79. Boelhouwers J. and Rooy W. (1993). Excursion guide to periglacial landforms inthe Western Cape mountains. Excursion guide for the first SAPG workshop,Bellville, 5–9 April 1993.

80. Hagedorn J. (1984). Pleistozäne Periglazial-Formen in Gebirgen des südlichenKaplandes (Süd-Afrika) und ihre Bedeutung als Paläoklima-Indikatoren.Palaeoecol. Afr. Surround. Isl. 16, 405–410.

81. Talma A.S. and Vogel J.C. (1992). Late Quaternary paleotemperatures derivedfrom a speleothem from the Cango Caves, Cape Province, South Africa.Quatern. Res. 37, 203–213.

82. Booysen J.J. (1974). Alluviale waaiers in die middel Breerivier bekken: ‘nmorfometriese vergelijking. S. Afr. Geog. 4, 390–394.

83. Boelhouwers J.C., Duiker J.M.C. and Van Duffelen E.A. (1998). Spatial, morpho-logical and sedimentological aspects of recent debris flow activity in the DuToitskloof Valley, Western Cape mountains. S. Afr. J. Geol. 101, 73–89.

94. Boelhouwers J.C., Craemers F.C.W. and Helsen M.M. (in press). Geomorphicevolution of debris fans in the Du Toit’s Kloof, Western Cape mountains. S. Afr.Geog. J.

85. Tyson P.D. (1986). Climatic Change and Variability in Southern Africa. OxfordUniversity Press, Cape Town.

86. Deacon J. and Lancaster N. (1988). Late Quaternary Palaeoenvironments of South-ern Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town.

87. Nicol I.G. (1973). Landforms in the Little Caledon Valley, Orange Free State.S. Afr. Geog. J. 55, 56–68.

88. Borchert G. and Sänger H. (1981). Research findings of a Pleistocene glaciationof the Cape mountain-ridge in South Africa. Z. Geomorphol. 25, 222–224.

89. Lewis C.A. (1996). Glacial features. In The Geomorphology of the Eastern Cape,South Africa, ed. C.A. Lewis, pp. 120–135. Grocott & Sherry, Grahamstown.

90. Lewis C.A. (1994). Field Guide to the Quaternary Glacial, Periglacial and Colluvial

Features of the East Cape Drakensberg. Field Guide Number One, Southern Afri-can Society for Quaternary Research, Rhodes University, Grahamstown.

91. Hall K. (1994). Cutbacks in the Natal Drakensberg escarpment: a hypothesis ontheir origin. S. Afr. J. Sci. 90, 263–264.

92. Grab S. (1996). Debris deposits in the high Drakensberg, South Africa: possibleindicators for plateau, niche and cirque glaciation. Z. Geomorphol. 103, 389–403.

93. Howard W.R. (1985). Late Quaternary southern Indian Ocean circulation.S. Afr. J. Sci. 81, 253–254.

94. Preston-Whyte R.A. and Tyson P.D. (2000). The Atmosphere and Weather ofSouthern Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town.

95. Sumner P. and Meiklejohn K.I. (2000). Landscape evolution in a changing envi-ronment. In The Geography of South Africa in a Changing World, ed. R. Fox andK. Rowntree, pp. 304–325. Oxford University Press, Cape Town.

96. Partridge T.C. and Maud R.R. (1987). Geomorphic evolution of southern Africasince the Mesozoic. S. Afr. J. Geol. 90, 179–208.

97. Hall K. (1988). Freeze–thaw weathering: new approaches, new advances andold questions. In Geomorphological Studies in Southern Africa, ed. G.F. Dardis andB.P. Moon, pp. 325–335. Balkema, Rotterdam.

98. Grab S. (1999). Block and debris deposits in the high Drakensberg, Lesotho,southern Africa: implications for high altitude slope processes. Geogr. Ann. 81A,1–16.

99. Lewis C.A. (1994). Protalus ramparts and the altitude of the local equilibriumline during the last glacial stage in Bokspruit, East Cape Drakensberg, SouthAfrica, Geogr. Ann. 76A, 37–48.

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Periglacial Research South African Journal of Science 98, January/February 2002 55

Periglacial landforms and deposits of TasmaniaEric A. Colhoun*

IntroductionThe definition of many landforms and deposits formed

extraglacially mainly during the cold stages of the Pleistocene asperiglacial is difficult in Tasmania. This is because of strongtemperature gradients between sea level and highland areas,high scarps and steep slopes inducing cold air drainage andstructural geological conditions conducive to slope failure. Inaddition, records of vegetation history demonstrate majorchanges during the cold stages with much more surface instabil-ity and extensive alpine vegetation in western mountainousregions, and grassland and woodland in eastern areas. Thirdly,

lowering of sea level increased the continentality of Tasmaniaduring the cold stages, giving reduced rainfall and a steepenedprecipitation gradient from west to east across the island.1 Thispaper considers the range of extraglacial landforms and depositsdeveloped during the predominantly colder and drier condi-tions of the Pleistocene, and provides an assessment of thesignificance and severity of periglacial processes in their devel-opment. In so doing, attention is focused on the increased effectsof frost action, possible ground-ice development, induced massmovements, snow and lake ice effects, enhanced alluviation,increased aeolian effects, and placement of the forms, depositsand processes within temporal constraints. The locations offield areas are given in Fig. 1 and sites mentioned in the text inFig. 2.

Tasmanian environmentsTasmania, the most southerly state and one of the most moun-

tainous regions of Australia, exhibits an extensive range of coldclimate glacial and periglacial landforms and deposits. Formingthe extension of the Australian Eastern Highlands south of BassStrait and extending from 39 to 42°S, Tasmania consists mainly ofrugged mountain ridges, plateaux and grabens (Fig. 1). Thewestern third consists mainly of steep, north–south strikingridges with intervening valleys extensively mantled by rain-forests, wet sclerophyll forests, scrub and heath vegetation.Many ridges exceed 1000 m, the altitude of the present treeline,and the highest are 1300–1500 m. The ridges are composedmainly of Precambrian and Palaeozoic quartzite, conglomerateand volcanic rocks, with limestones flooring a number of thevalleys. The central and eastern parts of Tasmania compriseextensive plateaux of Jurassic dolerite overlying Triassic sand-stones and Permian mudstones. The high plateau areas, notablythe Central Plateau, Ben Lomond in the northeast, and MtField, Mt Wellington and Hartz Mountains in the southeast,

Only limited parts of Tasmania were glaciated during the latePleistocene. The extra-glacial regions exhibit many landforms anddeposits that were developed at least partly by periglacialprocesses. Block streams, block fields and screes are well devel-oped above 900 m on the dolerite plateaux of central and easternTasmania, while slope deposits of angular clasts occur on thesiliceous rocks of western mountain areas. Extensive fossilsolifluction deposits extend down to c. 500 m in central Tasmania,whereas modern frost-creep terraces and solifluction lobes occuronly locally above 900 m in poorly vegetated areas. Active sortedpolygons may occur on bare areas down to 600 m, and contemporarysnowpatch erosion occurs above 1000 m. Fossil ice-pushed shore-line features occur on some lakes on the dolerite Central Plateau,while stabilized terrestrial sand dunes occur at lower altitudes inthe Midlands and east. Few of these landforms and deposits are yetwell dated, and many may have been formed during several coldstages of the Pleistocene. There is little evidence for Pleistocenepermafrost below 1000–1200 m on the island.

*School of Geosciences, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia 2308.E-mail: ggeac@cc.newcastle.edu.au

frost-heaving and sorting are not limited to high altitudes butcould occur anywhere on moist bare ground in winter, asindicated by the formation of sorted stone nets on the floor of agravel pit at 600 m in the Mersey Valley.

Snow and lake-ice effectsThe mountains of Tasmania are presently subject to frequent

snowfalls in winter but, except for shaded and leeward sites,snow rarely persists for more than a week. The area that receivesthe most prolonged snow cover is the ski-fields around LeggesTor on Ben Lomond. At Legges Tor the boulders on the roundeddolerite surfaces above 1500 m creep downslope with the wintersnowpack (Fig. 10) (N. Caine, pers. comm.). To what extentrounding of the dolerite in the Legges Tor area has resulted fromice erosion, or from subsequent removal of surface debris bysuch downslope creep of boulders beneath winter snowpack, isdifficult to judge. However, the evidence for boulder-creepbeneath present winter snowpack suggests such erosion of therock surface is likely to have been more effective during glacialstages than during the Holocene.

Elsewhere in Tasmania, erosion of the land surface by snowaccumulation in winter has been recorded mainly on siliceousrocks. A snow patch that rarely disappears before Novemberand occasionally lies throughout summer occurs on the north-western side of Frenchmans Cap,26 where it occupies a largelyrelict nivation cirque. This nivation cirque is similar to severalothers that probably contained and were deepened by a variety

of processes27 associated with thick winter snow patches duringthe LGM. Examples occur at Adamsons Peak.28 on the northeast-ern slope of Mt Campbell in Cradle Mt Park, on Mt Eliza (Fig. 11)and on Mt Gell.16

The effects of contemporary snow erosion are best seen bydisturbance of the alpine vegetation cover as at Cradle Plateau,where many areas of bare quartzite rock and surface detritusinterrupt the alpine heath and herb vegetation communities. AtCradle Plateau snow erosion occurs mainly by water from themelting snow banks, causing disintegration of the poorlycemented quartzite. The degree of contemporary erosion byprocesses associated with snow accumulation and melting has notbeen quantitatively assessed, but one would expect more severeeffects to have operated on the Cradle Plateau during the LGMwhen the plateau stood above glaciers in the adjacent valleys.

Although some small lakes of the Tasmanian highlands freezeduring winter, few large lakes do. However, two phenomenaindicative of strong past seasonal freezing have been noted onsome of the larger lakes. These include the formation ofice-pushed boulder shorelines that occur on lakes as large asGreat Lake (c. 20 × 10 km size).29 In addition, mid-lake boulderridges, formed by the transport of boulders by lake ice fromdifferent centres of freezing in shallow basins have beenobserved at Lake Ina, Double Lagoon, First Bar Lake and SecondBar Lake by Carey.30 None of these boulder landforms associatedwith lake-ice formation are developing today. The bouldershorelines and mid-lake bars thus point to a period of colder con-ditions when large lakes were frequently covered with thick andpersistent ice in winter.

Other landforms and deposits of Tasmanian extraglacialenvironments

Pleistocene glacial and periglacial processes were accompa-nied by accentuated alluviation and debris-flow processes, duelargely to reduction of vegetation cover in river catchments. Inaddition, the climate over much of eastern and central Tasmaniawas strongly rain-shadowed from westerly influences and gaverise to dune-building processes.

The effects of increased alluviation are best illustrated in theRocky Cape area, where many small valleys in quartzite havefans at their outlets.31 The fan-gravel beds are occasionally inter-rupted by organic palaeosols dated by radiocarbon to betweenc. 33 and 24 14C kyr BP that represent periods of stability on partsof the fan surfaces. Similar fans occur north of the Derwent Riverbetween New Norfolk and Bridgewater, where they havecomplex histories probably spanning more than one glaciation.32

Examination of similar fans south of the Derwent River ledWasson33 to conclude that the fans accumulated largely as aresult of debris flows. Many other currently inactive fans,covered with Holocene peat and soil occur throughout westernTasmania and suggest that during the last glaciation strong rain-fall events caused more erosion in small catchments than they dotoday, even though total rainfall is probably now greater.

Accumulations of wind-blown sand are relatively common inMidland and eastern Tasmania. They occur in one of four forms:as source-bordering river dunes, isolated dunes, lunettes adja-cent to lagoons, and as linear dune-fields.

Source-bordering river dunes are small accumulations of finesand derived from the beds of adjacent rivers. They are fossilaccumulations fixed by soil profiles up to 1 m in depth, andsuggest both stronger alluviation and wind action affecting theriver channels. At Granton, south of the Derwent River, a 2–3 msection of silt forms the only loess known in Tasmania (Fig. 12).32

It consists of two units separated by a palaeosol and probably

Periglacial Research South African Journal of Science 98, January/February 2002 61

Fig. 10. Contemporary block movement due to winter snow-pack creep at 1500 maltitude on southern slope of Legges Tor.

Fig. 11. Nivation hollows on Mt Eliza, showing larger fossil hollow with small insethollow that is probably active.

represents two colder climatic stages. That strong aeolian eventsoccurred throughout southeastern Tasmania during the laterpart of the last glaciation is indicated by the occurrence of anisolated dune near Richmond dated to 15 740 ± 700 14C yr BP(SUA 376).34 Around the same time, after 19 810 ± 360 14C yr BP(SUA 153), a hollow was filled with dune sand at Pipe ClayLagoon near Cremorne.35

Lunette dunes have accumulated on the eastern margins oflagoons throughout the Tasmanian Midlands.2 Most arecrescent-shaped ridges of fine sand that were formed bymaterial blown from the lagoon beaches and depressions. Thelunettes are mainly fossil, as most lagoons are remnants of theirformer size with little water and inactive beaches. The greatestnumber of lunettes and the most complex systems, with multipleridges, occur in northeastern Tasmania and Flinders Island.There, they are associated with systems of linear dunes similar tothose formed on the margins of the Australian arid area duringand shortly after the LGM.36–39

The ages of the lunettes and linear dunes are poorlyconstrained. Only one lunette has been dated. This, the inner-most of three at Rushy Lagoon in northeastern Tasmania, wasformed between 8570 ± 135 14C yr BP (I-11 448A) and 8300 ± 8014C yr BP (Beta 8190).36,40,41 The outer lunettes contain both clayand fine sand beds, reflecting variations in water levels in theadjacent lagoon, and are probably approximately of LGM age.The longest linear dune in northeastern Tasmania, the Ainslie

dune, which overlies interglacial marine sediment39 has recentlybeen dated by OSL and shown to have been active between 44 ±4 kyr BP and 29 ± 3 kyr BP.41 This shows that dune formation hadcommenced in northeastern Tasmania by !18O Stage 3 andsuggests that it would have been widespread during the LGM.

Periglacial environmentsThe studies reviewed in this paper indicate:

1. A considerable range of landforms and deposits wereformed in cold environments, external to glaciated areas,probably during several stages of the Quaternary.

2. Considerable difficulty in assessing the ages of most of theselandforms and deposits by radiocarbon dating.

3. Difficulty of assessing the climatic conditions that influencedthe processes of formation because of the occurrence of steepenvironmental and topographic gradients.

There is need, however, to provide an interim assessment ofthe probable ranges of extraglacial environmental and climaticconditions as suggested from the geomorphological evidence.

Studies of former glaciation in western Tasmania suggest thatduring the last two major glaciations (!18O Stages 2 and 6) meanannual temperatures were c. 6.5°C and 7°C colder than today,and the ice formed under humid maritime conditions.1,3 Thisresulted in snowlines being 1000–1200 m lower than presentatmospheric freezing levels, and varying from c. 830 m inwestern Tasmania to over 1500 m in the northeast.2,3 The strongnorth–south trending western ridges and sharp, central andeastern plateau edges accentuated leeward accumulationofsnow and rain-shadowing. There was a strong gradient inprecipitation across the island from the mountainous andhumid western areas leeward of the Southern Ocean to thestrongly rain-shadowed Midland and eastern areas leeward ofthe mountains and Central Plateau that were sub-humid tosemi-arid. The topography also contributed to enhanced cold airdrainage in the valleys in winter. In summer, the effects of astrengthened and more southerly positioned continental highenhanced the descent of westerly and northwesterly airflowsfrom the Central Plateau to the eastern valleys with föhn-effect.

Only at altitudes over 1000 m does the presence of rock glaciersand ice-thrust dolerite columns indicate the occurrence ofpermafrost in the Central Highlands and northeastern moun-tains of Tasmania (Fig. 13). Elsewhere the block streams andblock field features, formed above 900 m in central and easternTasmania, were probably developed in climatic conditions close

62 South African Journal of Science 98, January/February 2002 Periglacial Research

Fig. 12.Two sheets of loess separated by a reddish-brown palaeosol at LimekilnPoint west of Granton.

Fig. 13. Schematic distribution of the limits of selected periglacial phenomena on a SW–NE transect from Hibbs Bay to the coast near St Helens.

to permafrost with strong seasonal or short-term freezing. Nolowland features associated with permafrost, such as ice-wedgepseudomorphs or fossil pingos, have been found despite inten-sive searching.

Calculations using only the ELR (not adjusted for reduction incloud cover and atmospheric moisture during the LGM) andbased on modern temperature data adjusted for estimateddepression of MAT by c. 6°C at the peak of !18O Stage 2 give 0°Cmean annual values for altitudes between 980 and 1125 m.Sporadic permafrost above this altitude is thus likely. Moderntreeline coincides closely with this altitude throughout Tasma-nia. Mean temperature for the warmest summer month is c. 10°Cand at the LGM would have been c. 4°C.

By contrast, during the LGM a mean value of 0°C for thecoldest winter months would occur at an altitude between 270and 450 m. Thus, during winter, given sufficient moisturepredominantly from westerly winds, prolonged freezing couldinduce widespread solifluction and mass movement processesat mid-altitudes and on steep slopes. This is consistent with theknown distribution of thick solifluction deposits and landformsof mass movement down to c. 500 m. Such instability would havebeen greatly facilitated by the absence of forest vegetation overwide areas and particularly on steep slopes.42

The lowland areas of the Midlands, Derwent and southeasternvalleys, northeastern coastal plain and Flinders Island all appearto have experienced very much drier conditions during the coldstages. However, climatic conditions may have been morevariable and more geomorphic events of higher magnitude mayhave occurred than at present, as suggested by the formation ofdebris-flows and large alluvial fans near sea level. The driestregions were characterized by ephemeral groundwater lagoonswith single and multiple lunette dune systems. In addition,linear dunes, similar to the fossil dunes of western Victoria,38

were formed on the northeastern coastal plain and FlindersIsland by west-north-westerly to westerly winds.

The data contained in this paper were observed over many years. The workwas supported by the University of Newcastle, the University of Tasmania, theAustralian Research Council and numerous colleagues and students who accom-panied me in the field. This paper is Contribution No. 47 of the Geomorphologyand Quaternary Science Research Unit, School of Geosciences, University ofNewcastle.

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