personality - psych.purdue.edukip/120/lecturepersonalityspr'09ppt.pdfdream analysis another...
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Exam 4 Results
• N = 390• Mean was 37.40• SD = 5.79• Median = 38• Mode = 38• Top Score = 49• The highest total score to date is 190.• 190 is locked in as highest possible score for the
four exams that count toward your grade.2
Personality
Chapter 15Spring, 2009
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PersonalityAn individual’s characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting.
Each dwarf has a distinct and dominantpersonality trait. 4
Personality Theories• Core
– What all people have in common• Basic source of motivation• Stages that we pass through
• Periphery– How we become different from each other
• Fixations• Reinforcement histories• Arousal levels
• Measurement procedures– Projective tests– Scales
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Psychodynamic Perspective
In his clinical practice,Freud encountered
patients suffering fromnervous disorders.Their complaints
could not be explainedin terms of purelyphysical causes.
Sigmund Freud(1856-1939)
Culver Pictures
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Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud’s clinicalexperience led him to
develop the firstcomprehensive theoryof personality, which
included theunconscious mind,
psychosexual stages,and defensemechanisms. Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
Culver Pictures
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Exploring the Unconscious
A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostlyunacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and
memories. Freud asked patients to say whatevercame to their minds (free association) in order to
tap the unconscious.
http://www.english.upenn.edu
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Dream Analysis
Another method to analyze the unconscious mind isthrough interpreting manifest (what we remember) andlatent (what it means, symbolically) contents of dreams.
The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)
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Psychoanalysis
The process of freeassociation (chain of
thoughts) leads topainful, embarrassing
unconscious memories.Once these memories
are retrieved andreleased (treatment:psychoanalysis) thepatient feels better.
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Model of MindThe mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden,
and below the surface lies the unconsciousmind. The preconscious stores temporary
memories.
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Personality Structure
Personality develops as a result of our efforts toresolve conflicts between our biological impulses
(id) and social restraints (superego).
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Id, Ego and SuperegoThe Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic
sexual and aggressive drives, operating on thepleasure principle, demanding immediate
gratification.
The ego functions as the “executive” andmediates the demands of the id and superego.
The superego provides standards for judgment(the conscience) and for future aspirations.
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Personality Development
Freud believed that personality formed duringthe first few years of life divided into
psychosexual stages. During these stages theid’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure
sensitive body areas called erogenous zones.
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Psychosexual Stages
Freud divided the development of personalityinto five psychosexual stages.
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Oedipus Complex
A boy’s sexual desire for his mother andfeelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival
father. A girl’s desire for her father is called theElectra complex.
Males: Fear of castrationFemales: Penis envy
These fears/anxieties result in identification ofsame sex parent (but motivation is stronger for
males because they have something to lose).16
Identification
Children cope withthreatening feelings by
repressing them andby identifying with therival parent. Through
this process ofidentification, their
superego gainsstrength that
incorporates theirparents’ values.
From the K
. Vandervelde private collection
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Defense Mechanisms
The ego’s protective methods of reducinganxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
1. Repression banishes anxiety-arousingthoughts, feelings, and memories fromconsciousness.
2. Regression leads an individual faced withanxiety to retreat to a more infantilepsychosexual stage.
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Defense Mechanisms3. Reaction Formation causes the
ego to unconsciously switchunacceptable impulses intotheir opposites. People mayexpress feelings of purity whenthey may be suffering anxietyfrom unconscious feelingsabout sex.
4. Projection leads people todisguise their ownthreatening impulses byattributing them to others.
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Defense Mechanisms
5. Rationalization offers self-justifyingexplanations in place of the real, morethreatening, unconscious reasons for one’sactions.
6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressiveimpulses toward a more acceptable or lessthreatening object or person, redirectinganger toward a safer outlet.
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The Neo-Freudians
Jung believed in the collectiveunconscious, which containeda common reservoir of images
derived from our species’past. This is why many
cultures share certain mythsand images (archetypes) suchas the mother being a symbol
of nurturance.Types: Introvert/Extravert;
Feeler/ThinkerCarl Jung (1875-1961)
Archive of the H
istory of Am
erican Psychology/ University of A
kron
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The Neo-Freudians
Like Freud, Adlerbelieved in childhood
tensions. However, thesetensions were social in
nature and not sexual. Achild struggles with an
inferiority complexduring growth and
strives for superiorityand power. Emphasized
the importance ofbelonging.
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
National Library of M
edicine
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The Neo-Freudians
Like Adler, Horneybelieved in the socialaspects of childhood
growth anddevelopment. Shecountered Freud’sassumption that
women have weaksuperegos and sufferfrom “penis envy.”
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
The Bettm
ann Archive/ Corbis
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Assessing Unconscious Processes
Evaluating personality from an unconsciousmind’s perspective would require a
psychological instrument (projective tests) thatwould reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
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Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)
Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is aprojective test in which people express their inner
feelings and interests through the stories they makeup about ambiguous scenes.
Lew M
errim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
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Rorschach Inkblot TestThe most widely used projective test uses a setof 10 inkblots and was designed by HermannRorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner
feelings by analyzing their interpretations of theblots.
Lew M
errim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.
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Projective Tests: Criticisms
Critics argue that projective tests lack bothreliability (consistency of results) and validity
(predicting what it is supposed to).
When evaluating the same patient, eventrained raters come up with differentinterpretations (reliability).
Projective tests may misdiagnose a normalindividual as pathological (validity).
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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective
Personality develops throughout life and isnot fixed in childhood.
Freud underemphasized peer influence onthe individual, which may be as powerfulas parental influence.
Gender identity may develop before 5-6years of age.
Modern Research
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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective
There may be other reasons for dreamsbesides wish fulfillment.
Verbal slips can be explained on the basis ofcognitive processing of verbal choices.
According to Freud, suppressed sexualityleads to psychological disorders. But, sexualinhibition has decreased, but psychologicaldisorders have not.
Modern Research
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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective
Freud's psychoanalytic theory rests on therepression of painful experiences into the
unconscious mind.
The majority of children, death camp survivors,and battle-scarred veterans are unable to
repress painful experiences into theirunconscious mind.
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Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective
Freud was right about the unconscious mind.Modern research shows the existence ofnonconscious information processing.
Schemas that automatically control perceptions andinterpretations
Parallel processing during vision and thinking Implicit memories Implicit attitudes Emotions that activate instantly without
consciousness32
Evaluating the PsychoanalyticPerspective
The scientific merits of Freud’s theory havebeen criticized. Psychoanalysis is difficult totest. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical
practice, which are the after-the-factexplanation. When one tenet appears to befalsified, another one comes to the rescue.
Still, what it is an ingenious and clever theory,and a comprehensive template for others to
attempt with different premises.
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Humanistic PerspectiveBy the 1960s, psychologists became
discontented with Freud’s negativity and themechanistic psychology of the behaviorists.
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers(1902-1987)
http://ww
w.ship.edu
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Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed that we as individuals aremotivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginningwith physiological needs, we try to reach the
state of self-actualization—fulfilling ourpotential.
http://ww
w.ship.edu
Ted Polumbaum
/ Time Pix/ G
etty Images
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Growth and Fulfillment
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that
Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude ofacceptance of others despite their failings.
Michael R
ougier/ Life Magazine ©
Time W
arner, Inc.
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Assessing the Self
All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in ananswer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.
In an effort to assess personality, Rogers askedpeople to describe themselves as they would liketo be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If thetwo descriptions were close the individual had a
positive self-concept.
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Evaluating the HumanisticPerspective
Humanistic psychology has a pervasiveimpact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management.
Concepts in humanistic psychology arevague and subjective and lack scientificbasis.
Very difficult to even figure out what totest, let alone, how to test.
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The Trait PerspectiveAs an outgrowth and more complex version of earlier
TYPE theories.An individual’s unique constellation of durable
dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits)constitutes his or her personality.
HonestDependable
MoodyImpulsive
Examples of Traits
Allport & Odbert (1936), identified 18,000 wordsrepresenting traits.
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Personality Type
Personality types, assessed by measures like theMyers-Briggs Type Indicator*, consist of a
number of traits. For example, a feeling typepersonality is sympathetic, appreciative, and
tactful.
SympatheticAppreciative
Tactful
Feeling Type Personality
*based on Jung’s theory
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Exploring Traits
Factor analysis is astatistical approach
used to describe andrelate personality
traits.
Cattell used thisapproach to develop a16 Personality Factor
(16PF) inventory. Raymond Cattell(1905-1998)
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Factor Analysis
Cattell found that large groups of traits couldbe reduced down to 16 core personality traits
based on statistical correlations.
Impulsive
Excitement
Impatient
Irritable
Boisterous
BasictraitSuperficial
traits 42
Personality DimensionsHans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that
personality could be reduced down to twopolar dimensions, extraversion-introversion
and emotional stability-instability.
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Assessing Traits
Personality inventories are questionnaires(often with true-false or agree-disagree items)
designed to gauge a wide range of feelings andbehaviors assessing several traits at once.
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MMPI
The Minnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory (MMPI) is the most widely
researched and clinically used of all personalitytests. It was originally developed to identify
emotional disorders.567 true-false items!!
The MMPI was developed by empiricallytesting a pool of items and then selecting thosethat discriminated between diagnostic groups.
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MMPI Test Profile
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The Big Five FactorsToday’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’
personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s 16PFtoo large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits does abetter job of assessment. First mention of the Big 5 was by
L. L. Thurstone in his presidential address to the APA,published in 1934 in Psychological Bulletin.
ConscientiousnessAgreeablenessNeuroticism
OpennessExtraversion
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Endpoints
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Questions about the Big Five
Yes. Conscientious people aremorning type and extravertedare evening type.
4. Can they predict otherpersonal attributes?
These traits are common acrosscultures.
3. How about other cultures?
Fifty percent or so for eachtrait.
2. How heritable are they?
Quite stable in adulthood.However, they change overdevelopment.
1. How stable are these traits?
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Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traitsmay be enduring, but the resulting behavior in varioussituations is different. Therefore, traits, by themselves,
are insufficient predictors of behavior.
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The Person-Situation Controversy
Trait theorists argue that behaviors from asituation may be different, but average behavior
remains the same. Therefore, traits matter.
With age, personality traits become morestable, as reflected in the correlation of traitscores with follow-up scores seven yearslater (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000).
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The Person-Situation Controversy
Traits are socially significant and influence ourhealth, thinking, and performance
(Gosling et al., 2000).
Samuel Gosling
John Langford Photography
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1g8C-r0Mhsa52
A Person X Situation Example
• If we have high levels of trust in our co-workers, should we be less or more likely tosocially loaf on collective tasks?– In 1979 (Psychology Today), Latané, Harkins,
& Williams guessed “less.”– In 1991, (JPSP), Williams & Karau
hypothesized “more.”
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Rotter’s Interpersonal Trust Scale
• Trust in the sense that– you can depend on others;– you can rely on others;– others keep their word;– others don’t cheat.
• Gave scale to 1,085 introductory psychologystudents
• Selected lowest quintile (n = 42); middle quintile(n = 41); top quintile (n = 43).
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Method & Results• People worked in groups of
6-8• Either coactively or
collectively• Results:
– Low trusters sociallycompensated
– Medium trusters sociallyloafed
– High trusters sociallyloafed (big time).loafing
compensation
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Consistency of Expressive Style
Expressive styles in speaking and gesturesdemonstrate trait consistency.
Observers are able to judge people’s behaviorand feelings in as little as 30 seconds and in one
particular case as little as 2 seconds.
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Social-Cognitive Perspective
Bandura (1986, 2001,2005) believes thatpersonality is the
result of an interactionthat takes place
between a person andtheir social context.
Albert Bandura
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Bandura called the process of interacting withour environment reciprocal determinism.The three factors, behavior, cognition, and
environment, are interlocking determinants ofeach other.
Reciprocal Influences
Stephen Wade/ A
llsport/ Getty Im
ages
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Individuals & Environments
How we view and treat peopleinfluences how they treat us.
Our personalities shapesituations.
Anxious people react tosituations differently than calmpeople.
Our personalities shape howwe react to events.
The school you attend and themusic you listen to are partlybased on your dispositions.
Different people choosedifferent environments.
Specific ways in which individuals andenvironments interact
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BehaviorBehavior emerges from an interplay of external
and internal influences.
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Personal Control
External locus of control refers to the perceptionthat chance or outside forces beyond our
personal control determine our fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perceptionthat we can control our own fate.
Personality Videos…
Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize oursense of personal control, whether we controlthe environment or the environment controls
us.
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Optimism vs. Pessimism
An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style isyour way of explaining positive or negative
events.
Positive psychology aims to discover andpromote conditions that enable individuals and
communities to thrive.
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Happiness
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Personality and the Brain
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Learned Helplessness
When unable to avoid repeated adverse eventsan animal or human learns helplessness.
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Assessing Behavior in Situations
Social-cognitive psychologists observe people inrealistic and simulated situations because they
find that it is the best way to predict the behaviorof others in similar situations.
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Evaluating the Social-CognitivePerspective
Critics say that social-cognitive psychologistspay a lot of attention to the situation and pay
less attention to individuals, their unconsciousmind, emotions, and genetics.
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Positive Psychology and HumanisticPsychology
Positive psychology, such as humanisticpsychology, attempts to foster human
fulfillment. Positive psychology, in addition,seeks positive subjective well-being, positive
character, and positive social groups.
Martin Seligman
Courtesy of M
artin E.P. Seligman, PhD
Director,
Positive Psychology Center/ U
niversity of Pennsylvania
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Exploring the Self
Research on the self has a long history because theself organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a
critical part of our personality.
Research focuses on the different selves wepossess. Some we dream and others we dread.
Research studies how we overestimate ourconcern that others evaluate our appearance,performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).
Research studies the self-reference effect inrecall.
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Benefits of Self-Esteem
Maslow and Rogers argued that a successfullife results from a healthy self-image (self-
esteem). The following are two reasons whylow self-esteem results in personal problems.
When self-esteem is deflated, we viewourselves and others critically.
Low self-esteem focuses on our failure inmeeting challenges, or surmountingdifficulties.
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Culture & Self-Esteem
People maintain their self-esteem even with a low statusby valuing things they achieve and comparing
themselves to people with similar positions.
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Self-Serving Bias
We accept responsibility for good deeds andsuccesses more than for bad deeds and
failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile andegotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less
fragile and less dependent on externalevaluation.