performance of japanese quail breeders under different systems of management · 2019-01-02 ·...

PERFORMANCE OF JAPANESE QUAIL BREEDERS UNDER DIFFERENT

SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT

R. ARUMUGAM I.D.NO. DPV 05008

DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

MADRAS VETERINARY COLLEGE

TAMIL NADU VETERINARY AND ANIMAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY

CHENNAI – 600 007

2008

PERFORMANCE OF JAPANESE QUAIL BREEDERS UNDER DIFFERENT

SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT

R. ARUMUGAM I.D.NO. DPV 05008

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in

Livestock Production and Management

to the

Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University Chennai - 600 051

DEPARTMENT OF LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

Madras Veterinary College

Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University

Chennai – 600 007

2008

Dedicated to

The Indian Farming Community

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “PERFORMANCE OF

JAPANESE QUAIL BREEDERS UNDER DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF

MANAGEMENT”, submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

award of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Livestock Production

and Management to the Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University,

Chennai is a record of bonafide research work carried out by R. ARUMUGAM,

under my supervision and guidance and that no part of this thesis has been submitted

for the award of any other degree, diploma, fellowship or similar titles.

Date : 30-04-2008 (Dr. Ra. MURALLIDHARAN)

Place : Chennai-600007 CHAIRMAN

Approved by

Chairman :

(Dr. Ra. MURALLIDHARAN)

Members :

(Dr. R. PRABAKARAN)

(Dr. T. SIVAKUMAR)

(Dr. R. MATHIVANAN)

External Examiner:

CURRICULAM VITAE

Name of the candidate : R.ARUMUGAM, M.V.Sc.,

Date of birth : First June, 1967.

Place of birth : Samathur, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu.

Major field of specialisation : Livestock Production and Management

Educational status : Completed B.V.Sc., in 1991at Madras Veterinary College, Chennai – 600 007.

Completed M.V.Sc., in 1994 at Madras Veterinary College, Chennai – 600 007.

Professional experience : Worked as Veterinary Assistant Surgeon in Department of Animal Husbandry, Tamil Nadu from April 1991 to January 1992.

Worked as Assistant Manager (Veterinary) in

Coimbatore District Co-operative Milk producers Union, Coimbatore, from November 1993 to December 1999.

Working as Assistant Professor in Tamil

Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai –51 since 15-12-1999.

Marital status : Married

Permanent address : 117-118, Rajiv Gandhi Nagar, Sowripalayam, Coimbatore-641 028, Tamil Nadu.

Publications made :

Research : 01

Popular : 04

Training manual : 03

Membership of professional society : Life member of Tamil Nadu Veterinary Council

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am extremely thankful to Dr.Ra.Murallidharan, Ph.D., Chairman,

Advisory Committee and Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Production

and Management, Madras Veterinary College for the valuable guidance, suggestions

and constant encouragement throughout the period of study.

I am deeply indebted to Dr.R.Prabakaran, Ph.D., Director, Centre for Animal

Production Studies, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, member

of the advisory committee for his meticulous guidance, unstinted support, critical

suggestions and help throughout the period of study and in writing of the thesis.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr.T.Sivakumar, Ph.D., Professor

and Head, Department of Livestock Production and Management, Madras

Veterinary College, member of the advisory committee for his inspiring suggestions,

unfailing support and constant encouragement throughout the period of study.

I extend my sincere gratitude to Dr.R.Kumaraj, Professor and Head, (Rtd.),

Department of Livestock Production and Management, Madras Veterinary College,

former member of the advisory committee for his valuable suggestions and

encouragement throughout the period of study.

I am thankful to Dr.R.Mathivanan, Associate Professor, Veterinary

University Training and Research Centre, Tiruppur, member of the advisory

committee for his suggestions and help.

I am cordially obliged and grateful to Thiru.P.Suresh Kumar,

Thiru.P.Sathish Kumar and Thiru.P.Rajesh Kumar, SRS Japanese quail

products (Ltd), Ganganaicken Palayam, Palladam, Coimbatore district for the help

rendered to carry out the research work and for the kindness showered on me

throughout the period of study.

I am also thankful to Thiru.Shankar and the labour force of SRS Japanese

quail breeding farms for their kind help during the period of study.

I recollect with gratitude the uninhibited support, constant encouragement given

by Dr.K.Vengadabady, Dr.K.Sivakumar, Associate Professors, Dr.D.Chandrasekaran,

Assistant Professor, and other staff members of the Veterinary University Training and

Research Centre, Coimbatore throughout the period of study.

I extend my heartfelt and sincere thanks to Dr.G.Kathiravan, Assistant

Professor, Department of Animal Husbandry Statistics and Computer applications,

Madras Veterinary College for his unstinted and timely help and support in carrying

out the statistical analysis and in preparation of the thesis and I am also thankful to

Dr.A.Kalaikannan, Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Husbandry

Statistics and Computer applications for his help in preparation of Figures and Plates

and I record my gratitude to the staff members of the same department.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr.M.Murugan, Assistant Professor,

Dr.Thanga Tamil Vanan and Dr.P.Tensingh Gnanaraj, Associate Professors and

staff members of the Department of Livestock Production and Management for their

help, co-operation and motivation for successful completion of the work.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr.V.Ramesh Saravana Kumar,

Dr.A.Natarajan, Dr.R.C.Edwin, Associate Professors, Dr.R.Amutha, Dr.K.Sivakumar,

Assistant Professors, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal for their timely

help during the period of study.

I gratefully acknowledge the support rendered by Dr.P.Thilak Pon Jawahar,

Dr.A.Raja, Dr.V.Apparao, Dr.A.Sangaran, Dr.R.Rajendran, Dr.S.Venkatesan

and Dr.D.Anandha Prakash Singh, during the study period.

I express my sincere gratitude to the staff members of the Madras Veterinary

College Hostel for their kind gesture during my stay at the hostel during the study period.

I am sincerely thankful to Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences

University, Chennai, for permitting me to do Ph.D., on part-time basis.

I express my heartfelt thanks to Dr.M.Thiagarajan, Professor and Head (Rtd.),

Department of Livestock Production and Management, Madras Veterinary College

for his unfailing support and encouragement throughout my career.

I am greatly beholden to my beloved wife Malar, daughters Anu Madhurima,

Aparna, Son Prithvin, mother and mother-in-law whose unparallel affection and

continuous encouragement in shaping my carrier will go a long way throughout my life.

Many others have contributed in many ways. Their contribution might be

small but has been important in carrying out the work. I sincerely thank them all.

Above all, I wish to thank the ‘Nature’ for the kindness showered on me to

complete the programme successfully.

(R.ARUMUGAM)

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

Title : PERFORMANCE OF JAPANESE QUAIL BREEDERS

UNDER DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT

Name of the student : R. ARUMUGAM

Degree for which submitted : Ph.D., in Livestock Production and Management

Name of the Chairman : Dr.Ra.Murallidharan, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai – 600 007

College : Madras Veterinary College, Chennai – 600 007

Year and University : 2008 Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai – 600 051

A study was conducted to assess the comparative production and reproduction performance of Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage systems of management. Two experiments, one with pure line breeders under selection for high body weight and another with cross bred parents were carried out for the purpose.

Cage reared pure line grand parent breeders attained maturity significantly (P≤0.01) early compared to those reared on deep litter (64.17 1.17 vs 71.50 1.18 days) and they also reached 50 per cent egg production faster compared to deep litter reared quails (9.16 vs 14.83 days). Similarly cage reared cross bred parents attained age at maturity and 50 per cent egg production significantly (P≤0.01) earlier (56.00

0.00 and 67.25 0.48 days) compared to those reared on deep litter (63.25 0.48 and 75.00 0.41 days).

Per cent hen day egg production was significantly (P≤0.01) higher in cage

reared birds compared to deep litter rearing in both the experiments (73.96 0.71 vs

64.01 0.87 and 72.96 0.53 vs 68.46 0.61 respectively). Age and age x system effects were also found to be significant (P≤0.01). Peak production was witnessed

during 17-20 weeks of age of the breeders which declined as the age advanced. Mean per cent hen housed egg production was significantly (P≤0.01) higher

under deep litter rearing among pure line breeders and under cage rearing among cross bred parents. Significant (P≤0.01) age effect was witnessed in both the experiments.

Mean egg weight (g) was found to be 15.19 0.03 and 15.45 0.03 for deep litter and cage rearing respectively in experiment I, while in experiment II the corresponding values were 14.23 0.02 and 14.15 0.02 and the above differences between the two systems of rearing were found significant (P≤0.01). Age effect on egg weight was also significant (P≤0.01).

Mean feed consumption (g) per bird per day was significantly (P≤0.01)

higher under cage rearing in both the experiments (43.26 0.50 vs 47.54 0.71 and 37.88 0.25 vs 40.69 0.29 respectively). Even though age effect was noticed, no specific trend was discernible.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

No. TITLE

PAGE

No.

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PLATES

1. INTRODUCTION 1

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 3

2.1 Sexual Maturity 3

2.1.1 Age at sexual maturity 3

2.1.1.1 Cage space allowance 4

2.1.1.2 Effect of cage vs deep litter 4

2.1.1.3 Influence of season 5

2.1.1.4 Influence of light 5

2.1.1.5 Effect of selection / genetic group 6

2.1.1.6 Effect of body weight 7

2.1.1.7 Feed restriction 8

2.1.2 Body weight at sexual maturity 8

2.1.2.1 Influence of season 8

2.1.2.2 Influence of light 8


2.1.2.4 Effect of feed restriction 9

2.2 Egg production 9

2.2.1 Egg production in cages 11

2.2.1.1 Influence of cage floor space 11

2.2.1.2 Influence of sex ratio 11

2.2.2 Egg production in cage vs deep litter 11

2.2.3 Influence of age 12

2.2.3.1 Influence of age and season 13

2.2.3.2 Influence of age and sex ratio 13

2.2.4 Effect of selection / genetic group 13

2.2.5 Influence of season 15

2.2.5.1 Influence of season and mating

system

15

2.2.6 Influence of light 15

2.2.7 Influence of feed 16

2.3 Egg weight 17

2.3.1 Egg weight in cages 17

2.3.1.1 Influence of cage floor space 17

2.3.2 Egg weight in cage vs deep litter 18

2.3.3 Influence of age 19

2.3.3.1 Influence of age and selection 20


2.3.5 Influence of season 21

2.3.5.1 Influence of season and mating

system

22

2.3.6 Effect of feed 22

2.4 Feed consumption and Feed efficiency 24

2.4.1 Feed consumption 24

2.4.1.1 Feed consumption in cages 24

2.4.1.1.1 Influence of tiers 24

2.4.1.1.2 Influence of cage floor space 24

2.4.1.2 Influence of age 25

2.4.1.3` Effect of selection / genetic group 25

2.4.1.4 Influence of feed 26

2.4.1.4.1 Influence of feeding time 26

2.4.2 Feed efficiency 27

2.4.2.1 Feed efficiency in cages 27

2.4.2.1.1 Influence of cage floor space 27

2.4.2.1.2 Influence of sex ratio 27


Mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs and per kg egg mass were not found to be significantly (P>0.05) different between the two systems of rearing. However, age effect was found to be significant (P≤0.01) on the above parameters in both the

experiments and the best feed efficiency figures were noticed mostly between 17-24 weeks of age.

Cumulative per cent livability of female breeders from 9-32 weeks of age were 63.04 1.03 vs 64.23 2.37 in experiment I and 78.87 4.23 vs 74.25 1.48 in experiment II for deep litter and cage systems of management respectively. The corresponding values for male breeders were 92.89 1.44 vs 98.38 0.92 and 96.37 1.38 vs 93.10 0.81.

Mean per cent hatchability on total eggs set was observed to be significantly (P≤0.01) higher for deep litter rearing compared to cage rearing in experiment I

(55.44 1.25 vs 50.81 1.54) and the reverse was true in experiment II (66.76 0.99 vs 71.13 0.76). Similar trends were witnessed in per cent hatchability on fertile eggs set.

Mean per cent fertility was higher at 74.92 1.59 for cage rearing compared to 72.20 1.85 for deep litter rearing of pure line breeders in experiment I while the same were 90.37 0.61 and 88.80 0.58 respectively among cross bred parents in experiment II and the difference in means between the two systems was found to be significant (P≤0.05) only in the later experiment.

Mean per cent hen day chick production was found to be significantly (P≤0.01) higher for cage rearing of breeders over deep litter rearing in both the

experiments (34.07 2.05 vs 31.05 2.55 and 49.19 1.40 vs 41.29 2.41). Further, chick production efficiency was found to decline gradually as the age advanced beyond 20 weeks of age.

Mean feed cost (Rs.) for 100 eggs was marginally higher for cage rearing in both the experiments and the differences were not significant. However, mean feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks was significantly (P≤0.01) higher for cage rearing of pure line parents

(208.11 10.46 vs 176.08 6.84) and the same was higher for deep litter rearing of cross bred Japanese quail breeders (123.77 2.51 vs 117.25 1.76) comparatively.

Thus, cage rearing of Japanese quail breeders resulted in early sexual maturity, higher mean per cent hen day egg and chick production, mean fertility and feed consumption per bird per day in both the experiments. Mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs and per kg egg mass, per cent livability among female parents and feed cost per 100 hatching eggs remained comparable between the two systems.

2.4.2.3 Influence of feed 28

2.4.2.3.1 Influence of feed restriction 29

2.4.2.3.2 Influence of feeding time 29

2.5 Livability 29

2.5.1 Livability in cages 29

2.5.1.1 Effect of cage floor space 29

2.5.1.2 Effect of sex ratio 30

2.5.2 Cage vs deep litter 30


2.5.4 Effect of season and mating system 31

2.5.5 Effect of sex 31

2.5.6 Effect of feed restriction 31

2.6 Hatchability traits 32

2.6.1 Hatchability traits in cages 32

2.6.1.1 Effect of cage floor space 32

2.6.1.2 Effect of sex ratio 33

2.6.2 Cage vs deep litter 33


2.6.4 Effect of mating system 35

2.6.5 Effect of egg weight 36

2.6.6 Effect of age 37

2.6.7 Effect of sex ratio 40

2.6.7.1 Effect of photoperiod and sex ratio 40

2.6.8 Effect of season 41

2.6.9 Effect of feed 41

2.6.9.1 Effect of feed restriction 42

2.6.10 Effect of pre-incubation storage

period

42

2.7 Economics 43

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 44

3.1 Location 44

3.1.1 Geographical location 44

3.1.2 Seasons 44

3.1.3 Climate 44

3.2. Biological experiment 46

3.2.1 Biological experiment I 46

3.2.2 Biological experiment II 46

3.3 Breeder flock management 47

3.3.1 Floor space 47

3.3.2 Litter material 47

3.3.3 Nutrition 47

3.3.4 Lighting programme 51

3.3.5 Pre-incubation care of hatching eggs 51

3.3.6 Management of incubators 51

3.3.7 Post-hatch egg break out analysis 51

3.4 Parameters recorded 52

3.4.1 Production parameters 52

3.4.1.1 Egg production 52

3.4.1.2 Egg weight 52

3.4.1.3 Feed consumption and Feed efficiency 52

3.4.1.4 Livability 52

3.4.1.5 Economics 52

3.4.2 Reproduction parameters 53

3.4.2.1 Age at sexual maturity 53

3.4.2.2 Age at 50 per cent egg production 53

3.4.2.3 Body weight at sexual maturity 53

3..4.2.5 Per cent hen day chick production 53

3.5 Statistical analysis 53

4. RESULTS 54

4.1 Sexual Maturity 54




4.2.1 Per cent hen day egg production 58

4.2.2 Per cent hen housed egg production 62

4.3 Egg weight 62

4.4 Feed consumption 69

4.5 Feed efficiency 73

4.5.1 Feed efficiency per dozen eggs 73

4.5.2 Feed efficiency per kg egg mass 73

4.6 Per cent livability 76

4.6.1 Per cent livability among females 76

4.6.2 Per cent livability among males 79

4.7 Hatchability parameters 79

4.7.1 Hatchability 84

4.7.1.1 Per cent hatchability on total eggs 84

4.7.1.2 Per cent hatchability on fertile eggs 84

4.7.2 Per cent fertility 87

4.7.3 Per cent embryonic mortality 92

4.7.4 Per cent dead-in-shell 92

4.8 Per cent hen day chick production 95

4.9 Economics 103

4.9.1 Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs 103

4.9.2 Feed cost for 100 chicks 107

5. DISCUSSION 111

5.1 Sexual maturity 111


5.1.2 Age at 50% production 112



5.2.1 Per cent hen day egg production 114

5.2.2 Per cent hen housed egg production 115

5.3 Egg weight 116

5.4 Feed consumption 117

5.5 Feed efficiency 118

5.5.1 Feed efficiency per dozen eggs 118

5.5.2 Feed efficiency per kg egg mass 119

5.6 Per cent livability 119

5.6.1 Per cent livability in female breeders 120

5.6.2 Per cent livability in male breeders 120

5.7 Hatchability parameters 121

5.7.1 Per cent hatchability on total eggs set 121

5.7.2 Per cent hatchability on fertile eggs 122

5.7.3 Per cent fertility 123

5.7.4 Per cent embryonic mortality 125

5.7.5 Per cent dead–in–shell 126

5.8 Per cent hen day chick production 126

5.9 Economics 127

5.9.1 Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs 127

5.9.2 Feed cost for 100 chicks. 128

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 130

REFERENCES 139

LIST OF TABLES

Table

No. Title

Page

No.

3.1 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity and

rainfall in Coimbatore district during the experimental period

45

3.2 Per cent ingredient composition of Japanese quail breeder ration 50

3.3 Nutrient composition of Japanese quail breeder ration 50

4.1 Mean (± S.E.) age at sexual maturity and age at 50% egg production in

Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I) 55


Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II) 55

4.3 Mean (± S.E.) body weight (g) at sexual maturity of Japanese quail

female breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I) 56

4.4 Mean (± S.E.) body weight (g) at sexual maturity of Japanese quail

female breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II) 56

4.5 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day egg production of Japanese quail breeders from

13 to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I) 59

4.6 ANOVA: Per cent hen day egg production (Experiment-I) 59

4.7 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day egg production of Japanese quail breeders

from 13 to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

60

4.8 ANOVA: Per cent hen day egg production (Experiment-II) 60

4.9 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen housed egg production of Japanese quail breeders

from 13 to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

63

4.10 ANOVA: Per cent hen housed egg production (Experiment-I) 63



64

4.12 ANOVA: Per cent hen housed egg production (Experiment-II) 64

4.13 Mean (± S.E.) egg weight (g) of Japanese quail breeders under deep

litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

66

4.14 ANOVA: Egg weight (Experiment-I) 66


litter and cage system (Experiment-II) 67

4.16 ANOVA: Egg weight (Experiment-II) 67

4.17 Mean (± S.E.) feed consumption (g) /bird /day of Japanese quail

breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I) 70

4.18 ANOVA: Feed consumption (Experiment-I) 70


breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II) 71

4.20 ANOVA: Feed consumption (Experiment-II) 71

Table

No. Title

Page

No.

4.21 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per dozen eggs) of Japanese

quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I) 74

4.22 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per dozen eggs (Experiment-I) 74

4.23 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per dozen eggs) of Japanese

quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

75

4.24 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per dozen eggs (Experiment-II) 75

4.25 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per kg egg mass) of Japanese

quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

77

4.26 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per kg egg mass (Experiment-I) 77

4.27 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per kg egg mass) of Japanese


78

4.28 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per kg egg mass (Experiment-II) 78

4.29 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail female breeders from

9 to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

80

4.30 ANOVA: Per cent livability of females (Experiment-I) 80

4.31 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail female breeders from

9 to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

81

4.32 ANOVA: Per cent livability of females (Experiment-II) 81

4.33 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail male breeders from 9

to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

82

4.34 ANOVA: Per cent livability of males (Experiment-I) 82

4.35 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail male breeders from 9

to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

83

4.36 ANOVA: Per cent livability of males (Experiment-II) 83

4.37 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total eggs set of Japanese quail

breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

85

4.38 ANOVA: Per cent hatchability on total eggs set (Experiment-I) 85

4.39 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total eggs set of Japanese quail

breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

86

4.40 ANOVA: Per cent hatchability on total eggs set (Experiment-II) 86

4.41 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set of Japanese

quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

88

4.42 ANOVA: Per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set (Experiment-I) 88

4.43 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set of Japanese


89

4.44 ANOVA: Percent hatchability on total fertile eggs set (Experiment-II) 89

4.45 Mean (± S.E.) per cent fertility of Japanese quail breeders under deep


90

4.46 ANOVA: Per cent fertility (Experiment-I) 90

Table

No. Title

Page

No.

4.47 Mean (± S.E.) per cent fertility of Japanese quail breeders under deep

litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

91

4.48 ANOVA: Per cent fertility (Experiment-II) 91

4.49 Mean (± S.E.) per cent embryonic mortality of Japanese quail breeders

under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

93

4.50 ANOVA: Per cent embryonic mortality (Experiment-I) 93

4.51 Mean (± S.E.) per cent embryonic mortality of Japanese quail breeders

under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

94

4.52 ANOVA: Per cent embryonic mortality (Experiment-II) 94

4.53 Mean (± S.E.) per cent dead-in-shell of Japanese quail breeders under

deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

96

4.54 ANOVA: Per cent dead-in-shell (Experiment-I) 96

4.55 Mean (± S.E.) per cent dead-in-shell of Japanese quail breeders under

deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

97

4.56 ANOVA: Per cent dead-in-shell (Experiment-II) 97

4.57 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day chick production from 9-32 weeks under


100

4.58 ANOVA: Per cent hen day chick production (Experiment-I) 100



101

4.60 ANOVA: Per cent hen day chick production (Experiment-II) 101

4.61 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 hatching eggs under deep litter and

cage system (Experiment-I)

104

4.62 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs (Experiment-I) 104


cage system (Experiment-II)

105

4.64 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs (Experiment-II) 105

4.65 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks under deep litter and cage

system (Experiment-I)

108

4.66 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 chicks (Experiment-I) 108


system (Experiment-II)

109

4.68 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 chicks (Experiment-II) 109

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.

No. Title

Page

No.


Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system(Experiment-I)

57


Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

57



61



61



65



65



68


litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

68


breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-I)

72


breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment-II)

72

4.11 Hatchability traits under deep litter system (Experiment-I) 98

4.12 Hatchability traits under cage system (Experiment-I) 98

4.13 Hatchability traits under deep litter system (Experiment-II) 99

4.14 Hatchability traits under cage system (Experiment-II) 99



102



102


cage system (Experiment-I)

106


cage system (Experiment-II)

106


system (Experiment-I)

110


system (Experiment-II)

110

LIST OF PLATES

Pl.

No. Title

Page

No.

3.1 Experimental birds under deep litter system 48

3.2 Experimental birds under cage system 49

INTRODUCTION

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Japanese quail were first domesticated in Japan as early as in 12th Century

A.D. as pet birds for their singing behaviour and they were bred for meat purpose

only during the early part of the 20th Century A.D.

Despite rapid progress in poultry production, the per capita consumption of

poultry meat in our country remains around 1.6 kg compared to the world average of

11 kg and per capita egg consumption around 42 eggs (Economic survey of India,

2007-08) against the world average of 180 eggs. At present, quails constitute the

third largest avian species, in number next only to chicken and ducks, used for

commercial poultry production (Agarwal, 1995). Since there is considerable

shortage of meat and egg, there exists a scope for increasing the per capita

consumption by rearing Japanese quail.

Quail are highly prolific with shorter generation interval, require less space,

feed and capital to start with, have greater resistance to diseases and they can be reared

under wide range of climate and farm conditions compared to other species of poultry.

In developing countries, quail farming offers a viable and practical solution

to the problem of animal protein shortage. In recent years many countries have

recognized the nutritional and economic value of Japanese quail and started rearing

them. In order to minimize the cost of production of quail meat, research has been

carried out round the globe on various aspects of quail production.

Among different poultry species in India, Japanese quail is emerging as a

bird of commercial significance, their number is growing steadily and they are

reared mainly for meat purpose and to a lesser extent for their eggs. The Japanese

quail was first introduced in India at Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izat Nagar,

Uttar Pradesh during 1973. In Tamil Nadu, it has been bred and reared at Poultry

Research Station, Nandanam, Chennai since 1983. By the late 1980’s, in the private

sector, two large hatcheries and quail breeder farms were established at Coimbatore and

Pune, with production capacity estimated at around 50,000 birds per week. Currently,

about 2.5 lakh Japanese quail are produced and sold in Tamil Nadu every week.

The housing system constitutes an important specific environment for the

birds. In Japanese quail production also, specific environment under which the birds

will have to perform should be kept in mind. Gowe, as early as in 1956, stressed that

the efficiency of production is a function of both the genetic potential of the birds

and the housing facilities available.

Egg production is an important economic trait in poultry breeding that

determines the efficiency of chick production for further rearing for meat. It is

influenced by several factors viz., nutrition, management, environment etc. Low

heritability of egg production clearly points to the profound influence of

environment, which necessitates extensive studies on the effect of various non-

genetic factors under varied agro-climatic and managemental conditions.

The significant role of housing system (cage vs deep litter) is well

documented in chicken, whereas similar information is meager in the emerging area

of Japanese quail production.

Insufficient research work in Japanese quail breeding and incubation, had

compelled quail breeders and hatcheries to adopt the management and techniques

standardized for chicken, resulting in lesser fertility and hatchability than in chicken.

The study of production and reproduction pattern of Japanese quail in

relation to the ambient environment would throw light on acclimatization of

Japanese quail to our agro-climatic conditions and management.

Therefore, an experiment was designed to evaluate the effect of cage and deep

litter systems of housing management on production and reproduction performance

of Japanese quail breeders under field conditions. The following objectives were

defined for the purpose.

1. To study the performance of Japanese quail breeders under field conditions.

2. To assess the comparative productive performance of Japanese quail

breeders under cage and deep litter systems of management.

3. To compare the reproductive performance of Japanese quail breeders

between cage and deep litter systems of management.

4. To suggest suitable system of management for rearing Japanese quail for

higher production and reproduction efficiency.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Housing systems have a strong influence on poultry production. In many

studies, egg production of hens housed in conventional cages was higher than of

those housed in alternative systems such as aviaries, floor pens or free range. In

alternative housing systems, egg production is subjected to higher variations,

making it less stable and predictable than in conventional cages. The proportion of

dirty eggs is often higher in alternative housing systems than in conventional cages

(Vits et al., 2005). Tauson (1998) reported that under cage system of management,

dust and ammonia levels were reduced, providing a better working environment.

Rajendran and Mohanty (2003) opined that the cage system appeared to be more

efficient than deep litter system in producing eggs and also reported that it would be

possible to save feed cost and increase feed efficiency under cage system of

management. Californian system of cage rearing is popular and widely adopted for

housing of commercial layer type chicken. It is also common practice in broiler

breeder management facilitating artificial insemination and breeder record

maintenance. Of late, raised platform cages are erected that facilitate easy manure

clearance (Ramesh Saravana Kumar, 1998). However, no such uniform

management practice adopted in Japanese quail breeder management and the reports

favouring one or other system for adoption are also a few.

2.1 Sexual Maturity

2.1.1 Age at sexual maturity

Gildersleeve et al. (1987) compared the reproduction among four generations

of Japanese quail maintained as mated pairs and observed that the age at 50 per cent

egg production ranged from 46 to 50 days with an average of 49 days for all four

generations.

Drbohlav and Metodiev (1996) observed that the age at 1st egg was 63.30

days in Japanese quail breeders, while Cerit and Altinel (1998) reported that the

same was 45.72 0.41 days for 348 quails.

Aktan et al. (2003) stated that the age at 5 per cent, 50 per cent and peak egg

production were 41, 47 and 65 days respectively.

Erensayin and Camci (2003) reported that the average age at first egg laid

and the age at 50 per cent egg production was 45.2 0.64 and 74.5 0.89 days,

respectively.

2.1.1.1 Cage space allowance

Nagarajan et al. (1990) studied the laying performance of Japanese quail

under different stocking densities from 6 to 26 weeks of age and observed that the

age at first egg (d) was 45.8 0.41, 45.3 0.43, 45.5 0.50 and 45.5 0.50 for

birds maintained with a cage floor space of 150, 180, 210, 240cm2 per bird

respectively and the corresponding values for age at 50 per cent egg production (d)

were 104.0 3.86, 90.0 1.06, 78.8 6.29 and 61.3 4.71 respectively.

Bhanja et al. (2006) studied the effect of cage floor space on the egg

production performance of Japanese quail during winter season and observed that

the age at first egg was 44.7 0.33, 43..7 0.07, 44.7 0.33 and 44.7 0.88 days

for the quails maintained at the cage floor space of 100, 150, 180 and 210cm2 per

bird respectively and the corresponding values for age at 50 per cent egg production

was 70.3 1.76, 61.0 2.00, 58.0 1.53 and 54.0 1.00 days respectively.

2.1.1.2 Effect of cage vs deep litter

Japanese quail on deep litter took more number of days to lay their first egg

(60.37 3.52 days) than the cage reared birds (53.62 1.95 days) and also the cage

reared birds took fewer days (77.62 2.12) than deep litter reared birds (80.12

1.79 days) to reach 50 per cent egg production although the difference was not

statistically significant (Chidananda et al., 1986).

Viswanathan (1991) observed that the age at first egg was not influenced by

rearing system (cage and deep litter) while age at 50 per cent egg production was

delayed in quails reared under cage system with reduced floor space of 150 cm2 / bird.

Chopra and Singh (1994) studied the effect of hatching season and housing

system on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail and observed that the

birds reared on deep litter attained sexual maturity (20 per cent egg production) at an

earlier age (58.33 1.54) than the birds reared on cage system (59.58 1.32) while

age at 50 per cent egg production was comparatively later with 66.17 1.40 days for

deep litter reared birds and 62.25 1.41 days for cage reared birds.

Kundu et al. (2003) compared the performance of Japanese quail under cage

and deep litter system of rearing in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and observed that

the cage reared birds laid eggs significantly (P < 0.05) earlier (44.75 1.55) than the

birds reared in deep litter (58.25 2.17) and the cage reared birds reached 50 per

cent egg production significantly (P<0.05) earlier (59.5 2.02) compared to the

floor reared birds (75.25 3.04).

Biswas et al. (2005) observed that the quails reared by cage system recorded

early laying of eggs and early age at 50 per cent egg production.

2.1.1.3 Influence of season

Phogat (1983) reported that Japanese quail reached 5% and 50% egg

production in 46 and 56 days during winter and in 49 and 60 days during summer,

respectively.

Sreenivasaiah and Joshi (1988) studied the influence of hatching season on

egg production characteristics in Japanese quail and observed that the age at sexual

maturity did not show any seasonal difference between monsoon hatched birds

(57.45 0.98) and winter hatched birds (54.95 0.93) .

2.1.1.4 Influence of light

Prabakaran et al. (1991) studied the effect of photoperiod on the laying

performance of Japanese quail and observed that hens subjected to a light period of

14 or 14-16 h were significantly younger at sexual maturity and 50 per cent egg

production (44.55 and 54.33 days respectively) than hens exposed to a light period

of 10h (55.06 and 63.17 days).

Toyoshima et al. (1994) observed that female Japanese quail attained sexual

maturity earlier in step-up light regimes than in controls (18-h light daily) and sexual

maturity was delayed in step-down light regime.

Ahmed et al. (2000) reported that the age at first egg was 50, 51 and 60 days

for females reared under day length regimens of LD 20:4, 16:8 and 12:12,

respectively.

2.1.1.5 Effect of selection / genetic group

Sachdev and Ahuja (1986) observed that the overall age at sexual maturity

was 73.18 0.95 and 73.10 1.06 in egg line and meat line respectively in

Japanese quail.

Praharaj et al. (1990) studied the production traits of two quail lines, one

selected for high 4 week body weight and the other, a random bred control

population and reported that the age at sexual maturity was 53.73 0.40 and 54.41

0.47 days for the selected and control lines respectively.

Prabakaran (1992) observed that the mean age at sexual maturity was higher

for selected populations of Japanese quail.

Syed Hussein et al. (1995) observed improvement due to selection for body

weight (41.2 per cent) over 9 generations has caused delay in sexual maturity by 3

days in Japanese quail females.

Inal et al. (1996) observed that the age at 1st egg was 39.83 - 45.84, 42.10 -

51.10 and 40.11 – 46.05 days, respectively for the control, low-line and high-line

Japanese quail that were divergently selected for 5-week body weight over five

generations.

Marks (1996) observed that Japanese quail lines selected for high 4-week

body weight had positive effects on age at first egg.

Shit et al. (1996) studied the laying traits of egg type, meat type and

synthetic lines involving 9 genetic groups of Japanese quail and reported that the age

at sexual maturity was between 48 – 54 days

Syed Hussein et al. (1999) reported that the age at 50 per cent egg production

was 56, 52 and 50 days respectively, for meat strain, egg strain and for crossed strain

of egg and meat type of Japanese quail.

Kosba et al. (2003) observed that selection for improving body weight at 6

weeks of age had negative effect on age at sexual maturity and egg number.

Reddish et al. (2003) studied the effect of selection for growth on onset of

sexual maturity in random-bred and growth-selected lines of Japanese quail and

reported that the age at sexual maturity was 42.6 0.48 and 41.7 0.53 days for

random bred population in two successive hatches and 49.7 1.21 and 48.0 1.05

for selected line (selected for increased body weight at 4 week of age) quails and

opined that the relationship between the onset of sexual maturity and reproductive

parameters in hens from consecutive hatches of growth- selected line is less clear

than in the random-bred lines.

Suda and Okamoto (2003) opined that long term selection for small body

weight reduces genetic merits, particularly sexual maturation.

Saini et al. (2005) observed that the age at 50 per cent egg production was

earlier in the unselected control (59 days) than the selected strains (67 days) in

Japanese quail selected for body weight over 25 generations.

Marin and Satterlee (2006) suggested that the attainment of sexual maturity

would be either accelerated or compromised if a selection programme included a

low or high stress phenotypic response and observed that the age at sexual maturity

for the high and low plasma corticosterone response lines (HPCR and LPCR) was

51.6 and 50.0 days respectively and for the control line was 49.4 days. The age at 25

per cent egg production was higher (P < 0.05) in the HPCR line (67.4 days) than in the

control (62.7 days), while LPCR birds reached that index at an earlier age (60.9 days).

2.1.1.6 Effect of body weight

Sachdev and Ahuja (1986) studied the influence of body weight at sexual

maturity in egg line and meat line of Japanese quail and reported that the age at

sexual maturity was 63.59 6.78, 69.97 2.68, 72.92 1.14, 77.92 1.74 and

65.56 2.63 days respectively for body weight groups of 100-120, 121-140, 141-

160,161-180 and 181-200g in egg line, and in meat line, the age at sexual maturity

was 78.26 8.50, 71.53 3.89, 74.06 1.99, 70.88 1.96, 74.15 2.07, 76.22

5.69 and 77.05 8.70 for body weight groups of 100-120,121-140, 141-160, 161-

180, 181-200, 201-220, 221-240 g respectively.

Gunes and Cerit (2001) reported that the average age at sexual maturity was

45.9 days and the body weight at that time was 203.3g in Japanese quail and opined

that the quails that were over 220g reached sexual maturity significantly (P<0.05)

later (51.4 days) than lighter birds.

2.1.1.7 Feed restriction

Hassan et al. (2003) evaluated the reproductive performance of quails

following feed restriction between 2-5 weeks and observed that the age at first egg

was 50.3 4.4, 50.3 5.2 and 52.4 4.5 days for females under 0, 15 and 30 per

cent feed restrictions respectively.

2.1.2 Body weight at sexual maturity

Kocak et al. (1995) reported the body weight of females at sexual maturity in

Japanese quail to be 202.2 g.

Mahipala et al. (1998) observed that the quails commenced egg laying

around 42 days of age at a body weight of around 169 g.

Aktan et al. (2003) observed that female quails attained a body weight of

255.35 g on the day of reaching the sexual maturity at 47.67 days.

2.1.2.1 Influence of season


egg production characteristics in Japanese quail and observed that the body weight

at first egg of winter hatched birds (November) was significantly higher (128.15

1.35g) than that of monsoon (August) hatched birds (122.90 1.10 g).

2.1.2.2 Influence of light

Prabakaran et al. (1991) observed that Japanese quail hens subjected to a

light period of 14 or 14-16 h attained significantly lower body weight at sexual

maturity than hens exposed to a light period of 10h (135.72 vs 145.92 g).


Okamoto et al. (1989) reported that the body weight at 10 week averaged

271.0 17.7, 83.8 6.2 and 137.7 8.0 g respectively for females of quail lines

selected for high and low 6-week body weight and non-selected control lines.

Damme and Aumann (1992) reported that the body weight at 10 weeks for

the selected line of Japanese quail females was 315 g.

Anthony et al. (1996) and Marks (1996) observed that short-term

selection for 4-weekbody weight in Japanese quail lines had positive effects on

adult body weight.

Akbas and Oguz (1998) reported that the body weight at sexual maturity was

239.5 and 208.3 g for Japanese quail from a line which had been selected for high 4-

week body weight for 5 generations and an unselected control line, respectively.

Kosba et al. (2003) observed that selection for improving body weight at 6

weeks of age had positive effect on body weight at sexual maturity and egg weight.

Reddish et al. (2003) studied the effect of selection on growth in random-

bred and growth-selected lines of Japanese quail and reported that the body weight

at sexual maturity was 130 0.99 and 132 1.56 and 258 2.73 and 262 3.11 g

respectively for two successive hatches in random-bred population and growth-

selected lines.

2.1.2.4 Effect of feed restriction

Hassan et al. (2003) reported that the body weight at first egg was 182.4

11.3, 181.3 4.0 and 192.9 9.5 g for Japanese quail females under 0, 15 and 30

per cent feed restrictions respectively during 2 to 5 weeks of age.

2.2 Egg production

Gildersleeve et al. (1987) compared the egg production among four

generations of Japanese quail maintained as mated pairs and observed hen-day egg

production from 6-20 weeks was usually over 80 per cent from 9 weeks of age

through 20 weeks of age.

Shukla et al. (1993a) studied the effect of dietary supplementation of

manganese on egg production of Japanese quail reared from 7th to 19th week in

colony cages and reported that the hen-day egg production per cent was 69.09

3.13, 74.14 1.76, 80.33 0.96 and 80.80 1.87 for quails fed with the diet

containing manganese levels (mg/kg) of 20, 50, 80 and 120 mg/kg respectively.

Shukla et al. (1993b) investigated the effect of dietary supplementation of

zinc on egg production of Japanese quail reared from 7th to 19th week in colony

cages and reported that the hen-day egg production per cent was 73.56 1.53, 80.61

1.35, 80.33 0.96 and 79.53 1.13 for quails fed with the diet containing zinc

levels (mg/kg) of 24, 50, 75 and 100 mg/kg respectively.

Kocak et al. (1995) reported that the average egg production in a 25-week

period for Japanese quail was 83.9 per cent.

Drbohlav and Metodiev (1996) observed that the laying intensity ranged

from 89.47 per cent in the first 10 days of lay to 93.95 per cent in the 6 th ten-

day period and egg production upto 150 days of age averaged 80.36 in Japanese

quail breeders.

Gunes and Cerit (2001) reported that the age at first egg and body weight at

that time, did not affect annual egg production.

Avci et al. (2005) studied the effect of Vitamin E on egg production in

Japanese quail reared in cages from 8 to 20 weeks of age during hot season (June to

August) and reported the average hen-day egg production per cent from 8 to 20

weeks was 69.78, 77.00 and 90.25 for the control and vitamin E supplemented

(250mg and 500mg per kg diet) groups respectively.

Yesilbag (2007) reported egg production per cent of 90.00 1.08, 88.75

1.60 and 87.25 1.43 for control and boric acid supplementation groups (0.25 and

0.50 mg/kg) of Japanese quail reared from 12-20 weeks of age.

2.2.1 Egg production in cages

2.2.1.1 Influence of cage floor space

Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a) studied the effect of cage density on egg

production in Japanese quail from 7 to 21 weeks of age and reported that the egg

production per cent was 83.83 1.46, 72.89 2.39, 72.45 1.26 and 62.66 1.59

for a cage floor space of 212.5, 141.7, 106.3 and 85.0 cm2 per bird respectively.


under different stocking densities from 6 to 26 weeks of age and reported that the

per cent hen-day egg production was 26.6 3.49, 36.0 3.84, 43.2 5.40 and

50.3 6.20 for birds maintained with a cage floor space of 150, 180, 210 and 240

cm2 per bird, respectively.

Waheda et al. (1999) reared Japanese quail in 2 group sizes (6 and 9

birds/cage) and 3 stocking densities (150, 175 and 200 cm2/ bird) from 50 to 125

days of age and observed egg production was higher (P<0.05) in the smaller group

size and in the intermediate stocking density than in the larger group size and other

stocking densities.

Nazligul et al. (2001a) studied the effect of three different cage stocking

densities (150, 120 and 100 cm2/quail) after 16 weeks of age in Japanese quail and

reported that the average egg production (egg/week /quail) was 6.16, 5.74 and 6.04,

respectively.

2.2.1.2 Influence of sex ratio

Asasi and Jaafar (2000) reported that the hen day egg production was 81.6,

89.3, 95.8 and 92.3 per cent for Japanese quail breeders reared in cage system with

sex ratios of one male to 1, 2, 3 or 4 females, respectively.

2.2.2 Egg production in cage vs deep litter

Chidananda et al. (1986) reported that the mean hen-day egg production

from 7-18 weeks under cage rearing was significantly higher (38.50 1.41 per cent)

than deep litter reared quails (34.00 1.08 per cent).

Chopra and Singh (1994) studied the effect of housing system on egg

production of Japanese quail upto 24 weeks of age and reported that the cumulative

egg production upto 24 weeks of age was significantly higher in birds reared in cage

system (67.99 2.76) as compared to those reared in deep litter system (59.57 1.93).

Viswanathan (1991) observed that Japanese quail reared in cages reached

peak production earlier than those reared in deep litter system.

Kundu et al. (2003) also compared the performance of Japanese quail under

cage and deep litter system of rearing in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and reported

that the mean hen-day egg production per cent under cage system of rearing was

significantly (P<0.05) higher (48.00 0.82) than the birds reared on deep litter

(39.50 3.30) upto 18 weeks of age.

Biswas et al. (2005) reported that the quails reared by cage system produced

significantly (P<0.05) more eggs (hen day egg production) compared to those reared

in deep litter system.

2.2.3 Influence of age

Panda et al. (1980) reported that the hen-day egg production per cent in 16

week aged quail parent was 73.28 per cent.

Nazligul et al. (2001a) reported average egg production (per cent hen day) at

8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 weeks of age in Japanese quail was 20.5, 33.8, 63.7, 73.8 and

72.5 per cent, respectively.

Aktan et al. (2003) reported that the egg production at peak (daily basis) and

210th day was 96.95 and 65.65 per cent respectively in Japanese quail.

Yildiz et al. (2004) reported that the per cent egg production of Japanese

quail aged 8 to 12 weeks was 70.82.

Seker et al. (2005b) reported that the effect of Japanese quail layer age on

egg production was significant and the average egg production (per cent hen day) at

9th, 11th, 13th, 15th, 17th, 19th, 21st and 23rd weeks of age was 24.44, 70.08, 78.65,

72.30, 91.51, 94.21, 91.19 and 86.37 per cent, respectively.

2.2.3.1 Influence of age and season


production performance of Japanese quail during winter season and observed hen-

day egg production per cent was 38.3 0.70, 52.5 2.31, 58.7 0.70 and 65.8

0.95 for quails maintained at the cage floor space of 100, 150, 180 and 210cm2 per bird

respectively during 7-13 week of age and the corresponding values for 14-20 week of

age were 71.4 1.15, 84.1 4.04, 88.7 0.88 and 93.4 0.42 per cent, respectively.

2.2.3.2 Influence of age and sex ratio

Erensayin et al. (2002) reported that the hen-day egg production values for

the quail flocks based on cage system between 6-13 weeks with sex ratios (male:

female) of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5 were 50.12, 52.03, 53.57, 48.51 and 53.83 per

cent, respectively.

2.2.4 Effect of selection / genetic group

Nestor and Bacon (1982) observed lesser egg production in Japanese quail

population or strains divergently selected for high 4-week body weight than the

random bred control, but there was no significant change in egg production of quails

selected for low 4-week body weight.

Sachdev and Ahuja (1986) studied the influence of body weight at sexual

maturity in Japanese quail breeders and observed that the egg production

declined as the body weight at maturity increased beyond 200 g and this drop in

egg production was sharp in birds weighing more than 220 g and concluded that

perhaps 200 g is the optimum range of body weight at sexual maturity to be

attained for high egg production.

Okamoto et al. (1989) reported that the egg production rate averaged 82.4

23.3, 77.0 16.3 and 93.1 6.2 per cent respectively for quail lines selected for

high and low 6-week body weight and non-selected control line during 10-day

period from 14 week of age.

Sachdev et al. (1989) studied the influence of cage-tier locations on egg

production in female quails of 2 Japanese quail lines (A and B) maintained from 6

to 50 week of age in a 5-tier cage system with the 1st tier on the top and the 5th on

the bottom, and reported that the total egg production for line A averaged 192.30

8.30, 187.17 8.82, 173.83 6.51,173.79 5.66 and 173.97 6.23 eggs per bird

for the 5 tiers respectively, and for line B 208.53 5.74, 198.13 8.46, 181.85

7.73, 168.14 7.30 and 188.30 6.60 eggs.

Praharaj et al. (1990) studied the production traits in two quail lines derived

from the same base population, one selected for high 4 week body weight and other

random bred control population and reported that the 16th week egg production was

43.06 0.70 and 46.88 0.65 per cent for selected and control lines, respectively.

Prabakaran (1992) studied the genetic gain of selected and control

populations of Japanese quail under two different nutritional environments of high

(28 per cent) and low (20 per cent) protein diets for four generations and reported

that the egg number decreased in high protein population and increased in low

protein population consequent to selection.

Anthony et al. (1996) and Marks (1996) observed that short-term

selection for 4-week body weight in Japanese quail lines had negative effects on

egg production.

Inal et al. (1996) observed the egg production per cent of 79.54-88.96, 77.36-

85.92 and 67.33-84.58, respectively for the control, low-line and high-line Japanese

quail that were divergently selected for 5-week body weight over 5 generations.

Shit et al. (1996) studied the laying traits involving egg type, meat type and

synthetic lines forming 9 genetic groups in Japanese quail and reported that the egg

production upto 140 days of age was from 54 to 64 per cent.

Syed Hussein et al. (1999) reported a lower egg production of 65 per cent in

meat type strain compared to 82 per cent and 80 per cent for egg type and crossed

strain of egg and meat types respectively in Japanese quail.

Saini et al. (2005) studied the effect of genetic selection for growth rate over

25 generations on egg production in Japanese quail and observed that the control

line achieved a peak production of 92 per cent while the growth-selected strains had

peak production of 76 per cent and the hen day egg production (per cent) increased

upto 16 weeks of age in the selected strains.

2.2.5 Influence of season

2.2.5.1 Influence of season and mating system

Prabakaran et al. (1992) studied the effect of system of mating and season on

the reproduction performance at Japanese quail breeder reared under flock mating

and paired mating systems with a sex ratio of 1:1 from 13-24 weeks of age during 4

different seasons and reported hen-day egg production per cent was 72.18 0.39,

73.46 0.38, 69.59 0.98 and 63.99 0.35 for breeder quails during South-West

monsoon, North-East monsoon, Winter and Summer seasons respectively and the

hen-day egg production per cent of breeder quails under flock mating and paired

mating was 60.32 0.32 and 79.29 0.35 respectively.

Shrivastava et al. (1994) studied the influence of rearing mixed and separate

sexes of Japanese quail on egg production of quails reared in cages from 6-18 weeks

and reported that the average egg production per cent for 6-18 weeks was 63.35

2.02, 63.25 1.50, 65.11 0.81 and 64.25 0.95 for quail groups in which sexes

mixed at 0 day, 6th week, 10th week and in group where females were separately

reared, respectively.

2.2.6 Influence of light

Prabakaran et al. (1991) reported that the egg production to 200 days for

Japanese quail hens subjected to a light period of 14 or 14 – 16 h was significantly

higher (103.04) than the hens exposed to a light period of 10 h (89.42).

Kobayashi et al. (1994) studied the influence of intensity of lighting on egg

production in Japanese quail under 14 L:10 D light and dark cycle and reported that the

egg production per cent was 88.7, 94.5 and 94.8 per cent respectively for the exposure

of 3 light intensities of 77, 770 and 1490 lux for 12 weeks.

Ahmed et al. (2000) observed that females reared under long day length

regimes (LD 16:8 and 20:4) laid significantly more eggs than those of LD 12:12.

2.2.7 Influence of feed

Shrivastav et al. (1993) investigated the effect of varied dietary protein on

egg production in breeding Japanese quail reared in cages from 6-20 weeks and

reported that the hen-day egg production was 65.02 2.29, 76.61 2.67, 78.40

2.89 and 80.09 2.89 per cent of quail breeders maintained with dietary crude

protein levels of 16, 19, 22 and 25 per cent, respectively.

Shukla et al. (1994) evaluated different feeding schedules during the onset of

laying in Japanese quail reared in colony cages from 6 to 20 weeks and reported that

the egg production per cent was 81.51 5.13, 71.48 5.94, 72.04 5.58 and 63.09

4.29 for quail breeder groups maintained with full layer ration, 50 per cent grower

ration plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 50 per cent egg production followed by full

layer ration, 50 per cent grower ration plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 80 per cent

egg production followed by full layer ration and 50 per cent grower ration plus 50

per cent layer ration through out the experimental period, respectively.

Alarslan et al. (1997) reported that the average egg production for 16 weeks

was 73.45, 72.65, 75.81, 69.99 and 71.4 per cent, respectively for the Japanese quail

control group and for the groups fed rations containing 2 or 4 per cent vegetable fat

and 2 or 4 per cent animal fat.

Sathishkumar (2003) reported a mean hen-day egg production per cent of

90.19 1.77, 90.09 1.70, 88.65 1.77 and 88.31 1.89 respectively for Japanese

quail breeders fed on quail breeder diets in which fish meal was replaced with processed

Japanese quail hatchery waste at 0, 3, 6 and 9 per cent level.

Sehu et al. (2005) studied the effects of diets with different energy and

protein levels on egg production in Japanese quail from 7 to 19 weeks of age and

reported that the egg production per cent was 84.88, 82.31, 84.12 and 85.11 for

quails maintained with energy-protein levels (Kcal /kg metabolisable

energy/crude protein per cent) of 2657 / 16.68, 2654 / 19.75, 3010 / 16.45 and

2990/19.50, respectively.

Edwin et al. (2007) observed hen-day egg production per cent of 55.7 1.5,

53.3 0.4, 55.5 1.6 and 55.7 1.2 respectively for control and NSP hydrolyzing

enzymes groups (0.025, 0.050 and 0.075 per cent) of Japanese quail from 6 to 25

weeks of age and opined that the hen-day egg production was not significantly

influenced by enzyme supplementation.

Yerturk et al. (2007) reported that the per cent hen-day egg production was

80.09 2.02, 75.91 1.66 and 82.94 2.30 respectively for Japanese quail fed ad

libitum control, fed ad libitum day time (07 to17 hours) and fed ad libitum night

time (17 to 07 hours).

2.3 Egg weight

Shit et al. (1996) studied the laying traits of egg type, meat type and

synthetic lines involving 9 genetic groups of Japanese quail and reported that the egg

weight was in the range of 9.04 to 10.40 g up to 20 week of age.

Kul and Seker (2004) reported that the egg weight of Japanese quail of 20

weeks of age was 11.28 g.

Yildiz et al. (2004) reported average egg weight of Japanese quail aged 8-12

weeks was 12.38 g.

Vali et al. (2005) observed an egg weight of 10.68 1.01 g in Japanese quail

breeders of 8-16 weeks of age.

Yesilbag (2007) reported an average egg weight of 11.91 0.009, 12.12 0.008

and 11.92 0.008 g respectively for control and boric acid supplementation groups

(0.25 and 0.50 mg / kg) of Japanese quail from 12-20 weeks.

2.3.1 Egg weight in cages

Asasi and Jaafar (2000) reported the mean egg weight of 10.97, 11.00, 11.63

and 11.60 g for Japanese quail breeders reared in cage system with sex ratios of one

male to 1, 2, 3 or 4 females, respectively.

2.3.1.1 Influence of cage floor space

Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990b) studied the effect of cage density on the

egg quality traits in Japanese quail from 8th to 20th week of age and observed that the

average egg weight was 9.56 0.07, 9.87 0.08, 9.85 0.08 and 9.78 0.07 g for

quails housed with a cage floor space of 212.5, 141.7, 106.3 and 85.0 cm2 per bird,

respectively.


under different stocking densities from 6 to 26 weeks of age and reported egg

weights of 9.92 0.14, 9.90 0.17, 9.89 0.12 and 9.89 0.18 g for birds

maintained with a cage floor space of 150, 180, 120, 240 cm2 per bird, respectively.

Nazligul et al. (2001a) studied the effect of 3 different cage stocking

densities (150, 120 and 100 cm2 / quail) after 16 weeks of age in Japanese quail and

reported that the average egg weight was 12.64, 12.55 and 12.65 g, respectively.


production performance of Japanese quail during winter season and observed the

average egg weights of 10.6 0.00, 10.8 0.10, 11.0 0.05 and 11.1 0.12 g for

the birds maintained at the cage floor space of 100, 150, 180 and 210 cm2 per bird

respectively during 7-13 weeks of age, the corresponding values for 14-20 weeks of

age were 10.09 0.03, 11.1 0.04, 11.3 0.05 and 11.2 0.04 g, respectively and

opined that the average egg weight during the production phase (7-20th week) was

significantly higher (P < 0.05), in quails kept in more than or equal to 180 cm2 cage

floor space, when quails were maintained with a cage floor space of 100 , 150, 180

and 210 cm2 /bird.

2.3.2 Egg weight in cage vs deep litter

Chidananda et al. (1986) observed cage reared quails produced marginally

heavier eggs (9.16 0.10 g) than deep litter reared quails (8.99 0.20 g) from 16-18

weeks, and however, the difference was not statistically significant.

Mahapatra et al. (1988) indicated that the type of housing influenced the egg

weight and reported that the average egg weight was 10.30 0.09 and 10.62

0.07 g for eggs from 17-week-old quails, housed in floor and battery cages

respectively, and opined that cages were better than floor houses as far as egg

weight was concerned.

Chopra and Singh (1994) studied the effect of hatching season and housing

system on egg production of Japanese quail upto 24 weeks of age and reported that

the average weight of eggs laid by quail raised in cages was significantly (P < 0.05)

higher (9.69 0.01 g) than those raised on deep litter (9.50 0.02 g).


and deep litter system of rearing in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and observed that

the mean egg weight in the cage system of rearing was higher (10.7 0.27 g) than in

deep litter system of rearing (9.88 0.27 g) during the age of 16 and 18 weeks and

difference was not significant.

Biswas et al. (2005) reported that the egg weight was higher from cage

reared quail than deep litter reared quail, although the difference was statistically

non-significant.

2.3.3 Influence of age

Yannakopoulos and Tserveni-Gousi (1985) studied the quality traits of quail

eggs and observed that, from the 7th to the 22nd week of age, egg weight increased

(P<0.001) from 11.33 to 12.95 g.

Yannakopoulos and Tserveni-Gousi (1987) studied the effect of breeder

quail age on egg weight and reported that the egg weight was 11.8, 12.4, 12.1 and

12.0 g for age groups of 6 to 10, 10 to 14, 14 to 18 and 18 to 22 weeks respectively

and an overall egg weight of 12.0 g.

Narayanakutty et al. (1989) observed significant difference in egg weight of

12 week old quails (8.56 0.10 g) and 24 week old quails (9.93 0.13 g).


sexes of Japanese quail on egg quality traits of quails reared in cages from 6-18

weeks and reported that the average egg weights at 11 and 18 weeks of age were

9.73 0.24 and 10.18 0.24, 9.50 0.21 and 10.31 0.22, 9.81 0.29 and 10.34

0.23, and 10.04 0.24 and 9.78 0.18 g respectively for breeder groups in which

sexes were mixed at 0 day, 6th week, 10th week and in groups where females were

separately reared, respectively.

Altinel et al. (1996) observed that the egg weight increased with age,

reaching a peak at 14-16 weeks of age.

Cerit and Altinel (1998) reported that the mean egg weight over the 12

months was 10.60, 11.33, 11.53, 11.55, 11.63, 11.61, 11.53, 11.49, 11.39, 11.20,

11.07 and 10.91 g respectively which gave an overall mean of 11.34 g.

Philomina and Ramakrishna Pillai (2000) studied the effect of age and

different dietary calcium levels on the egg quality in layer type Japanese quail and

reported that the average egg weight was 9.23 0.05, 11.60 0.03 and 12.50 0.03

g for quail aged 6, 16 and 24 weeks, respectively.

Nazligul et al. (2001a) reported the average egg weight (g) at 8, 16 and 24

weeks of age in Japanese quail was 9.39, 10.76 and 11.19, respectively.

Aktan et al. (2003) reported that the average egg weight of the first ten eggs

as 11.28 g in Japanese quail.

Seker et al. (2004a) observed that egg weight increased with parental age of

10 weeks or 20 weeks and reported a better egg weight for the mating ratio of 1:3

compared to the 1:2 mating ratio at 10 weeks of age. They reported that the average

egg weight in age groups of 10 and 20 weeks of Japanese quail was 10.95 0.04 and

11.32 0.04 g respectively.

Seker et al. (2005b) observed a significant increase in egg weight, as the age

of quail increased during the study period of 9 to 23 weeks.

2.3.3.1 Influence of age and selection

Praharaj et al. (1990) studied the production traits of two quail lines, one

selected for high 4 week body weight and other random-bred control population and

reported that the 16th week egg weight was 11.71 0.07 and 10.61 0.07 g for the

selected and control lines respectively and the corresponding values for 10th week

were 11.28 0.06 and 10.57 0.06, respectively.


Okamoto et al. (1989) observed that the egg weight averaged 13.0 1.1, 8.1

0.5 and 10.0 0.5 g respectively for quail lines selected for high and low 6

week body weight and non-selected control line during 10-day period from 14

week of age.

Prabakaran (1992) observed higher egg weights for selected populations of

Japanese quail.

Anthony et al. (1996) and Marks (1996)observed that short-term selection

for 4-week body weight in Japanese quail lines had positive effects on egg weight.

Inal et al. (1996) reported egg weights of 11.18-12.18,10.94-11.49 and

12.01-13.23 g, respectively for the control, low-line and high-line Japanese quail

that were divergently selected for 5-week body weight over 5 generations.

Altan et al. (1998) observed that the egg weight was increased by selection

for high 4-week body weight over 5 generations and also increased with increase in

age of females.

Amit kumar et al. (2000) observed that the age at first egg and egg weight

were negatively correlated with egg production at 12 weeks.

Oroian et al. (2002) reported that the average estimated egg weight was

12.65 0.09 and 13.15 0.10 g for two strains of Japanese quail.

Oguz (2005) observed that the egg weight and egg quality traits are

affected by selection for body weight and selection for egg production can

increase yolk content.

Vali et al. (2006) reported that the egg weight of Japanese quail and range

quail were 11.230.03 and 11.170.05 g, respectively, which were not significantly

different (P>0.05) between the ages of 145 and 300 days.

2.3.5 Influence of season


egg production characteristics in Japanese quail from 6-17 weeks and reported that

the average egg weight of winter hatched birds was significantly higher (10.15

0.05 g) than that of monsoon hatched birds (9.47 0.06 g).

2.3.5.1 Influence of season and mating system


the reproductive performance of Japanese quail breeders reared under flock

mating and paired mating with a sex ratio of 1:1 from 13-24 weeks of age during

4 different seasons and reported that the average egg weight was 10.61, 10.55,

10.56 and 10.45 g for eggs from breeder quails during south-west monsoon,

north-east monsoon, winter and summer seasons respectively and the average

egg weight of hatching eggs from breeder quails under flock mating and paired

mating was 10.55 and 10.53 g, respectively.

2.3.6 Effect of feed

Shrivastav et al. (1993) investigated the effect of varied dietary protein level

on egg production in breeding Japanese quail reared in cages from 6-20 weeks and

reported that the average egg weight was 9.471 0.072, 9.978 0.116,10.281

0.146 and 10.858 0.192 g for quail breeders maintained with dietary crude protein

level of 16, 19, 22 and 25 per cent respectively.

Shukla et al. (1993a) investigated the effect of dietary supplementation of

manganese on egg production of Japanese quail reared from 7th to 19th week in

colony cages and reported that the average egg weight was 11.67 0.07, 11.39

0.08, 11.60 0.05 and 11.14 0.12 g for quails fed with the diet containing

manganese levels (mg/kg feed) of 20, 50, 80 and 120 mg/kg feed respectively.


zinc on egg production of Japanese quail reared from 7th to 19th week in colony

cages and reported that the egg weight was 11.46 0.81, 11.56 0.80, 11.60 0.05

and 11.44 0.11 g for quails fed with the diet containing zinc levels (mg/kg feed) of

24, 50, 75 and 100 mg/kg respectively.


laying in Japanese quail reared in colony cages from 6-20 weeks and reported that

the average egg weight (g) was 10.14 0.16, 10.38 0.17, 10.23 0.19 and 10.35

0.15 for quail breeder groups maintained with full layer ration, 50 per cent grower

ration plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 50 per cent egg production followed by full

layer ration, 50 per cent grower ration plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 80 per cent

egg production followed by full layer ration and 50 per cent grower ration plus 50

per cent layer ration throughout the experimental period respectively.


following feed restriction between 2-5 weeks and observed average egg weight was

10.7 11.3, 10.6 4.0, 10.4 9.5 g during 6 to13 week of age for quails under 0,

15 and 30 per cent feed restrictions respectively and observed no differences in egg

weight among treatments.

Sathishkumar (2003) reported egg weights of 11.89 0.07, 12.12 0.05,

11.93 0.06 and 12.09 0.08 g respectively for Japanese quail breeders fed on quail

breeder diets in which fish meal was replaced with processed Japanese quail

hatchery waste at 0, 3, 6 and 9 per cent level.


Japanese quail reared in cages from 8-20 weeks of age during hot season (June to

August) and reported average egg weight (g) during 8-20 weeks was 9.61, 9.60 and

9.36 for the control and Vitamin E supplemented (250 and 500mg per kg diet)

groups, respectively.



reported egg weights of 11.60, 12.10, 11.61 and 11.88 g for quails maintained with

energy-protein levels (Kcal/kg metabolisable energy / crude protein per cent) of

2657 / 16.68, 2654 / 19.75, 3010 / 16.45 and 2990 / 19.50 respectively.

Yerturk et al. (2007) reported that the average egg weight was 9.87

0.10, 10.06 0.15 and 9.88 01 g respectively for Japanese quail fed ad libitum

control, fed ad libitum day time (07 to 17 hours) and fed ad libitum night time

(17 to 07 hours).

2.4 Feed consumption and Feed efficiency

2.4.1 Feed consumption

Panda et al. (1980) reported that the daily feed consumption per bird was 24

g in 16 week aged quail parents. Yildiz et al. (2004) observed that the average daily

feed consumption of Japanese quail aged 8-12 weeks was 31.7 g while Yesilbag

(2007) observed that the average feed consumption of Japanese quail reared from

12-20 weeks was 41.23 1.47, 41.70 0.56 and 41.73 0.52 g per day respectively

for control and boric acid supplementation groups (0.25 and 0.50 mg/kg).

2.4.1.1 Feed consumption in cages

2.4.1.1.1 Influence of tiers

Sachdev et al. (1989) studied the influence of cage-tier locations on feed

consumption in female quails of 2 Japanese quail lines (A and B) maintained from 6

to 50 week of age in a 5-tier cage system with the 1st tier on the top and 5th on the

bottom, and reported a total feed consumption from week 6 to 50 for line A

averaged 6370.19 122.97, 6576.76 62.34, 6617.93 34.91, 6509.50 41.53 and

6546.48 39.56 g per bird for tiers 1-5, respectively and the corresponding figures

for line B were 6531.52 69.79, 6415.49 109.42, 6547.02 46.82, 6488.61

93.14 and 6560.38 80.62 g per bird.

2.4.1.1.2 Influence of cage floor space

Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a) studied the effect of cage density on feed

consumption in Japanese quail from 7 to 21 weeks of age and reported average total

feed consumption during 7-21 weeks was 2246.81 5.47, 2139.38 6.5, 2048.90

3.88 and 2021.39 g for quails housed with a cage floor space of 212.5, 141.7, 106.3

and 85.0cm2 per bird, respectively.


under different stocking densities from 6 to 26 weeks of age and reported

average daily feed intake was 18.3 2.17, 18.9 20.4, 19.0 2.01 and 20.4

20.7 g for birds maintained with a cage floor space of 150, 180, 210, 240cm2 per

bird, respectively.

Nazligul et al. (2001a) studied the effect of 3 different cage stocking

densities (150, 120 and 100cm2/quail) after 16 weeks of age in Japanese quail and

reported that the average daily feed consumption was 34.31, 33.46 and 33.17 g,

respectively.

2.4.1.2 Influence of age

Nazligul et al. (2001a) reported daily feed consumption (g /bird / day) at 8,

16 and 24 weeks of age in Japanese quail was 19.68, 27.21 and 32.16 g,

respectively.


Minvielle et al. (1995) observed while comparing 2 lines of Japanese quail

selected for egg number at 14 weeks age and in their reciprocal crosses that the daily

feed intake varied between generations and genotypes, with some interaction, from

23.8 g to 33.7 g.

Marks (1996) observed an increase in feed and water intake in Japanese quail

lines selected for high 4 week body weight.

2.4.1.4 Influence of feed

Shukla et al. (1993a) reported that the average total feed consumption per

bird in 84 days (7-19 weeks) was 2346.41 16.20, 2326.44 29.90, 2423.29

14.87 and 2362.16 18.72 g for Japanese quail reared from 7th to 19th week in

colony cages and fed with the diet containing manganese levels of 20, 50, 80 and

100 mg / kg feed respectively.


zinc on egg production of Japanese quail reared from 7 th to 19th week in colony

cages and reported that the average total feed consumption per bird in 84 days

(7-19 wks) was 2302.88 14.71, 2333.95 11.41, 2423.29 14.87 and 2359.83

20.27 g for quails fed with the diet containing zinc levels of 24, 50, 75 and 100

mg / kg feed, respectively.


laying in Japanese quail reared in colony cages from 6-20 weeks and observed the

feed consumption was 29.16 0.90, 29.54 1.43, 27.92 1.01 and 27.23 1.02 g

for quail breeder groups maintained with full layer ration, 50 per cent grower ration

plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 50 per cent egg production followed by full layer

ration, 50 per cent grower ration plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 80 per cent egg

production and 50 per cent grower ration plus 50 per cent layer ration throughout the

experimental period, respectively.

Alarslan et al. (1997) reported that the average feed consumption was 27.51,

28.10, 26.61, 27.70 and 29.82 g, respectively for Japanese quail control group,

groups fed rations containing 2 or 4 per cent vegetable fat and 2 or 4 per cent

animal fat.


Japanese quail reared in cages from 8-20 weeks of age during hot season (June to

August) and reported that the average daily feed consumption during 8-20 weeks

was 20.93, 20.54 and 20.32 g for the control and Vitamin E supplemented (250 and

500 mg/kg diet) groups, respectively.



reported that the average daily feed consumption was 32.46, 32.82, 30.36 and 30.02

g for quails maintained with energy–protein levels (Kcal /kg metabolisable

energy/crude protein per cent) of 2657/16.68, 2654/19.75, 3010/ 16.45 and

2990/19.50, respectively.

2.4.1.4.1Influence of feeding time

Yerturk et al. (2007) reported that the average feed consumption was

23.77 0.32, 21.38 0.57 and 22.21 0.49 g for Japanese quail fed ad libitum

control, fed ad libitum day time (07 to 17 hours) and fed ad libitum night time

(17 to 07 hours), respectively.

2.4.2 Feed efficiency

Yildiz et al. (2004) observed a feed conversion ratio (kg feed/kg egg) of 3.89

in 8-12 week aged Japanese quail.

2.4.2.1 Feed efficiency in cages

2.4.2.1.1 Influence of cage floor space

Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a) studied the effect of cage density on feed

efficiency in Japanese quail from 7 to 21 weeks of age and reported that the feed

(kg) to produce 100 eggs and feed (kg) to produce 1 kg egg were 2.68, 2.94, 2.83

and 3.23 kg and 2.80, 2.97, 2.87 and 3.30 kg respectively for quails housed with a

cage floor space of 212.5, 141.7, 106.3 and 85.0 cm2 per bird.


under different stocking densities from 6 to 26 weeks of age and reported feed

efficiency as kg of feed per dozen eggs and kg of feed per kilo egg mass as 0.89

0.04, 0.65 0.04, 0.54 0.04 and 0.50 0.03 and 7.62 0.57, 5.54 0.26, 4.82

0.41 and 4.37 0.7 for birds maintained with a cage floor space of 150, 180, 210,

240 cm2 per bird, respectively.

Waheda et al. (1999) reared Japanese quail in two group sizes (6 and 9

birds/cage) and three stocking densities (150, 175 and 200 cm2/bird) from 50 to 125

days of age and observed that the smaller group had higher feed conversion than

those in the larger group and that stocking density did not affect feed conversion.


production performance of Japanese quail during winter season and measured the

feed conversion ratio (kg feed consumed/kg egg produced) as 5.5 0.10, 4.0 0.16,

3.5 0.06 and 3.4 0.08 for quail maintained at the cage floor space of 100, 150,

180 and 210cm2 per bird respectively during 7-13 weeks of age while the

corresponding values for 14-20 weeks of age were 2.93 0.04, 2.77 0.14, 2.75

0.02 and 2.30 0.01, respectively.

2.4.2.1.2 Influence of sex ratio

Erensayin et al. (2002) observed the best feed conversion ratio and

minimum feed consumption in the group of 1:2 between 6-13 weeks of age when

quail flocks were maintained on cage system with sex ratios (male: female) of

1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1: 4 and 1:5.


Sachdev et al. (1989) studied the influence of cage-tier locations on feed

consumption in female quails of 2 Japanese quail lines (A and B) maintained from 6

to 50 week of age in a 5-tier cage system with the 1st tier on the top and 5th on the

bottom, and reported feed efficiency (feed g/bird to produce 100 eggs) from week 6

to 50 for line A averaged 3439.17 162.06, 3707.96 195.78, 4025.21 194.70,

3930.80 184.71 and 3930.45 156.64 g per bird for tiers 1-5 respectively and the

corresponding figures for line B were 3190.63 69.79, 3420.68 173.70, 3855.46

212.51, 4046.78 173.92 and 3654.48 146.96 g per bird.

2.4.2.3 Influence of feed


production and reproduction traits in breeding Japanese quail reared in cages

from 6-20 weeks and reported that the feed efficiency expressed as kilo feed per

kilo egg mass was 5.593 0.492, 4.468 0.368, 4.272 0.375 and 4.329 0.479

for quail breeders maintained with dietary crude protein levels of 16, 19, 22 and

25 per cent, respectively.

Shukla et al. (1993a) observed that the average feed efficiency expressed as

feed per kilo egg mass was 3.59 0.16, 3.24 0.08, 3.09 0.03 and 3.13 0.05 for

Japanese quail reared from 7th to 19th week in colony cages and fed with the diets

containing manganese levels of 20, 50, 80 and 100 mg/kg feed, respectively.

Shukla et al. (1993b) reported average feed efficiency expressed as feed per

kilo egg mass as 3.26 0.05, 2.98 0.02, 3.09 0.03 and 3.09 0.03 for Japanese

quail reared from 7th to 19th week in colony cages and fed with the diets containing

zinc levels of 24, 50, 75 and 100 mg /kg feed, respectively.

Shukla et al. (1994) reported that the feed efficiency expressed as kilo feed

per kilo egg mass was 3.79 0.31, 4.41 0.38, 4.34 0.47 and 4.58 0.36 for

Japanese quail groups reared in colony cages from 6-20 weeks and maintained with

full layer ration, 50 per cent grower ration plus 50 per cent layer ration upto 50 per

cent egg production followed by full layer ration, 50 per cent grower ration plus 50

per cent layer ration upto 80 per cent egg production and 50 per cent grower ration

plus 50 per cent layer ration throughout the experimental period, respectively.

Alarslan et al. (1997) reported that the average feed conversion

efficiency was 5.97, 6.21, 5.37, 6.55 and 6.48 respectively for Japanese quail

control group, groups fed rations containing 2 or 4 per cent vegetable fat and 2 or

4 per cent animal fat.

Avci et al. (2005) reported that the feed efficiency expressed as kilo of feed

to produce a kilo of egg mass was 3.18, 2.84 and 2.44 for Japanese quail control and

Vitamin E supplemented (250 and 500 mg/kg diet) groups respectively when reared

in cages from 8-20 weeks of age during hot season (June to August).

Sehu et al. (2005) reported a feed conversion ratio (kg feed consumed/ dozen

eggs) of 0.46, 0.49, 0.43 and 0.42 for Japanese quail maintained with energy-protein

levels (Kcal/kg metabolisable energy/crude protein per cent) of 2657/16.68,

2654/19.75, 3010/16.45 and 2990/19.50, respectively from 7 to 19 weeks of age.

2.4.2.3.1 Influence of feed restriction

Hassan et al. (2003) observed that the feed conversion was unaffected

between 6 to 13 weeks by feeding 70 per cent or 85 per cent ad libitum during 2-5

weeks of age.

2.4.2.3.2 Influence of feeding time

Yerturk et al. (2007) reported that the average feed conversion ratio was 2.94

0.26, 2.83 0.5 and 2.65 0.43 for Japanese quail fed ad libitum control, fed ad

libitum day time (07 to 17 hours) and fed ad libitum night time (17 to 07 hours),

respectively.

2.5 Livability

2.5.1 Livability in cages

2.5.1.1 Effect of cage floor space

Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a) studied the effect of cage density on

mortality in Japanese quail from 7 to 21 week of age and reported the mortality

percent as 12.5, 13.3, 5.0 and 13.0 per cent for quails housed with a cage floor space

of 212.5, 141.7, 106.3 and 85.0 cm2 per bird, respectively.


under different stocking densities and reported 6 to 26 weeks mortality was 24.3

1.33, 18.1 1.04, 16.3 1.28 and 7.6 0.92 per cent for birds maintained with a

cage floor space of 150, 180, 20 and 240 cm2 per bird, respectively.

Bhanja et al. (2006) reported that the mortality per cent ranged from 1.96 to

5.50 and 0.00 to 1.85 per cent for the quail during 7-13 weeks and 14-20 weeks of

age, respectively when maintained with the cage floor space of 210 cm2 per bird

during winter season.

2.5.1.2 Effect of sex ratio

Erensayin et al. (2002) reported that mortalities between 6-13 weeks of age

for quail flocks based on cage system with sex ratios (male: female) of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3,

and 1:4 were 6.15, 9.28, 3.03 and 6.66 per cent, respectively.

2.5.2 Cage vs deep litter

Viswanathan (1991) observed lower mortality in cages than among deep

litter reared Japanese quail during the laying period from 6 to 30 weeks of age.

Biswas et al. (2005) observed lower mortality in quails reared in cage system

compared to deep litter system.


Nestor and Bacon (1982) observed that the mortality increased in Japanese

quail population selected for low 4-week body weight and decreased in quail

population selected for high 4-week body weight.

Sato et al. (1984) investigated the livability in Japanese quail and observed

that it was poorer in the selected lines than in the random-bred line in the 7th

generation, but by the 9th generation no significant difference existed.

El-Fiky et al. (1996) reported 34.85 per cent higher mortality in the inbred

line (full-sib matings) after 1st generation compared to control line.

Inal et al. (1996) observed a survival rate of 80.38, 80.02 and 78.86 per cent

respectively for the control, low-line and high-line Japanese quail that were

divergently selected for 5-week body weight over 5 generations and a survival rate

of 85.28 prior to the 1st generation of selection.

2.5.4 Effect of season and mating system


the livability of Japanese quail breeders reared under flock mating and paired mating

system from 13-24 weeks of age during 4 different seasons and observed livability

of 98.24, 97.66, 97.66 and 92.19 per cent of breeder quail during south-west

monsoon, north-east monsoon, winter and summer seasons respectively and the

livability of breeder quail from 13-24 weeks under flock mating and paired mating

was 96.68 and 96.20 per cent, respectively.

2.5.5 Effect of sex

Gildersleeve et al. (1987) compared the mortality among four generations of

Japanese quail from 6-20 weeks maintained as mated pairs and reported that the

female and male mortality were 7.5 and 2.5, 7.5 and 5.0, 5.0 and 2.5, and 3.3 and 0

per cent, respectively for 1 to 4 generations and the overall values were 5.8 and 2.5

per cent respectively for females and males.


sexes of Japanese quail on mortality and observed that the per cent mortality of quail

from 3-18 weeks were 16.00, 12.66, 10.66 and 7.33 for breeder groups in which

sexes were mixed at 0 day, 6th week, 10th week and in groups where females were

separately reared respectively while the same in group where males were separately

reared was 6.00 per cent.

2.5.6 Effect of feed restriction

Hassan et al. (2003) evaluated the reproductive performance of Japanese

quail following feed restriction between 2-5 weeks and reported that the mortality

was 2.8, 2.8 and 5.6 per cent from 6 to 13 weeks of age for quail under 0, 15 and 30

per cent feed restrictions and observed no difference in mortality among treatments.

2.6 Hatchability traits

Sabine et al. (1991) studied the effects of switching males among caged

females on hatchability in Japanese quail and reported that the hatchability of eggs

from permanent pairs was 83 per cent but that of rotational male group was 70 per

cent in the first experiment and 75 and 74 per cent respectively in the second

experiment.

Bunaciu et al. (1994) studied the influence of mating design on the

reproductive performance in Japanese quail and reported that the egg fertility ranged

from 74.1 to 88.3 per cent and egg hatchability from 55.9 to 72.2 per cent for

different mating designs.

Vali et al. (2005) reported that the fertility and hatchability of fertile eggs

was 74.5 7.9 and 72.46 10.73 per cent respectively in breeder quails of 8-16

weeks of age.

Seker et al. (2006) reported an apparent fertility rate of 66.5 per cent in 20-

week old Japanese quail.

2.6.1 Hatchability traits in cages

2.6.1.1 Effect of cage floor space

Bandyopadhyay et al. (1992) studied the hatchability traits of Japanese quail

aged 11-13 weeks maintained at different cage floor spaces and reported the per cent

fertility, hatchability on fertile eggs, dead germs and dead-in-shell as 81.84,

83.83, 9.59 and 6.57, 88.07, 80.53, 12.02 and 7.44, 91.50, 80.87, 10.38 and 8.74,

90.35, 83.11, 8.74 and 8.15, and, 90.30, 83.77, 9.87 and 6.36, respectively for

breeders maintained with a cage floor space of 80, 100, 120, 140 and 160 cm2 per

bird, respectively.

Bhanja et al. (2006) studied the effect of cage floor space on the

reproductive performance of Japanese quail aged 20 weeks during winter season

and calculated the per cent fertility, per cent hatchability on total eggs set and per

cent hatchability on fertile eggs set were 83.2 2.69, 74.0 1.53 and 89.5

1.15, 92.1 2.11, 85.9 3.08 and 93.2 1.17, 89.4 3.08, 82.3 3.76 and 92.6

2.6 and 80.0 5.13, 64.0 6.08 and 79.7 2.80, respectively, for quails

maintained at the cage floor space of 100, 150, 180 and 210cm2 per bird with a

breeding ratio of one male to two females.

2.6.1.2 Effect of sex ratio

Asasi and Jaafar (2000) reported the fertility of the eggs of Japanese quail

breeders reared in cage system with sex ratios of one male to 1, 2, 3 or 4 females as

93.3, 92.0, 62.0and 94.5 per cent respectively, respective hatchability of the eggs

was 76, 80, 60 and 88 per cent (as first stage) and 64, 54, 49 and 62 per cent (as

second stage) and the fertility and hatchability of different sex ratios were not

significantly different except for the sex ratio of 1:3 (P<0.05).

2.6.2 Cage vs deep litter

Chidananda et al. (1986) compared the reproduction traits of Japanese quail

under cage and deep litter systems and reported that the per cent fertility, per cent

hatchability on total eggs set and per cent hatchability on fertile egg set were 58.03

4.65, 55.82 5.65 and 81.49 5.26, and 78.35 3.62, 48.99 5.62 and 75.44

5.20, respectively for the birds reared under cage and deep litter system and

concluded that although that fertility was higher among the litter reared birds, the

cage-rearing results in more number of chicks both on total eggs set and on fertile

eggs set basis.

Narahari et al. (1988) observed that housing system (cage or deep litter) did

not result in any significant variations in fertility or hatchability of Japanese quail

breeders and reported that the fertility was 89.5 1.07 and 87.2 0.97 per cent, early

embryonic mortality was 18.1 1.57 and 17.6 1.48 per cent, late embryonic

mortality was 9.4 0.90 and 8.8 0.74 per cent, and hatchability per cent for fertile

eggs set was 72.5 1.11 and 73.6 0.82, respectively for cage and deep litter birds

reared from 10-25 weeks of age.

Abdul Mujeer (1992) studied the factors influencing the hatching

performance of Japanese quail eggs and observed that fertility has steadily improved

upto 17 weeks of age and decreased gradually upto 42 weeks while hatchability

decreased from eight to 22 weeks of age and remained static thereafter. He further

stated that fertility rate and hatchability were significantly higher in cage system

while early embryonic mortality was higher in deep litter system.

Narahari et al. (2002) compared the hatching performances of cage and

deep litter reared Japanese quail breeders of 10-20 weeks of age with gender

ratios ranging from 1:1 to 1:6 and observed, irrespective of the gender ratio, the

fertility and hatchability were higher in cage system than in deep litter system

and the values of fertility, hatchability, early embryonic mortality and late

embryonic mortality per cent were 84.3 0.95, 78.5 0.44, 10.4 0.23 and 11.1

0.19, and 80.6 1.18, 76.9 0.57, 12.5 0.28 and 10.6 0.26 for cage and

deep litter reared birds, respectively.


and deep litter system of rearing in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and reported that

the mean hatchability per cent on total egg set as well as on fertile egg set were more

in cage (56.89 2.13, 86.98 2.45) than litter (48.13 1.81, 81.17 2.39) during

the age of 16 and 18 weeks while the fertility per cent was higher in cage reared

birds (63 3.62 and 68 1.77) than deep litter reared birds (58.5 3.12 and 60.25

2.13) at the age of 16 and 18 weeks, respectively.

Biswas et al. (2005) observed significantly (P<0.05) higher hatchability per

cent and higher fertility per cent (non-significant) in quails reared in cage system

than for quails reared in deep litter system.


Nestor and Bacon (1982) observed fertility and hatchability did not exhibit

significant population or strain differences in the fifth generation of selection for

high or low 4-week body weight.

Blohowiak et al. (1984) indicated that body size influenced the reproductive

performance of Japanese quail and observed that the mating efficiency and fertility

were reduced in Japanese quail line selected for increased 28-day body weight.

Sato et al. (1984) reported that egg fertility and hatchability were poorer in

selected lines than in the random bred line of Japanese quail in the 7th generation,

but by the 9th generation no significant differences existed.

Gildersleeve et al. (1987) compared the reproduction among four generations

of Japanese quail and reported that the fertility and hatchability per cent at 16 weeks

were 97.6 11.5 and 73.0 12.6, 90.8 4.7 and 79.2 10.3, 92.4 12.9 and 82.9

11.5 and 94.8 13.8 and 86.0 10.1 respectively for 1 to 4 generations and the

overall values were 93.9 and 80.2 per cent, respectively for four generations of

Japanese quail.

Anthony et al. (1996) observed that short-term selection for 4-week body

weight in Japanese quail lines had negative effects on fertility.

EI-Fiky et al. (1996) reported 32.99 per cent lower fertility and 34.72 per

cent lower hatchability in the inbred line (full-sib matings) after 1st generation than

for control line.

Inal et al. (1996) reported the hatchability range to be 51.35- 55.03, 51.22-

61.98 and 48.00-53.48 per cent respectively and the egg fertility as 82.94, 87.39 and

86.79 per cent, respectively for the control, low-line and high-line Japanese quail

that were divergently selected for 5-week body weight over 5 generations.

Marks (1996) observed that Japanese quail lines selected for high 4-week

body weight had negative effects on per cent egg fertility and hatchability. Long

term selection for small body weight reduced genetic merits, particularly fertility

and hatchability (Suda and Okamoto, 2003).

2.6.4 Effect of mating system

Prabakaran et al. (1992) reported that per cent hatchability was higher

(P<0.01) under paired-mating than under flock mating (70.91 vs 49.15) system in

Japanese quail with a sex ratio of 1:1 from 13 to 24 weeks of age and the per cent

infertile eggs and dead embryos were higher under flock mating than under paired

mating while hatchability was lower (P<0.05) during summer than other seasons

under both systems of mating.

2.6.5 Effect of egg weight

Insko et al. (1970) studied the relationship of egg weight and hatchability of

quail eggs and reported that per cent fertility, hatchability of fertile eggs and

hatchability of total eggs in egg weight groups of 9.6-10.0, 10.1-10.5 and 10.6-11.0

g in quails at their 8th month of production were, 65.99, 63.92 and 42.18, 69.44,

72.00 and 50.00, and 58.75,68.08 and 40.00 respectively while in egg weight groups

of 10.6 - 11.0, 11.1 - 11.5 and 11.6 - 12.0 in quails at their 1st month of production,

the values were 93.99, 83.39 and 78.38, 89.09, 78.57 and 70.00 and 81.08 , 56.67

and 45.95, respectively.

Prabakaran et al. (1984) indicated that hatchability of incubated eggs was

higher in heavy eggs than the lighter eggs in Japanese quail.

Kirmizibayarak and Altinel (2001) reported that the fertility of Japanese

quail eggs laid at 70-170 days of age was 88.15 per cent and the hatchability was

67.71 per cent, the fertility of the groups of eggs of 9-10, 10-11, 11-12, 12-13, 13-14

and 14-15 g weights was 83.33, 91.88, 91.08, 88.05, 83.14 and 86.15 per cent

respectively and the hatchability was 72.22, 78.61, 81.21, 72.95, 63.95 and 67.71%

respectively. They observed that the highest fertility and hatchability were found in

10-12 g eggs (P<0.05).

Kucukyilmaz et al. (2001) reported that the fertility was 75.9, 79.3, 78.6,

78.0 and 80.0 per cent, hatchability of eggs set was 50.0, 57.3, 57.6, 55.3 and 56.4

per cent, hatchability of fertile eggs was 65.9, 72.3, 73.3, 70.9 and 69.3 per cent and

embryonic mortality was 38.7, 22.0, 21.0, 29.0 and 30.7 per cent respectively for

the 5 egg-weight groups of 9.00 - 9.99, 10.00 - 10.99, 11.00 - 11.99, 12.00 - 12.99

and >13 g and stored for up to 9 days in Japanese quail breeders.

Seker et al. (2004b) studied the effect of egg weight on hatchability and

reported fertility, hatchability of incubated eggs and hatchability of fertile eggs in

egg weight groups of 9.50 - 10.50, 10.51 - 11.50 and 11.51 - 12.50 g in Japanese

quail realized respectively were 61.74, 58.79 and 78.77, 46.44, 58.31 and 67.90 and

75.21, 99.19 and 86.21 per cent while early, middle and late embryonic mortality

respectively were, 8.84, 7.98 and 10.97, 0.49, 0.14 and 0.18 and 3.71, 4.65 and 5.42

per cent for the egg weigh groups of 9.50 - 10.50, 10.51 - 11.50 and 11.51 - 12.50 g.

Seker et al. (2005a) studied the effect of egg weight on fertility and

hatchability in Japanese quail and reported that the fertility rate of light (9.50-10.50

g), medium (10.51-11.50 g) and heavy (11.51-12.50 g) weight eggs were 69.72,

75.83 and 79.81 per cent respectively and the corresponding values for hatchability

per cent of fertile eggs were 67.51, 76.72 and 77.68 per cent respectively. They

recommended that use of medium (10.51-11.50 g) or heavy weight (11.51-12.50 g)

eggs for hatching might reduce early embryonic mortality rate than using light

weight (9.50-10.50 g) eggs.

Cağlayan and Inal (2006) studied the effect of egg weight on hatchability in

Japanese quail and observed that the egg weight groups of 10-11 and 11-12 g were

better than the other groups (<10, 12-13, 13-14, 14-15and >15 g) in terms of

apparent fertility and hatchability of total eggs and the highest hatchability and

lowest embryonic mortality were noticed in eggs weighing 11-12 g and they

concluded that Japanese quail eggs weighing 10-12 g are the most suitable eggs for

incubation.

2.6.6 Effect of age

Ottinger et al. (1983) opined that the age-related reproductive decline in

male Japanese quail may have behavioural as well as endocrine basis.

Yannakopoulos and Tserveni-Gousi (1987) reported the hatchability of 55.3,

72.2, 70.0 and 72.3 per cent for hatching eggs collected from the breeder quail age

groups of 6 to 10, 10 to 14, 14 to 18 and 18 to 22 weeks respectively and the overall

hatchability per cent was 67.5 per cent.

Narahari et al. (1988) observed that parental age influenced the fertility rate

as it gradually increased upto 14 weeks of age and thereafter declined gradually

while maximum hatchability was attained at 12 weeks of age which declined

gradually thereafter; however, significant (P<0.05) declines in fertility and

hatchability, with proportionate increases in the embryonic mortality were witnessed

from 20 weeks of age onwards in Japanese quail breeders.

Kumar et al. (1990) reported that the average egg fertility was 71.0, 81.7,

64.9 and 76.7 per cent respectively, hatchability as percentage of fertile eggs set was

78.4, 82.7, 78.7 and 78.3 and hatchability as percentage of total eggs set was 55.8,

67.6, 51.1 and 60.1 per cent respectively for mating groups of quail that comprised

young (142 days of age) males and females, young males and old (170 days)

females, old males plus young females and old males plus old females.

Babu et al. (1991) observed that the eggs from Japanese hens aged 11-46

weeks had a significantly higher fertility (60.86-76.84 per cent) and hatchability

(51.23-60.38 for total eggs set and 74.34-88.9 per cent for fertile eggs) than those

from hens aged 7-10 or 47-50 weeks.

Cerit and Altinel (1998) recorded that fertility rate, total hatchability and

hatching rate of the fertile eggs for the eggs collected from quails of 3-8 months of

age were 94.00, 63.65 and 59.83 per cent respectively and also observed that the

highest hatching rate and hatchability were observed for eggs collected from 6-

month-old quails, the lowest from 3 and 4 month old quails.

Narahari et al. (1998) studied the influence of parental age on hatching

performance of Japanese quail eggs and reported that the fertility and hatchability of

fertile eggs of 10-13, 14-17, 18-21 and 22-25 weeks aged breeders were 92.9 1.14

and 78.6 1.58, 94.0 1.74 and 77.5 1.45, 88.5 2.08 and 72.4 1.55 and 83.4

2.05 and 69.8 2.26 per cent respectively and the values for early and late

embryonic mortality of fertile eggs were 13.7 1.7 and 7.7 0.67, 13.8 1.12 and

8.7 0.72, 15.2 1.24 and 12.4 1.08 and 18.4 1.37 and 11.8 0.97 per cent.

Erensayin (2002) studied the effect of age of the breeding stock on the

hatching performance of Japanese quail eggs with 4 mating groups viz. old males

plus old females, old males plus young females young males plus old females, and

young males plus young females. For the 4 groups, averages of egg fertility was

63.47 1.19, 64.8 0.61, 70.73 1.18 and 77.53 1.37 per cent respectively.

Early embryonic mortalities were 14.57 1.85, 13.15 1.35, 12.55 1.24 and

8.99 0.96 per cent, the values for late embryonic mortalities were 14.09 0.72,

13.26 0.70, 12.56 1.30 and 12.14 1.27 per cent, total embryonic mortalities

were 20.56 1.71, 18.89 0.99, 18.08 0.13 and 15.28 1.14 per cent, hatchability

as percentage of fertile eggs was 69.44 1.17, 71.10 1.00, 71.92 0.13 and 74.72

1.14 per cent and the hatchability as percentage of set of all eggs was 56.81 1.03,

58.62 0.93, 63.80 0.92 and 70.34 1.50 per cent, respectively. The parental age

significantly influenced (P<0.05) the fertility, embryonic mortality and hatchability

rates, young males plus old females had higher (P<0.05) fertility and hatchability

than old males plus old females and old males plus young females. It was concluded

that breeder quail age has a significant influence (P<0.05) on hatching performance.

More over, the mating system that comprised of young males plus old females

significantly improved (P<0.05) the hatching performance.

Narahari et al. (2002) studied the effect of age of the breeding quails aged 8-

42 weeks, on the hatching performance of their eggs and observed that the breeder

age had a highly significant (P<0.01) effect on all the hatchability traits, the fertility

rate increased from 8 to 17 weeks of age which declined gradually thereafter;

whereas, the hatchability rate was the highest at 10 weeks of age that declined

gradually upto 22 weeks of age and remained static thereafter. The early embryonic

mortality increased gradually with advancement of age; but the late embryonic

mortality increased steeply up to 20 weeks of age and remained more or less

constant thereafter. The reported values of fertility, hatchability, early embryonic

mortality and late embryonic mortality percentages were 78.8 1.32, 86.8 1.10,

5.4 0.42 and 7.8 0.37, 91.1 0.31, 79.5 0.55, 8.3 0.21 and 12.2 0.21,

86.8 1.61, 73.9 0.61, 10.2 0.12 and 15.9 0.40, 77.9 1.59, 72.7 0.55, 11.4

0.22 and 15.9 0.24, 70.1 0.83, 74.7 0.64, 10.7 0.33 and 14.6 0.37, 65.6

0.63, 74.9 0.62, 11.6 0.53 and 13.5 0.32, and, 61.6 0.90, 73.0 0.68, 12.8

0.21 and 14.2 0.31, respectively for breeder quails aged 8-12, 13-17, 18-22, 23-

27, 28-32, 33-37 and 38-42 weeks.

Seker et al. (2004a) observed that the hatchability traits were unaffected by

parental age of 10 or 20 weeks and reported a better hatchability for the mating ratio

of 1: 3 compared to 1: 2 mating ratio at 10 weeks of age.

Seker et al. (2004b) studied the effect of parental age on hatchability and

reported fertility, hatchability of incubated eggs and hatchability of fertile eggs in

age groups of 10 and 20 weeks of Japanese quail realised as 78.92, 62.07, 64.3 and

57.93, 81.53, 93.33 per cent, respectively. Further, early, middle and late embryonic

mortality were 4.22, 1.84, 6.02 and 2.42, 8.23, 2.42 per cent respectively for the age

groups of 10 and 20 weeks.

2.6.7 Effect of sex ratio

Panda et al. (1980) observed fertility and hatchability of fertile eggs was

73.78 and 76.87 per cent respectively for 16 week aged quail parents reared with a

breeding ratio of one male to two females and where shift mating was practiced.

Sreenivasaiah and Ramappa (1985) studied the influence of mating ratio on

fertility and hatchability of Japanese quail eggs and reported that the fertility and

hatchability of eggs set were significantly higher for a male: female mating ratio of

1:1 (92.25 1.65 and 76.93 3.68 per cent) than for ratios of 1:2 (84.68 1.50 and

67.84 2.76 per cent) and 1:3 (80.72 1.66 and 69.97 2.60 per cent), while

hatchability of fertile eggs did not differ significantly among mating ratios.

Erensayin et al. (2002) investigated the influence of male/female ratio of

quail flocks based on cage system between 6-13 weeks with sex ratios (male :

female) of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4 and 1:5 and reported that the proportion of hatchable

eggs were 83.35, 87.22, 80.41, 78.21 and 82.45 per cent, fertilities were 77.62,

84.17, 86.97, 80.17 and 77.65 per cent, hatchability of eggs set were 63.37, 65.24,

76.80, 63.44 and 64.49 per cent, early embryonic mortalities were 11,51, 15.53,

7.69, 16.08 and 8.68 per cent respectively, late embryonic moralities were 7.24,

7.11, 4.18, 5.79 and 8.21 per cent respectively and it was concluded that a male :

female ratio of 1:3 could be considered the best ratio for cage management of

breeding stocks of quail.

2.6.7.1 Effect of photoperiod and sex ratio

Narahari et al. (2002) observed that the season of hatch of Japanese quail

eggs had no significant effect on any hatchability traits and 24 h photoperiod to the

quail breeders significantly improved the fertility but the hatchability was in favour

of the 12h photoperiod and breeder male: female ratios higher than 1:2 significantly

reduced the fertility and hatchability and increased the embryonic mortality.

2.6.8 Effect of season

Narahari et al. (2002) assessed the influence of season on the hatching

performance of Japanese quail eggs from 8-42 weeks of age over a period of 8 years

and observed that the season of hatch did not exert any significant influence on any

of the hatchability traits and reported per cent fertility, hatchability, early embryonic

mortality and late embryonic mortality percentages on fertile eggs set were 86.8

1.08, 76.4 1.51,12.1 0.78 and 11.5 0.95, 83.5 1.81, 76.5 1.78, 12.1

1.19 and 11.4 1.00, and 84.6 1.49, 78.6 1.79, 10.9 0.87 and 10.5 0.87

respectively during summer, monsoon and winter seasons.


the reproductive performance of Japanese quail breeders reared under flock mating

and paired mating systems with a sex ratio of 1:1 from 13-24 weeks of age during 4

different seasons and reported that the per cent fertility, hatchability, dead germs and

deed in shells were 80.50 0.92, 64.00 1.32, 6.58 0.81 and 9.92 0.77, 79.03

0.84, 60.67 1.08, 8.07 0.76 and 10.29 0.39, 78.91 0.99, 61.21 0.98, 6.95

0.62 and 10.75 0.73 and 73.23 1.28, 54.24 1.24, 8.17 0.78 and 10.82 0.75

for breeder quails during south-west monsoon, north-east monsoon, winter and

summer seasons, respectively and the corresponding values under flock mating and

paired mating were 70.48 0.89, 49.15 1.02, 9.43 0.46 and 11.89 0.48 and

85.36 0.76, 70.91 0.91, 5,45 0.3 and 8.99 0.35, respectively. They indicated

that per cent hatchability during summer was significantly (P < 0.05) lower than all

other seasons.

2.6.9 Effect of feed

Prabakaran (1992) studied the genetic gain of selected and control

populations of Japanese quail under two different nutritional environments of high

(28 per cent) and low (20 per cent) protein diets for four generations and observed

that the total hatchability remained comparable over generations among high

protein, low protein and control populations.


reproduction traits in breeding Japanese quail reared in cages from 6-20 weeks and

reported that fertility, hatchability on total eggs and hatchability on fertile eggs were

84.73 2.11, 74.32 5.04 and 87.46 3.97, 86.83 3.71, 78.99 6.14 and 90.73

4.19, 88.96 2.58, 82.71 4.53 and 92.81 2.73 and 85.88 4.08, 81.35 4.37

and 94.64 0.64 per cent respectively for quail breeders maintained with dietary

crude protein levels of 16, 19, 22 and 25 per cent, respectively.

Alarslan et al. (1997) reported hatchability for Japanese quail control group,

groups fed rations containing 2 or 4 per cent vegetable fat and 2 or 4 per cent animal

fat was 60.00, 61.43, 60.84, 61.21 and 60.00 per cent, respectively.

Aydin et al. (2006) reported that the hatchability of fertile eggs of Japanese

quail fed on a commercial diet supplemented with 0.5 per cent hazelnut, 0.5 per cent

sunflower oil, 0.25 per cent Conjugated Linoleic acid (CLA) and 0.5 per cent CLA

were 74, 80, 72 and 70 per cent, respectively and the fertility rate was 64.4, 56.4,

66.0 and 62.8 per cent respectively.

2.6.9.1 Effect of feed restriction


following feed restriction between 2-5 weeks and reported that fertility per cent was

82.9 3.9, 81.2 4.1 and 81.3 3.6 during 6 to 13 weeks of age for quails under 0,

15 and 30 per cent feed restrictions respectively. The corresponding values for

hatchability on fertile eggs were 80.8 34, 83.2 4.28 and 86.3 3.1, early

embryonic mortality of 4.3 1.6, 1.4 0.9 and 2.9 1.4, late embryonic mortality

of 11.0 2.1, 5.8 1.6 and 5.7 1.5 per cent, piped dead per cent were 0.7 0.4,

1.9 0.7 and 0.8 0.6 and the total dead embryo per cent were 16.1 2.4, 9.1 2.0

and 9.4 1.9, respectively, and opined that feed can be restricted to 85 or 70 per

cent of ad libitum feed in take from 2 to 5 weeks of age without detrimentally

affecting reproductive parameters between 6 to 13 weeks of age.

2.6.10 Effect of pre-incubation storage period

Seker et al. (2005a) studied the effects of storage period of hatching eggs of

Japanese quail on fertility and hatchability results and noted that the influence of

storage period on hatchability of fertile eggs and early, middle and late period

embryonic mortality rates was found significant (P<0.01). They concluded that 12

day pre- incubation storage of hatching eggs of Japanese quail did not appreciably

affect hatching parameters.

2.7 Economics

Sathishkumar (2003) reported that the feed cost per 100 hatching eggs was

Rs. 42.82 ± 0.67, 41.45 ± 0.47, 41.08 ± 0.57 and 40.42 ± 0.61 for Japanese quail

breeders fed on a ration in which fish meal was replaced at 0, 3,6 and 9% levels with

processed Japanese quail hatchery waste and the respective feed cost per 100 quail

chicks hatched were Rs. 56.09 ± 1.32, 54.47 ± 1.12, 53.72 ± 1.60 and 52.51 ± 1.20.

Prabakaran and Srinivasan (2007) reported that, under field conditions the

fixed cost per day old Japanese quail chick produced was Rs. 0.23 ± 0.03, variable

cost Rs. 1.43 ± 0.08 with the total cost of production of a day old Japanese quail

arrived at as Rs. 1.66 ± 0.10.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chapter III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A study was undertaken in a private commercial Japanese quail breeder farm

in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu to assess the performance of Japanese quail

breeders under different (cage and deep litter) systems of housing management.

3.1 Location

The study was conducted in Palladam broiler belt located in Coimbatore

district of Tamil Nadu.

3.1.1 Geographical location

The region of Coimbatore district is located between latitudes 10º-10' and

12º - 00' N and longitudes 76º - 40' and 78º - 00' E with an altitude of 426.72 meters

above mean sea level.

3.1.2 Seasons

Different seasons in Coimbatore district are classified as

January to February : Winter

March to May : Summer

June to September : South – West monsoon

October to December : North – East monsoon

3.1.3 Climate

The normal climate of the location (Mean over 25 years) is characterized by

the mean maximum and minimum temperatures of 31.5º C and 21.0º C respectively.

The mean relative humidity is 63 per cent. The location receives a mean annual

rainfall of 674 mm in 49 rainy days.

Monthly maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity and rainfall

in Coimbatore district for the study period is given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity and rainfall in

Coimbatore district during the experimental period

Months Year Temperature ˚c Relative Humidity % Rainfall (mm) Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum

January

2006 29.7 18.2 90 47 28.2

2007 29.8 18.8 89 41 10.0

2008 29.7 17.5 92 45 0.2

February

2006 31.8 16.9 87 31 -

2007 31.8 19.3 85 36 21.8

2008 31.4 20.2 87 43 49.2

March

2006 33.5 21.8 89 46 151.4

2007 34.7 21.9 81 32 -

2008 31.3 20.9 86 47 77.1

April 2006 35.0 23.1 89 45 29.2

2007 35.3 23.9 86 40 57.7

May 2006 33.6 23.7 85 51 69.6

2007 34.5 23.7 85 47 80.8

June 2006 31.6 23.1 87 57 62.6

2007 32.1 23.6 80 55 60.6

July 2006 31.4 23.9 73 51 8.7

2007 29.6 23.1 84 64 82.0

August 2006 31.9 22.6 82 51 9.0

2007 30.4 22.3 89 59 84.3

September 2006 30.6 22.6 87 60 69.3

2007 31.2 21.3 85 55 14.4

October 2006 30.8 22.4 90 60 201.8

2007 30.6 21.8 90 60 278.8

November 2006 28.4 21.9 94 67 297.2

2007 29.7 19.9 90 53 56.5

December 2006 28.6 18.9 89 48 0.6

2007 28.4 19.3 89 54 114.9

3.2. Biological experiment

Two biological experiments of 28 weeks duration each were carried out in

commercial Japanese quail breeder farm-cum-hatchery under private management to

study the effect of cage and deep litter systems of management on the Japanese quail

breeder performance viz., age at sexual maturity, body weight at sexual maturity,

age at 50 per cent egg production, hen- day egg production, hen-housed egg

production, egg weight, feed consumption and feed efficiency, livability, fertility,

hatchability, embryonic mortality, hen day chick production and economics of

hatching egg and chick production in terms of feed cost and to compare the

performance under the two systems of housing management.

3.2.1 Biological experiment I

In this experiment, pure bred grand parent breeders of meat type Japanese

quail (under selection for high 4 week body weight) were reared under cage and

deep litter systems of management from 5-32 weeks of age. A total of 1584 adult

Japanese quail birds (1152 females and 432 males) were selected at the age of 4

weeks and randomly divided into two treatment groups of equal numbers. Birds

under each treatment were further allotted randomly into 3 replicate groups in equal

numbers with a breeding ratio of 8 females to 3 males and were reared upto 32

weeks of age under both cage and deep litter systems of management. The

experiment was carried out during October -April, 2007.

3.2.2 Biological experiment II

In this experiment, commercial parent breeders of meat type Japanese quail

obtained by shift mating of males among selected grand parent lines were reared

under cage and deep litter systems of management from 5-32 weeks of age.

A total of 1848 adult Japanese quail birds (1344 females and 504 males)

were selected at the age of 4 weeks and randomly divided into two treatment groups

of equal numbers. Birds under each treatment were further allotted randomly into 4

replicate groups in equal numbers with a breeding ratio of 8 females to 3 males and

were reared upto 32 weeks of age under both cage and deep litter systems of

management. The experiment was carried out during the months of September -

March, 2008.

3.3 Breeder flock management

The breeder quails were housed in either deep litter (Plate 3.1) or in multi-

tier Japanese quail breeder cages, located in a well ventilated open sided poultry

house built as per standard norms for a broiler house.

The breeder cages were of 45 x 45 x 30 cm unit size arranged in rows in two

tiers, on a Californian ‘M’ type model (Plate 3.2). The wire floor mesh was of 1.25 x

1.25 cm welded mesh and the bottom row was fitted at a height of 90 cm from the

floor. The sides of the cage unit were made of 5.0 x 2.5 cm mesh and the roof with

7.5 x 2.5 cm size welded mesh. The feeders were fitted to the front of the cage unit

while nipple watering was arranged through two nipples fitted at the top in each unit

connected to a separate plastic water tank with a foot valve to supply to cages in

each row.

3.3.1 Floor space

Under deep litter system, a floor space of 225 cm2 per bird was provided.

Under cage system, 8 females and 3 males were housed in a breeder cage

unit of 2025 cm2 each, offering a floor space of 184 cm2 per bird.

3.3.2 Litter material

Paddy husk was used as litter material in deep litter system of housing and

was provided to a height of five cm. droppings were allowed to stack at the bottom

of the cage till the end of the study period.

3.3.3 Nutrition

Adequate feeder and waterer space were made available. All the birds were

fed with the same quail breeder ration ad libitum and had free access to wholesome

water throughout the experimental period. Per cent ingredient composition and

nutrient composition of quail breeder ration were presented in Table 3.2 and in

Table 3.3 respectively.

Table 3.2 Per cent ingredient composition of Japanese quail breeder ration

S. No. Ingredient Per cent composition

1. Maize 51.45

2. Soybean meal 31.8

3. Deoiled rice bran 6.5

4. Dicalcium phosphate 1.7

5. Shell grit 7.8

6. Salt 0.35

7. Trace minerals 0.12

8. DL-Methionine 0.03

9. Additives 0.25

Table 3.3 Nutrient composition of Japanese quail breeder ration

Nutrient Nutrient level

CP* (g/kg) 187.90

ME* (MJ/kg) 10.83

Calcium* (g/kg) 28.20

Available phosphorus** (g/kg) 4.52

Lysine** (g/kg) 11.10

Methionine* (g/kg) 3.69

*Analysed values; **Calculated values

3.3.4 Lighting programme

A total of 15 hours of light (photo period) was provided daily from 7-32

weeks of age.

3.3.5 Pre-incubation care of hatching eggs

The hatching eggs from the breeder stock were collected four times daily

during the experimental period at 8 00 AM, 4 00 PM, 6 00 PM and 8 00 PM. The

last 3 days collection of eggs in each 28 days period of the experimental period was

subjected for fertility and hatchability studies. Soon after collection, the eggs were

fumigated with formaldehyde gas for 20 minutes at 2X concentration according to

the permanganomatrix methods of North and Bell (1990).

These eggs were stored at 180 10C with 75 5 per cent relative humidity

prior to setting with broad end up. On the day of setting, the hatching eggs allowed

to sweat, dry and attain room temperature prior to setting. For this purpose, the

hatching eggs were taken out of cold storage room six hours prior to setting.

3.3.6 Management of incubators

The eggs were incubated in forced draft all automatic chicken egg type

‘Dayal’ incubator and were arranged with broad end up in the setter compartment

for the purpose.

The setter and hatcher temperatures were maintained at 37.70C and 37.20C

respectively with relative humidity maintained at 60 and 65-70 per cent. The eggs in

the setter were turned by 450 angles on either side at hourly intervals until they were

transferred to the hatcher. After 15 days of incubation, the eggs were transferred

from the setter to the hatcher. The hatch was taken on day 18.

3.3.7 Post-hatch egg break out analysis

After taking out all the hatched out chicks from the hatcher trays, the

unhatched eggs were subjected to breakout analysis on 18th day post setting as per

the procedure described by Abdul Mujeer (1992). All the unhatched eggs were

broken open on the hatch day under bright sunlight. These were examined

macroscopically to identify apparent infertile eggs, embryonic mortality and dead-

in-shell.

3.4 Parameters recorded

3.4.1 Production parameters

3.4.1.1 Egg production

The hatching egg production from both the treatments was recorded

everyday during the experimental period. Based on the data both hen-day and hen-

housed egg production were calculated and expressed in percentage for each 28 days

period.

3.4.1.2 Egg weight (g)

The eggs collected for 3 consecutive days during the end of each 28 days

period were weighed with 0.1g accuracy and the mean egg weight was calculated.

3.4.1.3 Feed consumption (g) and Feed efficiency

Ad libitum quail breeder ration was offered to both the treatment groups of

birds, and once in seven days, the left over feed was weighted back, feed

consumption arrived at and feed efficiency for a dozen eggs and a kg egg mass was

calculated for each 28 days period.

3.4.1.4 Livability

The mortality of birds was recorded on its occurrence during the

experimental period and livability for each 28 days period was worked out in per

cent proportion.

3.4.1.5 Economics

Feed cost for producing 100 hatchable eggs and 100 chicks under both the

systems of management, viz., deep litter and cage, were worked out separately,

taking into consideration the prevailing market rates of breeder ration, per cent hen

day egg production and per cent hatchability on total eggs set.

3.4.2 Reproduction parameters

3.4.2.1 Age at sexual maturity (days)

This was measured as number of days to reach 5 per cent egg production on

flock basis.

3.4.2.2 Age at 50 per cent egg production (days)

This was measured as number of days to reach 50 per cent egg production on

flock basis.

3.4.2.3 Body weight at sexual maturity (g)

The body weights of the experimental birds were recorded on the day of

reaching the sexual maturity as described above.

3.4.2.4 Fertility and hatchability studies

The hatching eggs collected during the last three days in each 28 days period

were set for hatching group-wise and subjected to fertility and hatchability studies.

On the day of hatch, the number of chicks hatched out was recorded. After

hatching, the unhatched eggs were broken to record the number of infertile eggs,

embryonic mortality and dead-in-shell.

Based on the data, fertility, hatchability on total eggs and fertile eggs set,

embryonic mortality and dead-in-shells were calculated and were expressed in per cent.

3.4.2.5 Per cent hen day chick production

Applying the data on per cent hen day egg production and hatchability on

total eggs set, per cent hen day chick production at different ages was worked out

under both deep litter and cage systems of management.

3.5 Statistical analysis

The data were grouped and subjected to analysis of variance. All the

percentage values in the experiment were transformed to their arcsine roots before

subjecting them to statistical analysis. The paired values were subjected to analysis

following students‘t’ test. The procedures set out in Snedecor and Cochran (1989)

were adopted for the purpose.

RESULTS

Chapter IV

RESULTS

The results of the two biological experiments carried out to assess the

comparative productive and reproductive performance of Japanese quail breeders in

a commercial breeder farm - cum- hatchery are presented in the ensuing paragraphs.

4.1 Sexual maturity


The results of experiment I presented in Table 4.1 and shown in Figure 4.1

indicate that the cage reared grand parent breeders of Japanese quail attained

maturity significantly (P0.01) early compared to those reared on deep litter (64.17

1.17 vs 71.50 1.18 days), and they also reached 50% egg production much

quicker than their contemporaries reared on deep litter (9.16 vs 14.83 days) since

attaining maturity. In experiment II also, the age at maturity and 50% production

were 56.00 0.00 and 67.25 0.48 days for cage reared Japanese quail breeders

(Table 4.2 and Figure 4.2) compared to 63.25 0.48 and 75.00 0.41 days for birds

reared on deep litter and the differences were significant (P0.01) between the two

housing systems.


Mean body weight of Japanese quail female breeders as measured at the age

at sexual maturity under both the systems of rearing are given in Table 4.3 for

experiment I and in Table 4.4 for experiment II. In both the experiments, the body

weight at sexual maturity were lower for cage reared female breeders with the values

of 332.33 2.45 vs 343.20 3.39 g in experiment I and 310.17 1.34 vs 322.28

1.23 g in experiment II) compared to deep litter reared breeders. The differences so

observed were significant at five and one per cent levels respectively.

4.2 Egg production

Egg production among Japanese quail breeders was recorded from the day of

attaining sexual maturity upto 32 weeks. As the breeders attained age at 50%

Table 4.1

Mean (± S.E.) age at sexual maturity and age at 50% egg production in Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)

Parameter Deep Litter Cage ‘t’ value

Age at sexual maturity (days) 71.50b ± 1.18 (6)

64.17a ± 1.17 (6)

4.427**

Age at 50% egg production (days) 86.33b ± 2.23 (6)

73.33a ± 1.41 (6)

4.929**

** Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01).

Means bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P≤ 0.01) among columns within

each row.

Figures in parentheses indicate respective number of observations.

Table 4.2 Mean (± S.E.) age at sexual maturity and age at 50% egg production in Japanese quail

breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


Age at sexual maturity (days) 63.25b ± 0.48 (4)

56.00a ± 0.00 (4)

15.145**

Age at 50% egg production (days) 75.00b ± 0.41 (4)

67.25a ± 0.48 (4)

12.318**


Means bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P≤ 0.01) among columns within

each row.


Table 4.3

Mean (± S.E.) body weight (g) at sexual maturity of Japanese quail female breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


Body weight at sexual maturity (g) 343.20a ± 3.39 (60)

332.33b ± 2.45 (60)

2.600*

* Significant (P≤ 0.05).

Means bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P≤ 0.05).


Table 4.4 Mean (± S.E.) body weight (g) at sexual maturity of Japanese quail female breeders

under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


Body weight at sexual maturity (g) 322.28a ± 1.23 (647)

310.17b ± 1.34 (632)

6.673**


Means bearing different superscripts differ significantly (P≤ 0.01).


Figure 4.1

Mean (± S.E.) age at sexual maturity and age at 50% egg production in Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

Da

ys

Age at sexual

maturity

Age at 50% egg

production

Sexual Maturity under deep litter and cage system

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.2 Mean (± S.E.) age at sexual maturity and age at 50% egg production in Japanese quail

breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

Da

ys

Age at sexual

maturity

Age at 50% egg

production

Sexual Maturity under deep litter and cage system

Deep Litter

Cage

production only between 10-12 weeks, egg production parameters were grouped for

every 4-week period starting from 13-weeks of age upto 32 weeks and compared.

4.2.1 Per cent hen day egg production

Age wise and system wise hen day egg production (Mean S.E.) observed

among Japanese quail grand parent breeders in experiment I are given in Table 4.5.

Analysis of variance (Table 4.6) revealed that there existed significant (P0.01)

differences between housing systems and age groups and the system x age

interaction effects were also significant (P0.01).

Per cent hen day egg production in cage reared birds averaged 73.96 0.71

compared to 64.01 0.87 among deep litter reared breeders. The same was found to

be the highest between 17-20 weeks (76.71 0.60) and the level of laying came

down gradually thereafter to reach the lowest level of 61.10 0.69 between 29-32

weeks of age (Figure 4.3). The age effect was almost similar under both the systems

of rearing even though the system effect was almost found to be nullified at 29-32

weeks of age with both the groups of birds under cage and deep litter rearing

registering almost equal levels of laying intensity.

Mean ( S.E.) per cent hen day egg production among parent breeders in

experiment II under both the systems of rearing are presented age wise in Table 4.7

and in Figure 4.4. Cage rearing resulted in higher per cent hen day egg production in this

experiment also (72.96 0.53 vs 68.46 0.61) and the difference between the two

systems of rearing (Table 4.8) was statistically significant (P0.01). Peak production

level (%) of 78.49 0.52 was observed between 17-20 weeks and the lowest level of

egg production (%) was witnessed (63.37 0.49) between 29-32 weeks of age and

the age effect was also found to be significant (P0.01). Age x system interaction

effect was also significant (P0.01) and differences between housing systems were

consequently non-existent for age groups of 17-20 and 21-24 weeks.

Table 4.5 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13 to

32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)

Age in weeks Deep Litter Cage Overall Mean

(age)

13 - 16 59.34Bc ± 1.29 (84)

83.17Aa ± 0.49 (84)

71.26b ± 1.15 (168)

17 - 20 71.19Ba ± 0.70 (84)

82.24Aa ± 0.48 (84)

76.71a ± 0.60 (168)

21 - 24 65.81Bb ± 0.81 (84)

75.18Ab ± 0.62 (84)

70.50b ± 0.63 (168)

25 - 28

62.11Bc ± 0.71 (84)

68.64Ac ± 0.61 (84)

65.37c ± 0.53 (168)

29 - 32

61.60c ± 0.89 (84)

60.61d ± 1.05 (84)

61.10d ± 0.69 (168)

Overall Mean (system)

64.01B ± 0.87 (420)

73.96A ± 0.71 (420)

Means bearing different superscripts in upper case alphabet differ significantly (P≤ 0.01)

among columns within each row.

Means bearing different superscripts in lower case alphabet differ significantly (P≤ 0.01)

among rows within each column.


Table 4.6 ANOVA: Per cent hen day egg production (Experiment - I)

Source of variation D.F. SS MS F

Among ages 4 3.008 0.752 117.543**

Among rearing systems 1 2.654 2.654 414.894**

Interaction (age x system) 4 1.759 0.440 68.714**

Error 830 5.310 0.006

Total 839 12.731 0.015

** Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01)

Table 4.7 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13 to

32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

13 - 16 68.94Bb ± 0.76 (112)

76.86Aab ± 1.20 (112)

72.90b ± 0.76 (224)

17 - 20 78.15a ± 0.71 (112)

78.83a ± 0.75 (112)

78.49a ± 0.52 (224)

21 - 24 69.56b ± 1.10 (112)

72.55b ± 0.91 (112)

71.06b ± 0.72 (224)

25 - 28 66.12Bbc ± 0.70 (112)

69.38Ac ± 0.44 (112)

67.75c ± 0.43 (224)

29 - 32 59.57Bc ± 0.72 (112)

67.18Ac ± 0.45 (112)

63.37d ± 0.49 (224)


68.46B ± 0.61 (560)

72.96A ± 0.53 (560)






Table 4.8 ANOVA: Per cent hen day egg production (Experiment - II)


Among ages 4 3.713 0.928 104.341**



Error 1110 9.874 0.009

Total 1119 14.561 0.013


Figure 4.3 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13 to

32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I) Per cent hen day egg production (Experiment I)

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32

Age ( weeks)

Per

cen

t h

en

day e

gg

pro

du

cti

on

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.4 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13 to

32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II) Per cent hen day egg production (Experiment II)

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32

Age (weeks)

Per

cen

t h

en

day e

gg

pro

du

cti

on

Deep Litter

Cage

4.2.2 Per cent hen housed egg production

Mean ( S.E.) per cent hen housed egg production for different housing

systems and age groups observed during experiment I are given in Table 4.9 and

represented in Figure 4.5 too. Per cent hen housed egg production was significantly

(P0.01) higher for deep litter reared breeders (51.41 0.67) compared to cage

rearing (49.48 0.52). The same reached a peak level of 59.86 0.50 during 17-20

weeks and gradually came down to 37.92 0.52 during 29-32 weeks of age and the

age effect was also found to be significant (P0.01). The age x system interaction

effect on per cent hen housed egg production (Table 4.10) was also significant

(P0.01) and egg production by cage reared birds was higher compared to deep litter

rearing during initial stage of laying i.e. 13-16 weeks while a reverse trend was

witnessed for all other age groups studied.

Respective values given in Table 4.11 and Figure 4.6 for experiment II also

indicate that there existed significant (P0.01) differences between housing systems

and age groups in per cent hen housed egg production (Table 4.12). However, the

same was comparatively higher for cage rearing in this experiment (60.41 0.66 vs

62.00 0.51). Mean values for 13-16 and 17-20 weeks were significantly higher

compared to 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32 weeks with the least per cent hen housed egg

production of 49.08 0.36 observed during 29-32 weeks of age. Age x system

interaction effects were also evident and significant (P0.01) and differences in

mean values for the two housing systems were not significant for 17-20, 21-24 and

25-28 weeks of age.

4.3 Egg weight (g)

Mean ( S.E.) egg weight (g) recorded for Japanese quail grand parent

breeders at different ages under deep litter and cage system of rearing in experiment

I are presented in Table 4.13 and Figure 4.7. Eggs produced by breeders kept in

cages were significantly (P0.01) heavier than those laid by deep litter reared birds

(15.45 0.03 vs 15.19 0.03 g). Age effect was also found to be significant

(P0.01) with the heaviest eggs (15.73 0.08 g) recorded at 12 weeks of age, which

was significantly different from mean egg weights recorded at 20, 24, 28 and 32

Table 4.9 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen housed egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13

to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


(age)

13 - 16 55.13Bb ± 1.17 (84)

63.25Aa ± 0.57 (84)

59.19a ± 0.72 (168)

17 - 20 62.50Aa ± 0.67 (84)

57.22Bb ± 0.63 (84)

59.86a ± 0.50 (168)

21 - 24 53.18Ab ± 0.59 (84)

49.05Bc ± 0.59 (84)

51.11b ± 0.45 (168)

25 - 28 45.88Ac ± 0.60 (84)

42.39Bd ± 0.57 (84)

44.14c ± 0.43 (168)

29 - 32 40.31Ad ± 0.70 (84)

35.52Be ± 0.67 (84)

37.92d ± 0.52 (168)


51.41A ± 0.67 (420)

49.48B ± 0.52 (420)






Table 4.10 ANOVA: Per cent hen housed egg production (Experiment - I)


Among ages 4 6.244 1.561 365.074**



Error 830 3.549 0.004

Total 839 10.431 0.012


Table 4.11 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen housed egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13

to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

13 - 16 65.66Bb ± 0.74 (112)

72.53Aa ± 1.16 (112)

69.10a ± 0.73 (224)

17 - 20 71.27a ± 0.64 (112)

69.91b ± 0.68 (112)

70.59a ± 0.47 (224)

21 - 24 61.35c ± 0.96 (112)

61.31c ± 0.81 (112)

61.33b ± 0.63 (224)

25 - 28 56.20d ± 0.42 (112)

55.67d ± 0.40 (112)

55.94c ± 0.29 (224)

29 - 32 47.56Be ± 0.52 (112)

50.60Ae ± 0.45 (112)

49.08d ± 0.36 (224)


60.41B ± 0.66 (560)

62.00A ± 0.51 (560)






Table 4.12 ANOVA: Per cent hen housed egg production (Experiment - II)


Among ages 4 7.958 1.990 312.465**



Error 1110 7.068 0.006

Total 1119 15.423 0.014


Figure 4.5 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen housed egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13

to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I) Per cent hen housed egg production (Experiment I)

25

35

45

55

65

75

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32

Age (weeks)

Per

cen

t h

en

ho

used

eg

g p

rod

ucti

on

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.6 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen housed egg production of Japanese quail breeders from 13

to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II) Per cent hen housed egg production (Experiment II)

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32

Age (weeks)

Per

cen

t h

en

ho

used

eg

g p

rod

ucti

on

Deep Litter

Cage

Table 4.13 Mean (± S.E.) egg weight (g) of Japanese quail breeders under

deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


(age)

12 15.49Ba ± 0.09 (18)

15.97Aa ± 0.10 (18)

15.73a ± 0.08 (36)

16 15.41a ± 0.18 (18)

15.47b ± 0.12 (18)

15.44ab ± 0.11 (36)

20 15.39a ± 0.07 (92)

15.39b ± 0.06 (88)

15.39b ± 0.05 (180)

24 14.99Bc ± 0.05 (81)

15.49Ab ± 0.05 (76)

15.23c ± 0.04 (157)

28 15.07Bb ± 0.06 (49)

15.40Ab ± 0.07 (48)

15.23c ± 0.05 (97)

32 15.07Bb ± 0.06 (45)

15.35Ab ± 0.07 (43)

15.21c ± 0.05 (88)


15.19B ± 0.03 (303)

15.45A ± 0.03 (291)






Table 4.14 ANOVA: Egg weight (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 10.445 2.089 7.750**



Error 582 156.878 0.270

Total 593 183.484 0.309


Table 4.15 Mean (± S.E.) egg weight (g) of Japanese quail breeders under

deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

12 14.13bc ± 0.04 (96)

14.18c ± 0.04 (126)

14.16b ± 0.03 (222)

16 14.54Aa ± 0.04 (110)

14.33Bb ± 0.04 (121)

14.43a ± 0.03 (231)

20 14.24Ab ± 0.03 (147)

13.99Bd ± 0.04 (134)

14.12b ± 0.02 (281)

24 14.09Ac ± 0.05 (95)

13.89Bd ± 0.05 (96)

13.99c ± 0.03 (191)

28 13.90d ± 0.04 (62)

13.90d ± 0.05 (64)

13.90c ± 0.03 (126)

32 14.30Bb ± 0.05 (88)

14.55Aa ± 0.05 (89)

14.43a ± 0.04 (187)


14.23A ± 0.02 (598)

14.15B ± 0.02 (640)






Table 4.16 ANOVA: Egg weight (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 44.010 8.802 46.138**



Error 1226 233.892 0.191

Total 1237 289.920 0.234


Figure 4.7 Mean (± S.E.) egg weight (g) of Japanese quail breeders under

deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I) Egg weights under different systems (Experiment I)

14.5

15

15.5

16

16.5

17

12 16 20 24 28 32

Age (weeks)

Eg

g w

eig

ht

(g)

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.8 Mean (± S.E.) egg weight (g) of Japanese quail breeders under

deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II) Egg weights under different systems (Experiment II)

12

12.5

13

13.5

14

14.5

15

15.5

16

16.5

17

12 16 20 24 28 32

Age (weeks)

Eg

g w

eig

ht

(g)

Deep Litter

Cage

weeks of age. Age x system interaction effects (Table 4.14) were also significant

(P0.01) and differences in mean egg weights between cage and deep litter reared

birds were not significant at 16 and 20 weeks of age.

System and age wise mean egg weights (Mean S.E.) for Japanese quail

breeders in experiment II are shown in Table 4.15 and Figure 4.8. Eggs from deep

litter reared breeders were found to be significantly (P0.01) heavier compared to

cage reared birds in this experiment. Age effect on egg weight (Table 4.16) was also

significant (P0.01) with eggs laid at 16 and 32 weeks of age weighing heavier than

eggs laid at other ages. Age x system interaction effect on egg weight was also

significant (P0.01). Egg weights at 12 and 28 weeks did not differ significantly

between the two housing systems. While egg weights at 16, 20 and 24 weeks were

significantly heavier for deep litter reared breeders, the reverse was witnessed at 32

weeks of age.

4.4 Feed consumption (g)

Feed consumption by Japanese quail breeders were worked out per day per

bird and mean values ( S.E.) obtained for different housing systems and age groups

in experiment I are given in Table 4.17 and Figure 4.9. Cage reared birds were found

to have consumed more feed per day than deep litter reared breeders (47.54 0.71

vs 43.26 0.50 g) and the differences were found to be statistically significant

(P0.01). There were significant differences (P0.01) among mean feed

consumption at different ages also. The highest mean per day consumption of 50.41

1.06 g was observed during 17-20 weeks of age while the lowest consumption of

40.71 0.72 g was during 25-28 weeks. Age x system interaction effect (Table4.18)

was also found to be significant (P0.01) and the differences in mean feed

consumption per bird per day between deep litter and cage rearing were not evident

during 9-12 and 29-32 weeks of age.

Table 4.19 and Figure 4.10 reveals that mean ( S.E.) feed consumption (g)

per bird per day by Japanese quail breeders in experiment II was also significantly

(P0.01) higher for cage rearing (40.69 0.29 g) compared to deep litter rearing

(37.88 0.25 g). The lowest mean feed consumption per bird per day of 36.55

Table 4.17 Mean (± S.E.) feed consumption (g) /bird /day of

Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


(age)

9 - 12 42.05ab ± 1.03 (12)

41.05a ± 1.30 (12)

41.55a ± 0.82 (24)

13 - 16 47.02Ac ± 0.72 (12)

51.74Bcd ± 1.14 (12)

49.38c ± 0.82 (24)

17 - 20 46.84Ac ± 1.00 (12)

53.98Bd ± 1.16 (12)

50.41c ± 1.06 (24)

21 - 24 40.69Aab ± 0.96 (12)

49.48Bc ± 1.42 (12)

45.08b ± 1.24 (24)

25 - 28 38.68Aa ± 0.74 (12)

42.74Bab ± 0.94 (12)

40.71a ± 0.72 (24)

29 - 32 44.29b ± 0.63 (12)

46.28bc ± 0.56 (12)

45.28b ± 0.46 (24)


43.26A ± 0.50 (72)

47.54B ± 0.71 (72)






Table 4.18 ANOVA: Feed consumption (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 1868.968 373.794 31.137**



Error 132 1584.645 12.005

Total 143 4485.762 31.369


Table 4.19 Mean (± S.E.) feed consumption (g) /bird /day of

Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

9 - 12 36.15a ± 0.58 (16)

36.95a ± 0.67 (16)

36.55a ± 0.44 (32)

13 - 16 38.65bc ± 0.32 (16)

40.46b ± 0.34 (16)

39.56bc ± 0.28 (32)

17 - 20 38.04Ab ± 0.44 (16)

40.25Bb ± 0.43 (16)

39.14b ± 0.36 (32)

21 - 24 40.08Ac ± 0.41 (16)

43.30Bc ± 0.49 (16)

41.69d ± 0.43 (32)

25 - 28 38.36Abc ± 0.58 (16)

42.62Bc ± 0.47 (16)

40.49cd ± 0.53 (32)

29 - 32 35.98Aa ± 0.64 (16)

40.58Bb ± 0.53 (16)

38.28b ± 0.58 (32)


37.88A ± 0.25 (96)

40.69B ± 0.29 (96)






Table 4.20 ANOVA: Feed consumption (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 506.451 101.290 25.053**



Error 180 727.759 4.043

Total 191 1701.552 8.909


Figure 4.9 Mean (± S.E.) feed consumption (g) /bird /day of

Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I) Feed consumption under deep litter and cage system (Experiment I)

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

9 - 12 13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

Feed

co

nsu

mp

tio

n (

g)

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.10 Mean (± S.E.) feed consumption (g) /bird /day of

Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II) Feed consumption under deep litter and cage system (Experiment II)

20

25

30

35

40

45

9 - 12 13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

Fe

ed

co

ns

um

pti

on

(g

)

Deep Litter

Cage

0.44 g was recorded for the youngest age group of 9-12 weeks and the same

increased as age advanced upto 21-24 weeks of age and then gradually decreased

with the differences observed between different age groups being significant

(P0.01). Age x system interaction was also found to be significant (Table 4.20) and

the differences in mean values between cage and deep litter rearing during 9-12 and

13-16 weeks of age were not found to be statistically significant (P0.05).

4.5 Feed efficiency

Efficiency of feed conversion for egg production was worked out both for

egg number and egg mass.

4.5.1 Feed efficiency per dozen eggs

Mean ( S.E.) feed efficiency in terms of kg of feed required to produce one

dozen eggs given Table 4.21 for experiment I shows that the same did not differ

significantly (P0.05) between cage and deep litter rearing of Japanese quail

breeders. Among age groups, feed efficiency was significantly (P0.01) poorer only

during 29-32 weeks of age compared to all other early age groups. Age x system

interaction effect (Table 4.22) was significant (P0.01) with feed efficiency for cage

reared birds remaining better than the same under deep litter rearing during 13-16

weeks of age alone.

In experiment II, mean ( S.E.) feed efficiency per dozen eggs (Table 4.23)

did not differ significantly (P0.05) between different housing systems and age x

system interaction effect (Table 4.24) was also not significant. Significant (P0.01)

differences were visible only among mean feed efficiency for different age groups

with the same being the best (0.84 0.01) during 17-20 weeks of age. Mean feed

efficiency per dozen eggs during 13-16 weeks of age was moderate (0.91 0.02) and

significantly better than 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32 week age groups.

4.5.2 Feed efficiency per kg egg mass

From the Mean ( S.E.) feed efficiency per kg egg mass for different housing

systems and age groups under experiment I given in Table 4.25, it could be observed

that there existed no significant difference (P0.05) between the housing systems

Table 4.21 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per dozen eggs) of



(age)

13 - 16 1.34Bb ± 0.08 (12)

1.05Aa ± 0.02 (12)

1.20a ± 0.05 (24)

17 - 20 1.09a ± 0.02 (12)

1.14a ± 0.02 (12)

1.12a ± 0.02 (24)

21 - 24 1.04a ± 0.02 (12)

1.17a ± 0.02 (12)

1.11a ± 0.02 (24)

25 - 28 1.08a ± 0.03 (12)

1.14a ± 0.04 (12)

1.11a ± 0.02 (24)

29 - 32 1.30b ± 0.04 (12)

1.43b ± 0.06 (12)

1.36b ± 0.04 (24)


1.17 ± 0.03 (60)

1.19 ± 0.02 (60)






Table 4.22 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per dozen eggs (Experiment - I)


Among ages 4 1.141 0.285 15.535**

Among rearing systems 1 0.007 0.007 0.367NS


Error 110 2.020 0.018

Total 119 3.879 0.033

** Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01); NS - Non Significant (P 0.05)

Table 4.23 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per dozen eggs) of



(age)

13 - 16 0.94 ± 0.03 (16)

0.88 ± 0.03 (16)

0.91b ± 0.02 (32)

17 - 20 0.82 ± 0.02 (16)

0.86 ± 0.02 (16)

0.84a ± 0.01 (32)

21 - 24 1.00 ± 0.05 (16)

1.02 ± 0.03 (16)

1.01c ± 0.03 (32)

25 - 28 0.99 ± 0.02 (16)

1.05 ± 0.01 (16)

1.02c ± 0.01 (32)

29 - 32 1.05 ± 0.02 (16)

1.06 ± 0.02 (16)

1.06c ± 0.01 (32)


0.96 ± 0.02 (80)

0.97 ± 0.02 (80)


among rows within the column.


Table 4.24 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per dozen eggs (Experiment - II)


Among ages 4 1.044 0.261 24.897**


Interaction (age x system) 4 0.061 0.015 1.456NS

Error 150 1.572 0.010

Total 159 2.686 0.017


studied. Among the age groups, feed efficiency per kg egg mass during 29-32 weeks

of age alone was significantly (P0.01) poorer (7.44 0.19) compared to all other

age groups the means for which did not differ among themselves otherwise. Age x

system interaction effect (Table 4.26) was also significant (P0.01) with mean feed

efficiency per kg egg mass being significantly better for cage reared Japanese quail

breeders compared to deep litter rearing (5.49 0.12 vs 7.21 0.43) for 13-16 weeks

while for all other age groups, the differences in means between housing systems

were not significant.

In experiment II, mean feed efficiency per kg egg mass (Table 4.27) was

found to differ significantly (P0.01) between different age groups only (Table

4.28)and rearing system and age x system effects were not significant (P0.05) with

the same being 5.79 0.09 and 5.64 0.09 for cage and deep litter rearing. The best

mean feed efficiency of 4.84 0.07 witnessed for 17-20 weeks age group was

significantly different from 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32 week groups.

4.6 Per cent livability

Mean ( S.E.) per cent livability was worked out for each 4-week period

under both deep litter and cage rearing separately for females and males as laying

females were found to suffer the most because of the laying stress.

4.6.1 Per cent livability among females

Table 4.29 gives mean ( S.E.) per cent livability among Japanese quail

female breeders observed under deep litter and cage rearing, age wise in experiment

I. Rearing system did not have any significant (P0.05) effect on mean per cent

livability of female breeders (Table 4.30). Age effect was significant (P≤0.05) with

the livability during 25-28 weeks of age being significantly poorer compared to 21-

24 and 29-32 weeks. However, age x system effect was highly significant (P0.01)

with the per cent livability during the initial age of 9-12 weeks being very poor in

cages compared to deep litter rearing (88.10 1.48 vs 96.53 1.64) while at the

oldest age of 29-32 weeks, the reverse was witnessed with deep litter rearing leading

to comparatively poorer livability (98.24 0.58 vs 88.55 0.42).

Table 4.25 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per kg egg mass) of



(age)

13 - 16 7.21Bb ± 0.43 (12)

5.49Aa ± 0.12 (12)

6.35a ± 0.28 (24)

17 - 20 5.89a ± 0.11 (12)

6.15ab ± 0.15 (12)

6.02a ± 0.10 (24)

21 - 24 5.66a ± 0.12 (12)

6.32b ± 0.13 (12)

5.99a ± 0.11 (24)

25 - 28 6.03a ± 0.16 (12)

6.13ab ± 0.19 (12)

6.08a ± 0.12 (24)

29 - 32 7.17b ± 0.22 (12)

7.72c ± 0.30 (12)

7.44b ± 0.19 (24)


6.39 ± 0.14 (60)

6.36 ± 0.13 (60)






Table 4.26 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per kg egg mass (Experiment - I)


Among ages 4 36.100 9.025 16.078**



Error 110 61.745 0.561

Total 119 120.400 1.012


Table 4.27 Mean (± S.E.) feed efficiency (kg of feed per kg egg mass) of



(age)

13 - 16 5.52 ± 0.15 (16)

5.21 ± 0.20 (16)

5.37b ± 0.13 (32)

17 - 20 4.69 ± 0.08 (16)

4.99 ± 0.09 (16)

4.84a ± 0.07 (32)

21 - 24 5.82 ± 0.26 (16)

6.07 ± 0.20 (16)

5.95c ± 0.16 (32)

25 - 28 5.87 ± 0.10 (16)

6.32 ± 0.08 (16)

6.10c ± 0.07 (32)

29 - 32 6.31 ± 0.10 (16)

6.34 ± 0.14 (16)

6.33c ± 0.08 (32)


5.64 ± 0.09 (80)

5.79 ± 0.09 (80)


among rows within the column.


Table 4.28 ANOVA: Feed efficiency per kg egg mass (Experiment - II)


Among ages 4 46.975 11.744 32.202**



Error 150 54.705 0.365

Total 159 105.264 0.662


Experiment II also resulted in almost similar mean livability values (Table 4.31)

being recorded for deep litter and cage rearing. Age x system interaction effect was

also found absent (Table 4.32). However, age effect on mean per cent livability

among females was found significant (P0.05) and the same was best (97.74 0.46)

during early age of 9-12 weeks and the least (94.13 1.11) for the oldest age groups

of 29-32 weeks. Cumulative livability between 9-32 weeks of age was found to be

comparatively better for deep litter rearing.

4.6.2 Per cent livability among males

Mean ( S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail male breeders in

experiment I (Table 4.33) reveals that there existed significant difference (P0.01)

among systems of rearing (Table 4.34) with cage rearing leading to significantly

higher overall per cent livability compared to deep litter rearing (99.73 0.19 vs

98.79 0.49). There were significant (P0.01) differences among different age

groups also with the livability being the poorest (97.94 1.00) during 29-32 weeks

compared to 100 per cent livability witnessed during 21-24 and 25-28 weeks. Age x

system interaction effect was also found to be significant (P0.01). In cages, per

cent livability among males during 9-12 and 13-16 weeks alone were initially

affected while 100 per cent livability was observed for all four later age groups. In

deep litter rearing, less than 100 per cent livability was observed only during 17-20

and 29-32 weeks of age.

However, in experiment II, rearing system and age x system effects were not

evident (P0.05) on mean per cent livability of Japanese quail male breeders (Table

4.35). Only age effects were found significant (P0.01) with per cent livability

(Table 4.36) for later age groups from 17-32 weeks of age being significantly better

than the same during 13-16 weeks of age.

4.7 Hatchability parameters

Eggs collected from Japanese quail breeders in both the experiments were set

for hatching adopting standard procedures and data recorded for different parameters

to assess reproductive performance were grouped, analysed and presented.

Table 4.29 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail female breeders from 9 to 32 weeks

of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)

Age in weeks Deep Litter Cage Overall (age)

9 - 12 96.53Aa ± 1.64 (3)

88.10Bc ± 1.48 (3)

92.31ab ± 2.13 (6)

13 - 16 95.48ab ± 1.08 (3)

91.14c ± 1.34 (3)

93.31ab ± 1.24 (6)

17 - 20 92.79abc ± 0.74 (3)

91.27c ± 0.50 (3)

92.03ab ± 0.52 (6)

21 - 24 91.96Bbc ± 0.88 (3)

96.99Ab ± 0.35 (3)

94.48a ± 1.20 (6)

25 - 28 90.57c ± 0.89 (3)

91.96c ± 1.89 (3)

91.26b ± 0.98 (6)

29 - 32 88.55Bc ± 0.42 (3)

98.24Aa ± 0.58 (3)

93.39a ± 2.19 (6)

Overall (system)

92.65 ± 0.75 (18)

92.95 ± 0.95 (18)

Cumulative (9 – 32)

63.04 ± 1.03 (3)

64.23 ± 2.37 (3)




among rows within first two columns and significantly (P≤ 0.05) within the last column.


Table 4.30 ANOVA: Per cent livability of females (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.021 0.004 2.756*



Error 24 0.037 0.002

Total 35 0.206 0.006

* Significant (P≤ 0.05); ** Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01); NS - Non Significant (P 0.05)

Table 4.31 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail female breeders from 9 to 32 weeks

of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

9 - 12 98.17 ± 0.50 (4)

97.30 ± 0.79 (4)

97.74a ± 0.46 (8)

13 - 16 96.58 ± 0.84 (4)

95.06 ± 1.08 (4)

95.82abc ± 0.69 (8)

17 - 20 96.12 ± 1.71 (4)

93.96 ± 0.80 (4)

95.04bc ± 0.96 (8)

21 - 24 97.81 ± 1.15 (4)

96.00 ± 0.69 (4)

96.90ab ± 0.71 (8)

25 - 28 94.69 ± 1.64 (4)

93.65 ± 0.82 (4)

94.17c ± 0.87 (8)

29 - 32 93.22 ± 2.09 (4)

95.05 ± 0.93 (4)

94.13c ± 1.11 (8)

Overall (system)

96.10 ± 0.63 (24)

95.17 ± 0.40 (24)


78.87 ± 4.23 (4)

74.25 ± 1.48 (4)

Means bearing different superscripts in lower case alphabet differ significantly (P ≤ 0.05)

among rows within each column. Figures in parentheses indicate respective number of observations.

Table 4.32 ANOVA: Per cent livability of females (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.060 0.012 3.009*



Error 36 0.144 0.004

Total 47 0.235 0.005

* Significant (P≤ 0.05); NS - Non Significant (P 0.05)

Table 4.33 Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail male breeders from 9 to 32 weeks of

age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


(age)

9 - 12 100.00Aa ± 0.00 (3)

98.94Bb ± 1.06 (3)

99.47abc ± 0.53 (6)

13 - 16 100.00a ± 0.00 (3)

99.44ab ± 0.56 (3)

99.72ab ± 0.28 (6)

17 - 20 96.83Bb ± 1.59 (3)

100.00Aa ± 0.00 (3)

98.41bc ± 1.00 (6)

21 - 24 100.00a ± 0.00 (3)

100.00a ± 0.00 (3)

100.00a ± 0.00 (6)

25 - 28 100.00a ± 0.00 (3)

100.00a ± 0.00 (3)

100.00a ± 0.00 (6)

29 - 32 95.88Bb ± 0.89 (3)

100.00Aa ± 0.00 (3)

97.94c ± 1.00 (6)

Overall (system)

98.79B ± 0.49 (18)

99.73A ± 0.19 (18)


92.89 ± 1.44 (3)

98.38 ± 0.92 (3)





Table 4.34 ANOVA: Per cent livability of males (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.056 0.011 5.782**



Error 24 0.047 0.002

Total 35 0.215 0.050


Table 4.35

Mean (± S.E.) per cent livability of Japanese quail male breeders from 9 to 32 weeks of age under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

9 - 12 99.20 ± 0.47 (4)

98.78 ± 0.78 (4)

98.99ab ± 0.43 (8)

13 - 16 97.96 ± 0.78 (4)

96.30 ± 1.04 (4)

97.13b ± 0.68 (8)

17 - 20 100.00 ± 0.00 (4)

99.15 ± 0.49 (4)

99.57a ± 0.28 (8)

21 - 24 99.58 ± 0.42 (4)

98.74 ± 0.79 (4)

99.16a ± 0.44 (8)

25 - 28 100.00 ± 0.00 (4)

100.00 ± 0.00 (4)

100.00a ± 0.00 (8)

29 - 32 99.58 ± 0.42 (4)

100.00 ± 0.00 (4)

99.79a ± 0.21 (8)

Overall (system)

99.39 ± 0.22 (24)

98.83 ± 0.35 (24)


96.37 ± 1.38 (4)

93.10 ± 0.81 (4)



Table 4.36 ANOVA: Per cent livability of males (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.123 0.025 6.272**



Error 36 0.141 0.002

Total 47 0.287 0.038

**Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01); NS - Non Significant (P 0.05)

4.7.1 Hatchability

Hatchability in terms of number of chicks hatched out was worked out as

proportion of total number of eggs set at the time of setting and the number of fertile

eggs calculated by subtracting the number of infertile eggs identified by break-up

study after hatching.

4.7.1.1 Per cent hatchability on total eggs

Mean ( S.E.) per cent hatchability on total eggs set for eggs from Japanese

quail breeders reared under deep litter and cage systems of rearing observed at

different ages are presented in Table 4.37 and represented in Figure 4.11 and 4.12.

There existed significant (P0.01) differences in hatchability on total eggs set from

deep litter and cage systems of rearing with the values being 55.44 1.25 vs 50.81

1.54 respectively. Age effect was also highly significant (P0.01) with the same at

20 weeks being the best (59.09 1.65) and the values at 16 and 28 weeks of age

being the worst (49.23 1.33 and 48.69 4.41 respectively). Age x system effect

(Table 4.38) was not found to be significant (P0.05).

In experiment II, values in Table 4.39 and, in Figure 4.13 and 4.14 reveal

that hatching eggs collected from Japanese quail parent breeders gave better mean (

S.E.) hatchability for cage rearing (71.13 0.76) compared to deep litter rearing

(66.76 0.99) and the difference was found to be highly significant (P0.01).

However, age of the breeders was not found to influence the mean hatchability on

total eggs set in this experiment (Table 4.40). Significant (P0.05) age x system

interaction effect indicated that the difference in mean hatchability were significant

only at later ages of 28 and 32 weeks. The overall mean values were comparatively

higher than in experiment I.

4.7.1.2 Per cent hatchability on fertile eggs

Mean ( S.E.) hatchability on total fertile eggs set given in Table 4.41

indicates that there was significant (P0.01) difference between means for deep litter

and cage rearing with the respective values being 74.39 0.96 and 67.77 1.42.

Age effect on hatchability of fertile eggs was also found to be significant (P0.05)

with the values for 16 weeks (66.84 1.70) and 28 weeks (74.42 5.07) being

Table 4.37 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total eggs set of



(age)

12 56.90 ± 1.74 (6)

54.83 ± 2.71 (6)

55.87ab ± 1.56 (12)

16 50.56 ± 2.34 (6)

47.90 ± 1.28 (6)

49.23b ± 1.33 (12)

20 60.20 ± 2.74 (6)

57.98 ± 2.01 (6)

59.09a ± 1.65 (12)

24 54.33 ± 1.60 (3)

46.14 ± 3.70 (3)

50.23ab ± 2.57 (6)

28 51.83 ± 4.15 (3)

43.99 ± 10.31 (3)

48.69b ± 4.41 (6)

32 57.47 ± 4.97 (3)

43.48 ± 3.85 (3)

50.48ab ± 4.20 (6)


55.44A ± 1.25 (27)

50.81B ± 1.54 (27)


among columns within the last row.


among rows within the last column. Figures in parentheses indicate respective number of observations.

Table 4.38 ANOVA: Per cent hatchability on total eggs set (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.091 0.018 4.787**



Error 42 0.156 0.004

Total 53 0.300 0.006

**Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01); NS - Non Significant (P 0.05)

Table 4.39 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total eggs set of



(age)

12 66.71ab ± 1.83 (4)

71.40a ± 1.06 (4)

69.05 ± 1.32 (8)

16 69.47ab ± 1.37 (4)

73.13a ± 2.27 (4)

71.30 ± 1.41 (8)

20 66.88ab ± 2.28 (4)

68.18a ± 1.47 (4)

67.53 ± 1.28 (8)

24 70.63a ± 2.30 (4)

68.77a ± 1.56 (4)

69.70 ± 1.33 (8)

28 65.97Bab ± 1.40 (4)

72.53Aa ± 1.64 (4)

69.25 ± 1.59 (8)

32 60.89Bb ± 2.85 (4)

72.76Aa ± 2.36 (4)

66.82 ± 2.82 (8)


66.76B ± 0.99 (24)

71.13A ± 0.76 (24)


among columns within the last row and significantly (P≤ 0.05) within other rows.



Table 4.40 ANOVA: Per cent hatchability on total eggs set (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.012 0.002 1.282NS


Interaction (age x system) 5 0.026 0.005 2.816*

Error 36 0.066 0.002

Total 47 0.130 0.003


significantly different. Age x system effect (Table 4.42) was not found to influence

the same (P0.05).

Mean ( S.E.) hatchability on total fertile eggs from Japanese quail breeders

(experiment II) reared under deep litter and cage system are presented in Table 4.43.

Contrary to experiment I mean per cent hatchability on fertile eggs was significantly

(P0.01) higher for cage rearing compared to deep litter rearing (78.78 0.97 vs

75.24 1.15). Age effect was also significant (P0.05) with the same at 16 weeks of

age being significantly higher compared to values for all other ages (Table 4.44).

Age x system effect was also highly significant (P0.01). Under deep litter rearing,

significantly low hatchability was obtained at 32 weeks while the same was

registered at 24 and 20 weeks in cage rearing. Difference between cage and deep

litter rearing was also significantly different only at 32 weeks and the differences

between the rearing systems at all other ages were not found to be significantly high.

4.7.2 Per cent fertility

Mean ( S.E.) per cent fertility of Japanese quail breeders under both deep

litter and cage rearing systems for experiment I as given in Table 4.45 indicate that

system of rearing did not influence the per cent fertility levels significantly (P0.05).

However, age was found to have significant (P0.05) effect on the same (Table

4.46). Mean per cent fertility of 62.41 3.65 observed at 28 weeks was significantly

lower than the values of 75.56 2.85, 73.53 1.55 and 78.27 2.11 recorded at 12,

16 and 20 weeks of age respectively. Interaction (age x system) effect was also

significant (P0.05). Mean per cent fertility at 32 weeks was significantly higher for

deep litter compared to cage system of rearing. Within systems of rearing, mean per

cent fertility were significantly lower at 28 weeks in deep litter and 28 and 32 weeks

in cage rearing compared to those at other ages.

However, in experiment II, systems of rearing was found to influence

mean per cent fertility significantly (P0.05) and the figures in Table 4.47 shows

that cage system was favourable with the mean per cent fertility of 90.37 0.61

compared to 88.80 0.58 for deep litter. Significant (P0.01) age effect was also

witnessed and mean per cent fertility of 92.11 1.29 registered at 24 weeks of

Table 4.41 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set of



(age)

12 76.29 ± 1.25 (6)

67.75 ± 2.28 (6)

72.02ab ± 1.79 (12)

16 68.99 ± 1.93 (6)

64.70 ± 2.68 (6)

66.84b ± 1.70 (12)

20 75.96 ± 1.39 (6)

71.69 ± 2.12 (6)

73.83ab ± 1.37 (12)

24 70.89 ± 0.95 (3)

65.76 ± 4.65 (3)

68.33ab ± 2.41 (6)

28 78.52 ± 2.55 (3)

68.27 ± 13.19 (3)

74.42a ± 5.07 (6)

32 77.62 ± 2.92 (3)

67.75 ± 5.16 (3)

72.68ab ± 3.45 (6)


74.39A ± 0.96 (27)

67.77B ± 1.42 (27)





Table 4.42 ANOVA: Per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.055 0.011 2.568*



Error 42 0.176 0.004

Total 53 0.308 0.006


Table 4.43 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set of



(age)

12 74.51a ± 1.44 (4)

78.60ab ± 1.02 (4)

76.55b ± 1.12 (8)

16 79.99a ± 0.86 (4)

84.30a ± 2.16 (4)

82.14a ± 1.35 (8)

20 75.66a ± 2.62 (4)

76.15b ± 1.80 (4)

75.91b ± 1.48 (8)

24 78.42a ± 2.02 (4)

73.03b ± 1.17 (4)

75.73b ± 1.49 (8)

28 74.25a ± 2.42 (4)

80.03a ± 0.98 (4)

77.14b ± 1.63 (8)

32 68.60Bb ± 3.89 (4)

80.54Aa ± 2.61 (4)

74.57b ± 3.13 (8)


75.24B ± 1.15 (24)

78.78A ± 0.97 (24)




among rows within first two columns and significantly (P≤ 0.05) within the last column. Figures in parentheses indicate respective number of observations.

Table 4.44 ANOVA: Percent hatchability on total fertile eggs set (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.040 0.008 3.295*



Error 36 0.087 0.002

Total 47 0.194 0.004

* Significant (P≤ 0.05); ** Highly Significant (P≤ 0.01)

Table 4.45 Mean (± S.E.) per cent fertility of Japanese quail breeders

under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


(Age)

12 70.22a ± 3.96 (6)

80.90a ± 2.93 (6)

75.56a ± 2.85 (12)

16 72.64a ± 2.30 (6)

74.42a ± 2.23 (6)

73.53a ± 1.55 (12)

20 75.68a ± 3.88 (6)

80.86a ± 1.35 (6)

78.27a ± 2.11 (12)

24 71.01a ± 3.48 (3)

70.06ab ± 0.71 (3)

70.54ab ± 1.60 (6)

28 61.42b ± 6.38 (3)

63.91b ± 2.77 (3)

62.41b ± 3.65 (6)

32 80.30Aa ± 7.68 (3)

64.24Bb ± 3.51 (3)

72.27ab ± 5.21 (6)


72.20 ± 1.85 (27)

74.92 ± 1.59 (27)





Table 4.46 ANOVA: Per cent fertility (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.129 0.026 3.218*


Interaction (age x system) 5 0.108 0.022 2.699*

Error 42 0.328 0.008

Total 53 0.576 0.011

* Significant (P≤ 0.05); NS - Non Significant (P 0.05)

Table 4.47

Mean (± S.E.) per cent fertility of Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

12 89.50 ± 1.06 (4)

90.84 ± 0.47 (4)

90.17ab ± 0.60 (8)

16 86.83 ± 0.86 (4)

86.71 ± 0.69 (4)

86.77b ± 0.51 (8)

20 88.46 ± 1.76 (4)

89.56 ± 0.91 (4)

89.01ab ± 0.94 (8)

24 90.05 ± 1.42 (4)

94.17 ± 1.71 (4)

92.11a ± 1.29 (8)

28 89.00 ± 2.15 (4)

90.61 ± 1.24 (4)

89.80ab ± 1.19 (8)

32 88.96 ± 1.38 (4)

90.37 ± 1.19 (4)

89.60ab ± 0.88 (8)


88.80B ± 0.58 (24)

90.37A ± 0.61 (24)





Table 4.48 ANOVA: Per cent fertility (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.036 0.007 3.607**

Among rearing systems 1 0.010 0.010 4.774*


Error 36 0.073 0.002

Total 47 0.126 0.003


age of Japanese quail breeders was significantly higher than 86.77 0.51 at 16

weeks. Interaction (age x system) effect (Table 4.48) was not found to be

significant (P0.05) in this experiment.

4.7.3 Per cent embryonic mortality

Per cent embryonic mortality during early incubation also another cause

affecting total hatchability. Mean ( S.E.) values for per cent embryonic mortality in

experiment I for deep litter and cage systems of rearing are presented in Table 4.49

and represented in Figure 4.11 and 4.12. Significantly (P0.01) higher per cent

embryonic mortality was recorded for cage rearing compared to deep litter system

(16.73 1.25 vs 11.85 0.65). Age was also found to have significant (P0.05)

influence on the parameter (Table 4.50). Mean per cent embryonic mortality of

18.27 2.20 at 12 weeks was significantly higher than the respective means of 12.02

0.73, 10.76 2.77 and 11.63 1.50 witnessed at comparatively older ages of 24,

28 and 32 weeks of age. Age x system interaction effect was not found to be

significantly (P0.05) acting on per cent embryonic mortality.

In experiment II, significantly (P 0.01) higher mean per cent embryonic

mortality of 16.30 1.31 was noticed in deep litter rearing of Japanese quail

breeders compared to 12.87 0.80 in cage rearing system (Table 4.51 and, Figure

4.13 and Figure 4.14). Among the values for different ages, the lowest of 8.57 0.85

was recorded at 16 weeks and the highest of 19.71 3.07 at 32 weeks and the

differences between ages were found significant (P0.01). Interaction (age x system)

effect was also significant on per cent embryonic mortality (Table 4.52) and

significant differences between deep litter and cage system were evident only at 28

and 32 weeks.

4.7.4 Per cent dead-in-shell

Mean ( S.E.) per cent dead-in-shell indicating deaths at later stages of

hatching under deep litter and cage system of rearing of Japanese quail breeders are

given Table 4.53 and represented in Figure 4.11 and 4.12 for experiment I. System

of rearing was not found to influence per cent dead-in-shell (Table 4.54)

significantly (P0.05) as mean values of 11.51 1.02 and 10.84 0.10 were

Table 4.49 Mean (± S.E.) per cent embryonic mortality of



(age)

12 14.01 ± 1.91 (6)

22.54 ± 3.24 (6)

18.27b ± 2.20 (12)

16 12.47 ± 0.75 (6)

16.25 ± 2.76 (6)

14.36ab ± 1.48 (12)

20 12.57 ± 1.20 (6)

15.35 ± 1.50 (6)

13.96ab ± 1.01 (12)

24 10.96 ± 0.93 (3)

13.08 ± 0.81 (3)

12.02a ± 0.73 (6)

28 8.52 ± 1.53 (3)

14.12 ± 7.13 (3)

10.76a ± 2.77 (6)

32 9.08 ± 1.66 (3)

14.18 ± 1.39 (3)

11.63a ± 1.50 (6)


11.85A ± 0.65 (27)

16.73B ± 1.25 (27)





Table 4.50 ANOVA: Per cent embryonic mortality (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.062 0.012 2.802*



Error 42 0.181 0.004

Total 53 0.311 0.006


Table 4.51 Mean (± S.E.) per cent embryonic mortality of



(age)

12 16.61bc ± 0.84 (4)

11.90ab ± 0.55 (4)

14.25b ± 1.00 (8)

16 9.74a ± 0.73 (4)

7.40a ± 1.40 (4)

8.57a ± 0.85 (8)

20 15.55bc ± 1.38 (4)

15.36b ± 1.57 (4)

15.45bc ± 0.97 (8)

24 11.87b ± 0.89 (4)

16.05b ± 1.34 (4)

13.96b ± 1.09 (8)

28 19.07Bcd ± 2.42 (4)

12.03Aab ± 1.11 (4)

15.55bc ± 1.81 (8)

32 24.97Bd ± 4.51 (4)

14.46Ab ± 2.27 (4)

19.71c ± 3.07 (8)


16.30B ± 1.31 (24)

12.87A ± 0.80 (24)





Table 4.52 ANOVA: Per cent embryonic mortality (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.108 0.022 8.781**



Error 36 0.088 0.002

Total 47 0.269 0.006


obtained for deep litter and cage rearing respectively. Age effect was evident as

mean values of 5.62 0.45 and 6.91 1.14 registered at 28 and 32 weeks of age

respectively were significantly (P0.01) different from 12.21 1.02 and 16.11

1.68 obtained at 20 and 16 weeks of age. However, age x system interaction effect

on per cent dead-in-shell was not evident in this experiment.

In experiment II, mean per cent dead-in-shell of 5.74 0.55 and 6.39 0.48

obtained for eggs from Japanese quail breeders reared under deep litter and cage

systems (Table 4.55, Figure 4.13 and 4.14) were not found to be significantly

(P0.05) different. However, effect of age was found to influence the same

significantly (P0.01) and mean per cent dead-in-shell of 3.13 0.64 at 32 weeks

was significantly lower than 8.45 0.61 at 24 weeks of age. Interaction (age x

system) was not found to have any effect on per cent dead-in-shell in this

experiment (Table 4.56).

4.8 Per cent hen day chick production

Mean ( S.E.) per cent hen day chick production presented in Table 4.57

and Figure 4.15 showed that the same was significantly (P0.01) higher from cage

rearing of Japanese quail parents than deep litter rearing (34.07 2.05 vs 31.05

2.55) in experiment I.

Further, the highest number of 45.27 1.16 chicks per 100 parents was

obtained during 17-20 weeks and the lowest of 17.87 3.49 during 9-12 weeks with

the values for remaining age groups lying in between and accordingly, the age effect

on the above parameter (Table 4.58) was also found to be significant (P0.01).

Significant (P0.01) age x system effect resulted in the significant influence

of housing system effect not being perceptible during 17-20, 21-24 and 25-28 weeks

of age, and deep rearing significantly outperformed cage rearing during the later age

of 29-32 weeks.

The number of chicks produced from Japanese quail breeders expressed as

mean per cent chick production was 41.29 2.41 and 49.19 1.40 for deep litter

and cage rearing systems in experiment II (Table 4.59 and Figure 4.16) and the

Table 4.53 Mean (± S.E.) per cent dead-in-shell of Japanese quail breeders



(age)

12 9.69 ± 1.54 (6)

9.71 ± 1.79 (6)

9.70ab ± 1.12 (12)

16 18.54 ± 1.60 (6)

13.68 ± 2.74 (6)

16.11c ± 1.68 (12)

20 11.47 ± 1.61 (6)

12.95 ± 1.32 (6)

12.21bc ± 1.02 (12)

24 11.43 ± 1.51 (3)

10.85 ± 2.71 (3)

11.14ab ± 1.39 (6)

28 5.49 ± 0.78 (3)

5.80 ± 0.42 (3)

5.62a ± 0.45 (6)

32 7.24 ± 0.17 (3)

6.59 ± 2.53 (3)

6.91a ± 1.14 (6)


11.51 ± 1.02 (27)

10.84 ± 0.10 (27)



Table 4.54 ANOVA: Per cent dead-in-shell (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.149 0.030 6.479**



Error 42 0.189 0.005

Total 53 0.358 0.007


Table 4.55 Mean (± S.E.) per cent dead-in-shell of Japanese quail breeders



(age)

12 6.18 ± 1.43 (4)

7.55 ± 1.06 (4)

6.86ab ± 0.86 (8)

16 7.62 ± 0.43 (4)

6.19 ± 0.77 (4)

6.90ab ± 0.49 (8)

20 6.04 ± 1.80 (4)

6.01 ± 1.06 (4)

6.02ab ± 0.97 (8)

24 7.54 ± 1.07 (4)

9.36 ± 0.22 (4)

8.45b ± 0.61 (8)

28 3.97 ± 0.39 (4)

6.05 ± 0.48 (4)

5.01ab ± 0.49 (8)

32 3.10 ± 1.26 (4)

3.15 ± 0.59 (4)

3.13a ± 0.64 (8)


5.74 ± 0.55 (24)

6.39 ± 0.48 (24)



Table 4.56 ANOVA: Per cent dead-in-shell (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.069 0.014 7.259**



Error 36 0.068 0.002

Total 47 0.148 0.003


Figure 4.11 Hatchability traits under deep litter system (Experiment - I)

Hatchability traits under deep litter system (Experiment I)

Embryonic

mortality 11.85

Dead in shell

11.51

Infertile eggs

21.20

Chicks 55.44

Figure 4.12 Hatchability traits under cage system (Experiment - I)

Hatchability traits under cage system (Experiment I)

Chicks 50.81

Embryonic

mortality 16.73

Dead in shell

10.84

Infertile eggs

21.62

Figure 4.13

Hatchability traits under deep litter system (Experiment - II)

Hatchability traits under deep litter system (Experiment II)

Dead in shell

5.74

Chicks 66.76

Infertile eggs

11.20

Embryonic

mortality 16.30

Figure 4.14

Hatchability traits under cage system (Experiment - II)

Hatchability traits under cage system (Experiment II)

Infertile eggs

9.61Dead in shell

6.39

Embryonic

mortality 12.87

Chicks 71.13

Table 4.57 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day chick production from 9-32 weeks



(age)

9 - 12 10.10Bc ± 1.66 (3)

25.64Ad ± 0.68 (3)

17.87c± 3.49 (6)

13 - 16 30.00Bb ± 2.06 (3)

39.84Aab ± 0.48 (3)

34.92b ± 2.40 (6)

17 - 20 42.86a ± 0.45 (3)

47.69a ±0.81 (3)

45.27a ± 1.16 (6)

21 - 24 35.75ab ± 1.05 (3)

34.69bc ± 2.78 (3)

35.22b ± 1.35 (6)

25 - 28 32.19b ± 2.58 (3)

30.19cd ± 4.08 (3)

31.19b ±2.21 (6)

29 - 32 35.40Aab ± 3.06 (3)

26.35Bcd ± 2.33 (3)

30.88b ± 2.66 (6)


31.05B ±2.55 (18)

34.07A ± 2.05 (18)





Table 4.58 ANOVA: Per cent hen day chick production (Experiment - I)


Among ages 5 0.308 0.062 40.156**



Error 24 0.037 0.002

Total 35 0.445 0.013


Table 4.59 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day chick production from 9-32 weeks



(age)

9 - 12 18.56Bd ± 0.51 (4)

36.11Ac ± 0.54 (4)

27.34d ± 3.34 (8)

13 - 16 47.87Bab ± 0.93 (4)

56.21Aa ± 1.74 (4)

52.04a ± 1.82 (8)

17 - 20 52.27a ± 1.78 (4)

53.75ab ± 1.16 (4)

53.01a ± 1.02 (8)

21 - 24 49.13ab ± 1.60 (4)

49.89b ± 1.13 (4)

49.51ab ± 0.92 (8)

25 - 28 43.62b ± 0.92 (4)

50.32b ± 1.14 (4)

46.97bc ± 1.44 (8)

29 - 32 36.27Bc ± 1.70 (4)

48.88Ab ± 1.59 (4)

42.58c ± 2.83 (8)


41.29B ± 2.41 (24)

49.19A ± 1.40 (24)





Table 4.60 ANOVA: Per cent hen day chick production (Experiment - II)


Among ages 5 0.406 0.081 116.414**



Error 36 0.025 0.001

Total 47 0.567 0.012


Figure 4.15 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day chick production from 9-32 weeks


0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Pe

r c

en

t c

hic

k p

rod

uc

tio

n

9 - 12 13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(System)

Age (weeks)

Per cent chick production under deep litter and cage system (Experiment I)

Deep Litter Cage

Figure 4.16 Mean (± S.E.) per cent hen day chick production from 9-32 weeks


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Pe

r c

en

t c

hic

k p

rod

uc

tio

n

9-12 13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

Per cent chick production under deep litter and cage system (Experiment II)

Deep Litter Cage

difference between the systems were highly significant (P0.01) and higher than that

observed in experiment I.

Age effect was also significant (P0.01) with the highest number of chicks

produced per 100 parents being 53.01 1.02 between 17-20 weeks of age and the

lowest of 27.34 3.34 during 9-12 weeks of age.

Age x system interaction effect was significant (P0.01) with the significant

influence of the systems on the parameter (Table 4.60) being not evident during 17-

20, 21-24 and 25-28 weeks of age. Mean per cent chick production declined as age

advanced beyond 17-20 weeks.

4.9 Economics

Economic advantage of different systems of rearing Japanese quail breeders

was analysed by working out the feed cost required to produce 100 hatching eggs

100 day old chicks from the above breeders.

4.9.1 Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs (Rs.)

Mean ( S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) to produce 100 hatching eggs was arrived at by

taking into account the data on mean egg production, feed consumption and cost of

breeder ration at the time of experiment. The values so arrived at for both the

systems of rearing in experiment I are presented in Table 4.61 and in Figure 4.17.

No significant difference (P0.05) in feed cost for 100 hatching eggs was observed

between deep litter and cage systems of rearing (Table 4.62) with the respective

values of 95.56 3.17 and 96.80 2.86. However, it became significantly (P0.01)

costlier to get 100 hatching eggs at the older age of 29-32 weeks (Rs 111.16 2.94)

compared to all early age groups analysed. Age x system interaction effect was also

found to significantly (P0.01) influence the above economics. Cost of getting

hatching eggs was significantly costlier for deep litter rearing compared to cage

rearing during early age of 13-16 weeks while the reverse was true during the older

age of 29-32 weeks. In experiment II also, Mean ( S.E.) values for feed cost (Rs.) for 100

hatching eggs given in Table 4.63 and in Figure 4.18 indicate that there existed no

Table 4.61 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 hatching eggs under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)


(age)

13 - 16 109.31Bb ± 4.53 (12)

85.94Aa ± 1.21 (12)

97.63a ± 4.06 (24)

17 - 20 88.91a ± 0.95 (12)

93.18a ± 1.32 (12)

91.04a ± 1.21 (24)

21 - 24 85.28a ± 1.31 (12)

95. 23a ± 1.37 (12)

90.26a ± 1.21 (24)

25 - 28 88.54a ± 1.75 (12)

93.08a ± 2.06 (12)

90.81a ± 1.93 (24)

29 - 32 105.78Ab ± 2.32 (12)

116.54Bb ± 3.17 (12)

111.16b ± 2.94 (24)


95.56 ± 3.17 (60)

96.80 ± 2.86 (60)





Table 4.62 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs (Experiment - I)


Among ages 4 7604.705 1901.176 15.517**



Error 110 13477.255 122.523

Total 119 25881.255 217.490


Table 4.63 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 hatching eggs under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)


(age)

13 - 16 79.95 ± 2.10 (16)

75.32 ± 2.83 (16)

77.64b ± 1.78 (32)

17 - 20 69.85 ± 1.28 (16)

73.31 ± 1.32 (16)

71.58a ± 0.96 (32)

21 - 24 85.04 ± 3.83 (16)

87.10 ± 2.88 (16)

86.07c ± 2.37 (32)

25 - 28 84.84 ± 1.34 (16)

89.93 ± 1.15 (16)

87.38c ± 0.98 (32)

29 - 32 89.91 ± 1.52 (16)

90.38 ± 1.91 (16)

90.15c ± 1.20 (32)


81.92 ± 1.24 (80)

83.21 ± 1.25 (80)



Table 4.64 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs (Experiment - II)


Among ages 4 7615.307 1903.827 24.873**



Error 150 11481.097 76.541

Total 159 19606.976 123.314


Figure 4.17 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 hatching eggs under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - I)

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

Fe

ed

co

st

(Rs.)

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

feed cost per 100eggs exp1

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.18 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 hatching eggs under deep litter and cage system (Experiment - II)

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

Fe

ed

co

st

(Rs

.)

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

Feed cost (Rs) per 100 eggs Exp-II

Deep Litter

Cage

significant (P0.05) difference between the means for deep litter and cage rearing

(Table 4.64). However, it took significantly (P0.01) much lesser cost to produce

100 hatching eggs during early ages of 13-16 and 17-20 weeks compared to the

older ages of 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32 weeks. Age x system interaction effect on the

same was not found to be significant (P0.05) in this experiment.

4.9.2 Feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks

In addition to the parameters considered earlier, mean per cent hatchability

was also taken into account and accordingly, mean ( S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) required

to produce 100 day old Japanese quail chicks were arrived at for deep litter and cage

reared breeders in experiment I which are presented in Table 4.65 and in Figure

4.19. The same for deep litter rearing was found to be significantly (P0.01) lower

compared to cage rearing of breeders (176.08 6.84 vs 208.11 10.46) and the

above cost was the cheapest during 17-20 weeks (154.18 2.21) and the highest

(229.49 12.32) during 29-32 weeks and such influence of age on the parameter

was highly significant (P0.01). Interaction (age x system) effect was also

significant (P0.01) on feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks (Table 4.66). The same for

deep litter rearing was higher during 13-16 weeks and lower during 21-24, 25-28

and 29-32 weeks of age compared to cage rearing.

In experiment II, mean ( S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks given in Table

4.67 and in Figure 4.20 show that the same for cage rearing was comparatively

lower than that for deep litter rearing (117.25 1.76 vs 123.77 2.51) and the

difference was found to be statistically significant (P0.01). Similarly mean feed

cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks arrived at during 13-16 and 17-20 weeks of age were

significantly (P0.01) lower and different from those during 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32

weeks of age. Age x system interaction effect was also found to significantly

(P0.01) influence the economics (Table 4.68) as worked out above with the

difference between systems of rearing being significant only at the oldest age of 29-

32 weeks of age.

Table 4.65 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks



(age)

13 - 16 215.16Bc ± 6.21 (12)

179.47Aab ± 2.67 (12)

197.31b ± 5.98 (24)

17 - 20 147.76a ± 1.75 (12)

160.60a ± 1.83 (12)

154.18a ± 2.21 (24)

21 - 24 157.16Aab ± 2.65 (12)

208.88Bbc ± 5.46 (12)

183.02b ± 6.84 (24)

25 - 28 173.58Aab ± 6.10 (12)

219.34Bc ± 10.03 (12)

196.46b ± 9.42 (24)

29 - 32 186.73Abc ± 6.13 (12)

272.25Bd ± 10.65 (12)

229.49c ± 12.32 (24)


176.08A ± 6.84 (60)

208.11B ± 10.46 (60)





Table 4.66 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 chicks (Experiment - I)


Among ages 4 71149.672 17787.418 19.620**



Error 110 99723.047 906.573

Total 119 252001.165 2117.657


Table 4.67 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks



(age)

13 - 16 115.42ab ± 3.67 (16)

103.19a ± 3.90 (16)

109.31a ± 2.85 (32)

17 - 20 104.63a ± 3.48 (16)

107.54a ± 1.67 (16)

106.09a ± 1.92 (32)

21 - 24 120.98b ± 6.12 (16)

126.78b ± 4.22 (16)

123.88b ± 3.69 (32)

25 - 28 128.85b ± 2.63 (16)

124.33b ± 2.54 (16)

126.59bc ± 1.84 (32)

29 - 32 148.96Bc ± 4.76 (16)

124.41Ab ± 2.65 (16)

136.69c ± 3.47 (32)


123.77B ± 2.51 (80)

117.25A ± 1.76 (80)





Table 4.68 ANOVA: Feed cost for 100 chicks (Experiment - II)


Among ages 4 20591.738 5147.935 22.697**



Error 150 34021.379 226.809

Total 159 61131.327 384.474


Figure 4.19 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks


120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280F

ee

d c

os

t (R

s.)

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

feed cost 100 chicks

Deep Litter

Cage

Figure 4.20 Mean (± S.E.) feed cost (Rs.) for 100 chicks


80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

Fe

ed

co

st

(Rs

.)

13 - 16 17 - 20 21 - 24 25 - 28 29 - 32 Overall

(system)

Age (weeks)

feed cost per 100 chick

Deep Litter

Cage

DISCUSSION

Chapter V

DISCUSSION

The results of the study carried out to assess the comparative productive and

reproductive performance of Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage

systems of rearing with the help of two different experiments are discussed

hereunder in the light of the references on earlier research works in this field.

5.1 Sexual maturity


The Japanese quail breeder chicks were reared on deep litter upto four weeks

of age and then allotted to two different treatments i.e. deep litter and cage rearing as

systems of housing for later part of their life.

Cage system of rearing was found to result in significantly (P0.01) early

age at sexual maturity compared to deep litter rearing in both the experiments. The

results are in conformity with the findings of Chidananda et al. (1986), Kundu et al.

(2003) and Biswas et al. (2005) that cage rearing favoured early maturity. Easy

access to feed and water, lack of competition and social order issues and proximity

to source of light (Toyoshima et al., 1994 and Ahmed et al., 2000) might have

contributed to better nutrition and early initiation of physiological processes leading

to attainment of early maturity in cage rearing. However, Viswanathan (1991) could

not identify such influence of cage rearing on age at maturity while Chopra and

Singh (1994) made contradictory observation that birds reared on deep litter attained

sexual maturity earlier compared to cage system. Provision of lesser floor space

allowance in the above studies might have contributed to this disagreement as

evidenced by the reports of Nagarajan et al. (1990) and Bhanja et al. (2006).

The mean age at sexual maturity observed in both the experiments were

comparatively different and higher than most of the earlier reports of 45.3

(Nagarajan et al., 1990), 54.41 (Praharaj et al., 1990), 44.55 (Prabakaran et al.,

1991), 45.72 (Cerit and Altinel, 1998) 42 (Mahipala et al., 1998), 41 (Aktan et al.,

2003) and 45.2 days (Erensayin and Camci, 2003).

As the basic stock used were of meat type Japanese quail breeders, selection

for body weight and consequent higher growth rate might have evoked a correlated

response in age at maturity. Prabakaran (1992), Syed Hussein et al. (1995), Marks

(1996), Kosba et al. (2003) and Suda and Okamoto (2003) also observed that

long term selection for bodyweight negatively impaired sexual maturation.

Gunes and Cerit (2001) too remarked that sexual maturity was delayed in high

bodyweight group.

Further, differences in mean age at sexual maturity of stocks used in

experiment I and II also show visibly different values under respective systems of

rearing even though both the experiments were carried out in the same season in

different years. The same could also be attributed to the differences in genetic

groups as the stocks used in experiment I were purebred grand parent lines and those

in experiment II were crossbred parents obtained by crossing purebred grand parent

lines used earlier. Ultimately, the crossbred parents in experiment II matured about

eight days earlier than the purebred stocks in experiment I. The difference in age at

sexual maturity among different genetic groups were also reported by Sachdev and

Ahuja (1986), Inal et al. (1996), Shit et al. (1996), Reddish et al. (2003) and Marin

and Satterlee (2006).

Further, Sachdev and Ahuja (1986) and Drbohlav and Metodiev (1996)

reported age at sexual maturity in Japanese quail breeders to be 73.10 and 63.30

days which were almost equal or above the values observed in this study.

5.1.2 Age at 50% production

Deep litter reared birds attained age at 50% production significantly (P0.01)

later than cage reared birds in both the experiments and hence, the attainment of

early maturity under cage rearing hastened the age at 50% production also.

Moreover, the number of days to reach 50% production after maturity was also

found to be prolonged for deep litter rearing compared to cage rearing in both the

experiments with respective values of 14.83 vs 9.16 and 11.75 vs 11.25 days in

experiments I and II. Reasons cited earlier like easy access to feed and water, lack of

competition to such access and proximity to source of light might have contributed

to lower age at 50% production under cage rearing.

Mean age at 50% production observed in this study in both the experiments

were also relatively higher and delayed compared to earlier reports of 49

(Gildersleeve et al., 1987), 56 and 60 (Phogat, 1983), 50-56 (Syed Hussein et al.,

1999) and 47 days (Aktan et al., 2003). As described earlier, the genetic differences

might have contributed to the delay as meat type Japanese quail breeders selected for

high 4-week bodyweight were involved in this study.


Body weight at sexual maturity (g) was significantly (P0.01) lower for cage

reared birds than deep litter reared birds in both the experiments. As maturity was

attained by deep litter birds a week later than cage reared birds, they would have

gained in body weight during the period leading to the above difference.

Body weight at sexual maturity of Japanese quail breeders involved in this

study ranged between 310-343 g which was much higher than the earlier reports of

122.90-128.15 g (Sreenivasaiah and Joshi, 1988), 135.72-145.92 g (Prabakaran et

al., 1991), 202.2 g (Kocak et al., 1995), 169 g (Mahipala et al., 1998), 203.9 g

(Gunes and Cerit, 2001), 255.35 g for females (Aktan et al., 2003) and 258-262 g

(Reddish et al., 2003). The observations indicate that the lines were in fact selected

for high growth rate and genetically superior to the lines reported so far.

5.2 Egg production

5.2.1 Per cent hen day egg production

Mean per cent hen day egg production was found to be significantly (P0.01)

higher for cage rearing than deep litter rearing of Japanese quail breeders in both the

experiments. The results are in agreement with the findings of Chidananda et al.

(1986), Chopra and Singh (1994), Viswanathan (1991), Kundu et al. (2003) and

Biswas et al. (2005). Apart from comparatively easier access to feed and water and

lesser social stress, the fact that the cage reared birds remain practically away from

the micro-organisms that could be present in their droppings and find a way into the

litter and relatively lower levels of ammonia at the bird level in cages compared to

deep litter, as droppings of Japanese quail contain higher amount of uric acid, might

have also contributed to better performance by cage reared birds.

Mean per cent hen day egg production observed in this study were in

agreement with the earlier reports by Shukla et al. (1993a and 1993b), Avci et al.

(2005), Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a). However, Drbohlav and Metodiev

(1996), Seker et al. (2005b), Bhanja et al. (2006) and Yesilbag (2007) reported

comparatively higher egg production while Nagarajan et al. (1990), Chopra and

Singh (1994) and Kundu et.al. (2003) reported lower values. Nestor and Bacon

(1982), Okamoto et al. (1989), Praharaj et al., (1990), Anthony et al. (1996), Syed

Hussein et al. (1999) and Saini et al. (2005) had vouched that genetic differences

consequent to selection could lead to variation in egg production among different

lines. Sachdev and Ahuja (1986) concluded that the drop in egg production was very

sharp in birds weighing more than 220 g. Shrivastav et al. (1993), Shukla et al,

(1994), Alarslan et al. (1997), Sehu et al. (2005), Edwin et al. (2007) and Yerturk et

al. (2007) offered explanations that nutrient composition of feed could cause

significant variations in egg production performance of Japanese quail.

In both the experiments, age was also found to have significant (P0.01)

influence on per cent hen day egg production and peak production was achieved

between 17-20 weeks of age irrespective of housing system in both the

experiments and a gradual decline was noticed uniformly thereafter. Seker et al.

(2005b) reported peak egg production at 17 th week. Bhanja et al. (2006) also

observed that 14-20 week production was much higher than 7-13 week

production at all cage intensity levels.

Delayed age at maturity witnessed in deep litter reared breeders might have

led to comparatively poorer per cent hen day egg production between 13-16 weeks

resulting in significant (P0.01) age x system interaction effects in both the

experiments.

5.2.2 Per cent hen housed egg production

Even though mean per cent hen day egg production was higher for cage

reared birds in experiment I, mean per cent hen housed egg production was in favour

of deep litter reared breeders and the difference in performance was also significant

(P0.01). However, the trend was found to be reversed in experiment II in favour of

cage system over deep litter rearing. This could be explained by comparatively

higher levels of mortality observed in cage rearing in experiment I during initial

stages of laying. The owners of commercial hatchery were going for first generation

cage rearing only during experiment I and consequently initial cage design made

was not so ideal leading to injuries and consequent deaths which would have

influenced per cent hen housed egg production in experiment I. Further, per cent hen

day egg production was found to differ only to a lesser extent between experiments I

and II while per cent hen housed egg production was much lower in experiment I

compared to experiment II indicating that the pure bred grand parent Japanese quail

breeders were more fragile and sensitive and evinced higher mortality levels

compared to cross bred parent breeders employed in experiment II which might have

also led to diametrically opposite results obtained between the experiments for the

influence of system of rearing on per cent hen housed egg production .

Okamoto et al. (1989), Sachdev et al. (1989), Shit et al. (1996) and Saini et

al. (2005) also offered explanations that different genotypes had established

different levels of egg production. However, the results of this study also indicated

that genotype x system of rearing effect could also possibly influence the per cent

hen housed egg production.

Effect of age and age x system interaction on per cent hen housed egg

production were on the lines of per cent hen day egg production and hence the

explanation offered earlier could hold good here also.

5.3 Egg weight (g)

Mean egg weight (g) of Japanese quail breeders at different ages under the

two systems of housing management ranged between 14.99-15.97 and 13.89-14.55

in experiments I and II respectively indicating the variations between two

genetically different genotypes employed in the two experiments. The above values

were much higher than those reported by Shit et al.(1996), Asasi and Jaafar (2000),

Hassan et al. (2003), Kul and Seker (2004), Yildiz et al. (2004), Yesilbag (2007) and

many other authors indicating the genetic superiority of the stock employed. As egg

weight is positively influenced by the body weight of females, selection for high 4-

week body weight might have led to higher adult body weight of female breeders

and consequently resulted in higher egg weights too.

Cage rearing resulted in significantly (P0.01) higher mean egg weights

compared to deep litter rearing in experiment I. Considering that per cent hen day

egg production was also higher for cage rearing, higher egg weights could be

attributed to possibly higher adult body weight of females reared in cages. Apart

from advantages of cage rearing described earlier, restricted movement of breeders

in cages also might have resulted in higher adult body weight leading to higher egg

weights also. Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990b), Nagarajan et al. (1990) and

Bhanja et al. (2006) indicated that within cages itself, increased floor space

allowance per bird resulted in moderately lower egg weights. Further, the

observations of Chidananda et al. (1986), Mahapatra et al. (1988), Chopra and

Singh (1994), Kundu et al. (2003) and Biswas et al. (2005) are also in conformity

with the findings in experiment I that cage rearing resulted in comparatively higher

mean egg weight.

However, in experiment II, deep litter rearing resulted in significantly

(P0.01) heavier egg weight compared to cage rearing of Japanese quail breeders.

Age x system effect was also evident and at 32 weeks, cage reared birds laid heavier

eggs compared to deep litter rearing. This could possibly be explained by genotype x

system of rearing effect to certain extent and the difference in mean egg weights

between the two systems were narrower in experiment II (+0.08 g for deep litter)

compared to experiment I (0.26 g for cage rearing).

It was quite peculiar to notice that mean egg weight significantly (P0.01)

came down as age of Japanese quail breeders advanced in both the experiments.

Only in experiment II, the trend was reversed at the oldest age of 32 weeks and the

reversal was more substantial for cage rearing (0.65 vs 0.40 g). In chicken and most

of the other poultry species, mean egg weight normally increases with advancing age

as also adult bodyweight of females. Yannakopoulos and Tserveni-Gousi (1985),

Narayanakutty et al. (1989), Shrivastava et al. (1994), Philomina and Ramakrishna

Pillai (2000) Nazligul et al. (2001b), Seker et al. (2004a) and Seker et al. (2005b)

also showed that egg weights in Japanese quail too had a positive relationship with

age. However, Yannakopoulos and Tserveni-Gousi (1987) reported that peak egg

weights were achieved at 10-14 weeks, Altinel et al. (1996) at 14-16 weeks and

Cerit and Altinel (1998) at 5 months of age.

Okamoto et al. (1989), Prabakaran (1992), Anthony et al. (1996), Oroian et

al. (2002) and Oguz (2005) explained that mean egg weights differed between

different genotypes which could be the reason for the difference in mean egg

weights noticed between experiments I and II.

5.4 Feed consumption (g)

Mean feed consumption per bird per day remained significantly (P0.01)

higher in cage rearing compared to deep litter system of housing of Japanese quail

breeders in both the experiments. Confinement of birds closer to the feeders and

better light intensity at feeder level could have led to higher feed consumption levels

recorded for cage system. The same could also offer an explanation for higher mean

per cent hen day egg production in cage rearing and heavier egg size for cage system

in experiment I.

Mean feed consumption per bird per day in this study was comparatively

higher than those reported in the literature (Panda et al., 1980; Bandyopadhyay and

Ahuja, 1990b; Shukla et al., 1994; Minvielle et al., 1995; Nazligul et al., 2001a;

Avci et al. 2005 and Sehu et al. 2005) which could be because the selection for high

4-week body weight among the meat type birds would have led to much higher adult

body weight of the stocks compared to those reported earlier. Minvielle et al. (1995)

and Marks (1996) also expressed similar views.

Mean feed consumption per bird per day increased from 9-20 weeks

declining afterwards upto 28 weeks, before going up again between 29-32 weeks in

experiment I while in experiment II, it went up upto 24 weeks and declined

thereafter and such an effect of age was found to be significant (P0.01). Similarly,

Nazligul et al. (2001a) also reported an increase in daily feed consumption between

8-24 weeks of age. Age x system effect was also found to be significantly (P0.01)

influencing mean feed consumption by Japanese quail breeders.

5.5 Feed efficiency

5.5.1 Feed efficiency per dozen eggs

Mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs did not differ significantly (P0.05)

between deep litter and cage systems of rearing of Japanese quail breeders in both

experiments I and II. It could be explained by the fact that, even though

comparatively higher values for mean per cent hen day egg production were

obtained for cage rearing over deep litter system, mean feed consumption per bird

per day was also higher under cage rearing compared to deep litter rearing in both

the experiments. As higher egg production levels were accompanied by higher level

of mean feed consumption, the relative advantage got nullified and net feed

efficiency figures for one dozen eggs did not ultimately differ among the two

different systems.

Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a) and Nagarajan et al. (1990) reported

comparatively better feed efficiency figures under cage rearing. It could be

explained by the difference in genetic potential of the breeders employed and meat

type heavy breeders could only be expected to perform poorly in this count. As

observed by Sachdev et al. (1989), there were differences in efficiency of feed

conversion into egg between the two different genotypes employed in experiment II

and I with the crossbred parents outperforming the pure bred grand parent breeders.

The above difference could be attributed to comparatively lower mean feed

consumption per bird per day witnessed in experiment II.

Age effect on mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs was, however, found

significant (P0.01) and the poorest feed efficiency was observed between 29-32

weeks in both the experiments while the birds were the most efficient between

17-28 weeks of age in experiment I and 17-20 weeks in experiment II when they

reached their peak egg production level. Age x system effect was also significant

(P0.01) in experiment I.

5.5.2 Feed efficiency per kg egg mass

System of rearing did not significantly (P0.05) influence feed efficiency per

kg egg mass also in both the experiments. As mean feed consumption per bird per

day remained higher under cage rearing, in spite of better egg production levels, the

advantage could not be translated in terms of feed efficiency for cage system of

rearing Japanese quail breeders compared to deep litter rearing. Relevant literatures

on relative merits of the above two systems of rearing for feed efficiency per kg egg

mass were not traceable.

However, mean feed efficiency per kg egg mass obtained in this study were

poorer compared to reports of Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a), Nagarajan et al.

(1990), Shrivastav et al. (1993), Shukla et al. (1993a and 1993b), Shukla et al.

(1994), Avci et al. (2005) and Yerturk et al. (2007). Only Alarslan et al. (1997)

observed almost similar values. As the stock of parents utilized for the study were

from meat lines selected for high 4-week body weight, their feed consumption levels

remained much higher as discussed earlier and accordingly mean feed efficiency

figures were also pushed up.

Age effect on the parameter was significant (P0.01) in both the experiments

and the best figures were obtained during 21-24 and 17-20 weeks of age in

experiments I and II respectively. Breeders employed in experiment II were

comparatively more efficient for reasons described earlier. Age x system effect on

mean feed efficiency per kg egg mass found significant (P0.01) in experiment I

with a significant difference in mean values in favour of cage rearing during 13-16

weeks only. It is because of the reason that the breeders under deep litter rearing

comparatively matured later and had lower egg number during the period.

5.6 Per cent livability

As higher rate of deaths was witnessed among Japanese quail female

breeders due to the stress of laying, mean per cent livability was recorded and

discussed separately for female and male breeders.

5.6.1 Per cent livability in female breeders

Mean per cent livability in female breeders was worked out separately for

each 4-week laying period from 9-32 weeks of age for making comparisons between

the two systems of rearing employed.

Systems of rearing did not seem to influence mean per cent livability of

female Japanese quail breeders significantly (P0.05) in both the experiments

covered under the study. However, Viswanathan (1991) and Biswas et al. (2005)

observed lower mortality in quails reared in cage system compared to deep litter

system. Post-mortem carried out on dead birds also revealed that most of the deaths

reported from cages were as a result of injuries suffered especially in experiment I.

Hence, an appropriate modification in designing of breeder cages for Japanese quail

would help to ensure higher mean per cent livability in cage rearing.

Mortality per cent figures reported by Bandyopadhyay and Ahuja (1990a),

Nagarajan et al. (1990), Prabakaran et al. (1992), Shrivastav et al. (1994) and

Erensayin et al. (2002) were comparatively lower than those obtained in this study.

Studies by Sato et al. (1984), El-Fiky et al. (1996) and Inal et al. (1996) had shown

that selection for weight adversely affected per cent livability.

Mean per cent livability in female Japanese quail breeders were higher

comparatively in experiment II probably because of genotypic differences and

changes in cage designing effected. Age effect on mean per cent livability of

female breeders was significant (P0.05) in both the experiments with the best

livability figures expressed during 21-24 and 9-12 weeks of age of female

breeders in experiment I and II respectively. Age x system effect was also

significant in experiment I.

5.6.2 Per cent livability in male breeders

Mean per cent livability among male Japanese quail breeders was

significantly (P0.01) better under cage rearing in experiment I, while similar

superiority was not evident in experiment II. As discussed earlier, Viswanathan

(1991) and Biswas et al. (2005) made similar findings that lower mortality was

witnessed among quails reared in cages. Overall, mean per cent livability among

male breeders was much superior compared to their female counterparts especially

when mean cumulative per cent livability from 9-32 was taken into account. The

cumulative mortality per cent among male breeders was 7.11 and 1.62 in experiment

I and 3.63 and 6.90 in experiment II for deep litter and cage rearing respectively

compared to respective figures of 36.96 and 35.77 and 21.13 and 25.75 for female

breeders. The influence of sex on livability could be attributed to the higher amount

of laying stress, the females are exposed because of proportionately larger size of the

egg compared to their body size. Only Gildersleeve et al. (1987) reported the

influence of sex on the mortality among Japanese quail from 6-20 weeks of age.

Age was also a significant (P0.01) factor that influenced mean per cent

livability of male Japanese quail breeders in both the experiments. The best per cent

livability was witnessed between 21-28 and 25-28 weeks of age in experiments I and

II respectively. Age x system effect was significant (P0.01) only in experiment I

with better per cent livability recorded during 9-12 weeks under deep litter rearing.

5.7 Hatchability parameters

5.7.1 Per cent hatchability on total eggs set

System of rearing was found to have significant (P0.01) influence on mean

per cent hatchability on total eggs from Japanese quail breeders. However, in

experiment I, deep litter rearing resulted in higher per cent hatchability while in

experiment II, cage rearing was found to be better for this parameter. As birds of

different genotypes were used in the above two experiments, genotype x system of

rearing effect could offer possible explanation as with regards to the other

parameters like mean hen housed egg production and egg weight.

Chidananda et al. (1986) Abdul Mujeer (1992), Narahari et al. (2002),

Kundu et al. (2003) and Biswas et al. (2005) stated that hatchability on total eggs set

was higher under cage rearing. However, similar effect was noticed only in

experiment II in this study. As breeder parents reared in cages in experiment I laid

significantly larger eggs compared to those reared under deep litter system, possibly

thinner egg shell might have led to higher embryonic mortality and lower

hatchability. Age was also found to be a significant (P0.01) factor that had a

bearing on mean total per cent hatchability in experiment I. The best hatchability

figures were obtained at 20 weeks of age. Age x system effect was significantly

(P0.05) evident in experiment II.

Mean per cent hatchability on total eggs set noticed in this study of 55.44

and 50.81 in experiment I and 66.76 and 71.13 in experiment II were less than those

reported by Sabine and Marks (1991), Bandyopadhyay et al. (1992), Vali et al.

(2005), Bhanja et al. (2006) and Seker et al. (2006) and comparable to those

obtained by Prabakaran et al. (1992), Inal et al. (1996) and Kucukyilmaz et al.

(2001). This could be explained by the earlier findings that selection for high body

weight had negative influence on hatchability (Blohowiak et al. 1984; Sato et al.,

1984; Inal et al., 1996 and Marks, 1996).

5.7.2 Per cent hatchability on fertile eggs

The two genetically divergent stocks of Japanese quail parents employed in

experiment I and II gave two different results on the relative influence of different

systems of rearing on mean per cent hatchability of total fertile eggs set for hatching.

While deep litter rearing resulted in significantly (P0.01) higher hatchability of

total fertile eggs set in experiment I, the results were in favour of cage rearing in

experiment II. Between experiments mean per cent hatchability of fertile eggs from

cage rearing was perceptibly higher in experiment II, while the figures for deep litter

rearing remained almost equal.

Chidananda et al. (1986) and Kundu et al. (2003) also acknowledged that

mean per cent hatchability on fertile eggs set was higher in cage than deep litter

rearing of Japanese quail breeders.

The range of overall mean per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs was

between 67.77 and 78.78 in this study. Bandyopadhyay et al. (1992) and Shrivastav

et al. (1993) reported comparatively higher means for the character while Insko et

al. (1970) and Aydin et al. (2006) observed almost comparable performance. The

difference between genetic background of the stocks employed could offer an

explanation for the variation witnessed apart from other conditions of the study.

Age was also an important factor that had a significant (P0.01) influence on

the parameter in both the experiments. In experiment I, the mean performance at 28

weeks was significantly better than the same at 16 weeks while in experiment II,

mean per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set was superior at 16 weeks

compared to all other age groups.

Babu et al. (1991) also observed that the mean per cent hatchability on total

fertile eggs set was comparatively lower at both younger and older age groups and

the medium age groups performed better. Narahari et al. (1988) indicated that the

performance for the trait declined gradually as age advanced for age groups of 10-

13, 14-17, 18-21 and 22-25 weeks.

Ottinger et al. (1983) opined that age related reproductive decline in

Japanese quail may have behavioural as well as endocrine basis. Age x system

interaction effect was found to be significant (P0.01) only in experiment II. Cage

rearing was found to result in significantly better performance only at 32 weeks.

Within deep litter rearing, mean per cent hatchability on total fertile eggs set was

significantly lower at 32 weeks compared to all other ages while for cage rearing,

the performance at 20 and 24 weeks were comparatively poorer than those at 16, 28

and 32 weeks of age.

5.7.3 Per cent fertility

System of rearing did not significantly (P>0.05) influence mean per cent

fertility among pure bred Japanese quail breeders in experiment I while in

experiment II, cage rearing was found to be significantly (P≤0.05) favourable to

ensure higher fertility levels over deep litter rearing. Further, mean per cent fertility

ranged between 72.20-74.92 and 88.80-90.37 in experiments I and II respectively

indicating that pure bred lines had comparatively poorer fertility. Both the systems

of rearing were found to ensure satisfactorily higher levels of fertility in spite of the

differences witnessed between them. The finding was significant in that wire

flooring for cages did not act as impediment to mating among the Japanese quail

breeders and the presence of more number of males in floor pen under deep litter

rearing did not offer any specific advantage over the presence of limited number of

males in each cage unit.

Mean per cent fertility levels obtained in this study were comparable to those

reported by Bandyopadhyay et al. (1992), Bunaciu et al. (1994), Inal et al. (1996),

Kirmizibayarak and Altinel (2001) and Narahari et al. (2002), and however, better

than the values observed by Chidananda et al. (1986), Kucukyilmaz et al. (2001),

Seker et al. (2004b) and Seker et al.. (2005a). The results also contradict the

findings of Asasi and Jaafar (2000) that the per cent fertility was as low as 62.00

when a 1:3 sex ratio of male to females was employed.

As for the effect of system of rearing, Chidananda et al. (1986) concluded

that the fertility was higher among the litter reared birds which is contradictory to

the findings made now. The changes made in cage design might have resulted in

favorable results for cage rearing of breeders in this study. The observations of

Abdul Mujeer (1992), Narahari et al. (2002), Kundu et al. (2003) and Biswas et al.

(2005) are also in agreement with the findings of the present study.

Blohowiak et al. (1984), Sato et al. (1984), Anthony et al. (1986) and Marks

(1996) stated that selection for high body weight had negative effects on per cent

egg fertility. However, such effects of body weight were visible only among meat

type pure line breeders employed in experiment I and the effect of cross breeding to

obtain next generation breeders might have led to satisfactorily higher fertility levels

in experiment II.

Age was also found to be a significant (P≤0.05) factor influencing mean per

cent fertility of eggs in both the experiments. In experiment I, the same was found

to go up from 12 to 20 weeks and drop later, finally to move up again at 32 weeks

while in experiment II, mean per cent fertility was the lowest at 16 weeks of age.

Narahari et al. (1988) and Narahari et al. (2002) made observations that parental age

had similar influence on fertility. Highly significant (P≤0.01) age x system effect

resulted in comparatively lesser per cent fertility of eggs on deep litter rearing at 32

weeks of age.

The findings of Caglayan and Inal (2006) that Japanese quail eggs

weighing 10-12 g only were the most suitable for incubation was also proved

wrong in this study as eggs weighing as heavy as even 14.20 g had shown

satisfactory fertility levels.

5.7.4 Per cent embryonic mortality

Effect of rearing systems on mean per cent embryonic mortality also varied

between the two experiments as was witnessed for per cent total hatchability. The

results were significantly (P≤0.01) in favour of deep litter rearing in experiment I

and cage rearing in experiment II. Chidananda et al. (1986) and Abdul Mujeer

(1992) also indicated that the embryonic mortality was higher in deep litter system

because of higher level of possible contaminators on litter rearing. Probably in

experiment I, unusually heavier and larger eggs compared to the other experiment

would have led to thinner egg shells leading to higher incidence of invisible minute

cracks in egg shell under cage rearing and the developing embryos could not have

sustained life for long. Narahari et al. (2002) also indicated marginally higher

embryonic mortality in cage reared birds compared to deep litter rearing

The difference in results vis a vis the effect of system of rearing between the

two experiments could also be explained by the genetic variation between the two

stocks of Japanese quail breeders used indicating a possible genotype x system of

rearing interaction. While El Fiky et al. (1996) reported lower hatchability in the

inbred dine compared to control line, the works of Blohowiak et al. (1984), Sato et

al. (1984), Inal et al. (1996) and Marks (1996) stood testimony to the possible

genetic variations in determining hatchability.

Age effect on per cent embryonic mortality was significant (P≤0.01) and it

was the highest at 12 weeks which almost gradually decreased as age advanced in

experiment I in which age x system effect was not significant (P>0.05). However in

experiment II, even though the age effect was significant (P≤0.01) the age based

trend was increasing and it was the lowest at 16 weeks and highest at 32 weeks of

age. Genotype x system of rearing interaction could only offer explanation for

divergent results between the experiments. Age x system interaction effect was also

significant (P≤0.01) in this experiment with the least value of 7.40 recorded for cage

rearing at 16 weeks and the highest of 24.97 at 32 weeks of age under deep litter

rearing. Narahari et al. (2002) also made similar observations that embryonic

mortality increased with advancement of age.

5.7.5 Per cent dead–in–shell

System of rearing had no significant (P>0.05) bearing on mean per cent

dead-in-shell in both the experiments. As age x system effect was also not evident,

only age was found to have significantly (P≤0.01) influenced mean per cent dead-in-

shell in both the experiments. In experiment I, the same was significantly higher at

16 weeks compared to 28 and 32 weeks while in experiment II, it was significantly

higher at 24 weeks compared to 32 weeks of age. As mean per cent hen day egg

production was comparatively lower at later ages with comparable mean feed

consumption figures, the availability of higher level of major and minor nutrients per

egg would have ensured that per cent dead-in-shell was lower at later ages.

Narahari et al. (1988) indicated contrarily that the late embryonic mortality

increased after 20 weeks of age. The difference could be attributed to the advancement

made in breeding and consequent difference in genetic potential of the stocks.

Mean values obtained for per cent dead-in-shell were comparable with those

reported by Bandyopadhyay et al. (1992) and lower than those by Narahari et al.

(1988), Kucukyilmaz et al. (2001), Erensayin (2002) and Seker et al. (2004b).

5.8 Per cent hen day chick production

Mean per cent chick production indicated that significantly (P≤0.01) higher

number of chicks were produced from cage rearing of Japanese quail breeders in

both the experiments I and II compared to deep litter rearing of Japanese quail

parents. Attainment of early maturity and high rate of egg production under cage

rearing had ensured such superiority over deep litter rearing. Chidananda et al.

(1986) also agreed that although fertility was higher among the litter reared bird, the

cage rearing resulted in more number of chicks.

Age effect was also significant (P≤0.01) in both the experiments and the

efficiency of chick production was the highest between 17-20 weeks compared to 9-

12 weeks of age of Japanese quail parents. As the parents attained maturity only

between 8-9 weeks of age, the time taken initially for gradual rise in production and

poor fertility and hatchability during early age have resulted in poor chick

production during early age while the peak rate of lay, coupled with good

hatchability during 17-20 weeks of age resulted in the highest number of chicks

produced during the period.

Age x system interaction effects were also significant (P≤0.01) in both the

experiments indicating that the significant advantage of cage rearing over deep litter

rearing for this parameter was not noticed during middle ages in both the

experiments.

5.9 Economics

5.9.1 Feed cost for 100 hatching eggs

Mean feed cost required to produce 100 hatching eggs was not found to

differ significantly (P>0.05) between the two rearing systems of deep litter and cage

rearing in both the experiments. Even though, mean per cent hen day egg

production was higher for cage rearing, higher mean feed consumption reported for

this system had offset the advantage of high production leading to comparable feed

cost to produce hatching eggs.

However, age was found to have significant (P≤0.01) bearing, in both the

experiments, with the mean feed cost for 100 hatching eggs found to be the highest

at the oldest age of 32 weeks. It is explained by the fact that the rate of lay came

down at this age while mean feed consumption remained higher. The above cost

remained the least and comparable between 17-20, 21-24 and 25-28 weeks in

experiments I and the least during 17-20 weeks cage in experiment II.

Age x system interaction was significant (P≤0.01) only in experiment I

with the cage rearing favouring cheaper production of hatching eggs during 13-

16 weeks while deep litter was being more favourable during 29-32 weeks of

age. As deep litter reared birds attained maturity late and showed poor egg

number between 13-16 weeks, the same would have caused higher feed cost for

100 hatching eggs at this age.

Mean feed cost for 100 hatching eggs for the deep litter and cage rearing

systems averaged Rs.95.56 and Rs.96.80 in experiment I and Rs.81.92 and Rs.83.21

in experiment II indicating that the same for pure bred grand parent stocks were

much costlier.

Mean feed cost for 100 hatching eggs obtained in this study were almost

double the cost reported by Sathish kumar (2003) involving cage rearing of Japanese

quail breeders. The difference in genetic merit of the breeders used and consequent

variation in mean egg production and ever rising cost of feed ingredients might have

been responsible for the relatively higher costs in this study.

5.9.2 Feed cost for 100 chicks

System of rearing showed different levels of influence on mean feed cost to

produce 100 day old chicks in the two experiments conducted during the period. In

experiment I, deep litter system of rearing was found efficient in ensuring lower

production costs while in experiment II, cage rearing was the most favoured one. As

comparative feed costs for hatching eggs remained almost the same between the two

experiments, the significant variations in mean per cent hatchability on total eggs

had caused similar variations in feed cost for 100 chicks in the respective

experiment. Further, it was also found that the cost of feed for production of pure

line grand parent chicks was higher (Rs.176.08 and 208.11 vs 123.77 and 117.25).

However, as most of the Japanese quail breeder farms are expected to maintain only

the immediate parents and not the grand parents, cage rearing could be suggested to

be the system of choice for Japanese quail breeder-cum-hatchery units. Further, the

number of chicks produced in given time would was also found to be higher under

the cage system.

Age effect was found to be significant (P≤0.01) in both the experiments with

the cost of production of chicks remaining the lowest during 17-20 weeks of age in

both, and it became increasingly costlier as the age advanced. Higher levels of rate

of lay and hatchability at this age contributed to the lowest cost. The breeder farm

owners have to hence, decide which is the most optimal age to cull the breeders

depending on the effect of age on cost of production of chicks.

Age x system on mean feed cost for 100 chicks also remained significant

(P≤0.01) in both the experiments. In experiment I and II, higher costs of production

were noticed for deep litter rearing during 13-16 weeks because of low egg

production level, while in experiment II, lower per cent hatchability contributed to

higher cost of production during 25-28 and 29-32 weeks of age.

Mean feed cost per 100 quail chicks in this study was much higher than the

mean values of Rs. 52.51 ± 1.20 – 56.09 ± 1.32 reported by Sathish kumar (2003).

As described earlier, the vast difference in genetic potential and type of the breeders

employed and the increasing cost of feed ingredients might be the reasons for the

difference. Prabakaran and Srinivasan (2007) reported mean variable cost of

Japanese quail production of Rs.143 for 100 chicks which is almost comparable to

the mean feed cost observed in experiment II.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Chapter VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Comparative performance of Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and

cage system of management was studied in a private commercial Japanese quail

breeder farm-cum-hatchery.

The study involved two biological experiments. In experiment I, pure bred

grand parent breeder stocks under selection for high four week body weight were

utilised. The cross bred stocks of parent breeders obtained by shift mating of males

among the grand parents were involved in experiment II.

A floor space allowance of 225 cm2 per bird was allowed on deep litter and

184 cm2 per bird in cages. A total of 1584 and 1848 Japanese quail breeders were

employed in experiment I and II respectively. All the breeder quail chicks were

reared on deep litter from day old to four weeks of age and then shifted to the

respective system of management. A male : female sex ratio of 3 males to 8 females

was adopted uniformly.

Data on production parameters like per cent hen day and hen housed egg

production, egg weight, feed efficiency per dozen eggs and per kg egg mass and per

cent livability and reproduction parameters like age and body weight at maturity, age

at 50% production, per cent hatchability on total eggs and fertile eggs, fertility

embryonic mortality and dead-in-shell and also relative economic factors like feed

cost per 100 eggs and 100 chicks and number of chicks hatched per 100 female

breeders were collected from 5-32 weeks of age and subjected to statistical analysis.

In both the experiments, cage reared birds attained maturity about a week

earlier than their contemporaries reared on deep litter and correspondingly, age at

50% production was also delayed though the gap was comparatively narrower

between the stocks reared under the above two systems in experiment II. As the age

at maturity was delayed, the deep litter reared breeders weighed heavier at maturity

than the cage reared. Mean age and weight at maturity obtained in the study were

greater than the values reported in the literature and the same may be attributed to

the genetic superiority of the stocks consequent to sustained selection over many

generations for high four week body weight.

Mean per cent hen day egg production was higher for cage rearing compared

to deep litter system in both the experiments I (73.96 ± 0.71 vs 64.01 ± 0.87) and II

(72.96 ± 0.53 vs 68.46 ± 0.61). Age effect was also evident with the highest values

of 76.71 ± 0.61 and 79.49 ± 0.52 in experiments I and II respectively between 17-20

weeks while the corresponding lowest values of 61.10 ± 0.69 and 63.37 ± 0.49 were

obtained between 29-32 weeks of age and the hen day egg production that peaked

during 17-20 weeks gradually declined as age advanced. Age x system effect

confounded the findings and in experiment I no significant difference in hen day egg

production was noticed between the two systems during 29-32 weeks, while in

experiment II, no difference between the two systems was evident between 17-20

and 21-24 weeks of age.

Mean per cent hen housed egg production values showed variations in

superiority of the two systems between the two experiments. In experiment I, deep

litter reared birds showed higher production of 51.41 ± 0.67 vs 49.48 ± 0.52 while in

experiment II, cage reared birds evinced superiority with the values of

62.00 ± 0.51 vs 60.41 ± 0.66, indicating the existence of genotype x housing system

interaction. However, age effect was similar and significant (P≤0.01) in both the

experiments and after the peak production was registered during 13-20 weeks of age,

it came down as age advanced. Age x system interaction effect was also significant

and the peak production was reached between 13-16 weeks in cage rearing and 17-

20 weeks in deep litter housing in both the experiments.

The effect of housing system on mean egg weight (g) was also different in

the two experiments conducted. In experiment I, the values were 15.19 ± 0.03 and

15.45 ± 0.03 for deep litter and cage rearing while in experiment II, the

corresponding values were 14.23 ± 0.02 and 14.15 ± 0.02 and the differences were

statistically significant (P≤0.01). As the difference in mean egg weights between the

two experiments also indicate, the two stocks employed are genetically different and

genotype x environment effect might have played a role. Age effect was significant

and distinct in experiment I with the heaviest eggs recorded at 12 weeks of age and

the egg weight declining gradually as age advanced while in the later experiment, it

went up from 12 to 16 weeks, then slid down before regaining at 32 weeks of age.

Significant age x system effect indicated that there existed no significant difference

in mean egg weights between the two systems at 16 and 20 weeks in experiment I

and 12 and 28 weeks in experiment II.

Mean feed consumption (g) per bird per day remained significantly (P≤0.01)

higher under cage rearing compared to deep litter rearing. Easy access to feed and

water, inability to move away from the source of feed and higher rate of hen day egg

production would have led to higher feed consumption under cage rearing. Age

effect was significant and higher levels of feed consumption were witnessed

between 13-20 and 21-28 weeks of age in experiments I and II respectively. Age x

system effect was also significant (P≤0.01) on mean feed consumption as the

difference between rearing systems was not significant between 9-12 and 29-32

weeks in experiment I and 9-12 and 13-16 weeks in experiment II.

Mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs did not show significant variation

between housing systems as higher feed consumption under cage rearing was

compensated by higher hen day egg production, and consequently, the same was

1.17 ± 0.03 and 1.19 ± 0.02 in experiment I and 0.96 ± 0.02 and 0.97 ± 0.02 in

experiment II for deep litter and cage rearing systems respectively. The

difference in mean values between experiments stand as testimony to genetic

differences between the stocks. Age effect was significant only in experiment I

with feed efficiency between 29-32 weeks being significantly poorer compared

to the other ages and significant age x system effect also in experiment I ensured

that there did exist significant variation in mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs at

the early age of 13-16 weeks.

Mean feed efficiency per kg egg mass also showed similar results as above

and housing system did not have any influence on the parameter in both the

experiments. However, age effect was significant in both the experiments and in

experiment I, the feed efficiency figure was significantly (P≤0.01) poorer between

29-32 weeks compared to all other ages while in experiment II, the same during later

ages of 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32 weeks remained comparatively poorer over 13-16

and 17-20 weeks of age. Age x system effect was significant (P≤0.01) only in

experiment II and significant differences in mean feed efficiency per kg egg mass

was infact evident during 13-16 weeks of age.

Housing systems for Japanese quail breeders evaluated comparatively in this

study did not seem to significantly influence per cent livability among female

breeders during the study period. Between experiments, there were variations and

apart from genetic differences between the stocks employed, improvements made in

cage design also might have resulted in improved livability in experiment II. Most of

the deaths among female breeders in both the experiments were due to laying stress

and consequent peritonitis. During early age, a few deaths due to physical injuries

were noticed in cage rearing. Age effect was, however, significant with the best

figures of 94.48 ± 1.20 obtained between 21-24 weeks in experiment I and 9-12

weeks in experiment II. Age x system effect was highly significant (P≤0.01) only in

experiment I showing significant difference in per cent livability of female breeders

between 9-12 weeks in favour of deep litter rearing and 21-24 and 29-32 weeks in

favour of cage rearing.

Age, housing system and age x system effects were all significant on mean

per cent livability among male breeders in experiment I. Males showed better

livability under cage rearing. Livability between 21-24 and 25-28 weeks were

significantly higher than that between 17-20 weeks and 29-32 weeks of age. Age x

system effect was evident as no significant difference in per cent livability was

perceptible between 13-16, 21-24 and 25-28 weeks of age. However, in experiment

II housing system did not seem to influence the parameter. Only age had a

significant effect with per cent livability between 17-20, 21-24, 25-28 and 29-32

weeks remaining higher and better than livability between 13-16 weeks of age. The

difference in mean per cent livability between female and male Japanese quail

breeders was also very significant indicating the high fragility of female breeders.

Mean per cent hatchability on total eggs set was found to be significantly

higher for deep litter rearing in experiment I (55.44 ± 1.25 vs 50.81 ± 1.54) and for

cage rearing in experiment II (71.13 ± 0.76 vs 66.76 ± 0.99) indicating a genotype x

housing system interaction. As cross bred parents are only meant to produce chicks

for commercial rearing under field conditions, results of experiment II carries more

validity. Age effect was significant (P≤0.01) only in experiment I with the

highest hatchability of 59.09 ± 1.65 at 20 weeks proving to be significantly

different from the lower values of 49.23 ± 1.33 and 48.69 ± 4.41 at 16 and 28

weeks of age. Age x system effect was significant (P≤0.01) only in experiment II

and consequently, the significant superiority of cage rearing was not evident at

12, 16, 20 and 24 weeks of age.

Mean per cent hatchability on fertile eggs set also showed similar tendencies

as above between the two housing systems vis a vis the two experiments. Age effect

was also significant (P≤0.01) in both the experiments with the highest value of

74.52 ± 5.07 at 28 weeks and 82.14 ± 1.35 at 16 weeks recorded respectively in

experiments I and I. Significant age x systems effect in experiment II indicated the

significant influence of housing system only at 32 weeks of age with no such

significant superiority being evident at all other ages.

Cage system was found to result in higher per cent fertility of eggs of

Japanese quail breeders compared to deep litter system of housing and however, the

difference was significant (P≤0.01) only in experiment II. The significance of the

result needs more emphasis as only limited number of males (3 Nos.) was present in

each cage unit of smaller size compared to flock mating under deep litter rearing and

in the instance of any deaths among males, no replacement was also made. Age

effect was evident in both the experiments. Per cent fertility at 28 weeks was lesser

compared to 16 and 20 weeks in experiment I while such significant difference was

noticed between 16 and 24 weeks of age in experiment II. Age x system effect was

significant (P≤0.01) only in experiment I and ultimately, significant differences in

per cent fertility between systems of management were found significant at 32

weeks of age with the same for deep litter rearing being superior.

Mean per cent embryonic mortality also showed variations in the influence

of housing system between the two experiments. In experiment I, cage rearing

resulted in higher per cent embryonic mortality while in experiment II, deep litter

rearing resulted in higher figure. Age effect was also significant in both the

experiments. In experiment I, the value at the early age of 12 weeks remained

higher than those at 24, 28 and 32 weeks while in experiment II, per cent embryonic

mortality was the least at 16 weeks and the highest at 32 weeks, Age x system effect,

significant in experiment II, indicated that differences between the housing systems

were not significant during the early age of 12, 16, 20 and 24 weeks.

Systems of housing/rearing and age x system effects dif not bear any

significance on mean per cent dead-in-shell. Only age had significantly (P≤0.01)

influenced the same in both the experiments and the per cent dead in shell, came

down significantly in both the experiments as age advanced.

Cage system of housing resulted in significantly (P≤0.01) higher mean per

cent hen day egg production in both the experiments and the advantage over deep

litter housing system was better in experiment II (49.19 ± 1.40 vs 41.29 ± 2.41) than

in experiment I (34.07 ± 2.05 vs 31.05 ± 2.55). The age effect was also significant

(P≤0.01) with the peak chick production noticed during 17-20 weeks of age that

gradually declined as age advanced. Significant (P≤0.01) age x system effect

indicated that the superiority of cage system was not significant in the middle ages

and in experiment I, deep litter housing resulted in comparatively higher during 29-

32 weeks of age,

Economics of maintaining Japanese quail breeders under deep litter and cage

systems were compared in terms of feed cost required to produce 100 eggs/chicks.

Mean feed cost (Rs.) to produce 100 hatching eggs was worked out to be

95.56 ± 3.17 and 96.80 ± 2.86 for deep litter and cage rearing systems respectively

in experiment I while the corresponding figures in experiment II were relatively

lower at 81.92 ± 1.24 and 83.21 ± 1.25 because of lower levels of feed consumption.

However, the difference in means between systems of housing was not significant.

Age had significantly (P≤0.05) influenced the same in both the experiments. In

experiment I, the feed cost between 29-32 weeks was significantly higher than all

other groups while in experiment II, the same between 17-20 weeks was lower than

all other age groups. Age x system effect was significant (P≤0.01) only in

experiment I that contributed to a significantly lower cost for cage rearing between

13-16 weeks, and for deep litter rearing between 29-32 weeks of age.

Mean feed cost (Rs.) to produce 100 chicks remained significantly (P≤0.01)

lower under deep litter rearing for pure bred grand parents over cage rearing (176.08

± 6.84 vs 208.11 ± 10.46) in experiment I while the reverse was true in experiment II

for cross bred parents (123.77 ± 2.51 vs 117.25 ± 1.76). Age also significantly

(P≤0.01) influenced the feed cost as the same increased as age advanced in both the

experiments. The figures also indicate higher cost of production of parent chicks

compared to commercial chicks. Significant (P≤0.01) age x system effect ensured

that there was no significant difference between the two systems between 17-20

weeks in experiment I and the significant difference between the two systems

existed only during 29-32 weeks of age in experiment II.

The findings of the study described so far can be summarised as below

before drawing conclusions.

Cage rearing of Japanese quail breeders ensured early sexual maturity, higher

mean per cent hen day egg production and more number of chicks per 100

parents raised in both the experiments.

Further, mean per cent hen housed egg production, per cent fertility,

hatchability on total and fertile eggs set for hatching were higher and mean

feed cost for 100 chicks was lower for cage rearing over deep litter rearing in

experiment II in which the ultimate parents that produce day old chicks for

commercial marketing / rearing were raised. However, mean egg weight was

higher for deep litter rearing.

Mean feed efficiency per dozen eggs and per kg egg mass, per cent livability

among female parents and feed cost per 100 hatching eggs remained equal

between deep litter and cage systems of management.

However, mean feed consumption per bird per day was higher for cage

rearing in both the experiments.

In experiment I, in which pure line Japanese quail grand parent breeders

were used, mean per cent hen housed egg production, mean per cent

hatchability on total and fertile eggs set were higher and mean feed cost per

100 chicks was lower for deep litter rearing over cage rearing while mean

egg weight was higher than cage rearing.

Age effect on many of the production and reproduction parameters of

Japanese quail breeders was significant and a definite negative trend was

witnessed in mean per cent hen day and hen housed egg production, feed

efficiency per dozen eggs and feed cost per 100 hatching eggs and 100

chicks with advancing age within the study period.

Age x system interaction effects on many of the above parameters were also

significant which, however, did not mar the significance of over all findings

listed above.

Mean performance of Japanese quail breeder parents utilized in both the

experiments indicate that they are genetically much superior to most of the

stocks whose performance had been reported in the literature as reflected by

higher mean body weight at maturity and mean egg weight and even then,

mean fertility and hatchability were not found to be impaired.

The following conclusions are drawn based on the above findings.

For the Japanese quail breeder farms that produce day old chicks for commercial

rearing, cage rearing is advisable to ensure higher production and reproduction

performance as it ensures production of higher number of chicks from the given number

of parents and requires lesser cost for feed to produce the day old chicks.

As higher mean feed consumption is a major single factor that disadvantages

cage rearing, studies need to be taken up to bring down the same in cage rearing by

working out specific nutrient requirements for cage rearing to save on feed cost and

curtailing feed wastage through appropriate designing.

As genotype x housing system effects were visible for some of the

parameters studied, when ever the industry advances to produce highly specialised

broiler and egger lines, studies would need to be taken up to analyse the role of such

interactions so as to guide the breeder in producing the optimum stock that would

meet the commercial industry’s requirements.

As age effect also proved to be a significant factor that influenced many of

the parameters studied and thereby decided the mean cost of production of day old

chicks, it is advisable for the breeder farm owners to arrive at carefully the optimum

age at which the present batch of breeders had to be culled and a new replacement

batch had to be planned in advance to plan and maintain the anticipated production

at the minimal cost.

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