personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress

8/18/2019 Personal Control Over Aversive Stimuli and Its Relationship to Stress

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PERSONAL CONTROL OVER AVERSIVE STIMULI AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO STRESS

It is almost axiomatic to assume that persoal cotrol o!er a impe"i# harm $ill

help to re"uce stress reactios% Ho$e!er& a critical re!ie$ o' experimetal research

i"icates that this assumptio is ot al$a(s $arrate"% Speci)call(& three mai

t(pes o' persoal cotrol ma( *e "isti#uishe"+ ,a- *eha!ioral ,"irect actio o the

e!iromet-& ,.- co#iti!e ,the iterpretatio o' e!ets-& a" ,c- "ecisioal ,ha!i#

a choice amo# alterati!e courses o' actio-% Each t(pe o' cotrol is relate" to

stress i a complex 'ashio& sometimes icreasi# it& sometimes re"uci# it& a"

sometimes ha!i# o i/uece at all% As a *roa" #eerali0atio& it ma( *e sai" that

the relatioship o' persoal cotrol to stress is primaril( a 'uctio o' the meai#

o' the cotrol respose 'or the i"i!i"ual% State" "i1eretl(& the stress2i"uci# or

stress2re"uci# properties o' persoal cotrol "epe" upo such 'actors as the

ature o' the respose a" the cotext i $hich it is em*e""e" a" ot 3ust upo its

e1ecti!eess i pre!eti# or miti#ati# the impact o' a potetiall( harm'ul

stimulus%

4rom ma( "i1eret 5uarters to"a(& there is the "ema" 'or more persoal cotrol+

Stu"ets complai that the( ha!e o cotrol o!er the political process& persos i

po!ert( complai that the( ha!e o cotrol o!er ecoomic resources& a" ol"

people complai that the( ha!e little cotrol o!er a(thi#& ot e!e ho$ the( "ie%

Althou#h the )rst reactio to these complaits is that the( cotai cosi"era*le

merit& it is ot clear exactl( $hat is meat *( 6persoal cotrol6 a" $hether it is

such a umixe" *lessi# as mi#ht at )rst *e suppose"%

Amo# ps(cholo#ists& too& there is a te"ec( to assume that persoal cotrol has a

*ee)ciet or stress2re"uci# e1ect% 4or example& Sells ,789:- has ar#ue" that

stress occurs $he t$o co"itios are met+ ,a- A i"i!i"ual is calle" upo to

respo" u"er circumstaces i $hich he has o a"e5uate respose a!aila*le& a"

,*- the cose5ueces o' ot respo"i# are importat to the i"i!i"ual% These

co"itios& Sells ,789:- has claime"& pro!i"e 6a e$ priciple to "isti#uish stress

'rom other pheomea o' huma *eha!ior ;p% 7


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t(pe o' relatioship+ 6A( situatio $hich iterrupts& or threates the iterruptio o'

or#ai0e" respose se5ueces& a" $hich "oes ot o1er alterate resposes to the

or#aism& $ill *e axiet(2pro"uci# ;p% B:=%6 Accor"i# to Ma"lers !ie$& persoal

cotrol ma>es it possi*le 'or the i"i!i"ual to i2corporate a potetiall( threatei#

e!et ito a co#iti!e pla& thus re"uci# axiet(% To ta>e a )al example& i a

recet "e'ese o' i"i!i"ual 'ree"om a" autoom( ,as op2pose" to S>iers

e(o" 4ree"om a" Di#it(-& Le'court ,789


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Re#ulate" A"miistratio

A experimet *( Ha##ar" ,78 $ere less stresse"% Ho$e!er& the lessee"

autoomic reacti!it( o' these su*3ects caot *e attri*ute" to *eha!ioral cotrol per

se% Sice the sel'2a"miistere" shoc>s $ere prece"e" *( a $ari# si#al& $hereas

shoc>s i the experimeter2a"miistere" co"itio $ere ot& the t$o co"itios

"i1ere" i ucertait( or am*i#uit( as $ell as *eha!ioral cotrol% Other stu"ies to

*e re!ie$e" *elo$ i"icate that ucertait( it2sel' ca ha!e a si#i)cat e1ect o

stress% Moreo!er& Ha##ar" 'ou" that su*3ects $ho a"miistere" shoc> to

themsel!es also te"e" to *e more a$are o' the experimetal coti#ecies ,i%e%&

$hich $or" $as 'ollo$e" *( shoc>- tha $ere su*3ects to $hom the shoc>s $ere

a"miistere" *( the experimeter% @he a$are su*3ects $ere cotraste" to

ua$are su*3ects& the "i1erece i respose patters $as similar to that *et$ee

su*3ects i the sel'2a"miistere" a" experimeter2a"miistere" shoc> co"itios&

respecti!el(% Ha##ar" too> this to mea that a"miisteri# shoc> to the sel'

6'acilitate" structuratio o' the co#iti!e )el"6 a" that co#iti!e structuri#& rather

tha *eha!ioral cotrol& $as resposi*le 'or the "i1ereces *et$ee sel'2

a"miistere" a" experimeter2a"miistere" shoc> #roups%


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Ha##ar" also 'ou" that su*3ects $ho recei!e" experimeter2a"miistere" shoc>s

sho$e" more rapi" extictio "uri# therap( tha "i" su*3ects $ho a"miistere"

shoc> to themsel!es% Thus& *( the thir" phase o' the stu"( ,a repetitio o' the

ori#ial co"itios *ut $ithout shoc>-& o "i1ereces existe" *et$ee

experimeter2a"miistere" a" sel'2a"miistere" shoc> #roups i terms o' ps(cho2

ph(siolo#ical reactios to the stimulus $or"% This $oul" i"icate that the stress2

re"uci# e1ects o' *eha!ioral cotrol& i' i"ee" a( existe" i this experimet& $ere

rather ephemeral a" short li!e"%

Per!i ,78. to either

usi#ale" or icosistetl( si#ale" shoc> a" that the( 'ou" the 'ormer less

axiet( pro"uci# a" less pai'ul tha the latter% I other $or"s& the re"uctio o'

ucertait( $as a much more potet !aria*le tha *eha!ioral cotrol%

Stu"ies i!esti#ati# the pre'erece 'or imme"iate !ersus "ela(e" threat ,e%#%&

a"ia& Mcae& Suter& Le$is& 78..F Coo> ares& 78.F DAmato Jumei>&

78.:F Hare& 78..F Malt0ma @ol1& 789:- are

also rele!at to the issue o' *eha!ioral cotrol% I most experimets usi# this

para"i#m ,see Malt0ma @ol1& 789:& 'or a exceptio-& su*3ects ha!e *ee

re5uire" to ma>e some respose $hich resulte" i either imme"iate or "ela(e"


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threat% Sice i the imme"iate threat co"itio the oxious stimulus 'ollo$s "irectl(

upo the su*3ects respose& the stimulus ca *e cosi"ere" as sel'2a"miistere"% I

the "ela(e" co"itio& o the other ha"& the oxious stimulus is "eli!ere" *( the

experimeter a'ter some

time iter!al%

The results o' these experimets ha!e *ee rather cosistet+ Most su*3ects pre'er

a imme"iate to a "ela(e" oxious stimulus a" )" the 'ormer less stress'ul% The

iterpretatio o' these results is am*i#uous& ho$e!er& 'or !aria*les other tha

*eha!ioral cotrol are i!ol!e"% 4or example& "ela(e" threat i!ol!es a elemet o'

temporal ucertait( $hich imme"iate threat "oes ot% Dela(e" threat also etails

a $aiti# perio"& $hich itsel' ma( *e a i"epe"et source o' axiet( ,4ol>is&

789:F 4ra0ii& 789:-% Thus& the #eerall( 'ou" pre'erece o' su*3ects 'or

imme"iate as oppose" to "ela(e" threats coul" *e "ue to ,a- a "esire 'or *eha!ioral

cotrol& ,*- a pre'erece 'or #reater certait(& a"Kor ,c- a $ish to a!oi" a axiet(2

i"uci# $aiti# perio"% Amo# these alter2ati!es& *eha!ioral cotrol seems to *e

the least importat% I the )rst place& oe stu"( $hich "i" ot i!ol!e cotrol as a

!aria*le

,Malt0ma @ol1& 789:- still 'ou" the imme"iate threat co"itio to *e the least

stress'ul% I the seco" place& a"ia et al% ,78..- 'ou" that the um*er o' su*3ects

pre'erri# a "ela(e" threat coul" *e icrease" su*statiall( ,to a*out : o' the

sample- i' the imme"iate threat $as ma"e less pre"icta*le ,*( !ar(i# its

pro*a*ilit(- a" the "ela(e" threat $as ma"e more pre"icta*le ,*( prece"i# it $ith

a $ari# si#al-% This result is cosistet $ith the )"i#s o' Ha##ar" a" Per!i

$hich su##est that the sel'2a"miistratio o' oxious stimuli is stress re"uci#

primaril( $he it is accompaie" *( a re"uctio o' ucertait(%

Usi# a experimetal "esi# similar i ma( respects to the imme"iate2!ersus2

"ela(e"2shoc> para"i#m "escri*e" a*o!e& all a" Vo#ler ,7897- allo$e" su*3ects

to a"miister shoc>s to themsel!es ,upo the

presetatio o' a si#al- or to ha!e shoc>s a"miistere" at ra"om time iter!als

*( the experimeter% A'ter experieci# *oth co"itios i a series o' 'orce" trials&

su*3ects $ere allo$e" to choose *et$ee them o su*se5uet trials% Out o'


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the( "i" so i or"er to a!oi" ucertait(% Ele!e su*3ects i"icate" a pre'erece 'or

experimeter2a"miistere" shoc>s& a" < sho$e" o particular pre'erece% The

reasos su*3ects #a!e 'or pre'erri# experimeter2a"miistere" shoc>s $ere hi#hl(

!arie" a" i"ios(cratic a" iclu"e" such thi#s as ,a- e#ati!ism& "oi# the

opposite o' $hat mi#ht *e expecte"F ,*- reli#ious co!ictio& ot stru##li# a#aist

paiF a" ,c- excitemet& #uessi# $he a shoc> mi#ht come%

Stau*& Turs>(& a" Sch$art0 ,7897- ha!e reporte" se!eral stu"ies i!ol!i#

re#ulate" a"miistratio $hich also implicate ucertait( as a importat

me"iati# !aria*le% rie/(& i the )rst o' t$o experimets& su*3ects $ere presete"

$ith a series o' #ra"uall( icreasi# electric shoc>s% Oe hal' o' the su*3ects $ere

allo$e" to a"miister the shoc>s to themsel!esF each o' these ha" a (o>e" parter

$ho recei!e" shoc>s i the same temporal se5uece *ut a"miistere" *( the

experimeter% ,I the sel'2a"miistere" shoc> co"itio the shoc> also $as prece"e"

*( a $ari# si#al& $hereas i the (o>e"2cotrol co"itio it $as ot% Ho$e!er&

su*3ects te"e" to a"miister shoc>s to them2sel!es i such rapi" successio that

timi# $as pre"icta*le 'or *oth #roups% The ma3or "i1erece *et$ee #roups& the

authors there2'ore ar#ue& is the !aria*le o' cotrol%- U"er these co"itios&

*eha!ioral cotrol ha" o

"isceri*le e1ect o the le!els o' shoc> 3u"#e" as "iscom'orti#& pai'ul& a"

itolera*le%

I a 'ollo$2up experimet& Stau* et al% ,7897- ma"e su*3ects $ait 'or !ar(i# time

iter!als *e'ore the( coul" a"miister shoc>s to themsel!esF the( also allo$e"

su*3ects to "etermie the itesit( o' the ext shoc> i the se5uece% I this $a(&

su*3ects $ho ha" cotrol also >e$ ho$ itese the ext shoc> $oul" *e a" $he

it $oul" occurF their (o>e" parters ha" o such i'ormatio% U"er these

co"itios o' icrease" ucertait(& sel'2a"miistratio "i" ha!e a ameliorati!e

e1ect o the percei!e" itesit( o' shoc>% The experimets re!ie$e" thus 'ar ha!e

emplo(e" relati!el( simple stimuli as sources

o' stress ,e%#%& electric shoc> or lou" oise-% A experimet *( Stotla" a"

lumethal ,78.- emplo(e" a more complex threat& amel(& a itelli#ece test%

Su*3ects i oe #roup $ere i'orme" that the( coul" ta>e the compoet parts o'

the test i a( or"er the( "esire"& $hereas a seco" #roup $as tol" that the( ha"


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to ta>e the test i a prescri*e" or"er% Su*3ects $ho *elie!e" the( ha" cotrol o!er

the or"er o' a"miistratio sho$e" less o' a icrease i palmar s$eati# tha "i"

su*3ects $ho ha" o cotrol% These results also $oul" seem to i"icate that

re#ulate" a"miistratio ca miti#ate the experiece o' stress pro!i"e" the

situatio is complex eou#h to i!ol!e a "e#ree o' ucertait(%

Some o*ser!atios i retrospect a" prospect% A *rie' "i#ressio is i or"er at this

poit ot ol( to summari0e the results o' the "iscussio thus 'ar *ut also to

a"um*rate *rie/( some o*ser!atios $hich are o' importace 'or su*se5uet

"iscussio%

7% The stu"ies 3ust re!ie$e" pro!i"e little e!i"ece that *( itsel'& the re#ulate"

a"miistratio o' a oxious stimulus has a ameliorati!e e1ect o stress reactios%

I 'act& the "ata su##est that re#ulate" a"miistratio is stress re"uci# primaril(

,a" perhaps ol(- $he other 'actors are i!ol!e"& such as the re"uctio o'

ucertait( re#ar"i# the ature a"Kor timi# o' the threatei# e!et% The

potetial importace o' the re"uctio o' ucertait( as a me"iati# !aria*le is

'urther illustrate" *( the )"i#s o' Ho$ell ,7897- that su*3ects te" to *ecome

o!erco)"et a*out outcomes $hich "epe" o their o$ per'ormace% That is&

'rom a su*3ecti!e poit o' !ie$& the re"uctio o' ucertait( ma( *e ite#rall(

li>e" to *eha!ioral cotrol% Ho$2e!er& the relatioship *et$ee the re"uctio o'

ucertait( a" stress reactios is itsel' 5uite icosistet& as $ill *e see *elo$

$he research "eali# $ith co#iti!e cotrol is re!ie$e"%

% Stu"ies o re#ulate" a"miistratio i"icate that most persos pre'er to ha!e

cotrol o!er a potetiall( oxious stimulus e!e $he that cotrol has o

istrumetal !alue i alteri# the o*3ecti!e ature o' the threat% This pre'erece

#eerall( has *ee iterprete" to mea that co"itios o' cotrol are less stress'ulF

that is& persos #eerall( "o ot pre'er the more stress'ul o' se!eral co"itios%

Such a iterpretatio& ho$e!er& is ope to 5uestio i ma( istaces% I the

stu"ies 3ust re!ie$e"& 'or example& "irect measures o' stress ,e%#%& sel'2reports a"

ps(choph(siolo#ical reactios- pro!i"e little e!i"ece that re#ulate" a"miistratio

per se has a ameliorati!e e1ect o stress& re#ar"less o' ho$ much a perso mi#ht

pre'er it%


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Actuall(& a certai i"epe"ece o' pre'erece rati#s 'rom stress reactios ma>es

#oo" *iolo#ical a" ps(cholo#ical sese% A aimal ,especiall( a uspeciali0e"

primate o' the t(pe acestral to ma- $ho "i" ot see> i'ormatio a*out& or

attempt to exert cotrol o!er& potetiall( harm'ul e!ets pro*a*l( "i" ot sur!i!e to

cotri*ute to the e!olutio o' the species% This $oul" lea" to a *iolo#ical

pre"ispositio 'or persoal cotrol& e!e thou#h u"er certai co"itios the

exercise o' that cotrol mi#ht *e stress i"uci# rather tha stress re"uci#% O'

course& similar reasoi# coul" *e applie" to oto2#eetic as $ell as ph(lo#eetic

"e!elopmet% The #ro$i# chil" is tau#ht to assume resposi*ilit( a" exercise

cotrol& e!e thou#h he ma( at times )" this rather 'ri#htei#% Oce sociali0e"&

the pre'erece 'or cotrol ma( *e mai'este" re#ar"less o' $hether or ot such

cotrol 2is actuall( e1ecti!e i re"uci# stress i a( particular istace% I other

$or"s& the "esire 'or persoal cotrol ma( *e a "eep2seate" moti!atioal !aria*le&

$hether ph(lo#eeticall( or oto#eeticall( *ase"%


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% E!e the coclusio that re#ulate" a"2miistratio has little or o e1ect o short2

term stress reactios is su*3ect to 5uali)catio "ue to co'ou"i# o' !arious t(pes

o' cotrol i si#le experimets% 4or example& i earl( all the stu"ies re!ie$e" thus

'ar ,a"ia et al%& 78..F all Vo#ler& 7897F DAmato Jumei>& 78.:F Hare& 78..F

Per!i& 78.


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per'ormace o' some tas> ,e%#%& A!erill Rose& 789F o$ers& 78.BF Jlass

Si#er& 789F Hous2to& 789-F ,*- to iterpose rest perio"s or ta>e time out 'rom a

series o' oxious stimuli ,Ho>aso& DeJoo"& 4orrest& rittai& 7897-F ,c- to

termiate prematurel( ,escape- a oxious stimulus ,a"ler& Ma"aras& er&

78.BF Champio& 78:F Elliot& 78.8F Jeer& Da!iso& Jatchel& 789:F Jeer Maisel&

789-F or ,"- to limit the itesit( o' a oxious stimulus ,as $he su*3ects select the

le!el o' shoc> the( $ill tolerate i a experimetc'% pre!ious "iscussio-%

O*!iousl(& i "elieati# stimulus mo"i)catio as a su*!ariet( o' *eha!ioral cotrol

$e are "eali# $ith a complex cate#or(% The situatio is complicate" e!e 'urther

*( the 'act that most stu"ies i!esti#ati# this t(pe o' cotrol ha!e actuall(

i!ol!e" more tha oe maipulatio% A experimet *( Ho>a2so et al% ,7897-

ma( ser!e to illustrate this poit% The stu"( $as "esi#e" to test& amo# other

thi#s& the h(pothesis that the a!aila*ilit( o' a a!oi"ace respose re"uces

ph(siolo#ical i"icats ,*loo" pressure- o' stress% The a!oi"ace respose a!aila*le

to oe #roup o' su*3ects& *ut ot to a (o>e" compariso& $as the possi*ilit( o'

itro"uci# oe2miute rest perio"s "uri# a oe2hal'2hour $or> sche"ule% I 'act&

ho$e!er& there $ere t$o other t(pes o' persoal cotrol i!ol!e" i this

experimet% 4irst& su*3ects $ere allo$e" to "etermie 'or themsel!es the le!el o'

shoc> the( $oul" e"ure "uri# the experimet& a" seco"& the $or> sche"ule

'rom $hich su*3ects coul" ta>e time out $as itsel' a a!oi"ace tas>%

The Ho>aso et al% experimet re!eale" that su*3ects $ho coul" iterpose rest

perio"s ha" smaller icreases i *loo" pressure tha "i" their (o>e" parters $ho

recei!e" the same um*er a" se5uece o' time2outs% Ho>aso et al% ,7897-

there'ore coclu"e" that 6the a!aila*ilit( o' a a!oi"ace respose

re"uces autoomic si#s o' arousal ;p% ..=%6 This coclusio ma( ser!e as a starti#

poit 'or the preset aal(sis& 'or it is a represetati!e summar( o' the research o

stimulus mo"i)catio cite" i the itro"uctio to this sectio% That is& $he su*3ects

are #i!e the opportuit( to mo"i'( the ature o' a a!ersi!e stimulus& "ecrease"

stress reactios #eerall( ha!e *ee o*ser!e" i compariso $ith co"itios i

$hich o cotrol is possi*le% I spite o' the seemi# u*i5uit( o' this )"i#& its

#eeralit( is ope to 5uestio% @ithout #oi# ito "etails& it ma( *e state" that 'or

a( particular experimet i $hich lo$er stress reactios ha!e *ee o*ser!e" o


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the part o' the su*3ects $ho ha!e ha" cotrol& the results t(picall( are ope to

alterati!e iterpretatios% I the Ho>aso et al% stu"(& 'or example& it is

reasoa*le to assume that su*3ects $ho ha" cotrol too> their rest perio"s at

ps(cholo#icall( propitious momets& that is& $he the( $ere especiall( 'ati#ue"&

tese& etc% Su*3ects i the (o>e" co"itio& o the other ha"& ha" time2outs

impose" upo them re#ar"less o' their mometar( state% 4or the latter #roup& the&

oe $oul" expect the rest perio"s to *e less e1ecti!e i alle!iati# stress%

The a*o!e criticism mi#ht seem relati!el( mior% A'ter all& the same alterati!e

explaatio caot *e applie" to all experimets $hich ha!e o*ser!e" re"uce"

stress reactios as a 'uctio o' cotrol% It mi#ht there'ore *e ar#ue" that the more

parsimoious explaatio 'or the totalit( o' experimetal results is i terms o'

persoal cotrol% T$o 'urther poits must *e ote"& ho$e!er% 4irst& some

i!esti#ators ha!e o*ser!e" little or o re"uctio i stress amo# su*3ects $ho

ha!e ha" cotrol ,e%#%& Housto& 789-% Seco"& e!e i stu"ies i $hich the

ma3orit( o' su*3ects $ho ha!e ha" cotrol sho$e" re"uce" stress reactios& a

si0a*le miorit( ,t(picall( *e2t$ee 7: a" : o' the total sample- ha!e sho$

the opposite patter o' respose ,e%#%& A!erill Rose& 789-% That is& 'or some

su*3ects u"er certai circumstaces& the a!aila*ilit( o' a cotrol respose appears

to *e stress i"uci# rather tha stress re"uci#% The rele!at 5uestio& the& is ot

$hether ha!i# persoal cotrol re"uces stress reactios *ut u"er $hat co"itios

it has this e1ect a" u"er $hat co"itios it has the opposite ,stress2i"uci#-

e1ect% At preset& stu"ies o the huma le!el "o ot allo$ a as$er to this

5uestio& partl( *ecause the( ha!e te"e" to *e so complex% O the aimal le!el&

ho$e!er& a start has *ee ma"e i eluci"ati# the co"itios u"er $hich the

a!aila*ilit( o' a cotrol respose $ill lea" to icrease" as oppose" to "ecrease"

stress reactios%

I a $ell2>o$ experimet *( ra"(& Porter& Cora"& a" Maso ,78SB-& it $as

'ou" that the mem*er o' a (o>e" pair o' mo>e(s $ho coul" pre!et the "eli!er(

o' shoc> ,$or>i# o a Si"ma a!oi"ace sche"ule- $as also the mem*er $ho

"e!elope" ulcers a" "ie"% I a recet series o' experimets& @eiss ,78.B& 7897a&

789l*& 7897c- has presete" e!i"ece that the rea2so 'or the 6executi!e6 mo>e(s

stress $as ot the ie1ecti!eess o' the cotrol respose *ut rather a lac> o'


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'ee"*ac> re#ar"i# its success% Usi# rats as su*3ects& @eiss has 'ou" that

ulceratio icreases proportioatel( $ith the um*er o' copi# resposes emitte"

*( a aimal *ut i!ersel( $ith the amout o' positi!e 'ee"*ac> re#ar"i# the

success o' the respose% The most stress'ul co"itios are those i $hich ma(

resposes are "ema"e" *ut the resposes result i e#ati!e or icosistet

'ee"*ac> ,the tra"itioal co/ict situatio-F also stress'ul& ho$2e!er& is the situatio

li>e that o' the executi!e mo>e(i $hich the aimal must $ait to lear the

outcome o' his respose or rel( o "i?cult temporal "iscrimiatios% O the other

ha"& i' a aimal recei!es imme"iate a" positi!e 'ee"*ac>& the the a!aila*ilit( o'

a copi# respose alle!iates stress i compariso to aimals $ho recei!e the same

amout o' oxious stimulatio *ut $ho ha!e o cotrol%

The poit $hich ee"s to *e emphasi0e" i the a*o!e aal(sis *( @eiss is that

stress is ot ol( a 'uctio o' 'ee"*ac> *ut also o' the um*er o' copi# resposes%

Hol"i# 'ee"2*ac> costat& the aimal $ho respo"s more& e!e i' the resposes

are e1ecti!e& also exhi*its more stress% I extreme cases o' am*i#uous 'ee"*ac>&

oe mi#ht pre"ict that the aimal $ho "oes ot respo" at all& a" hece recei!es

the oxious stimulus& shoul" experiece less stress tha the aimal $ho respo"s

're5uetl( a" recei!es little puishmet% ,This assumes& o' course& that the

puishi# stimulus "oes ot itsel' lea" to ph(siolo#ical "ama#e%- It remais to *e

teste" $hether or ot this pre"ictio is ac2curate& a" $hether the co"itios

eluci"ate" *( @eiss 'or aimals also hol" 'or humas& $ith their #reater capacit( 'or

co#iti!e mo"es o' cotrol% Ne!ertheless& the results o' @eiss represet oe o' the

'e$ cocrete "emostratios o' the co"itios u"er $hich the a!aila*ilit( o' a

cotrol respose ma( lea" to icrease" rather tha "ecrease" stress%

COJNITIVE CONTROL AND STRESS

@hile *eha!ioral cotrol i!ol!es "irect actio o the e!iromet& co#iti!e cotrol

re'ers to the $a( a potetiall( harm'ul e!et is iterprete"% It mi#ht seem that $e

are stretchi# the cocept o' cotrol too 'ar *( su*sumi# u"er it the

iterpretatio o' e!ets% ut cosi"er the o't2"emostrate" )"i# that the

perceptio o' pai is a 'uctio& i part& o' the meai# or si#i)cace o' the

a!ersi!e stimulus ,Mel0ac> Case(& 789:-% I' pai ca *e miti#ate" o the *asis o'

a persos iterpretatio o' e!ets& the certail( such a iterpretatio "eser!es to


13/33

*e calle"& i some sese at least& a mo"e o' cotrol% Ne!ertheless& the otio o'

co#iti!e cotrol "oes preset some coceptual "i?culties% 4or example& the

research re!ie$e" thus 'ar i"icates that persoal cotrol ma( ha!e potetiall(

stress2i"uci# as $ell as stress2re"uci# properties% Is there a( sese i $hich a

iterpretatio o' a e!et ca lea" to icrease" stress a" still le#itimatel( *e

calle" a mo"e o' cotrol There is o "ou*t that certai iterpretatios ,e%#%& that

oe has cacer- ma( icrease stress reactios% ut i' co#iti!e cotrol is e5uate"

$ith a( iterpretatio& the the cocept o' cotrol is stretche" *e(o" use'ul

limits% @hat is

ee"e" is some "e)itio o' co#iti!e cotrol $hich is i"epe"et o' imme"iate

stress reactios *ut still more restricti!e tha 3ust a( t(pe o' stimulus e!aluatio%

The "istictio pre!iousl( ma"e *et$ee imme"iate a" lo#2term stress reactios

,c'% summar( o*ser!atios o re#ulate" a"miistratio- is help'ul i this re#ar"%

Co#iti!e cotrol ma( *e "e)e" as the processi# o' potetiall( threatei#

i'ormatio i such a maer as to re"uce the et lo#2term stress a"Kor the

ps(chic cost o' a"aptatio% This "e)itio allo$s 'or the possi*ilit( that co#iti!e

cotrol& 3ust as *eha!ioral cotrol& ma( lea" i the short ru to icrease" rather

tha "ecrease" stress%

Depe"i# upo $hether the iterpretatio o' a e!et is essetiall( realit(

oriete" or $hether meai# is impose" upo the stimulus& t$o t(pes o' co#iti!e

cotrol ma( *e "isti#uishe"+ i'ormatio #ai a" appraisal% I certai respects&

this "istictio is similar to that *et$ee re#ulate" a"miistratio a" stimulus

mo"i)catio as su*!arieties o' *eha!ioral cotrol% That is& i the case o'

i'ormatio #ai& the e!aluatio o' threat is relati!el( o*3ecti!eF i the case o'

appraisal& o the other ha"& the threat is mo"i)e" to co'orm to the ee"s a"

"esires o' the i"i!i"ual%

I'ormatio Jai

The role o' i'ormatio i re"uci# stress $hat 4ure"( a" Doo* ,789:- ha!e

calle" 6i'ormatioal cotrol6recetl( has *ecome a topic o' cosi"era*le iterest

a" cotro!ers(% I examii# this issue it is help'ul to start $ith the simplest case&

amel(& the e1ect o' ha!i# a $ari# si#al prior to a a!ersi!e stimulus%


14/33

Discussio is limite" to situatios i $hich the $ari# si#al "oes ot allo$ the

i"i!i"ual to exert a( *eha!ioral cotrol o!er the threatei# e!et%

A um*er o' stu"ies ha!e 'ou" that a $ari# si#al te"s to icrease the

stress'uless o' a situatio% ra"(& Thorto& a" 4isher ,78.-& 'or example&

o*ser!e" #reater $ei#ht loss a" mortalit( i rats su*3ecte" to a re#ime o'

si#ale" !ersus usi#ale" shoc>% Similar )"i#s ha!e *ee reporte" *( 4rie"ma

a" A"er ,78.- i mice a" *( Li""ell ,78:- i sheep a" #oats% O the other

ha"& Seli#ma ,78.B- a" @eiss ,789:- ha!e 'ou" that rats exhi*it less stress

$he electric shoc> is prece"e" *( a $ari# si#al tha $he it is ot%

The reasos 'or the a*o!e "iscrepat )"i#s are ot clear% @eiss ,789:- has ote"

that i the stu"ies *( ra"( et al% ,78.- a" *( 4rie"ma a" A"er ,78.-& electric

shoc> $as "eli!ere" throu#h a /oor #ri" to a 'reel( mo!i# aimal% This mi#ht ha!e

allo$e" the aimal to exert some *eha!ioral cotrol o!er the shoc>& 'or example& *(

reari# o its hi" pa$s& 3umpi#& etc% Such cotrol $oul" *e relati!el( ie?ciet&

ho$2e!er& iterrupti# or perhaps miti#ati# the shoc> ol( 'or *rie' perio"s%

Ie?ciet cotrol mi#ht icrease the stress'uless o' a situatio *( pro!i"i#

e#ati!e 'ee"*ac> to the su*3ect ,c'% the pre!ious "iscussio o' stimulus

mo"i)catio-% Ho$e!er& experimets *( Li""ell ,78:- i"icate that this pro*a*l( is

ot the etire explaatio% Li""ell "eli!ere" shoc> o a )xe" time sche"ule ,e%#%&

e!er( t$o or se!e miutes-% Althou#h the aimals ,#oats a" sheep- leare" 5uite

accuratel( $he to expect the shoc>& this temporal co"itioi# $as accompaie"

*( little stress% Ho$e!er& i' each shoc> $as prece"e" *( a 7:2seco" $ari# si#al&

the aimals sho$e" si#s o' se!ere "istur*ace% Accor"i# to Li""ell ,78:-& 6the

a""e" pipric> o' !i#ilace supplie" *( a te seco" si#al prece"i# the shoc>

appears to *e the "eter2mii# 'actor i precipitati# the chroic a*ormalities o'

*eha!ior $hich $e call experimetal eurosis ;p% 78=%6 I other $or"s& it $as ot

the e#ati!e 'ee"*ac> re#ar"i# a ie?ciet respose $hich pro"uce" stress

,*oth the si#ale" a" usi#ale" aimals >e$ throu#h temporal co"itioi#

$he to expect the shoc>-F rather& the stress appeare" to result 'rom stimulus

o!erloa"%


15/33

No$ let us cosi"er istaces i $hich si#ale" shoc> has le" to less stress tha

usi#ale" shoc>% Seli#ma ,78.B- a" @eiss ,789:- presete" e!i"ece that this is

"ue to the 'act that the su*3ect lears ot ol( that a $ari# si#al pre"icts shoc>

*ut also that the a*sece o' the si#al pre"icts sa'et(% Thus& *( pro!i"i# a $ari#

si#al& oe also pro!i"es a sa'et( si#al ,cues associate" $ith the a*sece o' the

$ari# si#al-% Duri# the sa'et( si#al& the aimal ca 6relax&6 >o$i# that shoc>

$ill ot *e "eli!ere"% @he there is o $ari# si#al& o the other ha"& the

aimal must costatl( remai !i#ilat a"& hece& the stress'uless o' the etire

re#ime is icrease"% Accor"i# to this lie o' reasoi#& the& it is ot the $ari#

si#al per se $hich is stress re"uci# *ut rather the meai# it imparts to other

cues ot associate" $ith threat%

Experimets usi# aimal su*3ects thus lea" to the 'ollo$i# tetati!e coclusios

re#ar"i# the stress'uless o' si#ale" !ersus usi#ale" shoc>% 4irst& si#ale"

shoc> ma( *e accompaie" *( #reater stress reactios tha usi#ale" shoc>

u"er co"itios $hich lea" to e#ati!e 'ee"*ac> ,"ue& 'or example& to ie1ecti!e

a!oi"ace resposes- a"Kor $he the limits o' the or#aism to assimilate e$

i'ormatio are excee"e"% Seco"& si#ale" shoc> ma( *e accompaie" *( 'e$er

stress reactios u"er co"itios i $hich !ia*le a!oi"ace resposes are possi*le

a"K or i $hich the coti#ecies *et$ee the $ari# a" the shoc> are such that

the su*3ect ca relax "uri# the itershoc> iter!al% The latter poit is $orth

emphasi0i# *ecause it meas that $hate!er stress2re"uci# properties a $ari#

si#al mi#ht ha!e are ot itrisic to the si#al it sel' *ut rather are a 'uctio o'

the etire cotext i $hich the $ari# is em*e""e"%

A 'e$ la*orator( stu"ies ha!e i!esti#ate" the e1ects o' $ari# si#als $ith

huma su*3ects ,A!erill Rose& 789F Jlass Si#er& 789F Lo!i*o"& 78.B-%

Althou#h ot $ithout exceptio& these experimets& li>e their aimal couterparts&

#eerall( ha!e 'ou" that a $ari# si#al *( itsel' has little e1ect o the

experiece o' stress% It shoul" *e poite" out& ho$e!er& that a $ari# si#al

pro*a*l( is ot the most e?cacious $a( o' pro!i"i# i'ormatio re#ar"i# the

oset o' a threatei# stimulus% 4or example& i' a threatei# e!et 'ollo$s too

closel( upo a $ari# si#al& $aiti# 'or the $ari# coul" *e as "ema"i# as

$aiti# 'or the threatei# e!et itsel'% Perhaps a more e?cacious $a( to pro!i"e


16/33

i'ormatio re#ar"i# the oset o' a oxious stimulus is to ha!e the latter occur at

the e" o' a speci)e" time iter!al% Thus& Jlass a" Si#er ,789- o*ser!e" that

perio"ic *ursts o' oise pro"uce 'e$er u"esira*le cose5ueces o per'ormace

'ollo$i# termiatio o' the stimuli tha "o ra"oml( presete" *ursts ,c'% also the

pre!iousl( cite" stu"ies o' Li"2"ell o temporal co"itioi# i aimals-% O the

other ha"& Moat& A!erill& a" La0arus ,789- 'ou" that >o$i# the time o'

occurrece o' a oxious stimulus ,i"icate" *( a cloc>- le" to #reater aticipator(

stress reactios tha "i" a co"itio o' temporal ucertait(& perhaps *ecause the

latter allo$e" su*3ects to e#a#e i a!oi"ace li>e co#iti!e acti!ities as time

pro#resse"%

Goes& etler& a" Petr( ,78..- 'ou" that su*3ects appear to *e more moti!ate" to

o*tai i'ormatio a*out the time o' occurrece o' a oxious stimulus tha a*out its

itesit(& $hich $oul" seem to hi#hli#ht the importace o' temporal i'ormatio% As

i"icate" *e'ore& ho$e!er& it is ha0ar"ous to "ra$ i'ereces 'rom pre'erece

rati#s to stress reactios% I the 3ust cite" experimet *( Moat et al% ,789-& 'or

example& su*3ects expresse" a pre'erece 'or temporal certait( ,>o$i# $he a

shoc> $oul" occur- tha 'or temporal ucertait(& althou#h aticipator( reactios

te"e" to *e less $he the

time o' occurrece $as u>o$%

Epstei ,789i"s o' i'ormatio o reactios

to oxious stimuli ,lou" sou"s a" electric shoc>s-% He 'ou" that i'ormatio

re#ar"i# the time o' occurrece& li>elihoo"& a" ature o' the stimulus coul" either

re"uce or ehace reacti!it( to the impact o' the stimulus% He coclu"e" + The

)"i# o' #reatest #eeralit( $as that a accurate expectac( te"e" to 'acilitate

ha*ituatio% %% % It 'ollo$s that& "epe"i# upo the threat !alue o' a stimulus& it is at

times ecessar( to pa( the price o' a mometar( upleasura*le icrease i arousal

i' oe is to later *e a*le to respo" at a re"uce" le!el o' arousal ;p% 7:=%

La0etta a" Driscoll ,78..- examie" the pre'erece 'or i'ormatio as a 'uctio

o' $hether the aticipate" e!et $as a electric shoc> ,!ersus o shoc>-& a

moetar( re$ar" ,!ersus o re$ar"-& or shoc> !ersus re$ar"% The( 'ou" that


17/33

su*3ects #eerall( pre'erre" to ha!e i'ormatio as oppose" to o i'ormatio

re#ar"i# a aticipate" e!et& *ut there $ere o si#i)cat "i1ereces i the

um*er o' su*3ects see>i# i'ormatio amo# the shoc>2o2shoc>& re$ar"2o2

re$ar"& a" shoc>2re$ar" co"itios% Moreo!er& i'ormatio re#ar"i# the ature o'

the impe"i# e!et ha" little i/uece o reacti!it( to its occurrece%

At still a more complex le!el o' i'ormatio& Stau* a" ellett ,789- examie" the

relati!e !alue o' t$o t(pes o' >o$le"#e coceri# a impe"i# threat ,electric

shoc>-% Su*3ects $ere #i!e i'ormatio a*out ,a- the o*3ecti!e characteristics o'

the shoc> ,e%#%& the ature o' the "eli!er( apparatus a" its sa'et( 'eatures& tras'er

o' electricit(& a" the li>e- a"Kor ,*- a*out the t(pes o' sesatios su*3ects $oul"

experiece $he the shoc> $as "eli!ere"% Su*3ects $ho recei!e" *oth t(pes o'

i'ormatio $ere $illi# to accept more itese shoc>s *e'ore e!aluati# them as

pai'ul tha $ere su*3ects $ho recei!e" either t(pe o' i'ormatio *( itsel'% The

latter su*3ects& i 'act& "i" ot "i1er i pai tolerace 'rom those $ho recei!e" o

i'ormatio at all% The o2i'ormatio su*3ects& ho$e!er& "i" express more $orr( or

axiet( tha those $ho ha" either or *oth >i"s o' >o$le"#e a*out the threat a"

its cose5ueces% 4rom the resposes to 5uestioaire items& Stau* a" ellett

ha!e ar#ue" that the t$o >i"s o' i'ormatio ehace" each others percei!e"

trust$orthiess& or use'uless& or *oth% @hile the apparatus i'ormatio helpe"

re"uce $orr( a*out the "a#er o' shoc>& ol( the sesatio i'ormatio coul" *e

!ali"ate" *( the su*3ects o$ experiece% The re"uctio o' o*3ecti!e $orr( a" the

!ali"atio *( experiece ma( *e ecessar( *e'ore i'ormatio ca represet a

e1ecti!e cotrol "e!ice& at least i terms o' pai tolerace%

All o' the research re!ie$e" thus 'ar has "ealt $ith relati!el( simple stimuli such as

electric shoc> or *ursts o' lou" oise% The results i"icate that su*3ects #eerall(

pre'er to ha!e i'ormatio a*out a impe"i# harm *ut that there is o cosistet

relatioship *et$ee such i'ormatio a" iitial reacti!it(% There is some

i"icatio& ho$e!er& that pre"icta*ilit(& e!e $he it lea"s to icrease" reacti!it(

iitiall(& ma( 'acilitate lo#2term a"aptatio% E!i"ece re!ie$e" *elo$ o the

appraisal o' complex emotioal stimuli $oul" seem to support this coclusio%

Appraisal


18/33

@he a situatio is complex or am*i#uous& a perso "oes ot simpl( o*tai

i'ormatio& he also acti!el( imposes meai# o e!ets% The impositio o'

meai# o a potetiall( threatei# e!et o'te has *ee cosi"ere" a 'orm o'

"e'ese ,c'% ps(choaal(tic theor(-% Ho$e!er& sice o ps(chopatholo#( is implie"

i the preset "iscussio& the term 6appraisal6 is pre'era*le to 6"e'ese

mechaism6 as a #eeric ame 'or this su*!ariet( o' co#iti!e cotrol% As it relates

to persoal cotrol& the cocept o' appraisal resem*les ell(s ,78SS- otio o'

persoal costructs% ell( !ie$e" ma as a icipiet scietist $hose ultimate aim

is to pre"ict a" cotrol e!ets% Such pre"ictio a" cotrol is achie!e" *(

a*stracti# 'rom e!ets certai 'eatures a" $ea!i# these a*stractios ito a

s(stem o' costructs $hich le"s meai# to the separate e!ets%

The *o"( o' literature relate" to the appraisal o' threat is so extesi!e that o

attempt is ma"e to re!ie$ it here ,see& e%#%& La0arus& 78..-% Rather& $e simpl(

illustrate $ith a 'e$ istaces ho$ appraisals& li>e other mo"es o' cotrol& ma(

u"er appropriate circumstaces icrease as $ell as "ecrease stress reactios%

Sesiti0i# li>e "e'ese mechaisms are perhaps the prime example o' appraisals

$hich are stress i"uci# i the short ru *ut $hich ma( 'acilitate lo#2term

a"aptatio ,e%#%& Da!i"so o*e(& 789:-% The perso $ho uses this t(pe o' cotrol

'ocuses attetio o threatei# e!ets& searches 'or cues re#ar"i# potetial

harm& a" i #eeral emphasi0es the a1ecti!e 5ualit( o' experiece%

Closel( relate" to sesiti0atio as a mo"e o' "e'ese is the 6$or> o' $orr(6

"escri*e" *( Gais ,78B-% Accor"i# to Gais& $orr( is a 'orm o' ier preparatio

that icreases the le!el o' tolerace 'or su*se5uet oxious stimuli *ut at some cost

i terms o' imme"iate stress reactios ,see also re0it0& 7897-% Gais 'ou" that

sur#ical patiets $ho experiece" too much or too little 'ear prior to a operatio

e!i"ece" less rapi" reco!er( tha "i" patiets $ho sho$e" mo"erate aticipator(

stress reactios% Presuma*l(& the co#iti!e strate#ies emplo(e" *( the latter

allo$e" *etter preparatio 'or the sur#ical trauma $hich 'ollo$e"%

E#*ert& attit& @elch& a" artlett ,78.-& 'ollo$i# up the i"eas o' Gais& prepare" a

#roup o' patiets 'or the stress o' sur#er( *( pro!i"i# them $ith i'ormatio

re#ar"i# the impe"i# operatio a" their possi*le reactios a" experieces


19/33

"uri# reco!er(% Patiets $ho recei!e" such istructio re5uire" less me"icatio

a" $ere set home earlier tha $ere patiets $ho recei!e" o preparatio%

Ho$e!er& the istructio #i!e to patiets *( E#*ert et al% $as 'airl( itesi!e a"

iclu"e" a"!ice $ith re#ar" to *eha!ioral as $ell as co#iti!e cotrol%

The i/uece o' i'ormatio per se o the stress o' sur#er( has *ee the su*3ect o'

se!eral "issertatios co"ucte" u"er the "irectio o' Michael Jol"stei% I these

stu"ies& patiets $ere )rst "i!i"e" ito three #roups "epe"i# upo $hether the(

exhi*ite" a pre'erece 'or sesiti0i# or a!oi"at ,"eial li>e- "e'eses or $hether

the( sho$e" o speci)c pre'erece ,6ospeci)c "e'e"ers6-% I a iitial stu"(&

A"re$ ,789:- 'ou" that i'ormatio re#ar"i# sur#er( 'acilitate" reco!er( o'

those patiets classi)e" as ospeci)c "e'e"ers *ut ma( ha!e *ee

couterpro"ucti!e 'or patiets $ho pre'erre" "eial li>e "e'eses% Cotrar( to

expectatios& sesiti0ers $ere ot a1ecte" *( the receipt o' i'ormatio& perhaps

*ecause the( alrea"( ha" prepare" themsel!es su?cietl( 'or the operatio% I a

seco" "issertatio& DeLo# ,789:- #a!e some patiets !er( speci)c i'ormatio

"escri*i# the ature o' their illess& the reasos 'or sur#er(& $hat to expect

preoperati!el( a" postoperati!el(& a" the li>e% Other patiets recei!e" more

#eeral i'ormatio re#ar"i# hospital 'acilities& rules a" re#ulatios& etc% DeLo#

'ou" that sesiti0ers reco!ere" more 5uic>l( tha a!oi"ers $he #i!e speci)c

i'ormatio *ut less 5uic>l( $he #i!e #eeral i'ormatio% T(pe o' i'ormatio "i"

ot seem to i/uece the reco!er( o' ospeci)c "e'e"ers or a!oi"ersF the 'ormer

reco!ere" $ell u"er *oth co"itios& $hile the latter reco!ere" poorl(% Ho$2e!er&

complaits o' "iscom'ort $ere more umerous amo# a!oi"ers $ho recei!e"

speci)c i'ormatio ,i compariso to sesiti0ers $ho recei!e" the same

i'ormatio-& $hile

complaits $ere less amo# a!oi"ers $ho recei!e" ol( #eeral i'ormatio%

Althou#h these "ata 'rom the A"re$ a" DeLo# stu"ies are ot etirel(

cosistet& the( "o i"icate that the t(pe o' i'ormatio a perso recei!es a*out a

impe"i# "a#er ma( iteract i a #eerall( pre"icta*le 'ashio $ith his

characteristic st(le o' "e'ese%

I her stu"(& DeLo# also assesse" the axiet( o' patiets o the "a( the( $ere

i'orme" that sur#er( $as to *e per'orme" a" a#ai hours *e'ore the actual


20/33

operatio% These "ata help clari'( some o' the am*i#uities i the relatioship

*et$ee "e'esi!e st(le a" the use o' i'ormatio% No2speci)c "e'e"ers sho$e"

lar#e icreases i axiet( $he sur#er( $as )rst sche"ule"& *ut their axiet(

"imiishe" cosi"era*l( *( the "a( *e'ore the operatio% Sesiti0ers& o the other

ha"& sho$e" ol( a mo"erate icrease i axiet( upo leari# o' sur#er( a"

maitaie" this le!el "uri# the preoperati!e

perio"% 4iall(& patiets $ho $ere classi)e" as a!oi"ers sho$e" a actual "ecrease

i axiet( $he sur#er( $as )rst sche"ule"& *ut this $as 'ollo$e" *( a rise to

preoperati!e le!els% I short& the three #roups o' patiets $ere sho$i# "i1eret

#ra"iets o' axiet( ,oe "esce"i#& oe remaii# costat& a" oe asce"i#-

at the time the( recei!e" i'ormatio re#ar"i# sur#er(% The use o' the

i'ormatio as a source o' cotrol appears to ha!e *ee a 'uctio o' these

#ra"iets ,*ei# sa'et(% Thus& *( pro!i"i# a $ari# si#al& oe also pro!i"es a

sa'et( si#al ,cues associate" $ith the a*sece o' the $ari# si#al-% Duri# the

sa'et( si#al& the aimal ca 6relax&6 >o$i# that shoc> $ill ot *e "eli!ere"%

@he there is o $ari# si#al& o the other ha"& the aimal must costatl(

remai !i#ilat a"& hece& the stress'uless o' the etire re#ime is icrease"%

Accor"i# to this lie o' reasoi#& the& it is ot the $ari# si#al per se $hich is

stress re"uci# *ut rather the meai# it imparts to other cues ot associate" $ith

threat%

Experimets usi# aimal su*3ects thus lea" to the 'ollo$i# tetati!e coclusios

re#ar"i# the stress'uless o' si#ale" !ersus usi#ale" shoc>% 4irst& si#ale"

shoc> ma( *e accompaie" *( #reater stress reactios tha usi#ale" shoc>

u"er co"itios $hich lea" to e#ati!e 'ee"*ac> ,"ue& 'or example& to ie1ecti!e

a!oi"ace resposes- a"Kor $he the limits o' the or#aism to assimilate e$

i'ormatio are excee"e"% Seco"& si#ale" shoc> ma( *e accompaie" *( 'e$er

stress reactios u"er co"itios i $hich !ia*le a!oi"ace resposes are possi*le

a"K or i $hich the coti#ecies *et$ee the $ari# a" the shoc> are such that

the su*3ect ca relax "uri# the itershoc> iter!al% The latter poit is $orth

emphasi0i# *ecause it meas that $hate!er stress2re"uci# properties a $ari#

si#al mi#ht ha!e are ot itrisic to the si#al itsel' *ut rather are a 'uctio o' the

etire cotext i $hich the $ari# is em*e""e"%


21/33

A 'e$ la*orator( stu"ies ha!e i!esti#ate" the e1ects o' $ari# si#als $ith

huma su*3ects ,A!erill Rose& 789F Jlass Si#er& 789F Lo!i*o"& 78.B-%

Althou#h ot $ithout exceptio& these experimets& li>e their aimal couterparts&

#eerall( ha!e 'ou" that a $ari# si#al *( itsel' has little e1ect o the

experiece o' stress% It shoul" *e poite" out& ho$e!er& that a $ari# si#al

pro*a*l( is ot the most e?cacious $a( o' pro!i"i# i'ormatio re#ar"i# the

oset o' a threatei# stimulus% 4or example& i' a threatei# e!et 'ollo$s too

closel( upo a $ari# si#al& $aiti# 'or the $ari# coul" *e as "ema"i# as

$aiti# 'or the threatei# e!et itsel'% Perhaps a more e?cacious $a( to pro!i"e

i'ormatio re#ar"i# the oset o' a oxious stimulus is to ha!e the latter occur at

the e" o' a speci)e" time iter!al% Thus& Jlass a" Si#er ,789- o*ser!e" that

perio"ic *ursts o' oise pro"uce 'e$er u"esira*le cose5ueces o per'ormace

'ollo$i# termiatio o' the stimuli tha "o ra"oml( presete" *ursts ,c'% also the

pre!iousl( cite" stu"ies o' Li"2"ell o temporal co"itioi# i aimals-%

O the other ha"& Moat& A!erill& a" La0arus ,789- 'ou" that >o$i# the time

o' occurrece o' a oxious stimulus ,i"icate" *( a cloc>- le" to #reater aticipator(

stress reactios tha "i" a co"itio o' temporal ucertait(& perhaps *ecause the

latter allo$e" su*3ects to e#a#e i a!oi"ace li>e co#iti!e acti!ities as time

pro#resse"%

Goes& etler& a" Petr( ,78..- 'ou" that su*3ects appear to *e more moti!ate" to

o*tai i'ormatio a*out the time o' occurrece o' a oxious stimulus tha a*out its

itesit(& $hich $oul" seem to hi#hli#ht the importace o' temporal i'ormatio% As

i"icate" *e'ore& ho$e!er& it is ha0ar"ous to "ra$ i'ereces 'rom pre'erece

rati#s to stress reactios% I the 3ust cite" experimet *( Moat et al% ,789-& 'or

example& su*3ects expresse" a pre'erece 'or temporal certait( ,>o$i# $he a

shoc> $oul" occur- tha 'or temporal ucertait(& althou#h aticipator( reactios

te"e" to *e less $he the

time o' occurrece $as u>o$%

Epstei ,789i"s o' i'ormatio o reactios

to oxious stimuli ,lou" sou"s a" electric shoc>s-% He 'ou" that i'ormatio


22/33

re#ar"i# the time o' occurrece& li>elihoo"& a" ature o' the stimulus coul" either

re"uce or ehace reacti!it( to the impact o' the stimulus% He coclu"e" +

The )"i# o' #reatest #eeralit( $as that a accurate expectac( te"e" to

'acilitate ha*ituatio% %% % It 'ollo$s that& "epe"i# upo the threat !alue o' a

stimulus& it is at times ecessar( to pa( the price o' a mometar( upleasura*le

icrease i arousal i' oe is to later *e a*le to respo" at a re"uce" le!el o' arousal

;p% 7:=%

La0etta a" Driscoll ,78..- examie" the pre'erece 'or i'ormatio as a 'uctio

o' $hether the aticipate" e!et $as a electric shoc> ,!ersus o shoc>-& a

moetar( re$ar" ,!ersus o re$ar"-& or shoc> !ersus re$ar"% The( 'ou" that

su*3ects #eerall( pre'erre" to ha!e i'ormatio as oppose" to o i'ormatio

re#ar"i# a aticipate" e!et& *ut there $ere o si#i)cat "i1ereces i the

um*er o' su*3ects see>i# i'ormatio amo# the shoc>2o2shoc>& re$ar"2o2

re$ar"& a" shoc>2re$ar" co"itios% Moreo!er& i'ormatio re#ar"i# the ature o'

the impe"i# e!et ha" little i/uece o reacti!it( to its occurrece%

At still a more complex le!el o' i'ormatio& Stau* a" ellett ,789- examie" the

relati!e !alue o' t$o t(pes o' >o$le"#e coceri# a impe"i# threat ,electric

shoc>-% Su*3ects $ere #i!e i'ormatio a*out ,a- the o*3ecti!e characteristics o'

the shoc> ,e%#%& the ature o' the "eli!er( apparatus a" its sa'et( 'eatures& tras'er

o' electricit(& a" the li>e- a"Kor ,*- a*out the t(pes o' sesatios su*3ects $oul"

experiece $he the shoc> $as "eli!ere"% Su*3ects $ho recei!e" *oth t(pes o'

i'ormatio $ere $illi# to accept more itese shoc>s *e'ore e!aluati# them as

pai'ul tha $ere su*3ects $ho recei!e" either t(pe o' i'ormatio *( itsel'% The

latter su*3ects& i 'act& "i" ot "i1er i pai tolerace 'rom those $ho recei!e" o

i'ormatio at all% The o2i'ormatio su*3ects& ho$e!er& "i" express more $orr( or

axiet( tha those $ho ha" either or *oth >i"s o' >o$le"#e a*out the threat a"

its cose5ueces% 4rom the resposes to 5uestioaire items& Stau* a" ellett

ha!e ar#ue" that the t$o >i"s o' i'ormatio ehace" each others percei!e"

trust $orthiess& or use'uless& or *oth% @hile the apparatus i'ormatio helpe"

re"uce $orr( a*out the "a#er o' shoc>& ol( the sesatio i'ormatio coul" *e

!ali"ate" *( the su*3ects o$ experiece% The re"uctio o' o*3ecti!e $orr( a" the


23/33

!ali"atio *( experiece ma( *e ecessar( *e'ore i'ormatio ca represet a

e1ecti!e cotrol "e!ice& at least i terms o' pai tolerace%

All o' the research re!ie$e" thus 'ar has "ealt $ith relati!el( simple stimuli such as

electric shoc> or *ursts o' lou" oise% The results i"icate that su*3ects #eerall(

pre'er to ha!e i'ormatio a*out a impe"i# harm *ut that there is o cosistet

relatioship *et$ee such i'ormatio a" iitial reacti!it(% There is some

i"icatio& ho$e!er& that pre"icta*ilit(& e!e $he it lea"s to icrease" reacti!it(

iitiall(& ma( 'acilitate lo#2term a"aptatio% E!i"ece re!ie$e" *elo$ o the

appraisal o' complex emotioal stimuli $oul" seem to support this coclusio%

Appraisal

@he a situatio is complex or am*i#uous& a perso "oes ot simpl( o*tai

i'ormatio& he also acti!el( imposes meai# o e!ets% The impositio o'

meai# o a potetiall( threatei# e!et o'te has *ee cosi"ere" a 'orm o'

"e'ese ,c'% ps(choaal(tic theor(-% Ho$e!er& sice o ps(chopatholo#( is implie"

i the preset "iscussio& the term 6appraisal6 is pre'era*le to 6"e'ese

mechaism6 as a #eeric ame 'or this su*!ariet( o' co#iti!e cotrol% As it relates

to persoal cotrol& the cocept o' appraisal resem*les ell(s ,78SS- otio o'

persoal costructs% ell( !ie$e" ma as a icipiet scietist $hose ultimate aim

is to pre"ict a" cotrol e!ets% Such pre"ictio a" cotrol is achie!e" *(

a*stracti# 'rom e!ets certai 'eatures a" $ea!i# these a*stractios ito a

s(stem o' costructs $hich le"s meai# to the separate e!ets%

The *o"( o' literature relate" to the appraisal o' threat is so extesi!e that o

attempt is ma"e to re!ie$ it here ,see& e%#%& La0arus& 78..-% Rather& $e simpl(

illustrate $ith a 'e$ istaces ho$ appraisals& li>e other mo"es o' cotrol& ma(

u"er appropriate circumstaces icrease as $ell as "ecrease stress reactios%

Sesiti0i# li>e "e'ese mechaisms are perhaps the prime example o' appraisals

$hich are stress i"uci# i the short ru *ut $hich ma( 'acilitate lo#2term

a"aptatio ,e%#%& Da!i"so o*e(& 789:-% The perso $ho uses this t(pe o' cotrol

'ocuses attetio o threatei# e!ets& searches 'or cues re#ar"i# potetial

harm& a" i #eeral emphasi0es the a1ecti!e 5ualit( o' experiece%


24/33

Closel( relate" to sesiti0atio as a mo"e o' "e'ese is the 6$or> o' $orr(6

"escri*e" *( Gais ,78B-% Accor"i# to Gais& $orr( is a 'orm o' ier preparatio

that icreases the le!el o' tolerace 'or su*se5uet oxious stimuli *ut at some cost

i terms o' imme"iate stress reactios ,see also re0it0& 7897-% Gais 'ou" that

sur#ical patiets $ho experiece" too much or too little 'ear prior to a operatio

e!i"ece" less rapi" reco!er( tha "i" patiets $ho sho$e" mo"erate aticipator(

stress reactios% Presuma*l(& the co#iti!e strate#ies emplo(e" *( the latter

allo$e" *etter preparatio 'or the sur#ical trauma $hich 'ollo$e"%

E#*ert& attit& @elch& a" artlett ,78.-& 'ollo$i# up the i"eas o' Gais& prepare" a

#roup o' patiets 'or the stress o' sur#er( *( pro!i"i# them $ith i'ormatio

re#ar"i# the impe"i# operatio a" their possi*le reactios a" experieces

"uri# reco!er(% Patiets $ho recei!e" such istructio re5uire" less me"icatio

a" $ere set home earlier tha $ere patiets $ho recei!e" o preparatio%

Ho$e!er& the istructio #i!e to patiets *( E#*ert et al% $as 'airl( itesi!e a"

iclu"e" a"!ice $ith re#ar" to *eha!ioral as $ell as co#iti!e cotrol%

The i/uece o' i'ormatio per se o the stress o' sur#er( has *ee the su*3ect o'

se!eral "issertatios co"ucte" u"er the "irectio o' Michael Jol"stei% I these

stu"ies& patiets $ere )rst "i!i"e" ito three #roups "epe"i# upo $hether the(

exhi*ite" a pre'erece 'or sesiti0i# or a!oi"at ,"eial li>e- "e'eses or $hether

the( sho$e" o speci)c pre'erece ,6ospeci)c "e'e"ers6-% I a iitial stu"(&

A"re$ ,789:- 'ou" that i'ormatio re#ar"i# sur#er( 'acilitate" reco!er( o'

those patiets classi)e" as ospeci)c "e'e"ers *ut ma( ha!e *ee

couterpro"ucti!e 'or patiets $ho pre'erre" "eial li>e "e'eses% Cotrar( to

expectatios& sesiti0ers $ere ot a1ecte" *( the receipt o' i'ormatio& perhaps

*ecause the( alrea"( ha" prepare" themsel!es su?cietl( 'or the operatio% I a

seco" "issertatio& DeLo# ,789:- #a!e some patiets !er( speci)c i'ormatio

"escri*i# the ature o' their illess& the reasos 'or sur#er(& $hat to expect

preoperati!el( a" postoperati!el(& a" the li>e% Other patiets recei!e" more

#eeral i'ormatio re#ar"i# hospital 'acilities& rules a" re#ulatios& etc% DeLo#

'ou" that sesiti0ers reco!ere" more 5uic>l( tha a!oi"ers $he #i!e speci)c

i'ormatio *ut less 5uic>l( $he #i!e #eeral i'ormatio% T(pe o' i'ormatio "i"

ot seem to i/uece the reco!er( o' ospeci)c "e'e"ers or a!oi"ersF the 'ormer


25/33

reco!ere" $ell u"er *oth co"itios& $hile the latter reco!ere" poorl(% Ho$e!er&

complaits o' "iscom'ort $ere more umerous amo# a!oi"ers $ho recei!e"

speci)c i'ormatio ,i compariso to sesiti0ers $ho recei!e" the same

i'ormatio-& $hile complaits $ere less amo# a!oi"ers $ho recei!e" ol( #eeral

i'ormatio% Althou#h these "ata 'rom the A"re$ a" DeLo# stu"ies are ot

etirel( cosistet& the( "o i"icate that the t(pe o' i'ormatio a perso recei!es

a*out a impe"i# "a#er ma( iteract i a #eerall( pre"icta*le 'ashio $ith his

characteristic st(le o' "e'ese%

I her stu"(& DeLo# also assesse" the axiet( o' patiets o the "a( the( $ere

i'orme" that sur#er( $as to *e per'orme" a" a#ai hours *e'ore the actual

operatio% These "ata help clari'( some o' the am*i#uities i the relatioship

*et$ee "e'esi!e st(le a" the use o' i'ormatio% No2speci)c "e'e"ers sho$e"

lar#e icreases i axiet( $he sur#er( $as )rst sche"ule"& *ut their axiet(

"imiishe" cosi"era*l( *( the "a( *e'ore the operatio% Sesiti0ers& o the other

ha"& sho$e" ol( a mo"erate icrease i axiet( upo leari# o' sur#er( a"

maitaie" this le!el "uri# the preoperati!e

perio"% 4iall(& patiets $ho $ere classi)e" as a!oi"ers sho$e" a actual "ecrease

i axiet( $he sur#er( $as )rst sche"ule"& *ut this $as 'ollo$e" *( a rise to

preoperati!e le!els% I short& the three #roups o' patiets $ere sho$i# "i1eret

#ra"iets o' axiet( ,oe "esce"i#& oe remaii# costat& a" oe asce"i#-

at the time the( recei!e" i2'ormatio re#ar"i# sur#er(% The use o' the

i'ormatio as a source o' cotrol appears to ha!e *ee a 'uctio o' these

#ra"iets ,*ei# uecessar( i the case o' the )rst& 'acilitati!e i the seco"& a"

couterpro"ucti!e i the thir"-%

I attempti# to clari'( 'urther the mechaisms i!ol!e" i the iteractio *et$ee

i2'ormatio a" "e'esi!e st(le& Jol"stei a" his collea#ues reasoe" that

"i1eret "e'esi!e st(les represet "i1eret co#iti!e sets coceri# the li>elihoo"

o' "a#er% Paul ,78.8- attempte" to maipulate such sets o

a temporar( *asis *( sho$i# su*3ects either a stress'ul or a *ei# )lm $he the(

)rst reporte" to the la*orator(% A'ter the esta*lishmet o' either a sesiti0i# ,stress

)lm- or "eial ,*ei# )lm- set& su*3ects $ere i'orme" that the( $oul" see a

seco" )lm o' a threatei# ature% Paul 'ou" that su*23ects $ith the sesiti0i#


26/33

set exhi*ite" #reater stress reactios $he the( $ere sho$ the threatei# )lm

shortl( a'ter *ei# i'orme" *ut lo$er stress reactios i' a "a( elapse" *et$ee the

$ari# a" the sho$i# o' the )lm% Su*3ects $ith a "eial set& o the other ha"&

exhi*ite" lo$er stress reactios $he the( sa$ the seco" )lm a'ter a short "ela(

*ut #reater reactios 'ollo$i# a "a(s "ela(% These results $ere co)rme" *(

Coole( ,7897-& $ho also "emostrate" that the hi#h stress a'ter a "a(s "ela( o

the part o' su*3ects $ith a "eial set $as "ue to the speci)c 6tra5uili0i#6 e1ect o'

the *ei# )lm% Iitial exposure to this )lm ,as oppose" to o particular set

i"uctio- seems to ha!e cause" su*3ects to i#ore the $ari# o' 'uture threat%

4rom the a*o!e la*orator( a" sur#er( stu"ies& it appears that i' a perso is #oi#

to utili0e e1ecti!el( i'ormatio re#ar"i# a impe"i# harm& there must *e a

iitial set 'or the appraisal o' threat *ase" either o speci)c situatioal cues or o a

persos characteristic co#iti!e st(le%

I coclu"i# this "iscussio o' appraisal as a mo"e o' cotrol& it is perhaps $orth

poiti# out the o*!ious& amel(& that a( iterpretatio o' e!ets is a o#oi#

process% @hat is appraise" i oe maer o$ ma( *e reappraise" i aother

maer su*se5uetl(% Oe such 'orm o' reappraisal $hich

"eser!es *rie' metio is that i!ol!e" i "issoace re"uctio% ,This is $hat

Qim*ar"o& 78.8a& has re'erre" to as 6co#iti!e cotrol%6- Most o' the research o

co#iti!e "issoace has emphasi0e" the re"uctio o' stress% Ho$2e!er& e!e

"issoace re"uctio "oes ot #o a#aist the #eeral coclusio that persoal

cotrol ma( sometimes lea" to icrease" rather tha "ecrease" stress reactios% A

experimet *( a"ler et al% ,78.B- illus2trates this% a"ler et al% a"miistere"

electric shoc> u"er co"itios i $hich the su*3ects $ere istructe" either to

escape or to e"ure the stimulus% Results i"icate" that su*3ects te" to rate as

more pai'ul shoc>s $hich the( escape as oppose" to shoc>s $hich the( e"ure%

The authors iterprete" these results to mea that a persos perceptio o' pai is

"etermie"& i part& *( his ori#ial respose to the pai'ul stimulus+ I' he tries to

escape the stimulus& it must *e more pai'ul tha i' he tries to e"ure it% I a 'ollo$2

up experimet& Corah a" o1a 6,789:- o*taie" similar results *ut ol( i' su*3ects

*elie!e" the( ha" a choice i escapi# or e"uri# the shoc>%


27/33

Iteractio amo# !arious t(pes o' cotrol% The experimet *( Corah a" o1a

,789:- is $orth cosi"eri# i some "etail *ecause it illustrates the maer i $hich

the !arious t(pes o' cotrol $e ha!e "isti#uishe" ,*eha!ioral& co#iti!e& a"

"ecisioal- ma( iteract to ehace or ihi*it stress reactios% Corah a" o1a

arra#e" situatios i $hich su*3ects *elie!e" that the( coul" either termiate or

ot termiate a lou" oise% ,The same su*3ects experiece" *oth co"itios i a

repeate" measures "esi#%- Termiatio o' the oise is& o' course& a example o'

stimulus mo"i)catio& the seco" t(pe o' *eha!ioral cotrol outlie" pre!iousl(% I

a""itio& oe hal' o' the su*3ects $ere #i!e istructios emphasi0i# that it $as up

to them $hether or ot the( termiate" the oise i the escape co"itio a"

$hether the( e"ure" it i the o2escape co"itio% Such choice is a example o'

"ecisioal cotrol& $hich $ill *e "iscusse" i more "etail *elo$% The other hal' o' the

su*3ects $ere ot

#i!e a( choice *ut $ere simpl( istructe" to escape or ot escape i the

respecti!e co"itios%

Let us cosi"er )rst the stress reactios o' su*3ects i the o2choice #roup%

Comparisos o' the escape $ith the o2escape trials (iel"e" si#i)cat "i1ereces

i terms o' *oth sel'2report a" autoomic ,s>i co"uctace- i"exes o' stress%

@he su*3ects ha" *eha!ioral cotrol ,coul" escape-& the( experiece"

less stress tha $he the( ha" o cotrol ,coul" ot escape-% No$ let us cosi"er

ol( the o2escape co"itio a" cotrast the resposes o' su*3ects $ho ha" a

choice $ith the resposes o' those $ho ha" o choice% A#ai& the results $ere 5uite

clear% oth su*3ecti!e reports a" autoomic arousal i"icate" that su*3ects $ho

ha" some "e#ree o' choice experiece" less stress tha those $ho "i" ot%

Ta>e to#ether& the a*o!e results i"icate that *oth t(pes o' cotrol*eha!ioral

a" "ecisioal$ere stress re"uci# $he cosi"ere" i"epe"etl(% @hat

happee" $he su*3ects ha" *oth mo"es o' cotrol& that is& i the co"itio $here

escape $as possi*le a" su*3ects 'elt 'ree to respo" or ot I terms o' su*3ecti!e

reports o' "iscom'ort& at least& this co"itio $as 3u"#e" as stress'ul as its opposite

the o2choice& o2escape co"itio% Moreo!er& it $as si#i)catl( more stress'ul

tha either the *eha!ioral or "ecisioal cotrol co"itios separatel(% ,The

autoomic i"exes o' stress pro!i"e" more e5ui!ocal results% The o2escape


28/33

co"itio elicite" si#i)catl( more arousal tha the other three co"itios& *ut the

latter "i" ot "i1er amo# themsel!es%-

Iterpreti# the results o' this experimet&Corah a" o1a ,789:- su##est +

that a sese o' cotrol is a "etermiat o' the co#iti!e appraisal o' threat% A

proce"ure $hich #i!es the su*3ect the choice o' a!oi"i# or ot a!oi"i# the

a!ersi!e cose5ueces o' a stimulus is e5ui!alet to #i!i# him percei!e" cotrol

o!er the potetial threat ;p% =%

@e are ot cocere" here $ith the a"e5uac( o' this particular iterpretatio& $hich

seems *asicall( sou" as 'ar as it #oes% @hat is o' iterest is the complex

iteractio $hich ma( *e o*ser!e" amo# "i1eret t(pes o' cotrol% I the stu"( o'

Corah a" o1a& *eha!ioral cotrol a" "ecisioal cotrol $ere experimetall(

maipulate"& $hile co#iti!e cotrol ,i the sese o' reappraisal- $as i'erre"%

DECISIONAL CONTROL AND STRESS

The stu"( *( Corah a" o1a itro"uces the pro*lem o' "ecisioal cotrol& $hich

ma( *e "e)e" as the ra#e o' choice or um*er o' optios ope to a i"i!i"ual%

There has *ee a cosi"era*le amout o' research o the cose5ueces o' choice

i e#ati!e situatios% Ho$e!er& most o' this research has cocere" the re"uctio

o' post2"ecisioal co/ict& 'or example& reappraisi# a e#ati!e stimulus i a

positi!e "irectio 'ollo$i# the !olutar( "ecisio to experiece that stimulus% Such

reappraisals represet the t(pe o' co#iti!e cotrol "iscusse" i the pre!ious

sectio% @e are cocere" here $ith the co"itios o' choice per se& that is& $ith

pre2"ecisioal processes%

I' the 5uestio $ere put to most people& there is little "ou*t that the( $oul" pre'er

to ha!e a choice amo# alterati!e courses o' actio rather tha to ha!e "ecisios

ma"e 'or them% et social commetators 'rom Ho**es to 4romm ha!e emphasi0e"

the $illi#ess o' ma to reli5uish such cotrol& to 6escape 'rom 'ree"om&6

su*3ecti# himsel' to exteral authorit(% I spite o' this seemi# para"ox& relati!el(

little research has *ee "e!ote" to the relatioship *et$ee "ecisioal cotrol a"

stress reactios ,c'% Steier& 789:-%


29/33

O' potetial rele!ace to "ecisioal co2trol a" stress is the pro#ram o' research

*( Qim*ar"o ,78.8*- a" his collea#ues o 6"ei"i!i"uatio%6 Dei"i!i"uatio

occurs& accor"i# to Qim*ar"o& i o!el or ustructure" setti#s i $hich *eha!ior

is ot costraie" *( situatio2*ou" cues% The cotrol o' *eha!ior& there'ore& shi'ts

'rom the exteral ph(sical a" social realit( to iteral costraits% The result is

'ree"om o' choice to e#a#e i alterati!e *eha!iors& a"& i particular& acts $hich

are emotioal& impulsi!e& irratioal& a" other$ise out o' character% Qim*ar"o

cotrasts this t(pe o' iteral cotrol $ith the reappraisals i!ol!e" i the re"uctio

o' post2"ecisioal co/icts% U"erl(i# the latter are such cosi"eratios as

cosistec(& commitmet& a" resposi*ilit(& cosi"eratios $hich pla( a mior role

i "ei"i!i"uate" *eha!ior%

4or *etter or $orse& $e ha!e here the emer#ece o' a >i" o' 'ree"om "i1eret

'rom that ma"e possi*le throu#h the use o' co#iti!e cotrol mechaisms $e

"escri*e" earlier ;i%e%& "issoace2re"uci# reappraisals=% It is the 'ree"om to act& to

*e spotaeous& to she" the strai#ht3ac>et o' co#itio& rumiatio& a" excessi!e

cocer $ith 6ou#ht6 a" 6shoul"%6 eha!ior is 'ree" 'rom o*li#atios& lia*ilities a"

the restrictios impose" *( #uilt& shame& a" 'ear ;Qim*ar"o& 78.8*& p% B=&

It $ill *e ote" that the situatios co"uci!e to "ei"i!i"uatio& as "escri*e" *(

Qim*ar"o& are similar to situatios $hich sociolo#ists ha!e "escri*e" u"er the

hea"i# o' 6aomie%6 The result o' "ei"i!i"uatio& as $ell as aomie& is o'te

extreme axiet( or stress o the part o' the i"i!i"ual% As Qim*ar"o otes& !iolece

i the 'orm o' 6seseless6 *eati#s a" thrill >illi#s& as $ell as other atisocial acts

,e%#%& !a"alism-& are also mai'estatios o' "ei"i!i"uatio% ut ot all

"ei"i!i"uate" *eha!iors are e#ati!e& either su*3ecti!el( or sociall(% A !ariet( o'

ecstatic states& such as Dio(siac cele*ratios a" shamaistic re!elries ca also *e

cosi"ere" examples o' *eha!ior release" 'rom most ormal exteral costraits&

$ith #reat 'ree"om o' choice *ei# a1or"e" the i"i!i"ual% A some$hat "i1eret

!ie$ o' "ecisioal cotrol has *ee a"!ace" *( ell( ,78- a" Chei ,789-%

Istea" o' !ie$i# 'ree"om primaril( i terms o' the lac> o' exteral costraits&

these authors emphasi0e the a#reemet o' the i"i!i"ual $ith $hate!er costraits

"o exist% oth ell( a" Chei aal(0e *eha!ior i terms o' hierarchicall( or#ai0e"


30/33

s(stems o' persoal costructs ,ell(- or moti!es ,Chei-% A perso experieces

"ecisioal cotrol $he #oals are esta*lishe" *( superor"iate s(stems $hich the

ca *e met *( rele!at su*or"iate *eha!iors% This is& i a sese& a !ariatio o the

aciet Stoic i"eal o' accommo"atio to ecessit(%

Thus& accor"i# to ell( ,78-& a ma cotrols his "esti( to the extet that he ca

"e!elop a costructio s(stem $ith $hich he i"eti)es himsel' a" $hich is

su?cietl( comprehesi!e to su*sume the $orl" arou" him% I' he is ua*le to

i"eti'( himsel' $ith this s(stem& he ma( *e a*le to pre"ict e!ets "etermiati!el(&

*ut he ca experiece o persoal cotrol ;p% 7.=%

At the ris> o' o!ersimpli)catio& oe mi#ht operatioali0e the a*o!e aal(sis o'

"ecisioal cotrol *( sa(i# that a perso $ill experiece choice $he he is acti#

accor"i# to his *elie's or "oi# that $ith $hich he a#rees% A experimet *( Le$is

a" lachar" ,7897- is rele!at to "ecisioal cotrol so cocei!e"% A situatio $as

arra#e" i $hich su*3ects $ere #i!e three le!els o' choice as to $hether the(

$ere #oi# to #i!e or recei!e electric shoc>s i a ostesi*le leari# experimet%

At the hi#h2choice le!el& su*3ects ha" complete 'ree"om to choose $hether the(

$oul" *e the 6teacher6 or 6learer%6 All su*3ects i this #roup chose to *e the

teacher& a" hece to #i!e rather tha to recei!e shoc>s% I the me"ium2choice

co"itio& it $as rather o12ha"e"l( su##este" to oe hal' o' the su*3ects that the(

*e teachers a" to the other hal' that the( *e learers% Each su*3ect $as the #i!e

the opportuit( to choose the other role i' he so "esire"% I the o2choice co"itio&

su*3ects $ere tol" "e)itel( to *e either the teacher or the learer% A'ter the

experimet& su*3ects rate" ho$ 'ree the( $ere to assume or re3ect the roles to

$hich the( $ere assi#e"% Le$is a" lachar" ,7897- 'ou" that

percei!e" 'ree"om o' choice !arie" as a 'uctio o' $hether or ot su*3ects ,i the

me"ium2 a" lo$2choice co"itios- $ere as2si#e" to the role o' teacher or learer%

This is $hat $oul" *e expecte" o the *asis o' the prece"i# aal(sis% That is& the

experiece o' choice is a 'uctio& i part& o' ho$ $ell a perso i"eti)es $ith the

roles he assumes% I the preset case& the teacher role $as the more "esira*le& as

e!i"ece" *( the 'act that all su*3ects i the hi#h2choice co"itio chose it%

Su*3ects assi#e" to the role o' teacher i the me"ium2 a" o2choice co"itios


31/33

pro*a*l( i"eti)e" $ith it& at least to a #reater extet tha those assi#e" to the

role o' learer& a" hece experiece" #reater "ecisioal cotrol%

OGECTIVE VERSUS EPERIENCED CONTROL

This re!ie$ has emphasi0e" the 'act that persoal cotrol ca sometimes lea" to

icrease" rather tha "ecrease" stress% Ho$2e!er& the a*o!e experimet *( Le$is

a" lachar" ,7897- su##ests the ee" to 'urther re)e our aal(sis a"& i

particular& to "isti#uish *et$ee o*3ecti!e a" experiece" cotrol% @e ha!e 3ust

see& 'or example& that it is ot the o*3ecti!e ra#e o' choice $hich "etermies

$hether or ot a perso experieces "ecisioal cotrolF rather& it is the "e#ree to

$hich he a#rees or i"eti)es $ith the choices he "oes ha!e& o matter ho$ limite"%

I"ee"& as the aal(sis o' Qim*ar"o ,78.8*- has i"icate"& too ma( respose

optios ma( lea" to co/ict& aomie& a" 'eeli#s o' helplessess& as $ell as to

positi!e 'eeli#s o' 'ree"om% Similarl(& $ith re#ar" to *eha!ioral a" co#iti!e

cotrol& a perso o' limite" competece mi#ht still experiece cosi"era*le cotrol

pro!i"e" that his #oals $ere ot set *e(o" his capa*ilities% I short& althou#h there

u"ou*te"l( is a rou#h relatioship *et$ee the experiece o' cotrol a" actual

cotrol possi*ilities& the relatioship is *( o meas oe to oe%

Mi#ht there ot *e a more "irect relatioship *et$ee stress a" the su*3ecti!e

experiece o' cotrol tha *et$ee stress a" cotrol o*3ecti!el( "e)e" At )rst&

ah a?rmati!e as$er to this 5uestio appears plausi*le% There are "i?culties&

ho$e!er& $hich ca *e illustrate" *( a experimet *( Hamsher& Jeller& a" Rotter

,78.B-% These i!esti#ators 'ou" that persos classi)e" as 6iterals6 o

*eha!ioral criteria ma( "escri*e themsel!es as 6exterals6 o Rotters ,78..-

iteral2exteral cotrol scale% Hamsher et al% re'er to this pheomeo as

6"e'esi!e exteralit(%6 It i"icates that a lac> ,or "eial- o' experiece" cotrol& 'ar

'rom ie!ita*l( lea"i# to stress& ma( actuall( *e use" as a "e'ese a#aist axiet(

,c'% also the commo "e'ese o' #i!i# i to 6'ate6-% O' course& it coul" *e ar#ue"

that *( shi'ti# resposi*ilit( 'rom oesel' to the e!iromet& certai e!ets

*ecome more pre"icta*le& $hich i tur allo$s some "e#ree o' o*3ecti!e cotrol%

Ho$e!er true this ma( *e,a" it pro*a*l( "oes occur i some istaces-& such a

explaatio ma>es utea*le a( claim 'or a "irect relatioship *et$ee stress

reactios a" persoal cotrol& $hether o*3ecti!e or experiece"% That is& i' the


32/33

su*3ecti!e experiece o' cotrol is i!o>e" to help accout 'or the lac> o' a "irect

relatioship *et$ee o*3ecti!e cotrol a" stress& the o*3ecti!e cotrol caot *e

i!o>e" to sa!e the presume" relatioship *et$ee the su*3ecti!e experiece o'

cotrol a" stress%

CONCLUDINJ OSERVATIONS

4rom the 'ore#oi# re!ie$& it is e!i"et that o simple relatioship exists *et$ee

persoal cotrol a" stress% A*out the ol( #eeral statemet $hich ca *e ma"e

$ith co)"ece is that the stress2i"uci# or stress2re"uci# properties o' persoal

cotrol "epe" upo the meai# o' the cotrol respose 'or the i"i!i"ualF a"

$hat le"s a respose meai# is lar#el( the cotext i $hich it is em*e""e"% 4or

example& either the sel'2a"miistratio o' a oxious stimulus or the mere

presece o' a $ari# si#al

,the simplest >i"s o' *eha!ioral a" co#iti!e cotrol& respecti!el(- ha!e much

i/uece o stress reactios% Ho$e!er& as a situatio *ecomes more complex& or

am*i#uous& the re#ulate" a"miistratio ,or a $ari# si#al- ca ser!e as a

!ehicle 'or meai#'ul i'ormatio re#ar"i# the ature a" si#i)cace o' the

impe"i# harm% The result is o'te*ut ot al$a(sa "ecrease i stress reactios%

These rather mu"ae o*ser!atios "o ot re5uire much ela*oratio except to

poit out oe 'act $hich seems to ha!e *ee o!erloo>e" i much o' the research o

persoal cotrol% Ma( cotrol resposes ha!e their o$ meai# *uilt ito them&

so to spea>% Thus& a a##ressi!e respose to a impe"i# harm meas somethi#

"i1eret tha a escape respose& althou#h *oth mi#ht *e e5uall( e1ecti!e i

elimiati# the source o' threat% Other tha the mai "i!isio o' cotrol ito

*eha!ioral& co#iti!e& a" "ecisioal !arieties& little attempt has *ee ma"e i this

re!ie$ to cosi"er the ma( 5ualitati!el( "istict $a(s i $hich a potetiall(

oxious stimulus mi#ht *e cotrolle" u"er atural co"itios% Ho$e!er& it is

reasoa*le to assume that the experiece o' stress is "etermie"& i part& *( the

5ualitati!e ature a" meai# o' the cotrol respose% This o*ser!atio is

especiall( importat i the case o' *eha!ioral cotrol% Most la*orator( stu"ies ha!e

allo$e" su*3ects ol( ar*itrar( a" arti)cial resposes ,e%#%& pressi# a *utto&

sol!i# metal arithmetic pro*lems& a" the li>e- i or"er to pre!et or termiate a

oxious stimulus% Althou#h such resposes ma( *e co!eiet 'rom the


33/33

experimeters poit o' !ie$& the( pro*a*l( ha!e little iheret si#i)cace 'or the

su*3ect% This 'act is *ou" to i/uece the extet to $hich ma( la*orator( stu"ies

o' persoal cotrol ca *e #eerali0e" to real2li'e

situatios%

personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress

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