Peoples and Civilizations of the Americas

I. Classic – Era Culture and Society in Mesoamerica, 600 – 900

• No political unification but similar cultural practices/social structures

• Olmec - foundation• Hereditary political/religious

elites ruled over peasants• Agricultural practices

established earlier (irrigation, terraced hillsides, etc.)

• Change: reach and power of leaders/elites

A. Teotihuacán• 600 CE – largest city in

Americas• religious architecture

reflected astronomy (pyramids to sun, moon, etc.)

• Quetzalcoatl – feathered serpent (culture god, originator of agriculture and the arts)

• Practiced human sacrifice • Growth of urban populations • Chinampas• Population growth – new

housing, importance of pottery and obsidian tools

• Elites controlled state bureaucracy, tax collection and commerce – different lifestyle than masses

• Did NOT concentrate power in hands of a single ruler, no evidence of an overall ruling dynasty

• Ruled by alliances of elite families?

• Military protected long distance trade/forced peasants to give surplus to the city

• NOT an imperial state controlled by a military elite

• 750 CE – fall: invaders, conflict within elites…destruction of temples

B. The Maya• Geography/climate• Never a unified empire – rival Mayan kingdoms led by hereditary

rulers • High population centers required advanced agricultural practices• Public architecture (pyramids) – religious/political purposes• Maya cosmology • Rulers – religious/political duties• Torture/sacrifice of captives, Maya military forces sought captives

rather than territory• Fasting, ritual, purification happened BEFORE warfare• Role of women among elites• Women healers and shamans, household gardens/economies• Maya calendars: solar, ritual, “long”• Mathematical achievements• Hieroglyphics• 800 – 900 CE – major urban centers of the Maya abandoned or

destroyed• Fall disputed: epidemic disease, disrupted trade, declining

agricultural activity led to conflict

II. The Postclassic Period in Mesoamerica, 900 – 1500

• Differences between classic and postclassic civilizations: population increase, larger armies, political institutions in control of larger territories

A. The Toltecs• Borrowed from legacy of Teotihuacán

14th century – Aztecs believed that Toltecs the source of all culture in Mesoamerican world (astronomy)

• First conquest - state based on military power – extended control from Mexico City to Central America

• 968 CE – Toltec capital of Tula constructed in grand architecture, temples, décor much more warlike, scenes of human sacrifice

• Two kings ruled Toltec state together, division weakened Toltec power led to destruction of Tula, legend among Aztecs:

• Topiltzin – king and a priest of the cult of Quetzalcoatl accepted exile in the east – growing Toltec influence among the Maya of Yucatan Peninsula

• 1175 CE – northern invaders overcame Tula, but Toltec influence strong over later peoples

B. The Aztecs• Adopted social structures of

Toltec • First served more powerful

neighbors as surfs/mercenaries, relocated to islands near Lake Texcoco

• 1325 CE – Twin capitals of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco

• Kinship based organization survived but lost power relative to monarchs/hereditary aristocrats

• No absolute power for rulers - aristocrats chose ruler from ruling family

• New ruler needed to prove himself through conquest

• Social divisions starker – made possible by military expansion

• Territorial expansion gave Aztec warrior elite land/peasant labor

• Some social mobility• Clan social responsibilities,

loss of hunting/fishing grounds

• By 1500 CE – HUGE inequalities in wealth/privilege

• Aztec kings/aristocrats legitimized authority through elaborate rituals – sacrifice

(Aztecs continued…)• Labor projects (dike in Lake Texcoco)• Tribute system – not symbolic,

NECESSARY to sustain urban population

• Merchants – function and power• Trade –bartered (gold, cloth, etc.) goods

from far away• Diverse markets• HUGE urban population – 500,000

between two capitals by 1500• Religious rituals dominated – large

number of gods (male/females) • Cult of Huitzilopochtli – war, Sun, need

for human sacrifice• Two temples: war and agriculture• Human sacrifice on much greater scale -

war captives, criminals, slaves, tribute victims

• Religious AND political: enemy and subject states were victims, public sacrifices – deviancy NOT tolerated

Northern Peoples• Underlying Principle – connection between

maize, irrigation & social structure• Hohokam = Arizona

– Mexican influence most obvious– Irrigation system: 1000 C.E

• Anasazi– Four corners region– Long term effect of adapting maize, beans & squash– Kivas– Chaco Canyon: Pueblo Bonito township

• Social structure• Role of women• Merchants, roads• Connection to Mesoamerican culture• Decline of Chaco Canyon and changes to township location

= evidence of warfare over limited arable land

Northern Peoples Continued• Mississippian Mound Builders

– 700-1500 C.E, – Economically different to Anasazi– Chiefdom tradition; religious & secular purpose– Urbanization a result of agriculture, trade and

technological advancement– Common urban plan visible (reflects social structure)– Largest urban centre: Cahokia (St Louis)

• 20,000 people, rivaling Maya• Influence based on access to rivers• Status reflected in burial sacrifices• Decline seems to be connected to environmental

& population pressures rather than war

Andean Civilizations• Environment key in development

of reliable agricultural technologies & therefore social structure– Chavin – need to connect coast to interior– Technologies required – calendars, terracing, freeze-

dried foods, llamas

• Organization of human labor vital– Khipus– Collectivized road building, urban

construction, drainage, irrigation & production

– Ayllu– Mit’a– Role of women in society

Moche• 600 C.E, Peru• Cultural dominacne rather than political• Ritual & economic use of food• Social stratification; mit’a, theocratic (warrior

priests) • Use of gold & burial practice• Commoners; labor dues to ayllu

& elite• Importance of craft• Decline = earthquake, flooding, drought &

erosion challenged the power of theocracy whose power was connected to controlling environment

Tiwanaku & Wari• Highlands culture paralleling the Moche• Tiwanaku – Bolivia

– Intensive irrigation similar to chinampas; reclaimed land & raised fields

– Stone masonry extremely high quality – pyramids & reservoirs – labor force

– Limited metallurgy– Vast empire (military) pre-cursor to Inca?– Cultural influence east & south into Chile but NOT a

metropolis• Wari – Peru

– Dependency versus joint capital theories– Larger city with wall & temple– Both Tiwanaku & Wari decline around 1000 C.E –

Inca inherit political legacy

Inca• Vast imperial empire; “land of four corners”• Originally chiefdom based with reciprocal gift

giving• 1430’s military expansion – Cuzco capital• Unlike most Mesoamerican cultures Inca used

state military power rather than tributary systems– Pastoralist – influenced religion & politics – ruler/gods

obligation like shepherd to flock– Mit’a foundation for ayllu base – provided labor force

& took care of elderly/sick

• Imperial administration based on hereditary rulers (ayllu) –avoided rebellion through hostage of people & gods– Royal family descended from Sun; bound by rituals,

main ritual connected to warfare & conquest

Inca Continued• Cuzco urbanization

– Building/stone masonry– City laid out in shape of puma– Centre = temples & palaces– Importance of sacrifice & magnificence

• Cultural achievement based on earlier Andean civilizations – khipus, weaving, tools

• Prosperity rather than technology growth; Machu Picchu• Increasingly elite cut off from lives of commoners,

reduced equality & diminished local authority• Decline 1525; civil war after

succession feud. Weakened imperial institutions & fueled conquered peoples resentment. Economy & politics undermined just as the Europeans arrived