Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Frie-de) was a series of peace treaties signed between Mayand October 1648 in theWestphalian cities of OsnabrückandMünster effectively ending the European wars of reli-gion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Eighty Years’War (1568–1648) between Spain and the Dutch Repub-lic, with Spain formally recognizing the independence ofthe Dutch Republic.The peace negotiations involved a total of 109 delegationsrepresenting European powers, including Holy RomanEmperor Ferdinand III, Philip IV of Spain, the Kingdomof France, the Swedish Empire, the Dutch Republic, thePrinces of the Holy Roman Empire and sovereigns of thefree imperial cities. The treaties that comprised the peacesettlement were:

• The Peace of Münster[1] between the Dutch Repub-lic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648,ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648; and

• Two complementary treaties both signed on 24 Oc-tober 1648, namely:

• The Treaty of Münster (Instrumentum PacisMonasteriensis, IPM),[2] between the HolyRoman Emperor and France and their respec-tive allies.

• The Treaty of Osnabrück (InstrumentumPacis Osnabrugensis, IPO),[3] involving theHoly Roman Empire, Sweden and their re-spective allies.

The treaties did not restore peace throughout Europe, butthey did create a basis for national self-determination.The Peace of Westphalia established the precedent ofpeaces established by diplomatic congress,[4][5] and a newsystem of political order in central Europe, later calledWestphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of co-existing sovereign states. Inter-state aggression was to beheld in check by a balance of power. A norm was es-tablished against interference in another state’s domesticaffairs. As European influence spread across the globe,these Westphalian principles, especially the concept ofsovereign states, became central to international law andto the prevailing world order.[6]

1 Locations

Peace negotiations between France and the Habsburgs,provided by the Holy Roman Emperor and the SpanishKing, were started in Cologne in 1641. These negotia-tions were initially blocked by France.Cardinal Richelieu of France desired the inclusion of allits allies, whether sovereign or a state within the Holy Ro-man Empire.[7] In Hamburg and Lübeck, Sweden and theHoly Roman Empire negotiated the Treaty of Hamburg.This was done with the intervention of Richelieu.TheHoly Roman Empire and Sweden declared the prepa-rations of Cologne and the Treaty of Hamburg to be pre-liminaries of an overall peace agreement. This largeragreement was negotiated in Westphalia, in the neigh-bouring cities of Münster and Osnabrück. Both citieswere maintained as neutral and demilitarized zones forthe negotiations. Münster was, since its re-Catholizationin 1535, a strictly mono-denominational community. Ithoused the Chapter of the Prince-Bishopric of Münster.Only Roman Catholic worship was permitted. No placesof worship were provided for Calvinists and Lutherans.Osnabrück was a bidenominational Lutheran andCatholic city, with two Lutheran and two Catholicchurches for its mostly Lutheran burghers and exclu-sively Lutheran city council and the Catholic Chapter ofthe Prince-Bishopric of Osnabrück with pertaining otherclergy and also other Catholic inhabitants. In the yearsof 1628–1633 Osnabrück had been subjugated by troopsof the Catholic League. The Catholic Prince-BishopFranz Wilhelm, Count of Wartenberg then imposed theCounter-Reformation onto the city with many Lutheranburgher families being exiled. While under Swedishoccupation Osnabrücks’s Catholics were not expelled,but the city severely suffered from Swedish war contri-butions. Therefore, Osnabrück hoped for a great reliefbecoming neutralised and demilitarised.Both cities strove for more autonomy, aspiring to becomeFree Imperial Cities, so they welcomed the neutrality im-posed by the peace negotiations, and the prohibition of allpolitical influence by the warring parties including theiroverlords, the prince-bishops.Since Lutheran Sweden preferred Osnabrück as a confer-ence venue, its peace negotiations with the Empire, in-cluding the allies of both sides, took place in Osnabrück.The Empire and its opponent France, including the al-lies of each, as well as the Republic of the Seven UnitedNetherlands and its opponent Spain (and their respective

1

2 3 RESULTS

allies) negotiated in Münster.[8]

2 Delegations

The peace negotiations had no exact beginning and end-ing, because the participating total of 109 delegationsnever met in a plenary session, but arrived between 1643and 1646 and left between 1647 and 1649. Between Jan-uary 1646 and July 1647 probably the largest number ofdiplomats were present. Delegations had been sent by16 European states, sixty-six Imperial States, represent-ing the interests of a total of 140 involved Imperial States,and 27 interest groups, representing the interests of a va-riety of a total of 38 groups.[9]

• The French delegation was headed by Henri IId'Orléans, duc de Longueville and further com-prised the diplomats Claude d'Avaux and AbelServien.

• The Swedish delegation was headed by Count Jo-han Oxenstierna (son of Chancellor Count Axel Ox-enstierna) and was assisted by Baron Johan AdlerSalvius.

• The head of the delegation of the Holy RomanEmpire for both cities was Count Maximilian vonTrautmansdorff; in Münster, his aides were JohannLudwig von Nassau-Hadamar and Isaak Volmar (alawyer); in Osnabrück, his team comprised JohannMaximilian von Lamberg and Reichshofrat JohannKrane, a lawyer.

• Philip IV of Spain was represented by a doubledelegation. The Spanish delegation was headed byGaspar de Bracamonte y Guzmán, and notably in-cluded the diplomats and writers Diego de Saave-dra Fajardo, and Bernardino de Rebolledo. TheBurgundian lawyer Antoine Brun represented Philipas hereditary ruler of the Franche Comté and theSpanish Netherlands.

• The papal nuncio in Cologne, Fabio Chigi, and

• the Venetian envoy Alvise Contarini acted as medi-ators.

• Various Imperial States of the Holy Roman Empirealso sent delegations.

• Brandenburg sent several representatives, includingVollmar.

• The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands senta delegation of six (including two delegates from theprovince of Holland (Adriaan Pauw) and WillemRipperda from one of the other provinces;[10] twoprovinces were not present).

• Johann Rudolf Wettstein, the mayor of Basel, rep-resented the Swiss Confederacy.

3 Results

3.1 Internal political boundaries

A simplified map of Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in1648.

Historical map

0 20 40 60 80 100

Miles

Württemberg

Spanish Habsburg

Austrian Habsburg

Wittelsbach Bavarian

Wittelsbach Palatinate

Hohenzollern Brandenburg

Wettin Albertine

Wettin Ernestine

Hohenzollern Franconian

Oldenburg

Hesse-Kassel

Ecclesiastical

Imperial Cities

Swedish from 1648

Danube

Danube

Isar

Lech

EnnsPinzg

auInn

Drave

Save

Mur

Leith

a

Thaya

Moldau

Elbe

Eger

Mulde

Spree

Neisse

Havel

Elbe

Aller

Wes

er

Fulda

Werra

Lippe

Meuse

Saar

Ruhr

Rhine

Mos

elle

Rhi

ne

Iser

Oder

Netze

Lahn

Mai

n

Doubs

Eider

Ems

Lein

e

Rober

Finow Canal

Rostock

Gustrow

HavelbergWerben

Fehrbellin

Hanover

LuneburgBremen

Stuttgart

Biberach

Lindau

Kempten

Kaufbeuren

Tuttlingen

Rottweil

Alpirsbach

Tübingen

Durlach

Hall

Augsburg

Nuremberg

Coburg

Gotha

Nordhausen

Brunswick

Celle

Segeberg

Cassel

Frankfurt

Giessen

Höchst

Mergentheim

Liege

Cologne

Antwerp

Eger

Kaaden

Chemnitz

Freiberg

Meissen

Wittenberg

Rosslau

Potsdam

Berlin

Dannenberg

Neerwinden

Louvuin

MechlinDunkirk

Nieuport

OstendBruges

Brussels

Ghent

Arrus

Cambray

Conde

LilleSt. Omer

Cassel

Mandyck

ValenciennesMons

Charleroi

NamurFleurusSeneffe

Steenkerque

Vossem

Bouillon

Montmedy

Luxemburg

Diedenhofen

Vancy

Münster

Turkheim

Schlettstadt

Ehnheim

Vesoul

Besancon

Pontarlier

Montbeliard

Breisach

Buchenberg

Strasburg

Weissenburg

Saarbrucken Landau

Spires

Worms

HöchstHanau

Darmstadt

Kreuznach

Mayence

Coblenz

Bonn

Dortmund

Steinfurt

Bentheim

Lingen

Meppen

Wesel

Geldern

Fulda

Schweinfurt

Ahausen

Öttingen

Alerheim

Rain

Ulm

Memmingen

Salzburg

Alt-Ötting

Vocklabruck

Wolfsegg

EferdingLinz

Passau

Klattau

PilsenMies

Netolitz

Prague

Ossegg

Joarhimsthal

Zwickau

Altenburg

Torgau

Schwedt

Bärwalde

Wollin

Kammin

Kolberg

Frankfort

Küstrin

Schwiebus

Züllichau

GrünbergGuben

Krossen

Kottbus Sagan

Gorlitz

Friedland

Hirschberg

Tetschen

Aussig

Leitmeritz

Klostergrab

Konigstein

Pirna

Dresden Lobau

Zittau

Brandeis

Kolin

Tabor

Jankau

Budweis

Horn

Znaim

Laa

Nikolsburg

Brunn

Iglau

Olmutz

Friedland

Leipnik

Kremsier

NeisseKosel

Jagerndorf

Glatz

Braunau

Schweidnitz

Goldberg

Breslau

Öls

WartenbergWohlau

Steinau

Glogau

Oppeln

Ratibor

Beuthen

Oderberg

Teschen

Troppau

Landsberg

Driesen

Neu-Stettin

Koslin

Stolp

Stettin

Gartz Greifenhagen

StargardWamm

Anklam

Wolgast

Usedom

Neu-Brandenburg

Neu-Strelitz

Wismar

Ribnitz

Bergen

WittstockDonitz

Stendal

Brandenburg

Spandau

Halle

LeipzigMerseburg

Weimar

Muhlhausen

HildesheimWolfe

nbuttelOsnabrück

Wildeshausen

Dusseldorf

Virnelburg

Limburg

VeldenzTreves

Freiburg

LandeckAmbras

Botzen

Trent

Rovereto

Innsbruck

Partenkirchen

Munich

Kufstein

Radstadt

JudenburgGratz

Bruck

Vienna

KorneuburgKrems

Wiener Neustadt

Stahremberg

Laxenburg

Bunzlau

Weiden

Amberg

Cham Furth

Kelheim

Regensburg

Ingolstadt

Neuburg

Zusmarshausen

DonauwörthGmünd

RastattPforzheim

Heidelberg

Wimpfen

Heilbronn

Philippsburg

Wiesloch

Mannheim

Deutz

Stadtlohn

Ritzebüttel

Verden

Himmelpforten

Gluckstadt Lübeck

Rendsburg

Kiel

Heiligenhafen

Eutin

Stralsund Neukamp

Köpenick

Kölln

Jüterbog

Lübben

Breitenfeld

Düben

Dessau

Bautzen

Marburg

Krainburg

Laibach

NeustadtlGorz

Trieste

Lienz

VillachKlagenfurt

Nördlingen

Herbrech

Konigsbronn

Aalen

Furth

Altdorf

Bamberg

Kulmbach

Rothenburg

Schaftersheim

Zweibrücken

Kaiserslauten

Friedberg

Marburg

Ehrenbreitstein

Wetzlar

Emmerich

ErlangenCastell

KitzingenWurzburg

Gelnhausen

Erfurt

Hohnstein

Magdeburg

Halberstadt

Quedlinburg

Rochlitz

Walkenried

Arnstadt

Rudolstadt

Frankenthal

Weissenburg

Eichstädt

Minden

Rinteln

Greetsiel

Emden

ArtlenburgLauenburg

Hamburg

Ratzeburg

SchwerinStadeAltona

Elsfleth

Lutter am Barenberg

Hameln

Detmold

Münster

Tournai

Xanten

Hagenau

Zabern

Kirchheim

Sasbach

Sinsheim

Kötzschenbroda

Greifswald

Berchtesgaden

Goslar

Grubenhagen

Drübeck

Gmunden

Gradisca

Tulln

Paderborn

Oldenburg

Gitschin

HermanitzWaldstein

Enns

Aix-la-Chapelle

Jena

Rathenow

Liegnitz

Hersfeld

Jülich

Grimma

Demmin

B. OF MÜNSTER

D. OF

WÜRTTEMBERG

KINGDOM OFBOHEMIA

M. OF MORAVIA

ARCHDUCHY OF AUSTRIA

UNTER DER ENNSOB DER ENNS

D. OF STYRIA D. OF CARINTHIA

D. OFCARNIOLA

C. OF TYROL

A. OF SALZBURG

E. OF BAVARIA

E. OF SAXONY

D. OF

SAXONY

E. OF BRANDENBURG

D. OFMECKLENBURG

WEST POMERANIA

EAST POMERANIA

GUSTROW

UPPER LUSATIA

LOWER L

USATIA

B. OF WÜRZBURG

B. OF BAMBERG

M. OF ANSBACH

A. OF

MAINZ

C. OF ISENBERG

L. OF HESSE-DARMSTADT

-

L. OF HESSE-CASSEL

D. OF WESTPHALIASPANISH NETHERLANDS

B. O

F LI

EGE D. OF

JÜLICH

A. O

F

TRIE

R

C. O

FEA

ST F

RIS

IA

C. OF

OLDEN BURG

A. OF BREMEN

D. OFBRUNSWICK LÜNEBURG

HOLSTEIN-GLUCKSTADT

FRA

NC

HE-

CO

MTÉ

D. O

F

LO

RR

AIN

E

B. OF PADERBORN

C. OF LIPPE

C. OFRAVENS- BERG

C. OFWALDECK

PALATINATE

D. OF BERG

C. OF MARK

M.

O

F

BA

DEN

D. OFFÜRSTENBERG

BR

EISG

AU

B. OF TRENT

D. OF SILESIA

C. OF HOYA

M. OFBAYREUTH

A. O

F

MAGDEBURG

B. OF BASEL

D. O

F B

AR

P. OF LIEGNITZ

VORARLBERG

B. OF FREISING

B. OF F

ULDA

P. OFHERSFELD

D. O

F KA

LEN- B

ERG P. OF

ANHALT

B. OF REGENSBURG

B.OF PASSAU

B. O

F

STR

ASS

BURG

A. O

F CO

LOG

NE

B. OF

OSN

ABRÜ

CK

C. OF LIN

GEN

EICH

SFEL

D

RUGEN

C. OF HENNENBERG

D. OF CLEVES

C. OF SPONHEIM

HADELN

VOGTLAND

P. OF PFALZ SULZBACH

B. OFBRIXEN

P. OF WOHLAU

P. OF BRIEG

B. OF VERDEN

P. OF

ZWEIB

RC

KEN

B. OFMINDEN

B. OF KAMMIN

SCHWERIN

B. OF

LÜBECK

P. OF

LAUENBURG

C. OFSCHWARZ- BURG

HOLSTEIN-GOTTORP

Prignitz

Ukermark

MittelmarkAltmark

Neum

ark

FRANCE

SWISSCONFEDERATION

VENETIANREPUBLIC

D. OFSAVOY P. OF

PIEDMONT

D. OF MILAN

HU

NG

ARY

POLAND

D. OF PRUSSIA

UNITED

NETHERLA

NDS

DENMARK

OTTOMAN EMPIRE

SUNDGAU

North Sea

Baltic Sea

Adriatic Sea

Lake Constance

2° 4° 6° 8° 10° 12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 22°

54°

52°

50°

48°

46°

Holy Roman Empire, 1648

Holy Roman Empire in 1648.

The power taken by Ferdinand III in contravention of theHoly Roman Empire’s constitution was stripped and re-turned to the rulers of the Imperial States. This recti-fication allowed the rulers of the Imperial States to in-dependently decide their religious worship. Protestants

3.2 Tenets 3

and Catholics were redefined as equal before the law, andCalvinism was given legal recognition.[11][12] Indepen-dence of the Dutch Republic also provided a safe countryfor European Jews.[13]

The Holy See was very displeased at the settlement, withPope Innocent X in Zelo Domus Dei reportedly calling it“null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, repro-bate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time”.[14]

3.2 Tenets

The main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:

• All parties would recognize the Peace of Augsburgof 1555, in which each princewould have the right todetermine the religion of his own state, the optionsbeingCatholicism, Lutheranism, and nowCalvinism(the principle of cuius regio, eius religio).[11][12]

• Christians living in principalities where their de-nomination was not the established church wereguaranteed the right to practice their faith in publicduring allotted hours and in private at their will.[15]

• General recognition of the exclusive sovereignty ofeach party over its lands, people, and agents abroad,and responsibility for the warlike acts of any of itscitizens or agents. Issuance of unrestricted letters ofmarque and reprisal to privateers was forbidden.

There were also territorial adjustments:

• The independence of Switzerland from the Empirewas formally recognized; these territories had en-joyed de facto independence for decades.

• The majority of the Peace’s terms can be attributedto the work of Cardinal Mazarin, the de facto leaderof France at the time (the king, Louis XIV, be-ing a child). Not surprisingly, France came outof the war in a far better position than any ofthe other participants. France retained the controlof the Bishoprics of Metz, Toul and Verdun nearLorraine, received the cities of the Décapole in Al-sace (but not Strasbourg, the Bishopric of Stras-bourg, or Mulhouse) and the city of Pignerol nearthe Spanish Duchy of Milan.

• Sweden received an indemnity of five million talers,used primarily to pay its troops.[16] Sweden furtherreceived Western Pomerania (henceforth SwedishPomerania), Wismar, and the Prince-Bishoprics ofBremen and Verden as hereditary fiefs, thus gain-ing a seat and vote in the Imperial Diet of the HolyRoman Empire as well as in the respective circle di-ets (Kreistag) of the Upper Saxon, Lower Saxon andWestphalian circles.[17] However, the wording of thetreaties was ambiguous:

• Whether or not the city of Bremen wasincluded in Swedish Bremen-Verden re-mained disputed. Facing the Swedishtake-over, Bremen had claimed Imperialimmediacy, which was granted by theemperor and thus separated the city fromthe surrounding bishopric with the samename. Sweden understood that Bre-men was nevertheless to be ceded to it,and started the Swedish-Bremen wars in1653/54.[18]

• The treaty also delegated the determina-tion of the Swedish-Brandenburgian bor-der in the Duchy of Pomerania to theparties. At Osnabrück, both Swedenand Brandenburg had claimed the wholeduchy, which had been under Swedishcontrol since 1630 despite legal claims ofBrandenburgian succession. While theparties settled for a border in 1653, theunderlying conflict continued.[19]

• The treaty ruled that the Dukes of Meck-lenburg, owing their re-investiture to theSwedes, cede Wismar and the Mecklen-burgian port tolls. While Sweden un-derstood this to include the tolls of allMecklenburgian ports, the Mecklenbur-gian dukes as well as the emperor under-stood this to refer to Wismar only.[19]

• Wildeshausen, a petty exclave ofBremen-Verden and fragile basis forSweden’s seat in the Westphalian circlediet, was also claimed by the Bishopricof Münster.[19]

• Bavaria retained the Palatinate's vote in the ImperialCouncil of Electors (which elected the Holy RomanEmperor), which it had been granted by the banon the Elector Palatine Frederick V in 1623. ThePrince Palatine, Frederick’s son, was given a new,eighth electoral vote.

• The Palatinate was divided between the re-established Elector Palatine Charles Louis (son andheir of Frederick V) and Elector-Duke Maximilianof Bavaria, and thus between the Protestants andCatholics. Charles Louis obtained the LowerPalatinate, along the Rhine, while Maximilian keptthe Upper Palatinate, to the north of Bavaria.

• Brandenburg-Prussia (later Prussia) receivedFarther Pomerania, and the Bishoprics ofMagdeburg, Halberstadt, Kammin, and Minden.

• The succession to the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, whose last duke had died in 1609, wasclarified. Jülich, Berg, and Ravenstein were given tothe Count Palatine of Neuburg, while Cleves, Mark,and Ravensberg went to Brandenburg.

4 5 REFERENCES

• It was agreed that the Prince-Bishopric of Os-nabrück would alternate between Protestant andCatholic holders, with the Protestant bishops chosenfrom cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg.

• The independence of the city of Bremen was clari-fied.

• Barriers to trade and commerce erected during thewar were abolished, and “a degree” of free naviga-tion was guaranteed on the Rhine.[20]

3.3 Legacy

Main article: Westphalian sovereignty

The treaty did not entirely end conflicts arising out of theThirty Years’ War. Fighting continued between Franceand Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. Nev-ertheless, it did settle many outstanding European is-sues of the time. Some of the principles developed atWestphalia, especially those relating to respecting theboundaries of sovereign states and non-interference intheir domestic affairs, became central to the world or-der that developed over the following centuries, and re-main in effect today. In several parts of the world, how-ever, sovereign states emerged from what was once im-perial territory only after the post-World War II periodof decolonization.[6] More significantly, one of majorprinciples—the balance of power—was undermined inthe Twentieth century. Referring to the Soviet Union,Adolf Hitler said: Without Wehrmacht, a “wave wouldhave swept over Europe that would have taken no careof the ridiculous British idea of the balance of power inEurope in all its banality and stupid tradition—once andfor all.”[21] During World War II, the multipolar balancebecame bipolar, between the Axis and the Allies, fol-lowed by the United States and NATO nations against theSoviet Union and Warsaw Pact nations during the ColdWar. (1967: 332) His chapter, titled “The New Balanceof Power,” Hans Morgenthau opened with the words:

The destruction of that intellectual andmoral consensus which restrained the strugglefor power for almost three centuries deprivedthe balance of power of its vital energy thatmade it a living principle of international pol-itics … The most obvious of these structuralchanges which impairs the operation of thebalance of power is to be found in the dras-tic numerical reduction of the players in thegame.”[22]

After the fall of the Soviet Union, power was seenas unipolar with the United States in absolutecontrol,[23][24][25] though nuclear proliferation andthe rise of Japan, the European Union, the Middle East,

China, and a resurgent Russia have begun to recreatea multipolar political environment.[26][27] Instead of atraditional balance of power, inter-state aggression maynow be checked by the preponderance of power,[28] asharp contrast to the Westphalian principle.

4 See also

• Charter of Liberties

• Concordat of Worms

• Eighty Years’ War

• Freedom of religion

• History of Sweden, 1648–1700

• List of treaties

• Peace of Augsburg

• Peace of Münster

• Roger Williams (theologian)

• Thirty Years’ War

• Westphalian sovereignty

5 References[1] “Original text in Dutch National Archives”. beeld-

bank.nationaalarchief.nl.

[2] “Digital German text Treaty of Münster”. lwl.org.

[3] “Digital German text Treaty of Osnabrück”. lwl.org.

[4] “Principles of the State System”. Faculty.unlv.edu. Re-trieved 2012-09-11.

[5] “Information from city of Münster”. Muenster.de. Re-trieved 2012-09-11.

[6] Henry Kissinger (2014). “Introduction and Chpt 1”.World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations andthe Course of History. Allen Lane. ISBN 0241004268.

[7] Croxton, Derek (2013). Westphalia: The Last ChristianPeace. Palgrave.

[8] Konrad Repgen, 'Negotiating the Peace of Westphalia: ASurvey with an Examination of the Major Problems’, In:1648: War and Peace in Europe: 3 vols. (Catalogue of the26th exhibition of the Council of Europe, on the Peace ofWestphalia), Klaus Bußmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.)on behalf of the Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 JahreWestfälischer Friede, Münster and Osnabrück: no publ.,1998, 'Essay Volume 1: Politics, Religion, Law and Soci-ety', pp. 355–372, here pp. 355 seq.

5

[9] Konrad Repgen, 'Negotiating the Peace of Westphalia: ASurvey with an Examination of the Major Problems’, In:1648: War and Peace in Europe: 3 vols. (Catalogue of the26th exhibition of the Council of Europe, on the Peace ofWestphalia), Klaus Bußmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.)on behalf of the Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 JahreWestfälischer Friede, Münster and Osnabrück: no publ.,1998, 'Essay Volume 1: Politics, Religion, Law and Soci-ety', pp. 355–372, here p. 356.

[10] Sonnino, Paul (30 June 2009). Mazarin’s Quest: TheCongress of Westphalia and the Coming of the Fronde.Harvard University Press.

[11] Treaty of Münster 1648

[12] Barro, R. J. & McCleary, R. M. “Which Countries haveState Religions?" (PDF). University of Chicago. p. 5.Retrieved 7 November 2006.

[13] “This day, Mary 15, in Jewish history”. Cleveland JewishNews.

[14] Larry Jay Diamond; Marc F. Plattner; Philip J.Costopoulo (2005). World religions and democracy.

[15] Section 28

[16] Böhme, Klaus-R (2001). “Die sicherheitspolitische LageSchwedens nach dem Westfälischen Frieden”. In Hacker,Hans-Joachim. Der Westfälische Frieden von 1648:Wende in der Geschichte des Ostseeraums (in German).Kovač. p. 35. ISBN 3-8300-0500-8.

[17] Böhme (2001), p. 36.

[18] Böhme (2001), p. 37.

[19] Böhme (2001), p. 38.

[20] Gross, Leo (1948). “The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948”. American Journal of International Law. 42 (1):20–41 [p. 25]. doi:10.2307/2193560.

[21] Hitler, Adolf (2004). Domarus, Max, ed. Hitler; Speechesand Proclamations (PDF). 3. Bolchazy-Carducci Publish-ers. p. 2536. ISBN 0-86516-228X.

[22] Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power andPeace, 4th edition, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967,p 332.

[23] Krauthammer, Charles (1990). “The Unipolar Moment”.Foreign Affairs. 70/1.

[24] Wohlforth, William (1999). “The Stability of UnipolarWorld”. International Security. 24/1.

[25] Lake, David A. (2007). “Escape from the State-of-Nature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics”. In-ternational Security. 32/1.

[26] National Intelligence Council. 2025 Global Trends(PDF).

[27] Yueh, Linda. “America’s place in a multi-polar world”.BBC.

[28] Leffler, Melvyn P. (1992). A Preponderance of Power.Stanford University Press.

6 External links• Treaty of Münster Text (Yale University)

• Texts of the Westphalian Treaties (German)

• Peace Of Westphalia – Firmly Plants Protestantismin Europe

• High Resolution Map of Germany after the Treatyof Westphalia Dead link

• Peace Treaty of Osnabrück (Full Text)

• Peace Treaty of Münster (Full Text)

6 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.1 Text• Peace ofWestphalia Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia?oldid=739674372 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, BryanDerksen, Tarquin, Jeronimo, -- April, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Dachshund, Christian List, SimonP, Ktsquare, Heron, Leandrod, In-frogmation, Gdarin, Gabbe, Mic, SebastianHelm, Tregoweth, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Kingturtle, Djmutex, Vzbs34, Andres,John K, Ruhrjung, Pizza Puzzle, UsagiYojimbo, Frieda, Adam Bishop, Reddi, TwinsFan48, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Joseaperez,Wetman, Chl, Jason Potter, DavidA, Josh Cherry, Aliter, RedWolf, Baldhur, Puckly, Ojigiri~enwiki, Lupo, Seth Ilys, Guy Peters, Tomharrison, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Cantus, Mboverload, Gugilymugily, Hazzamon, Neilc, Andycjp, MarkSweep, Piotrus, Vanished user1234567890, OwenBlacker, Salvadors, Bonhumm, WpZurp, Klemen Kocjancic, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, Rich Farm-brough, Fvdham, Vsmith, Aris Katsaris, Ahkond, Francis Davey, Xezbeth, Dbachmann, Pavel Vozenilek, MarkS, Bender235, Brian0918,Edwinstearns, Surachit, Markussep, Dtremenak, JW1805, RussBlau, Friviere, ADM, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Ricky81682, John Quig-gin, Sligocki, Wanderingstan, Spangineer, AndreasPraefcke, Ilse@, Mcmillin24, Kusma, Sleigh, Tainter, DanielVonEhren, Mhazard9,Nuno Tavares, Velho, Corsairstw, Woohookitty, Doctor Boogaloo, Camw, TomTheHand, Ardfern, Zbyszek, RicJac, SDC, Silverpsy-cho13, Graham87, Qwertyus, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Janosabel, Funnyhat, Ligulem, Isthatyou, Olessi, Matt Deres, Rangek, FlaBot, Gün-niX, JYOuyang, RexNL, Colonel Mustard, JonathanFreed, Chobot, Thundertje, Jared Preston, DVdm, AllyD, Volunteer Marek, Gdrbot,Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, Ravenswing, Ec-, RussBot, Tonywiki, Grubber, ML, Kaligon~enwiki, Wiki alf, Howcheng, Isolani, Stijn Calle,Deucalionite, Lockesdonkey, AjaxSmack, Zzuuzz, Arthur Rubin, Dspradau, Petri Krohn, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Che829, Roke,Tom Morris, Yvwv, Attilios, 6SJ7, SmackBot, Britannicus, YellowMonkey, Indyguy, Olorin28, Davewild, Wittylama, Alsandro, Par-lorGames, Quidam65, TimBentley, Philosopher, Rex Germanus, Ksenon, JoshNarins, Jprg1966, Baa, Mihai Andrei, Zhinz, Aacool, Zvar,Lord Eru, NickdelaG, Coffeinfreak, Mystborne, BryanG, DMacks, Curly Turkey, Oneilius, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Scientizzle,J 1982, Marco polo, XBananiax, RandomCritic, A. Parrot, Nbatra, Selphiet, AdultSwim, Dl2000, Fitzwilliam, Provocateur, Courcelles,Adam sk, Malickfan86, Tawkerbot2, Filiep, Blue-Haired Lawyer, R9tgokunks, N2e, Liist, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Jasperdoomen,Odie5533, Doug Weller, Ulritz, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Marek69, Carole Jean, Benny45boy, Mdotley, Wmgries, JAnDbot, Charles01, Tak-sen, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Sodabottle, Chrisweuve, Amitabho, Simba B, Mtd2006, Martynas Patasius, JaGa, MartinBot, Mgee4424,Sm8900, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, FANSTARbot, JoDonHo, Athaenara, Chrisfow, B****n, Elchimba, Mr Rookles, M-le-mot-dit, Joost 99, KGV, Fbarton, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Aciram, Postlebury, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Keeg bob, Elsanaturk, Charles-drakew, Corvus cornix, Optigan13, AlleborgoBot, SalJyDieBoereKomLei, SieBot, Frans Fowler, BotMultichill, VVVBot, SE7, Lucasbfr-bot, Gotipe, Flyer22 Reborn, SilverbackNet, Lightmouse, A E Francis, Jmp98251, Dabomb87, The.helping.people.tick, Francvs, ClueBot,The Thing That Should Not Be, Rjd0060, Hongthay, RashersTierney, Skäpperöd, P. S. Burton, Piledhigheranddeeper, Jonathanwebster,Excirial, Bracton, The Red, Meagannnn, RexxS, Mhwilk, Good Olfactory, Bridgetfox, Surtsicna, FactStraight, Addbot, Proofreader77,Narayansg, Manuel Trujillo Berges, Jtrusso, AkhtaBot, VEB Text, NjardarBot, CarsracBot, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Machahn, Yobot,Estudiarme, Markcob, FeydHuxtable, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Fc12, AMuseo, 2deseptiembre, Xqbot, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42,Ryomaandres, Fern 24, Ulf Heinsohn, Ched, AsticeSRL, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Mattis, Joaquin008, Tfjt, Room244,Filippo83, Lelisamantha, Tetraedycal, Finn Froding, Geogene, Moonraker, Lotje, Vrenator, Turther, Jfmantis, Ripchip Bot, AndreasPhilopater, Jimtaip, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Look2See1, Exitandlight, Dcirovic, ZéroBot, Git2010, GrindtXX,Wayne Slam, Donner60,Targaryen, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, Editør, CleggCanada, Helpful Pixie Bot, Quarkgluonsoup, MusikAnimal, Red Rover112, Dakotakissel-bach, Billyboy12345678910, Ernio48, Yxesmai12, Lubiesque, Asisman, Dissident93, Supaflymeat, Blaue Max, Animus93, The Collectiveof Craig, Sombak'ed, Monochrome Monitor, Library Guy, Vang her, GeorgeRiches, Juggler314, Smoothintellect, Gabriel HM, Gog theMild, Samdir1, Fiatnix, Px5x5x5, Wisdom Scholar, KasparBot, Sweepy, BU Rob13, Maxaxax, Colonel Wilhelm Klink, Tyieeb, Syedkafeel abbas, Muckraker12 and Anonymous: 319

7.2 Images• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Europe_1648_westphal_1884.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Europe_1648_westphal_1884.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: University of Texas Library From “An Historical Atlas Containing a Chronological Series of OneHundred and Four Maps, at Successive Periods, from the Dawn of History to the Present Day.” by Robert H. Labberton. Sixth Edition.1884. Original artist: Robert H. Labberton

• File:Europe_green_light.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Europe_green_light.png License: Publicdomain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aegean Boy

• File:Europe_map_1648.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Holy_Roman_Empire_1648.svgLicense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Made from the public domain map “Central Europe about 1648” from the Historical Atlas byWilliam R. Shepherd, at the Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at the University of Texas. Further information from Overy, Richard,2006, The Times Complete history of the world Times Books ISBN 0007181299, and from this map Original artist: Astrokey44

• File:Waricon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/65/Waricon.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?• File:Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_(Gerard_Terborch_1648).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Westfaelischer_Friede_in_Muenster_%28Gerard_Terborch_1648%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:www.geheugenvannederland.nl : Home : Info : Pic Original artist: Gerard ter Borch

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

7.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0