perceptions of workplace spirituality among professionals and executives

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Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal [jerrj] pp432-errj-369405 March 20, 2002 21:13 Style file version Nov. 19th, 1999

Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, Vol. 13, No. 3, September 2001 (C© 2002)

Perceptions of Workplace Spirituality AmongProfessionals and Executives

William J. Harrington, 1,2 Robert C. Preziosi,1 and Doreen J. Gooden1

As a new century begins, it is becoming increasingly clear that workers are experiencinga fundamental change of business world values, a change of paradigms as radical as theAge of Information. Corporate America and its employees are responding to a call for adeeper sense of purpose, a more significant sense of faith, and a renewed commitment tospirituality. This paper reports research that focuses on the relationship among the 3 keystakeholders in this new emphasis on spirituality: individual, organization, and work unit.Significant correlations were found to exist among 3 factors of spirituality and among11 variables that were submeasures of the factors.

KEY WORDS: spirituality; values; workplace spirituality; spirituality and attitudes.

INTRODUCTION

The interest in spirituality in the American workplace has risen over the last 10 yearsbecause of a wide variety of changes. Some of these are the elimination of the psychologicalcontract, massive layoffs, increased use of technology, and physiological abuse of workers.Morale has fallen and people are searching for new sources of personal energy.

Spirituality at work is not about religious beliefs. Rather, it is about people who perceivethemselves as spirited beings, whose spirit needs energizing at work. It is about experiencingreal purpose and meaning in their work beyond paychecks and task performance. Spiritu-ality is really about people sharing and experiencing some common attachment, attraction,and togetherness with each other within their work unit and the organization as a whole.Therefore, spirituality can be considered the valuing of workers’ spirit and inner life. Bothneed energy caused by meaningful work that takes place in the spirit of togetherness on acontinual basis.

1Huizenga Graduate School of Business and Entrepreneurship, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale,Florida.

2To whom correspondence should be addressed at Huizenga Graduate School of Business and Entrepreneurship,Nova Southeastern University, 3100 SW 9th Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33315; e-mail: [email protected].

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0892-7545/01/0900-0155/0C© 2002 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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156 Harrington, Preziosi, and Gooden

PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

The purpose of the research is to add to the understanding of spirituality at work.This helps organizations adapt policies and procedures to address the workforce’s growinginterest in this phenomenon. This can have a positive impact on performance. In particular,this research focuses on the following research questions:

1. What are the relationships among an individual’s perceptions of spirituality withregard to individuality, work unit, and organization?

2. What factors of spirituality do workers identify as being present in their organiza-tions?

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Spirituality Concept

Existing literature on spirituality and management indicates that definitions of spiri-tuality lack clarity or agreement (Butts, 1999; Cavanaugh, 1999; Konz & Ryan, 1999;Lindamood, 1991; McCormick, 1994; Millimanet al., 1999). Although there is a lack ofagreement for a spirituality definition, three streams of definitions have been identified(Schmidt-Wilk et al., 2000). First, there are those who define spirituality in terms of apersonal inner experience based on an “interconnectedness” (Mitroff & Denton, 1999).A second stream of definitions focuses on principles, virtues, ethics, values, emotions,wisdom, and intuition. The degree to which these qualities are expressed in the behaviorsand policies of organizations expresses the degree to which spirituality is present (Dehler& Welsh, 1994; Kriger & Hanson, 1999; Marcic, 1997; Wagner-Marsh & Conley, 1999).A third stream expresses spirituality in terms of the relationship between a personal innerexperience and its manifestations in outer behaviors, principles, and practices. Spiritualityhas long been linked to human behavior and performance (Harlos, 2000). In cultural pursuits,artists and composers have cited it as a source of creative inspiration and direction in artand music for centuries (Harlos, 2000).

Despite their similarities, spirituality and religion are distinct. Even when defined assacred values, spirituality is not synonymous with religion (Burgess, 1996). Burgess statesthat both spirituality and religion express the presence of God or some “ultimate” in thelives of human beings. Both focus upon the nature of life, inclusive of, but also extendingbeyond physical life. However, where religion has established belief rooted in the past andsets forth creeds and doctrine, spirituality is the praxis of faith. There is a definitiveness inreligion where spirituality feels the right to call into question. . .There is a vulnerabilityand responsible freedom in spirituality which can be seen as threatening to the accepted,systematized truth. King (1989) defined spirituality as something that “can be described as aprocess of transformation and growth, an organic and dynamic part of human developmentof both individual and society.”

There are those in the nonbusiness secular domain who feel that if we choose thevalue of market over the value of human life, we are violating the laws of God. Williamson(1997) envisions a politics of inclusion, where conservatives and liberals, Blacks and Whites,men and women, rich and poor are not at odds with one another, but united in pursuit ofdemocratic ideals.

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Perceptions of Workplace Spirituality Among Professionals and Executives 157

Management guru Peter Drucker (1988) envisioned a connection of management to aspiritual ground and a higher cause. He made reference to St. Bonaventure who wrote, “Allknowledge leads back to the Source of All Light and to The Knowledge of Ultimate Truth.”Drucker admitted that he was not sure how cost accounting or the study of tax loopholeswill lead back to the Source of Light or to the knowledge of Ultimate Truth, although hewas quite sure that the spirit of St. Bonaventure must animate all we do if management isto have results.

Spirituality in Organizations

Employees’ efforts to integrate their spirituality and work are described in increas-ing numbers of books and articles for managers (e.g., Marcic, 1997; McCormick, 1994;Richmond, 1999). A Gallup Organization poll, included in a new book,Next AmericanSpirituality: Finding God in the 21st Century, by George Gallup and Tim Jones, found thatthe percentage of Americans who said they “felt a need. . . to experience spiritual growth”grew from 58% in 1994 to 78% in 1999. A survey of 91,530 adults conducted in 1999by Princeton University sociologist Robert Wuthnow found that 43% said their interest inspirituality had increased over the previous year (Higgins, 2000).

Many workers desire opportunities for spiritual expression in the workplace but arehesitant because of fears of offending peers and management (Mitroff & Denton, 1999).The challenge has recently become greater as a result of the incorporation of integratedworkgroups that have increased employee interaction. The growing diversity in the generalpopulation and in the workplace has been a factor. Cash and Gray (2000) suggest that withthe growing diversity, there has been an increase in the various types of formal and informalreligious and spiritual practices of the workforce. Immigrants working in the United Statesare frequently reporting that their American employers do not understand or respect theirspiritual beliefs or religious practices (Blank & Slipp, 1994). Another aspect of the challengeis related to a cultural norm that makes discussion of religion or spirituality, like politicsand sex, taboo in the workplace (Mitroff & Denton, 1999).

Spirituality at work is also about the notion that spiritual beings not only express innerlife needs by seeking meaningful work, but that part of being alive is living in connectionwith other human beings. Spirituality energizes and provides the enthusiasm to pursue ourlife’s work alongside others. When the spirit is alive and well, it creates meaning in our worklives (Moxley, 2000). Preziosi (2001) echoes this perspective in his discussion of leadershipacts that commit the hearts of followers. The absence of spirit, energy, and enthusiasm,which are vital factors for meaningful work lives, result in demotivated and disillusionedworkers. In the July 2001 edition ofFortune Magazinearticle entitled “God and Business”Gregory F. A. Pearce, a publishing executive poised the question “Why would we want tolook for God in our work?” He states, “The simple answer is most of us spend so muchtime working, it would be a shame if we couldn’t find God there. A more complex answeris that there is a creative energy in work that is somehow tied to God’s creative energy. Ifwe can understand that connection, perhaps we can use it to transform the workplace intosomething remarkable.” Also in the article Jose Zeilstra, a merger expert with J. P. MorganChase states, “ultimately I’m working for God. There is no higher calling than to serveGod, and that does not mean only with the church. Ultimately, your life, whether it’s work,family, or friends, is part of a larger plan.” Spirituality drives the plan.

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The 90s emphasis on teamwork is also responsible for the search of the spiritual. Thetheory is that understanding the role that spirituality can play in peoples’ lives will helpbuild better relationships at work and, thus, enable people to work more effectively to thebenefit of all stakeholders. Understanding spirituality will become such an important partof workplace human development that it will begin to be featured regularly in managementtraining and will eventually have a place in some form or another in every organization, nomatter how small (Hilpern, 2000).

Moxley (2000) identifies leadership as the most important influence on the presence ofspirit in Corporate America. The deeper we go into the exploration of leadership, the more weneed to deal with the spiritual dimensions of the sense-making, connection-building, choice-making, vision-inspiring, and reality-creating roles of leaders (Boorstin, 1998). Turner(1999) highlights the following from a speech delivered by M. Burnett, CEO of a TorontoHospital in June 1999 at a conference onSpirituality at the Workplace. “Leadership hasa great deal to do with spirituality, but many of today’s leaders are so impeccably logicalthat they do not lift the heart and cannot engage the soul.” Some companies have, however,recognized the need to cultivate the spiritual energies of their work forces. Boeing and Xeroxare among the growing number of Fortune 500 companies that have hired consultants tocultivate these energies. This trend is likely to grow.

It is important to recognize also that there will be employees within the organizationswho may not share these spiritual values and aspirations because of ethnic and other dif-ferences regarding spirituality. Pearce (2001) further states that the idea is to “make theworkplace a more ethical and humane arena, one where believers and nonbelievers alikecan find fulfillment.” In trying to spiritually energize employees, care must be taken toidentify the impact of “spiritual labor” (how employees manage their spiritual feelings inorder to comply with organizational requirements) on the employees, as some nonbelieverscan be well energized without needing a sense of spirituality.

METHODOLOGY

The survey instrument,Finding Meaning and Purpose at Work, developed by Donde P.Ashmos and Dennis Duchon, was administered to 103 students participating in a capstonenontraditional MBA course. Each research participant completed a questionnaire using a7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) was usedto assess their reactions to the 66 item instrument.

To address Question 1 of the research questions, the participants’ attitudes toward thefollowing three circumstances were assessed:

Individual Level—This relates to participants’ attitudes about themselves and their imme-diate work environment and included Questions 1 through 34 of the questionnaire.

Work Unit Level—This relates to the participants’ attitudes about how their work unitfunctions and included Questions 35 through 50.

Organizational Level—This relates to participants’ attitudes about their work organizationas a whole and included Questions 51 through 66.

A correlation coefficient was performed on each of the variables to determine theirrelationships. The Cronbach’s alpha was also determined to identify the level of reliability.

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Table I. Descriptive Statistics—Individual, Work Unit, and Organizational Levels

N Minimum Maximun Mean SD

Individual level 103 3.10 5.90 4.7981 0.5594Work unit level 103 1.60 6.00 4.1505 1.1391Organizational level 103 1.50 6.60 4.1689 1.3443

Valid N (listwise) 103

To address Question 2 of the research questions, 11 variables were assessed. Thiswas based on the results of factor analyses done by the instrument’s authors for the threemajor variables. The 11 variables are (1) Conditions for community, (2) Meaning at work,(3) Inner life, (4) Blocks to spirituality, (5) Personal responsibility, (6) Positive connectionswith other individuals, (7) Contemplation, (8) Work unit community, (9) Positive work unitvalues, (10) Organization values, and (11) Individual and organization.

Descriptive statistics for factors within each level to determine the means within thegroups were utilized.

RESULTS

Table I shows that the individual level had the highest mean score of 4.798, indicatingthat individuals had greater spiritual awareness as it relates to themselves and their immedi-ate work environment. This confirms the findings of Ashmos and Duchon (2000) that “a com-munity is a place in which people can experience personal growth, be valued for themselvesas individuals, and have a sense of working together.” Also, individuals will find it is easierto assess their own spirituality than it is to assess others. Again, Turner (1999) made note ofBurner’s suggestion that “if personal spirituality is to be given a chance to develop, then peo-ple need to start bringing more of themselves to work—their passion and creativity.” If thisis present, then chances are that individuals will find meaning in their work which will ulti-mately enrich both themselves and the organization. Table II shows the correlation between

Individual level and work unit r = .646Individual level and organizationr = .639Organization and work unit r = .804

Table II. Correlations of Coefficient

Individual Work unit Organization

IndividualPearson correlation 1.000 .646a .639a

Sig. (two-tailed) .000 .000N 103 103 103

Work unitPearson correlation .646a 1.000 .804a

Sig. (two-tailed) .000 .000N 103 103 103

OrganizationPearson correlation .639a .804a 1.000Sig. (two-tailed) .000 .000N 103 103 103

aCorrelation is significant at the .01 level (two-tailed).

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Table III. Descriptive Statistics—Individual Level

N Minimum Maximum Mean SD

Conditions for community 103 2.10 6.40 4.7495 0.8517Meaning at work 103 1.70 6.90 4.8291 1.1738Inner life 103 1.40 7.00 4.4029 1.3308Blocks to spirituality 103 1.30 6.50 4.3680 1.0968Personal responsibility 103 1.00 7.00 4.7330 1.4633Positive connections with other individuals 103 2.30 7.00 5.3272 1.1001Contemplation 103 1.00 7.00 4.6456 1.5790


The correlation between organization and work unit was the highest, that is,r = .804,suggesting that where there is spiritual congruence between individuals within their variouswork units and the organizations with which they work. The Cronbach’s alpha test forreliability was .8311. This indicates that significant reliability exists for the questionnaire.

In analyzing Question 2 of the research questions, and particularly in identifying thosefactors which influence spirituality, the factors for the three variables will be examined.

Part 1: Individual Level

The individual level consisted of seven factors

1. Conditions for community2. Meaning at work3. Inner life4. Blocks to spirituality5. Personal responsibility6. Positive connections with other individuals7. Contemplation

Table III shows that positive connections with other individuals had the highest mean,followed by meaning at work and conditions for community, suggesting that individualswill work in a spirit of “oneness” when they have meaningful experiences at work andwhere the work environment is conducive to personal growth and advancement.

Part 2: Work Unit Level

The work unit level consisted of two factors

1. Work unit community2. Positive work unit values

The mean scores in Table IV are lower than those in the individual levels. Again, this confirmsthe findings of Ashmos and Duchon (2000) that it is perhaps easier for individuals to answerquestions about themselves as it relates to spirituality than it is for them to assess how otherswithin the organization feel about the subject. The mean scores, however, suggest that ifthere are positive values within a work unit, then it is possible that employees will acceptand assume roles and responsibilities which will enhance the growth and development of

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Table IV. Descriptive Statistics—Work Unit Level


Work unit 103 1.40 7.00 4.2252 1.4122Positive work unit values 103 1.00 6.80 4.4243 1.5516


the organization. At the same time employees will become “connected” and have a sense ofunity and purpose through social interaction sharing of common values for the good of all.

Part 3: Organizational Level

The organizational level consisted of two factors

1. Organization values2. Individual and the organization

Again, like the work unit levels, individuals will express their own feelings about spiritualitywith much more ease than it is to assess spirituality on an organization-wide basis (seeTable V). Hence, the scores are lower than those of the individual level. However, they arepositive enough to suggest that where there are shared values in the organization, workerswill strive for the continuous improvement of organizational goals and objectives. Thus, wecould say that spirituality could help an organization sustain shared values. Shared valueswould become the glue that holds the organization together.

In the most recent authoritative writing on organizations that excel above all others,Katzenbach (2000) suggests that whatever path the best organizations chose a sense of sharevalues was present. The building and sustaining of extraordinary employee performanceresults when managers guide themselves through work situations based upon the organi-zations’ stated values which employees subscribe to also. In less successful organizationsthat level of values congruence is less likely to be present.

There is a risk that such high levels of values congruence could lead to groupthink.This occurs when organization members avoid critical judgement to reach agreement. Suchdecision-making could be detrimental to an organization. Thus, in order to avoid groupthinkbecause of the power of shared values, an organization could do some of the following:make sure an open climate for discussion exists, allow disserting perspectives to take centerstage, solicit feedback from outside experts, and allow plenty of time for problem analysisand solution (Gordon, 2002).

The demographic profile in Table VI shows that 64 or 62.1% of the participants werefemale and 39 or 38% were male. Forty-one or 40% of the group were in the age group31–40 and 50 or 49% were working in their current jobs between 1 month and 5 years. All

Table V. Descriptive Statistics—Organizational Level


Organization values 103 1.00 7.00 4.0379 1.6355Individual and organization 103 1.50 6.90 4.3621 1.4975


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Table VI. Demographic Profile—Gender, Age, and Years Worked at Current Organization

Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent

GenderValid

Male 39 37.9 37.9 37.9Female 64 62.1 62.1 100.0Total 103 100.0 100.0

AgeValid

21–30 27 26.2 27.3 27.331–40 41 39.8 41.4 68.741–50 27 26.2 27.3 96.051 and over 4 3.9 4.0 100.0Total 99 96.1 100.0

Missing system 4 3.9Total 103 100.0

Years at organizationValid

1 month–5 years 50 48.5 50.0 50.05–10 years 17 16.5 17.0 67.010–15 years 16 15.5 16.0 83.015–20 years 7 6.8 7.0 90.0Over 20 years 10 9.7 10.0 100.0Total 100 97.1 100.0

Missing system 3 2.9Total 103 100.0

participants had a graduate/professional degree and 45 or 44% were in leadership positions.This data is presented as informational.

CONCLUSIONS

This research suggests that the more congruent employees’ values and spiritual aspi-rations are with the organization, then the greater the possibility that employees will findtrue meaning at work. They will be working in an environment where their spiritual needsand values are respected, thereby, allowing them to achieve a greater sense of fulfillment.This, in the long run will help to sustain organizational goals and energize people towardgreater output.

Spirituality will continue to be the source through which employees seek to find deepermeaning to life. More and more, organizational leaders are being forced to recognize thatalong with stress and problems at the workplace, that there are societal problems impactingthe workplace which workers face and they are looking for avenues to cope with these situ-ations. Many researchers suggest that one of the avenues being pursued is through spiritualawareness and practice. Workers now desire a stronger integration of their spiritual valueswith their work and leaders will be forced to respond by accommodating the transformationof a more humanistic workplace where spiritual principles and values become integral partsof the organization’s culture.

Finally, further empirical research needs to be conducted. Spirituality and its compo-nents must be understood with greater precision. This will allow businesses to adopt policiesand programs that energize the spiritual nature of their employees.

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