taken in traps, the most common of which was the deadfall. This was a trap so constructed that a weight, usually a log, falls on an animal.Another method was the simple breaking of dams and the resultant lowering of thewater which exposed the beaver houses. The beavers then could be shot easily with arrows.In the late contact period, the Mi'kmaw developed a winter method to satisfy theEuropeans' passion for beaver pelts.The dogs were used to locate the beaver house under the ice. There the Indians would chip a hole through which the beaver would be drawn by hand. About thirty paces away to the open lake side, another hole was dug and left attended by one o

r two Indians with a harpoon.Lying in the prone position, the Indian would submerge his arm in the first holeto find the opening to the beaver house. The beaver usually arranged themselves



with their tails toward the opening. The Indian carefully patted the beaver's back, and little by little his hand approached the tail. Seizing it, he swooped it onto the ice where it was quickly dispatched. The same process was repeated for the other beaver. At first the beaver was unaware of the human patting. They imagined they were touching one another. Finally becoming alarmed, the remainderfled into the water where they couldn't remain too long without breathing. Led by the light above, they tried to emerge through the second hole, only to be harp

ooned.Another variation was the elimination of the second hole for harpooning. Instead, when the alarmed beaver fled into the water, the Indians pounded the lakesideice with sticks, thus frightening the beaver back into their houses where againthey could be caught by the tail.Yet still another variation was the use of non-aboriginal axes to destroy beaverhouses, thus forcing them to seek shelter between the ice and the bank. The dogs sniffed out their hiding places. Once again, the ice was chopped above them. Curiously, they did not try to escape this time. Thus exposed, the beaver were lifted out by their tails and killed.Dogs were used to flush out the bear from his den. Spears and arrows finished the job.

"Dead fall" traps were used for smaller fur-bearing animals, such as muskrats, otter, mink, marten, fisher and lynx.In conclusion, it is worth mentioning again that the hunting districts designated by the head of the nation were respected. According to the customs of the country, which serve as laws and regulations, Indians were not permitted to trespasson other hunting districts which were assigned in the meeting of the elders held in Autumn and Spring.

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(j) How to Prepare and Preserve Food:

It was the women's duty; it was not a soft chore. After the game was killed thewomen had to fetch it to the camp. There it would either be boiled or roasted. Prior to European contact, boiling was done by this aboriginal method:First, a suitable fallen tree would be selected and fashioned into a cooking pot. With sharp stone axes, the tree would be cut to the desired kettle length. This piece would be set on forked sticks where the tedious process of hewing wouldtake place. First, the fire was lit on top and allowed to burn about four inchesinto the tree. Burnt parts were removed by scraping with stones or huge pointedbones. Repeated burning and scraping resulted in the kettle more often being too big than too little.Birch bark containers were also used. Elder Mikmaq today still remember the use of these containers in hunting, fishing and camping expeditions. Birch bark (perhaps only the exterior) would not burn because the water kept it below its kindling temperature. One had to be careful that the container didnt boil dry.(Insert table here)

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(k) Dress and Ornament

In some accounts the explorers like Cartier and Champlain described the Indiansas almoststark naked. This description fits the Mikmaq brave because his breakaway clothing served a very useful purpose both in winter and in summer. His basic garment was the loin cloth made of a very supple animal skin which covered his genital

s. A leather strap around the waist held this up. The ends of thecloth

were folded over the strap thus providing added coverage.

Buckskin leggings, made from a single piece of leather with outside fringed seams, were also held up by the waist strap. The leggings protected against the brush, thorns, brambles of the forest and the cold. They could easily be slipped offfor shore fishing, for swimming or simply for comfort. Even the women on occasion wore these leggings.On occasion, cloaks of skin made from the moose (tiam), beaver (kopit), marten (apustanewj), bear (muin), and seal (waspu) were thrown over the shoulders and interlaced with leather strips under the chin. They were also worn over one shoulder and under the other.The moccasins were made from used mooseskin robes, now more pliable with added grease. The English word moccasin probably comes from the Mikmaw word mkisn still us

ed today to describe this aboriginal footwear.In the winter, the Mikmaw wore large and broad coats with detachable sleeves.Basically there was no difference between the mens and womens garments except forthe skin cloth which was worn in a different manner. Nicholas Denys explains this difference:

...The women wear this robe in Bohemian fashion. The opening is on one side. Theyattach it with cords in two places, some distance apart, is such a way that thehead can pass through the middle and the arms on the two sides. Then they double the two ends one above the other, and over it they place a girdle which they tie very tightly, in such a manner that it cannot fall off. In this manner they are entirely covered. They have sleeves of skin which are attached together behind. They also have leggings of skin, like stirrup stockings, without feet; the men wear these likewise.(Denys, 1908, p,412).

For special occasions like weddings and feasts, more elaborate garments were worn. White robes of mooseskin decorated in various ways were common. According tothe whim of the designer, two inch strips of ornamented leather appeared in vertical or horizontal patterns or both. Colors were obtained thus: red and yellow from ochres, white from powdered or burned shell, black either from bog manganeseor charcoal, and the vivid red used in staining porcupine quills, from roots ofbedstraw.In aboriginal times, Mikmaw wore no hats. These came with the French. Denys describes how the hair was styled.

...to distinguish the men and the women from the boys and the girls by their ornaments; they first have the hair cut below the ears. The boys wear theirs of full



length; they tie it in tufts on the two sides with cords of leather. The daintyones have theirs ornamented with coloured porcupine quills. The girls wear theirs also full length, but tie it behind with the same cords. But the belles, whowish to appear pretty, and who know how to do good work, make ornamental piecesof the size of a foot or eight inches square, all embroidered with porcupine quills of all colours. It is made on a frame, of which the warp is threads of leather from unborn moose, a very delicate sort; the quills of porcupine from the woo

f which they pass through these threads, just as one makes tapestry, and it is very well made. All around they make a fringe of the same threads, which are alsoencircled with these porcupine quills in a medley of colours. In this fringe they place wampum, white and violet. They make of it also pendants for the ears, which they have pierced in two or three places...Such is the ornamentation of thegirls. As soon as they are married, the mother in delivering them to their husbands, cuts their hair. This is the symbol of marriage, as it is also for the husband.(Denys, 1908, pp. 414-415).

The Mikmaq women were not to be outdone. They pierced their ears from which theyhung many decorations of wampum, shell or quill-work. Nose piercing was not prac

tised. They also wore colorful arm and leg bracelets.For different feasts, ceremonies, and rites, the Mikmaw painted his body. Unlikemany Western tribes, only the face was daubed with the predominant red and black.For feasts, he painted himself with a single color, or with several; others applied red to the forehead and black to the rest of the face. Still others drew a black line from the mid forehead to the tip of the nose; the cheeks were mottledor streaked with white, yellow and red paints.In mourning, the whole face was painted black.In war, red was used so that expressions of fear were less detectable to the enemy.

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(l) Telling Time:

Observing the natural changes around him, the Mikmaw was able to distinguish theperiods of time. A year, which was the major ecological cycle, was divided intonights, moons and seasons.In our present Gregorian calendar an extra day is added every four years. The Mikmaw, too, added an extra leap moon in his lunar calendar every thirty moons.Years were counted by the winters, months by the moons, days by the nights, morning by the suns advances into it meridian and afternoons by the suns decline.There were no weeks. Thirty days (nights) was a lunar month. There were four seasons in a year: siwkw (Spring) - when the leaves began to sprout, the wild geeseappeared, the fawns of moose reached a certain size within the mother, and seals bore their young; nipk (Summer) - when the salmon spawned and the wild geese moulted; toqaq (Autumn) - when the birds migrated; and kesik (Winter) - when the weather became very cold, the snow fell and the bears began to hibernate.Some of the names of our present months are derived from pagan gods and events.January is named from Janus, god of entrances; February is derived from Februa,a festival of purification held in that month by the Romans; Martius is the month of Mars, who was originally a god of agriculture; May is named after Maia, themother of the Roman god, Mercury; June is derived from Juno, the goddess of women and of marriage.The Mikmaw was more practical. Each month (moon) signified a natural occurrence.

Mikmaw Lunar Calendar

Seasons English Mikmaw Translation



Toqaq October Wikewikus Animal-fattening moonKesik November Keptekewikus River-freezing moonDecember Kjikus The great monthJanuary Punamujuikus Frost fish moon (tom cod)February Apiknajit The snow blinderMarch Siwkewikus Spawning moonSiwkw April Penatemuikus Egg laying moon

Nipk May Etqoljewikus Frog-croaking moonJune Nipnikus Summer moonJuly Peskewikus Feather-shedding moonAugust Kisikwekewikus Fruit and berry-ripening moonSeptember Wikumkewikus Moose-calling moon

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4. Religion

At the time of contact in the early sixteenth century, Europe was undergoing a t

remendous religious upheaval. Henry VIII of England was questioning the supremeauthority of the Pope. Martin Luther of Germany doubted that granting of indulgences through good works was required for salvation. Faith alone, he said, was sufficient. John Calvin of France proclaimed himself a disciple of Reformation andpreached accordingly. French protestantism surfaced with the Huguenots, much tothe dismay of Francis I who financed Cartiers expeditions to the New World. Religious wars and persecutions were rampant in Europe. It was in this atmosphere that Cartier set out in 1541 on his third voyage to conquer savagery in the New World. Little did he and the missionaries realize that the Mikmaw already shared withthe other Algonquian tribes the spiritual beliefs which were not too dissimilarto Christianity - now a subject of controversy in the Old World. The Mikmaw sawChristianity as an extension of his beliefs. Conversion was inevitable.Long before the first missionaries arrived, Mikmaw were a member of a strong Waba

naki Confederacy which also included other tribes like the Malecite (new Brunswick), the Passamaquoddy (Maine), the Penobscot (Maine), the Abenaki (Quebec), andthe Wowenock (New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire). All belonged to a great Algonquian family which occupied for the most part, territories east of the St. Lawrence River, the Adirondacks, and the Appalachians.To have understood the aboriginal Mikmaw way of thinking was to have understood his religion. His whole life was dictated by his firm belief of a supernatural power which governed him and his land. Why such reverence for the sun, the moon, the weather? After a great feast, why did he leave portions of food on the ground? Why did he put such faith in Glooscap? Why wouldnt he feed bones to his dog? Why were valued personal possessions buried with him? How did he get his name?

(a) One God:

He believed in a Great Spirit, a Great Creator or a Great Mystery who created the universe, the supernatural and living things. This Great Spirit (Kji-niskam) was invisible, without matter and not having a human form. He was capable of making his presence felt in the sun, the moon and the heavens. He controlled the destinies of all material and non-material things. He was all-powerful and all-present.

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(b) Deities:

In order to communicate with man, the Great Spirit created mediators: the pure dei



ties and the transformer deities. These deities were more powerful than man.The most important of the pure deities were the sun, the earth, the moon, the fourdirections (north, south, east, west), the stars, the thunder, the weather andother physical phenomena. Of these, the sun and the moon were deemed the most powerful.As the name implies, the transformer deities were capable of bestowing their supernatural powers on man. The most powerful and the most benevolent was the mikmuesu c

reated by the Great Spirit. When the mikmuesu assumed human forms and quality, he still retained his enormous powers and immortality. Even though he lived in a land far away from the Mikmaw, his presence was always felt. The Mikmaw knew of him.Unlike the Mikmaw, he was free from the scourge of famine.The word Mikmaq is related to the name of this deity, mikmuesu.

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(c) Soul:

There were three basic living elements in a human being:

1) a physical structure calledmtinin,

the body.2) a life-soul known as mimajuoqon was the activity of the heart, respiration, circul

ation of the blood, brain and motor functions.3) a free soul existing apart from the physical man and forming a dark and shadowy image of man himself.

There were two types of free-soul - mjijaqamij, that of the living, and skitekmuj, of the dead.

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(d) Soul after death:

It was the aboriginal belief that after death, the free-soul would travel to the land of the dead (land of the Souls). It was also believed that the free-soul couldremain on earth to haunt the living. For this reason, after a great feast Mikmawwould leave portions for the souls which stalked the wigwams of their friends and relatives. In the Land of the Souls (Wasoq), both the souls of man and beast existed in harmony. Starvation for both was non-existent.In afterlife, the souls were able to hunt, feast, sing and dance. There was no aboriginal concept of hell. No matter how one behaved on earth, his soul would goto heaven.

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(e) Resurrection:

In resurrection, the aboriginal Mikmaq believed that his free-soul could return to its former body and its life-soul restored. In other words, when the departedsoul returned, the body began to function as before. Anyone who returned from the dead was thought to possess strong supernatural powers.

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(e) Reincarnation:

In reincarnation, both the free-soul and the life-soul returned to a body recrea

ted in some mystical way from the remains of former bodies. These remains were most often bones. Consequently in his aboriginal world there were many taboos associated with bones. Moose, beaver, caribou, bear and marten bones could not be b



urned or given to the dogs. If the remains were treated badly or left unused, the soul of the departed animal would convey this to the other animal souls in Wasoq. As an example, a reincarnated moose which knew of this abuse would look upon the Mikmaw with disfavor and allow itself to be scarce.Even the structure of the Mikmaw language holds a clue to the past burial practices. For example, which possessions were most likely buried with the deceased? Unlike in English, gender is not divided into masculine, feminine and neuter. Inst

ead, all nouns are either animate or inanimate. Animate nouns include, besides animals, growing trees, the heavenly bodies, household utensils and weapons usedin war and chase. The animate souls of utensils and weapons accompanied the deceased warriors in their perilous journey to Wasoq. This also accounts for the former Mikmaw belief that the different parts of the game like the skin (for robes) and the bones (for tools and weapons) acquired their own souls.The road to heaven was the Milky Way even to this day called in Mikmaw skitekmuju-awti, the spirits road.

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5. Language

The Mikmaw language is one of several languages belonging to the Algonquian linguistic family, just as English belongs to the Indo-European family. Thus, Mikmaw is genetically related to other Algonquian languages, such as Cree, Delaware andOjibway, in the same sense that English is genetically related to other Indo-European languages such as Russian, German and Spanish.It is likely that long ago the ancestors of the present day Algonquian peoples belonged to one society and shared a common culture and language. Over the years,migrations and the subsequent isolation of smaller groups from the core societygave rise to the present individual Algonquian cultures and languages, such asMikmaw. Not enough is known, however, to determine the exact time and place of these migrations.When the French first attempted to colonize Nova Scotia, they found the country

inhabited by a tribe of Indians whom they called Souriquois or Mouse Nation. Were they the early Mikmaw? Lescarbot in his History of New France preserved a relativelylong list of Souriquois words. Comparison with the later Mikmaw language established beyond a doubt that the Souriquois and the Mikmaw were one and the same.

Some Mikmaw place names:From the following table, it can be seen that the Mikmaw added sertain endings tonouns to form place names.(Insert tables and appendices here)

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Bibliography

Crown Land Rights and Hunting and Fishing Rights of Micmac Indians in the Province of Nova Scotia. The Union of Nova Scotia Indians, Sydney, 1976.

Denys, Nicholas. Natural History of the People of the Animals, of the Trees andPlants of North America, and of its Diverse Climates... Translated by W.F. Ganong: The Champlain Society, 1908/ 1st ed., Paris, 1672.

Hoffman, Bernard G. The Historical Ethnography of the Micmac of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century. Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, 1955, revised 1976.

LeClerq, Chrtien. New Relation of Gaspesia. Paris, 1691. English translation byW.L. Grant, Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1914.



Lescarbot, Marc. The History of New France. 3 vols. English translation by W.L.Grant, Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1914.

Maillard, Antoine S. An Account fo the Customs of the Mickmakis and Maricheets Savage Nations.... Printed for S. Hooper and a. Morley, London, 1758.

Nova Scotia Micmac Aboriginal Rights Position Paper. The Union of Nova Scotia Ind

ians, Sydney, 1976.

Pacifique, Pere. Etudes Historiques et Geographiques. Restigouche, P.Q., 1935.

Rand, Silas T. Dictionary of the Language of the Micmac Indians. Nova Scotia Printing Company, Halifax, 1888.

Rand, Silas T. Rands Micmac Dictionary. The Patriot Publishing Company, Charlottetown, P.E.I., 1902.

Thwaites, Reuben G. Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents The. 72 Vols. Cleveland, Ohio, 1896.

Wallis, Wilson D., and Wallis, Ruth S. The Micmac Indians of Eastern Canada. TheUniversity of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1954.

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