peace education manual-unac

Peace Education Manual:Exploring Conflict/Exploring Peace

Created By:Unification Aid Committee Team

Lauren Brunner

Unification Aid CommitteeBuduburam Refugee Camp

PO Box 46 State HouseAccra, Ghana

Table of Contents

Section I: Exploring Conflict

A. What is Conflict?B. What can Conflict be?C. Levels of ConflictD. Causes of ConflictE. What is Violence?F. Escalation of ConflictG. Conflict TheoriesH. Reactions towards ConflictI. Stages of ConflictJ. Ways of Managing Conflict

Section 2: Analyzing Conflict

A. What is Conflict Analysis?B. Ways of Analyzing Conflict

Section 3: Issues Pertaining to Conflict

A. PowerB. CultureC. IdentityD. GenderE. Human Rights

Section 4: Exploring Peace

A. What is Peace?B. Peace InterventionsC. Peacebuilding Theories

Section 5: Pathways towards Peace

A. PreventionB. Active NonviolenceC. ReconstructionD. ForgivenessE. ReconciliationF. Social Change

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ReferencesAppendixes

Copyright @ 2006 Buduburam Liberian Refugee Camp, Accra, GhanaPEACE EDUCATION MANUAL

Section 1: EXPLORING CONFLICT

A. What is Conflict?

Definition: a relationship between two or more parties (individuals or groups) who have, or think they have incompatible goals (Fisher et. all, 2000, p. 4).

-goals can be incompatible or-goals can be the same, but means of achieving goals are incompatible

B. What can Conflict be?

conflict can be real (actual oppression and discrimination) or perceived (a party believes that the other party is oppressing and discriminating)

conflict can be good (conflict is intensified intentionally to create awareness, change, empowerment) or bad (conflict escalates in which harm such as mistrust, miscommunication, oppression, and violence increases)

conflict can be open (all parties are aware of and participating in conflict) or latent (conflict is suppressed or hidden within one or more of the parties)

C. Levels of Conflict

INTRA-PERSONAL: Conflict within the self regarding values, beliefs, choices, etc.

INTER-PERSONAL: Conflict between individuals or family members INTER-GROUP: Conflict between groups of individuals; power differential

between groups may be large or small INTER-COMMUNAL: Conflict between large identity groups allied through

territory or political history INTERNATIONAL: Conflict between or among nations

-Adapted from the Karuna Center for Peacebuilding, 2001, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 1, p. 3

D. Causes of Conflict

1. Differences in goals2. Perception that goals are different

3. Same goals, different means of achieving goals4. Competition over limited resources

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5. Unequal or unfair power, authority, or control over resources6. Lack of voice or representation7. Aggressive and violent behaviors8. Differences in opinions, beliefs, or values9. Differences in interpretation of information or behaviors10. Lack of information11. Differences in communication styles12. Lack of or poor communication13. Refusal of acknowledging mistakes or weaknesses-“saving face”14. Emotions: Fear, Anger, Resentment, Betrayal15. Cultural Differences16. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination-unequal treatment of individuals based on identity

-Adapted from Robert Harris, Ed., 2005, pp. 7-8

E. What is Violence?

Definition: consists of actions, words, attitudes, structures or systems that cause physical, psychological, social or environmental damage and/or prevent people from reaching their full human potential (Fisher et. al, 2000, p. 4).

F. Escalation of Conflict

Contentious Tactics: measure used by one party against the other party in order to gain a preferred outcome. In other words, “Party seeks to impose its preferred solution on Other”. ‘Party’ usually imposes this solution through force or persuasion. This force or persuasion is to get ‘Other’ to yield to ‘Party’s’ desires. (Pruitt, D.G., & Kim, S.H., 2004, p. 63)

Categories of Contentious Tactics

Light Tactics: consequences of tactics on ‘Other’ is favorable or neutralHeavy Tactics: consequences of tactics on ‘Other’ are costly or threatened to be costly

-Conflict escalates in which ‘Party’ begins using ‘light’ tactics and then moves onto ‘heavy’ tactics as conflict progresses. ‘Party’ starts using ‘light’ tactics in order to look like a ‘good’ or ‘reasonable’ person to ‘Other’ as well as to bystanders. ‘Party’ only resorts to ‘heavy’ tactics if ‘Other’ does not concede to ‘light’ tactics.

Types of Contentious Tactics

Ingratiation: ‘Party’ prepares to exploit ‘Other’ by making itself attractive to ‘Other’. ‘Party’ uses ‘Other’s’ ignorance of ‘Party’s’ plan to employ this tactic. If ‘Other’ sees ‘Party’s’ ultimate design, this tactic will not work effectively.

3 Ways ‘Party’ Makes Itself Attractive: -through flattery and complimenting ‘Other’

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-through expressing or pretending to agree with viewpoints of ‘Other’-through expressing or pretending to have virtues that ‘Other’ finds attractive

Promises: ‘Party’ informs ‘Other’ that ‘Party’ will reward ‘Other’ if ‘Other’ confirms to ‘Party’s’ wishes

Promises are most effective when:- the reward for ‘Other’ is greater than the consequence for ‘Other’ to fulfill ‘Party’s’ wishes -the promises of ‘Party’ are credible: ‘Party is both able and willing to provide reward if ‘Other’ complies and ‘Party’ is both able and willing to withhold reward if ‘Other’ does not comply-‘Party’ has sufficient ability to determine whether ‘Other’ complies

Persuasive Argumentation: “technique in whereby ‘Party’ induces ‘Other’ to lower its aspirations through a series of logical appeals” (Pruitt & Kim, 2004, p. 68

2 Ways to Persuade:-‘Party’ convinces ‘Other’ that ‘Party’ has the right to ‘Party’s’ favorable outcome (ie. “If you don’t give me the money, I may die from not receiving proper treatment. I have should be granted the ability to live.”)-‘Party’ convinces ‘Other’ that it is in ‘Other’s’ interest to lower

‘Other’s’ aspirations (ie. “If you give me the money to open my own soap business, I will be able to make you lots of soap.)

Shaming: ‘Party’ causes ‘Other’ to feel “global condemnation” of the self by publicly announcing ‘Other’s’ faults or weaknesses

Tit-For-Tat: ‘Party’ rewards ‘Other’ for complying with ‘Party’s’ wishes and punish ‘Other’ when ‘Other’ does not comply

Threats: ‘Party’ announces to ‘Other’ that ‘Party’ has the intention of hurting ‘Other’ if ‘Other’ does not comply with ‘Party’s’ desires (ie. “If you do not conform to my wishes, I will punish you.”)

Coercive Commitments: ‘Party’ has already begun to punish ‘Other’ and refuses to stop punishing ‘Other’ until ‘Other’ concedes

Violence: See Definition P. 3

2 Types of Violence Regarding Contentious Tactics-Instrumental Violence: violence is induced by ‘Party’ as a means to an end. ‘Party’ creates violence in order to advance the conflict in which inducing violence gives ‘Party’ desired steps towards ‘Party’s’ ultimate goal.

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-Emotional Violence: violence is induced by ‘Party’ as an end in itself. Violence induced by ‘Party’ gives ‘Party’ immediate satisfaction of releasing anger, hostility, and/or desire of revenge towards ‘Other’

Active Nonviolence: ‘Party’ exerts tactics of resistance and power against ‘Other’, without the use of violence, in order to get ‘Other’ to concede. In active nonviolence, ‘Party’ is usually dominated by ‘Other’, and ‘Party’s’ use of tactics is to challenge the status quo and/or change and unfair social system.

See P. 24 for more Information

-Adapted from Pruitt, D.G., & Kim, S.H., 2004

Conflict Spiral: Contending parties begin eliciting higher levels of harmful and destructive tactics to one another as conflict progresses. As conflict spirals in an upward and onward direction, more and more deception, threats, manipulation, and coercion are employed.

Tactics = actions taken by one party to create harm to the other party. Actions can include lying, cheating, stealing, manipulating, blaming, name-calling, hitting, destruction, etc.

Example of Conflict Spiral: Party A calls Party B a name thus, Party B ruins Party A’s carpet thus, Party A sets Party B’s couch on fire thus, Party B sets Party A’s house on fire thus,

Party A punches Party B in the nose thus, Party B shoots Party A.

G. Conflict Theories

1. Human Needs Theory-conflict caused by unmet human needs

Types of Needs:1. Material-food, water, clothing, safety, health2. Psychological-competency, autonomy, confidence, esteem3. Social-respect, belonging, love, relationships4. Cultural-identity, religion, cultural traditions

*See attachment 1

2. Identity Theory-conflict caused by threatened identity

Aspects of Identity:1. Nationality 6. Physical Ability

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2. Ethnicity 7. Cultural Background3. Gender 8. Family Status4. Sexual Orientation 9. Financial Status5. Age 10. Talents/Hobbies (ie. Pianist)*Aspects of identity can be categorized into individual and collective identities. These categories are not fixed in which each aspect can belong to either category, depending on the situation

Individual-hobbies, roles at home, physical abilityCollective-nationality, ethnicity, culture

3. Intercultural Miscommunications-conflict caused by differences in communication style due to cultural background

4. Community Relations-conflict caused by mistrust and hostility between two or more groups within the same community

5. “Us vs. Them”-two or more groups form due to differences-formation of miscommunication and mistrust-more differences than similarities are seen-misperceptions of other groups needs and intent-needs of other group are not seen-dehumanization

H. Reactions towards Conflict

Competition-(Win-Lose) Trying to overcome the other through powerUsed when:

-quick decisions must be made-the other party takes advantage of noncompetitive behavior

Disadvantages:-does not allow for exploration of other approaches-other party loses, goals achieved at expense of others

Accommodation-(Lose-Win) Party forgoes own needs and concerns for those of other party

Used when:-party recognized that he/she is wrong-preservation of harmony and avoidance of disruption are of utmost Importance

Disadvantages:-sacrifices party’s point of view-does not allow for exploration of other approaches

Avoidance-(Lose-Win) Sidestepping the issues, do-nothing approach

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Used when:-issues are not very important-to postpone action in order to collect more information

Disadvantages:-restricts input of problem-solution is temporary

Compromise-(Win/Lose-Win/Lose) Give up something, but not everything, Parties meet each others desires half-way

Used when:-concerns of both parties are too important-temporary solution is needed-relationship is important

Disadvantages:-can lose sight of the larger issue at hand due to figuring out compromising strategies-solution is temporary

Collaboration (Win/Win) Problem solving behavior, everyone wins to a full degreeUsed when:

-concerns of both parties are too important to be compromised-relationships are important-exploring multiple options are important

Disadvantages:-lengthy, time-consuming-high stress involved in developing trust between parties


I. Stages of Conflict

1. Pre-Conflict-incompatibility of goals arises between parties, tension arises, parties tend to wish to avoid each other conflict is latent, parties are

aware of potential future confrontation

2. Confrontation-conflict becomes open and at least one of the parties are certain there is a problem at hand, at least one of the parties begins confrontational behavior, some fighting and low levels of violence may occur, parties begin to form alliances

3. Crisis-full blown conflict, tension and violence most intense, outright accusationsbetween the parties, communication has broken down between parties

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4. Outcome-outcome of conflict occurs whether one party defeats the other, parties come to an agreement, or one party surrenders to the other

5. Post-Conflict-violence and tension have ended, normal relationships between parties are restored, issues of conflict may have been addressed-if not, the cycle may begin again

-Adapted from Fisher et al, 2000, p. 19

J. Ways of Managing Conflict

Conflict Prevention-aims to prevent the outbreak of violent conflict

Conflict Management-stopping present violence/avoiding future violence by finding and immediate solution, main goal is to stop violence, building

relationships not of focus

Force: usually violence to end violence Arbitration: both parties have the freedom to choose a third party to intervene

and have the freedom whether to abide by third party’s recommendations

Adjudication: third party, usually a judge, intervenes and has all of the authority to make decisions, conflict parties have no say in outcome

Conflict Resolution-coping with conflict by getting to the root of the conflict and by changing relationships, communication between parties

Negotiation: enabling conflicting parties to discuss possible problem-solving options face to face

-parties recognize their interdependency-parties are willing to work together-parties are able to establish enough power balance to problem- solve-parties are able to cooperate-parties use persuasive communication tactics but resist manipulation and domination-parties are able to establish ground rules-parties do not use force but do not use avoidance-parties offer suggestions and offers without losing face

2 Types of Negotiation

1. Competitive Negotiation-each party is trying to maximize gain and minimize loss; parties have no concerns

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regarding future relationships with each other (Win/Lose)

2. Collaborative Negotiation-each party works towards addressing the needs of both the self and the other party in which both parties attempt to maximize joint benefits, relationship is valued

-Adapted from Wilmot & Hocker, 2001

Mediation:use of a third party to bring conflicting parties together to enable them to form their own agreement and resolution, goal is to find a

settlement

Mediator’s Role

-Facilitates communication-Does not make suggestions or decisions-Plays a neutral roles-Controls mediation process-discourages negative behaviors from

parties

When best to use mediation rather than negotiation

-other problem solving approaches have not worked-parties are more prepared to negotiate-there are multiple issues to discuss-there are many options available to resolve conflict-there is not a great imbalance of power between conflicting parties-relationship is important

Mediation Process

*See attachment 2

Conflict Transformation-utilizing the wider social and political causes of conflict to cope with conflict, negative energy is

transformed/changed into social change

Active Listening-listening with the intent to understand and reflect what the speaker is expressing

Methods of Active Listening 1. Reflecting-restating the words that the speaker just spoken “What you said is….” “You are saying that…..”

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2. Validating-indicating that the listener respects and values what the speaker is expressing

“Of course” “It’s okay to think that” “Thank you for sharing” 3. Reframing-taking an idea or concept of what the speaker expressed

and stating the central theme back to the speaker “It sounds as though you really miss her” 4. Empathy-Listener puts self in the speaker’s shoes and expresses

to the speaker the speaker’s emotions and feelings 5. Summarizing-Listener makes a brief presentation of all of what

the speaker expressed

-Adapted from Sofia Rose-Marie Vrdlund, 2005

Questioning-part of the active listening process used to: -gather information about the speaker -show the speaker that the listener understands

-encourage speaker to generate more ideas

Methods of Questioning1. Open-used to receive a broad range of information from the answer “What do you think should be done?”

2. Closed-yes/no question used to receive direct answers for clarification “Did you tell him?”

3. Focus-used to receive specific and relevant information “How long will it last for?”

4. Leading-a statement where the answer is embedded in the question “Don’t you think women and children should be protected?”

-Adapted from Sofia Rose-Marie Vrdlund, 2005

Dialogue-actively engaging in two-way conversation for the purposes of gaining a mutual understanding

Involves:-active listening -expressing oneself-sharing of personal stories -clarifying viewpoints-understanding -focusing on

relationships-building tolerance of others -trying new behaviors

-helping participants find a common ground-inviting participants to be changed by the process-new and unexpected responses to complex problems

Does not Involve:-arguing viewpoints -always agreeing-debating -using contentious tactics

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-premature solutions -polarization or hard fixed positions

7 Principles of Dialogue 1. Create Safe Space 2. Agree that the Purpose is Learning 3. Use Appropriate Communication Skills 4. Surface what is Hidden 5. Focus on the Relationship 6. Stay through the Hard Places 7. Be Willing to be Changed by the Situation

-Institute of Multi-Track Diplomacy, 1993, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 3, p. 3

5 Models for Good Dialogue 1. SEEK TRUTH-seek truth, do not try to make accommodations

for the sake of peace and justice 2. AVOID PANACEAS-do not try to solve the entire problem or

find a magic solution 3. NEVER TRY TO MANIPULATE OTHER PARTY-don’t try to

force the other party to see it your way 4. KEEP WHOLE SOCIETY IN MIND-you must be willing to

move out of your own viewpoint to consider others’within your society

5. FIRST STEP- realize that dialogue is only the first step towards action

-Adapted from Jonathan Kuttab, The Pitfalls of Dialogue, 1998, Conflict Resolution Notes, Vol15, No. 3, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 3, pp. 5-6

Section 2: ANALYZING CONFLICT

A. What is conflict analysis?

Definition: a practical process of examining and understanding the reality of the conflict from a variety of perspectives in which strategies can be developed and actions can be planned (Fisher et. al, 2000, p. 17).

B. Ways of analyzing conflict

1. Recognize Causes of Conflict

a) Psycho-Social

+ Enemy Images + Greed+ Misperceptions + Trauma+ Prejudice + Identity

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+ Fear + Ego

b) Structural

+ Culture + Military Structure+ Resources/Land + Ideology

+ Gender Roles

*If you keep a system of injustice and inequality, violence will occur

2. Determine Type of Conflict

Intractable=Never Ending, Unmovable, StuckTractable=Movement Possible

Intractable:Lasted long time, often more than one generation

Leaders believe goals are incompatibleCertain Groups have a stake in the continuation of conflict

De-humanization and disconnectionTractable:

Find common ground in interests and identityRecognize minimal rights and recognize needs on the other side

Humanization and connectionStalemate sufficiently hurts both sides

Consideration on nonviolent methods of conflict resolution

-Unknown Source, Karuna Center for Peacebuilding, 2005, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 1, p. 6

3. Develop Specific Tools for Analyzing Conflict

a) TIMELINE

Definition: graphic representation on events plotted against time

Purpose: To understand the perceptions of each conflicting party of how and when things occurred. Timeline is to be ‘subjective’ in which it represents parties’ viewpoints, not ‘objective’ in which the timeline is represented exactly how things occurred

Uses: +To prompt discussion and learning+To help each party understand each others’ perceptions whether they agree with each other or not

-Adapted from Fisher et al, 2000, pp. 20-21

b) CONFLICT MAPPING

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Definition: graphic representation of conflicting parties in relation to each other and to the issues at hand

Purpose: +To gain an understanding of each party’s perception of the conflict+To determine as a third party where and how to enter into the conflict

How to Map: 1) Choose a particular moment in a particular situation2) Decide who the main parties in the conflict are3) Decide what other parties are involved: marginalized groups, external parties, alliances, etc.4) Decide how each party is connected to each other and how they can be represented on a map (ex. Strong relationships = double straight line, fair relationship = one straight line, broken relationship = zigzag line)5) Decide how the key issue should be represented on the map

Party A ------------------------------- Party B =============== Party C

Party D

-Adapted from Fisher, et. al, 2000, p. 23

c) ONION

Definition: graphic representation of the positions, interests, and needs of each of the parties involved in conflict

Positions-that which we publicly announce as the achievements we wish to gain (Top Peel of Onion)

Interests-the underlying achievements we truly wish to gain (Underlying Peel of Onion)Needs-human needs that must be satisfied (Core of Onion)

Purpose: + to move beyond each party’s public position and to understand their underlying needs and interests+ to find a common ground between/among each conflicting party

“In more volatile or dangerous situations, when there is mistrust between people, we may want to keep our basic needs hidden…actions may no longer come directly from needs. People may look at the more collective and abstract level of interests and base their actions on these. When those interests are under attack, they may take up and defend a position that is still further removed from their basic needs.” (Fisher et al, 2000, p. 28).

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-Adapted from Fisher et. al, 2000, p. 28

d) TREE

Definition: graphic representation of causes and effects of the core issue of the conflict

Purpose: + To discuss causes and effects of a conflict and to help the parties agree on a core problem

+ To help parties decide about priorities for addressing the issue + To relate causes and effects to each other

How to Create a Tree:1) Draw a picture of a tree including roots, trunk, and several branches2) List the core problem/issue on the trunk3) Write several root causes of the problem on the roots4) Write several effects of the problem on the branches5) Discuss both causes and effects to see if you wish to make changes


e) FORCE-FIELD

Definition: graphic representation of positive and negative forces in a conflict

Purpose: + To identify forces that both hinder and help a plan of action towards addressing conflict

+ To assess the strength of each of these forces and our abilities to influence them

+ To determine ways of increasing or decreasing forces

Position

Interest

Needs

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How to Create a Force-Field:1) Name specific action you wish to take to address conflict or change you would like to see occur-Write on top of page2) Draw a line down the center of the page3) List forces that support your objective on the left side of the line. Next to each force, draw an arrow pointing towards the center of the line. Each line will vary in length or thickness according to the strength of each force.4) List forces that hinder your objective on the right side of the line. Next to each force, draw an arrow pointing towards the center of the line. Each line will vary in length or thickness according to the strength of each force.

Objective: Peaceful Elections

Public Opinion ------> Infighting between NGO’s

Peace Committees <-------- Provocateurs in the Police

National Leadership Resistance in the Army


f) PYRAMID

Definition: graphic representation of levels in which stake-holders occupy

Purpose: + To identify key actors and leaders at each level + To decide where to intervene in a conflict and which

approaches towards conflict may work best + To identify potential allies at each level

Levels: 1-Top Leaders: Military, Political, International Organizations 2-Middle Leaders: Religious Leaders, Academic Leaders 3-Lower Leaders: Local Leaders, Community Workers

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Section 3: ISSUES PERTAINING TO CONFLICT

A. Power

Types of Power

Distributive Power-an individual or group goes against the resistance of another, usually through force and aggression, in order to accomplish an objective

Integrative Power-one party shares power with the other party in order to achieve mutually acceptable goals

Designated Power-parties place the power within the relationship rather than within themselves, power is not designated to any persons or groups

Power Orientations

Either/Or Power-contest of wills, one trying to go against the other’s will in order to gain power, each party believes that the other party has more power thus each party tries to win power from the other party

TopMilitary/Political/Government/International NGO’s/Religious

MiddleSector Leaders/NGO Leaders/Religious/Professionals/ Ethnic

LowerLocal Leaders/Elders/Community Workers/Health Officials/Activists

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Both/And Power-sharing power with one another in order to find solutions, relationship is important

Power Denial-parties refusing to accept that power is an issue involved within their conflict, refusal of exercising power, some parties even refuse to talk about power

4 Ways to Deny that You Exercise Power

1. Deny that you are doing the communication. “Being drunk makes me act this way.”2. Deny that something was communicated. “Did I really say that? I forgot that I said that.”3. Deny that you communicated something to a particular person. Talking to a salesperson: “Everyone bothers me about buying their stuff. Oh, I’m not talking about you, but I’m tired of people bothering me.”4. Deny what has been said applies to this particular situation “Oh, I’m used to people saying unjust things about me like this. It’s not big deal.”

Important Factors about Power

“Power is not owned by an individual but is a product of the social relationship in which certain qualities become important and valuable to others” (Wilmot & Hocker, 2001). In other words, in interpersonal relationships, power is not the quality or trait of a person. It is a context of a social relationship(ie. Ruth has power with her friends when she suggests to do things because her friends really like Ruth and because Ruth often suggests things that they like to do. So when Ruth suggests to go somewhere, her friends readily agree. If someone does not like or value Ruth as much or does not like or value many of the things Ruth suggests to do, than the power is lessened with that person and that person is not likely to do what Ruth suggests to do.

Power within an interpersonal relationship depends upon the resources one person has that another coverts. (ie. “Person A has power over person B to the extent that B is dependent of A for goal attainment” (Wilmot & Hocker, 2001).

Changing your goals is one way to reduce power others have over you

Communicating to others that you have value to offer them is one way to increase your power over others. Others will then become more dependent on you.

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In the middle of a conflict, “Each person firmly believes that the other person has more power.” (Boulding, 1989, p. 65, found in Wilmot & Hocker, 2001).

Ways to Posses Power

Resource control-one has control over distribution of resources (such as money, freedom, privacy; clothes) to others as a form of reward or punishment

Interpersonal linkages-one maintains a position within a larger system, a liaison, connections with others, power maintained by who one knows, one serves as a bridge between two or more groups

Communication skills-one maintains a high capacity to speak, listen, persuade, interact, and express caring and warmth towards others. These types of individuals gain much value.

Expertise-one has knowledge or skills in a particular area that is of value to another

- Adapted from Wilmot & Hocker, 2001

Collaboration vs. Competitive Power

*Collaboration, which is normally the best method of using power, depends on shared power, where both high-power and low-power parties realign power balances.

Collaboration is best to use when:

-High-power person is not abusing power in which high-power is taking away all possibility of low-power to exert influence

-One of the persons is not lying or distorting nor is he/she suffering from a character disorder (ie. schizophrenia)

-Long-term gains are worth the emotional and economic output

Competitive power is best to use when:

-Vital needs of one of the persons is at stake (ie. protection of children, economic survival)

-It allows one person to take the person using the competitive power more seriously and to allow the playing field to become more level

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How to Balance Power

1. Restraint-higher-power party does not use all of their ‘ways’ or ‘abilities’ to utilize power that they have at their disposal (ie. Party does not use resource control, conversational skills and expertise at one time)

2. Interdependence Focus-lower-power party focuses on ways that the parties are dependent on each other rather than demanding attention from the higher-power party to pay attention to their own individual needs

3. Calm Persistence-Lower-power party persists with making their own request

4. Empowerment of Low-Power Party by High-Power Party-higher power party enhances the power of the lower-power party

5. Meta-communication-both higher-power and lower-power parties work together to preserve the relationship by talking about how they will handle their conflicts and by agreeing about what types of behaviors will not be allowed by each party


B. Culture

-Culture influences our perceptions and worldviews and determines how we act and relate (communicate) to others. In turn, culture influences what goals we wish to establish for ourselves and how we wish to reach these goals.

-‘Culture of Conflict’ means that each society has norms, practices, and institutions that determines why people enter into disputes, with whom

they dispute, how disputes evolve, and how disputes end.

-It is vital to consider cultural norms and practices when addressing conflict. (Ex. Approaches of trauma experienced by Liberians combine counseling, a

more modern approach, as well as traditional methods of communal storytelling, thus it may be appropriate to use storytelling as a method to approach conflict)

-In cross-cultural conflict, it is important to understand how each culture communicates. Two vital factors to observe when dealing with different

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cultural groups are religion and human rights. These two factors vary in all cultures.

-Adapted from Fisher et al, 2000 C. Identity

-Identity is formed by culture and close relationships

-Humans have the tendency to place individuals and groups into categories (stereotyping) because humans do not have the time to assess each and

every individual or group

-The majority group has the tendency to impose identity (ex. color) on the minority. Governments sometimes use minority groups as a scapegoat to

escape governmental problems and instabilities. (ex.. Jews in Germany)

-Different aspects of identity are given greater emphasis in different contexts. (Ex. At home a women may consider herself as a mother whereas at work, she may consider herself as a trainer)

-During a conflict, one aspect of individual identity usually becomes more prominent in which the other aspects tend to fade out. It is usually the

prominent aspect of identity that is targeted

-When society tells an individual that his/her identity is bad, the individual usually begins to believe it (internalization)

-The fact that all humans share the ‘species identity’, the fact that we are all human beings, is not enough to prevent or end violence

D. Gender

-It is important to consider gender issues when approaching conflict because men and women can have different perspectives, needs, interests, and roles. Thus men and women can respond to conflict differently.

-Gender issues play a role in every conflict (Ex. Men go off and fight in wars while the women are often widows/Men who flee from violence often go alone and women refugees often take their children into hiding)

-Gender roles may change during a conflicting situation (Ex. During WWII in the United States, women became professional baseball players as a result of the men fighting in the war)

E. Human Rights

Definition: “Human rights are concerned with the dignity of the individual- the level of self-esteem that secures personal identity and

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promotes human community” (Some source found in Fisher et al., 2000, p. 50).

*Human rights among cultures and communities are often debated. However, it is suggested that there are core human rights applicable to everyone. These core rights allow for other rights to be enjoyed.

Right to protection from violence Right to safe water, food, and shelter Right to health and education Right for both men and women to have a say in their futures

Approach to Human Rights

1. Human rights should be the legal obligation of the state or international community2. It is important to provide empowerment and capacity building in communities3. Regardless of goals and actions implemented, it is vital to make sure all human rights are not violated

*Violation lies at the root of many conflicts and violent acts

Section 4: EXPLORING PEACE

A. What is Peace?

Peace is a STATE of being: absence of violence, serenity, harmony, happiness, calmness, getting along with others

Peace is a PROCESS: working together to deal with everyday conflict, working towards ending and preventing violence, a struggle to

transform violence, an interweaving of relationships between individuals, groups, and institutions that nurture

diversity and development

2 Possible Types of Peace

Cold Peace-absence of violenceWarm Peace-existence of all aspects of a good society

B. Peace Interventions

Peace-Making-ending hostilities by making an agreement, communication and relationships are not emphasized

Peace-Keeping-monitoring and reinforcing agreements already made22

Peace-Building-reaching to the root and underlying context of the conflict; works with the process of creating peace, not just looking for immediate peaceful outcomes(long-term stability)

3 Types of Peacebuilding

1. Political Peacebuilding: addresses political needs by building the political infrastructure

2. Structural Peacebuilding: supports the peace culture by building economic, military, and social infrastructures

3. Social Peacebuilding: addresses individual and group attitudes, values, and beliefs in which to build the human infrastructure

C. Peacebuilding Theories (theories of how to achieve peace)

1. Individual Change TheoryPeace occurs by a substantial amount of individuals transforming their consciousness, attitudes, and behaviors

2. Healthy Relationships and Connections TheoryPeace occurs by destructing polarization, division, prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes between and among groups

3. Withdrawal of the Resources for War TheoryPeace occurs by stopping the supply of people and goods used to create and implement war (ex-soldiers, weapons, transportation)

4. Reduction of Violence TheoryPeace occurs through reducing the level of violence caused by combatants (ex. cease-fires, creation of zones of peace, use of active nonviolence methods)

5. Root Causes/Justice TheoryPeace occurs through addressing root causes of conflict such as injustice, exploitation, threats of identity, etc.

6. Institutional Development TheoryPeace occurs by establishing social institutions that institute democracy, justice, equity, etc.

7. Political Elites TheoryPeace occurs when the necessary steps it take to create peace is in the interest of political leaders (ex. raise cost and reduce benefits of political leaders to continue fostering violence and war)

8. Grassroots Mobilization Theory

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Peace occurs when enough people mobilize in opposition to war, thus leader would have to follow (Ex. Nonviolent Action)

9. Economics TheoryPeace occurs by changing economies that foster war

10. Public Attitudes TheoryPeace occurs by using the media to encourage change in attitudes and tolerance in society

-Adapted from Peter Woodrow, Theories of Peacebuilding, Cllaborative Learning Projects, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 2, pp. 2-3

Section 5: PATHWAY TOWARDS PEACE

Conflict Intervention

Force (Described Above) Arbitration (Described Above) Adjudication (Described Above) Negotiation (Described Above) Mediation (Described Above) Dialogue/Active Listening (Described Above) Prevention (Described Below) Nonviolence (Described Below) Reconstruction (Described Below) Forgiveness (Described Below) Reconciliation (Described Below) Social Change (Described Below)

A. PREVENTION

Definition: preventing conflict from escalating into violence

Prevention Requirements

Analyses of elements of the conflict-parties, forces, etc. Identifying the stages of the conflict Identifying indicators of each stage of the conflict Identifying available and new structures that would address the conflict Planning and designing actions towards addressing conflict Creative thinking of new ways of approaching conflict


Prevention Mechanisms

Forming a discussion or dialogue group which includes members, such as representatives from each ethnic group, from across the line of division

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Sending clan or tribal elders as emissaries Inviting religious leaders to intervene through dialogue Using ritual to bring people together under common visions and values Using respected existing structure or groups to intervene Using publicity to signal a need for action


Prevention Guidelines

Investigate incidents to figure out who is involved in the conflict and what has actually occurred

Monitor rumors and correct misunderstandings Facilitate dialogue between opposing parties Show solidarity and neutrality by listening to individuals from both parties

in the conflict Build trust and confidence between each party Encourage reconciliation Encourage both parties to make pledges that harmful incidences will not

occur Ask both parties for compensation and restitution Change structures and systems


B. ACTIVE NONVIOLENCE

Careful Considerations

Does nonviolence mean no physical violence only, or no physical or psychological violence?

Is the opponent an enemy in which he is viewed with antagonism or is their genuine concern for his welfare?

Is the intent to force the opponent to go against his will (coercion) or to win the opponent over to the other side (conversion)?

Is nonviolence always preferable over violence? Is nonviolence preferable in all occasions?

Is violence part of human nature in which it is our instincts to harm others or is violence learned through the behaviors of society?

What is the reason for nonviolence? Because the opponent is too strong to beat physically? Because nonviolence simply works? Or because it is the ethical/moral thing to do?

-Adapted from Mark Shepard, Understanding Nonviolence: From Tactical Nonviolence to Satyagraha, 2003, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 4, p. 1

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What Is Violence?

Definition: See P. 3

2 Types of Violence

1. Physical 2. Psychological

What is Nonviolence?

2 Types of Nonviolence

Tactical Nonviolence-commitment not to induce physical violence, however, opponent is seen as the enemy and is coerced to fulfill nonviolent party’s goals

Satyagraha (Gandhian principle)-commitment to prohibit both physical and psychological violence, active caring towards opponent and intention to convert rather than coerce opponent, “Satyagraha invlolves a humble search for truth while converting the opponent into a friend and participant in a problem solving process” (Jenny Truax, 2005)

Nonviolence IS:

-“a technique of socio-political action for applying power in a conflict without the use of physical violence”

-“a technique of struggle involving the use of social, economic, and political per, and the matching of forces in conflict”

-Gene Sharp, 1973, found in Paula Green, 2006, Sec. 4, p 6

-a method of exerting power without applying violence in order to reach one’s goals

-a method which has the power to create community and societal awareness -a method which has the power to prevent and stop destructive behavior

Nonviolence IS NOT:

-avoidance of conflict -passivity, cowardice, or submissiveness -the assumption that all people are innately “good” and that the opponent will

eventually see reason behind nonviolent party’s effort and therefore naturally be willing to change

-necessarily an act of pacifism or done out of morality; it does not require a spiritual leader or one to a martyr or saint

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-performed out of the belief that the opponent will retaliate nonviolently; nonviolence can be successful even if the adversary is not “civilized” or “restrained” -a guaranteed that no one will be injured or killed

-is not limited to domestic conflicts within democratic systems

Contradictions about Violence vs. Nonviolence

Death of a Leader: Hardly anybody declares that armed struggle is ineffective when a leader is killed by arms; however, many believe that nonviolence does not work and that the movement is over when the leader of a nonviolent struggle is killed.

Casualties: Hardly anybody declares that an armed struggle is ineffective or self-defeating when a soldier is killed by arms; however, many would say nonviolence is ineffective when a people who practice active nonviolence are injured or killed.

Campaigns: When an armed campaign or movement fails, no one hardly declares that violence is ineffective; however, when a nonviolent campaign or movement fails, one is quick to conclude that nonviolence is ineffective.

Training/Preparation: One is well aware that training and preparation is needed in order to effectively engage in armed combat, yet one is quick to assume that engagement in nonviolence does not require training or preparation.

-adapted from the Real World Series, n.d.

Nonviolence = Nonviolence DOES NOT = Nonviolence TAKES:

Action Inaction Courage Confrontation Avoidance Sacrifice Power Weakness Discipline Transparency (actions & intentions of Commitment Purpose nonviolence are not Patience Morality hidden from opponent) Empowerment

Applications of Nonviolence

Dismantling Dictatorships Blocking coups d’etat Defending against Foreign Invasions and Occupations Providing Alternatives to Violence in Extreme Ethnic Conflicts Challenging Unjust Social and Economic Systems Resisting Genocide Developing, Preserving, and Extending Democratic Practices, Human Rights, Civil Liberties, and Freedom of Religion

-Adapted from the Albert Einstein Institution, 2003, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 4, p. 7

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Nature vs. Nurture

Humans are not born with the instincts towards violent behavior. Violence is a learned behavior. Anger is instinctual and is the fuel that feeds violence. However, humans have the ability to channel anger into constructive means

Methods of Nonviolence

1. Protest & Persuasion 2. Economic Noncooperation 3. Political Noncooperation 4. Nonviolent Intervention 5. Social Noncooperation 6. Educational Proposition

*See attachment 3

Obedience

*We give power to those in power through obedience

Why do we obey?-force of habit-fear of punishment-moral obligation-self interest-psychological identification-indifference-absence of self confidence to disobey

Principles of Nonviolence

It is highly important for nonviolent strategies to “go beyond the achievement of civil rights and political independence and to bring about a fundamental democaratization of economic power coupled with a decent measure of social equality”. (-Source Unknown)

“It has been shown that within conflicts, the less bloodshed, the faster the two sides can work together to solve problems politically” (Jenny Truax, Fall, 2005.)

It is important not only to demonstrate nonviolent resistance, but also to build alternative institutions

It is important that the leadership of a nonviolent movement be open about his goals and methods of achieving his goals and be decentralized

Nonviolence is most effective when the social distance between the oppressor and the lower-power or victim

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C. RECONSTRUCTION

Definition: Rebuilding and reuniting a community after war and destitution in which structures are implemented to build and maintain peace

*The word ‘reconstruction’ can be misleading in that re-creating a society the way it was before its destruction can cause further violence and damage because it is the original societal conditions that caused the conflict to begin with. ‘Reconstruction’ should be used in terms of initiating new methods to move society forward.

*Initiatives should be capacity building rather than ‘give-me’s’(simply handing money and supplies to the community members) because society needs to learn to depend upon itself to function

4 Types of Reconstruction

1. Physical Reconstruction-Repairing the physical infrastructure of civilian life-schools, hospitals, housing, etc.

-Providing employment opportunities to community members-Removing landmines and explosives-Restoring safe water supplies-Sewage removal

2. Psychological Reconstruction-Addressing psychological damage caused by war and trauma by helping individuals deal with the past and recognize the truth of their situation

-Re-experiencing past traumatic events-Expression of thoughts and feelings -Acquisition of coping skills-Forgiveness & Reconciliation

3. Social Reconstruction-Building relationships within society with the goal of promoting peace by re- establishing norms and values

3 Elements Key towards Rebuilding a Society Socially

1. TRUTH-that which is factual and that which appears to be true from human experience and perception -there is no final answer as to what truth is

2. MERCY-ability of people who have been stricken with violence to form respect for one another and to agree that it is possible to co-

exist

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-to share responsibility and vision for the future -depends upon compassion and overcoming of anger

3. JUSTICE-payback for previous wrongdoings in which the payback focuses on the healing of social relationships and on building a society-based on the values of the ones who were wronged


4. Political Reconstruction-Re-establishing civilian authority where it has been dominated or destroyed by the military. Civilian authority should be established in which it is fairly representative of the population.

-Establishing law-Establishing a police force-Creating a constitution-Demobilizing soldiers-Resettlement of refugees

*It is vital to approach each type of reconstruction in order to build a sufficient society.

D. FORGIVENESS

Questions to Consider

1. Is the act of forgiveness done for the sake of the forgiver or the sake of the one to be forgiven?

2. Can one forgive someone he/she doesn’t know?

3. Can on forgive an entire group of individuals?

TRUTHAcknowledgement

TransparencyRevelation

Clarity

MERCYAcceptanceForgiveness

SupportCompassion

JUSTICEEquality

RestitutionRights

Responsibility

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4. Does one have the right to forgive another or is forgiveness reserved solely for the purposes of a higher being?

5. Can one forgive an individual who does not want to be forgiven?

What is forgiveness?

Definitions:

-“Forgiveness is simply an act of the heart, a movement to let go of the pain, the resentment, the outrage that you have carried as a burden for so long” (Jack Kornfield found in The Many Facets, Winter, 1999).

-Forgiveness is an altruistic act of setting the perpetrator free from the committed offense. As a result of this act, the forgiver ultimately finds healing and a release of resentment.

-Forgiveness is letting go of or waiving one’s right to retaliate against the offender

-Forgiveness is “the foregoing of resentment or revenge when the wrongdoer’s actions deserve it and giving the gifts of mercy, generosity and love when the wrongdoer does not deserve them” (Robert Enright and Gayle Reed, 2006).

Forgiveness IS:

A freely chosen gift, not an obligation The ability to see beyond the limits of another’s personality A process that requires shifting of one’s perceptions again and again A way of life that gradually transforms us from being helpless victims to being

powerful and loving beings

Forgiveness:

Releases the victim from a continual connection to the offense Encourages the wrongdoers to change behaviors Gives wrongdoers the permission to release themselves from shame and to

forgive themselves Allows the forgiver to heal and no longer feel the pain of the past

Forgiveness IS/DOES NOT:

Condoning the wrongdoer’s behaviors Denying anger Mean one must take action to change a situation or to protect one’s own rights Assume an attitude of superiority Mean the forgiver must change one’s own behavior Mean the forgiver must directly communicate with the wrongdoer

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Mean forgetting the past (‘Forgive & Forget’ is an inaccurate phrase. It is important for the victim to remember the violation. Those who forget the violation end up acting out in revengeful behaviors towards others)

Require that the wrongdoer returns or compensates anything to the forgiver Lessen the grief and pain

Forgiveness Requires:

Recognizing the humanity of the other Recognizing truth Remembering traumatic events Acknowledgment and ownership of anger and pain

Resentment

-Resentment is a persistent ill will or grievance that remains long after the situation that induced the anger is over in which the one who resents wishes to pass this ill will unto the one he/she resents (Robin Casrjian, 1992)

10 Reason to Resent

1. It may give one the feeling of being powerful and in control2. It may act as a catalyst to get things done3. It may encourage one to avoid communication4. It may serve as form of protection5. It may be used to assert that one is right6. It may be used t make the other feel guilty7. It may be used to avoid feelings8. It may be used to hold on to a relationship9. It may be used to hang onto the victim role10. It may be used to avoid responsibility

-Adapted from Robin Casrjian, 1992The Process of Forgiveness (2 Models)

1. Enright & Reeds Process Model

A. Uncovering Phase-individual becomes aware of the occurrence of negative feelings as a result of deep injury. The individual must balance how to process the pain while continuing to function effectively

B. Decision Phase-individual becomes aware that change must occur in order for healing to occur. The individual may then decide to forgive the wrongdoer and makes a commitment to do so

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C. Work Phase-individual begins to actively work on forgiving the wrongdoer. The individual may decide to put a human face on the wrongdoer and try to understand why the wrongdoer did what he did. Individual begins to feel empathy and compassion toward wrongdoer and begins to accept the pain. Individual also chooses not to pass the pain onto others, including the wrongdoer.

D. Deepening Phase

-individual gains emotional relief from the forgiveness process and may find meaning to his/her suffering. Individual also may find a new purpose in life and feel more compassion for the self and for others

-Adapted from Robert Enright and Gayle Reed, 2006

2. Everett L. Worthington’s Model

A. Recall the Hurt-actively think about the pain that has occurred as objectively as possible and admit that a wrong has been done. Do not waste time dwelling on the victimization or waiting for an apology from the wrongdoer

B. Empathize-try to see things from the wrongdoer’s point of view and try to identify with the reasons why the wrongdoer did what he/she did

C. Altruistic Gift of Forgiveness-consider yourself by thinking about your own role and guilt when you

offended another individual. Think how you felt when you were forgiven and then extend this gratitude onto your wrongdoer

D. Commit to Forgive-Make your forgiveness tangible by telling a trusted other that you have forgiven the wrongdoer or by writing a certificate of forgiveness

E. Holding onto Forgiveness-Tell yourself that a painful memory of the wrongdoer offending you does not mean that you have not worked hard to forgive that individual. Refer to your tangible forgiveness to remind you that you have already forgiven the wrongdoer

-Adapted from Everett L. Worthington, 1997Forgiveness according to the World’s Religion

Judaism-The injured party should emulate the forgiveness that God has for His people-Forgiveness can only be earned when the wrongdoer begins to make changes and engages in proper relations with the injured party

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Christianity-The injured party should emulate the forgiveness that God has for His people-The injured party should pardon wrongdoing because it is done through the ignorance of the wrongdoer (ie-During crucifixion on the cross, Jesus said, “Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.”)-God is willing to endlessly, unconditionally forgive those who repent even though forgiveness is not deserved

Islam- The injured party should emulate the forgiveness that God has for His people- The injured party should pardon wrongdoing because it is done through the ignorance of the wrongdoer (ie-The prophet, Muhammad, rejected the angel, Gabriel’s, offer to cause the mountains to crumble on his persecutors because “…they do not know.”-Forgiveness must be balanced with justice in which each wrongdoer is fully responsible to God for their actions-According to the Qur’an, a victim has the right to punish and receive compensation from the wrongdoer

Buddhism-Wrongdoers do not need forgiveness for their sins from a supreme God and do not need to emulate the forgiveness or mercy of God-Wrongdoers must free themselves from their actions by not submitting to desire-Wrongdoers commit injury not because they are evil, but because they are acting out of suffering and pain-One must forgive the self before forgiving others-No one should feel contempt for another because human beings have done everything wrong over several lifetimes

-Adapted from Ann Kathleen Bradley, n.d.

E. RECONCILIATION

What is Reconciliation?

-Rebuilding relationships out of mutual understanding

Elements of Reconciliation

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF RESPONSIBILITY AND LOSS-Processing the past-One recognizes losses and harm he inflicted on others as well as losses and harm that others inflicted upon him-Taking responsibility for own actions

34

2. RESTITUTION COMPENSATION-Fair trial and punishment for those responsible-Involves fair punishment, not punishment out of revenge-Compensation to victims

3. POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION-Changing political, social, and economic structures to create a fairer and more just society-Remove or reduce previous causes of conflict

4. RECONSTRUCTION OF PERSONAL AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS-Restoration of trust-Restoration of hope-Restoration of mutuality

-Adapted from an Unknown Source, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 5, pp. 2-3

Steps towards Reconciliation

Acknowledgment of Responsibility-Speaking openly and honestly about harm one committed towards others

Apology-Sincere apology for harm and losses caused to others

Atonement-Sincere remorse for previous harmful actions, commitment not to harm again

Reparations-Compensation for damages and offering of support to victims and community

Acceptance-Letting go of anger and hatred resulting from conflict

Forgiveness-Recognizing the humanity of others

Reconciliation-Rebuilding relationships out of mutual understanding


F. SOCIAL CHANGE

Creating awareness, influencing policy, addressing leaders & officials, practicing peaceful habits (role-model), resisting policy, change of lifestyle, forming support groups, forming strategic questioning groups, facilitating workshops, public speaking, testimonies, listening to understand, campaigns, nonviolent tactics.

REFERENCES35

Bradley, Kathleen, Ann. (n.d.) Seeking Forgiveness in the World’s Spiritual Traditions.

(No further information).

Casarjian, Robin. (1992). Forgiveness: A Bold Choice for a Peaceful Heart. (No further

information).

Enright, Robert, & Reed, Gayle. (2006). About Forgiveness. University of Wisconsin-

Madison; Department of Educational Psychology, Retrieved March 6, 2006 from

www.forgiveness-institute.org/html

Enright, Robert, & Reed, Gayle. (2006). Process Model.. University of Wisconsin-

Madison; Department of Educational Psychology, Retrieved March 6, 2006 from

www.forgiveness-institute.org/html

Fisher et. al., (2000). Working with Conflict: Skills and Strategies for Action. London:

Zed Books

Green, Paula (n.d.). Initiatives in Peacebuilding. Brattleboro, VT: School for International

Training

Harris, Robert. (Ed.). (2005). Theory and Practice of Conflict Transformation Training

Manual. Amherst, MA, Alliance for Conflict Transformation

Pruitt, D.G., & Kim, S.H. (2004). Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement.

New York: McGraw Hill.

Real World Series, The. (n.d.). Violence vs. Nonviolence: A Double Standard? (No further

information).

Truax, Jenny. (2005, Fall). Nonviolent Strategies for Ending Occupation. Journal of the St.

Louis Catholic Worker Community. (No further information).

36

Vrdlund, Sofia, Rose-Marie. (2005). Personal Notes. Accra, Ghana: Unification Aid

Committee

Wilmot, William, H., & Joyce, Hocker, L. (2001). Interpersonal conflict (6th ed). New

York: McGraw Hill.

Worthington, Everett, L., Jr. (1997). To Forgive is Human: How to put your Past in the

Past. InterVarsity Press.

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Appendix 1

Exploring Human Needs in Relation to Conflict

1. All humans have innate human needs. If these needs are not met, humans will not be able to thrive or, in many cases, even survive.

2. Human needs can be categorized in three groups: material, social, and cultural.

Material Needs : food, shelter, health care, basic resources needed to survive Social Needs : sense of respect, security, predictability in relationships, sense

of participation, self-determination Cultural Needs : identity, religion, and culture all of which give meaning to the

world

3. Human needs are pursued at any cost. The drive to satisfy these needs controls human behaviors-making people that can fulfill them act in “good” ways and those that cannot fulfill them act in “bad” or “evil” ways.

4. The frustration or denial of human needs leads to conflictual behavior, a sense or trauma, and violence.

5. A capacity to satisfy human needs leads to constructive conflict behavior and conflict transformation

6. There are multiple ways of satisfying human needs. While human needs are not negotiable, the ways to satisfy human needs are negotiable.

7. Violence cannot satisfy human needs, and therefore cannot solve conflicts.

8. Threats, efforts to deter, and punishments for certain behaviors are ineffective at changing behavior against people trying to satisfy their basic human needs.

9. The only way to change behavior and to transform conflict is to satisfy basic human needs.

10. A key task of peacebuilding and trauma recovery is helping people identify unmet needs and create a process to develop new ways of satisfying the human needs of all people involved in a conflict.

11. Human needs and human rights are essentially the same thing: humans have a “right” to what they “need”. Both human needs and human rights frameworks provide an analytical tool to help understand why conflict happens, and provide a model for how to transform destructive conflict.

Adapted from John Burton, Violence Explained and Conflict: Basic Human Needs and Robert J. Burrowes, The Strategy of Nonviolent Defense: A Gandhian Approach. New York: State University of New York Press: 1996.

Appendix 2

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Mediation Process

Pre-Mediation

Decide how to work together as a team Determine the seating arrangements for the mediation based upon the information

provided by the case intake coordinator

Welcome and Introductions

Welcome parties, introduce yourself, try to connect informally with each one, and begin establishing a safe an respectful environment

Explain the mediator’s role and how the process works Go over ground rules and gain agreement from each party Talk about confidentiality and remind parties that participation is voluntary

Storytelling

Let each party talk about what happened without interruption for the other party Use communication skills to help you understand what each party is telling you Build rapport and trust between the parties After the initial storytelling happens, allow the parties to talk to each other as long as

it is productive Shift the focus to issues and needs by making a bridging statement that highlights

common issues the parties may share

Identifying the Real Issues and Needs

Help the parties identify the underlying issues of the conflict and each person’s specific needs

Ask each party to talk about their issues and needs. Reframe language as necessary in order to maintain a safe and respectful environment

Continue to clarify issues and needs until parties understand each other

Problem Solving

Review issues and needs with the parties, and prepare them to brainstorm for solutions

Ask the parties to brainstorm possible solutions to the conflict that may meet their own and the other party’s needs

Remind the parties there will be no evaluating of suggestions until brainstorming is finished

Evaluate brainstormed solutions to learn which will work to solve the conflict; if none work, continue brainstorming or revisit issues and needs

Select solutions that the parties agree will resolve the conflict

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Agreement

Make the solutions as specific as possible Write the solutions into an agreement to be signed by the parties and the mediators Make sure the agreement is balanced so that each party is doing something Ask the parties what they will do if one or more of the solutions do not work,

encourage them to return to mediation if they need more assistance

-Robert Harris, Ed., 2005, p. 23

Appendix 3

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198 Methods of Nonviolent Action

Methods of Nonviolent Protest and PersuasionFormal Statements1. Public Speeches2. Letters of opposition or support3. Declarations by organizations and institutions4. Signed public statements5. Declarations of indictment and intention6. Group or mass petitionsCommunications with a Wider Audience7. Slogans, caricatures, and symbols8. Banners, posters, displayed communications9. Leaflets, pamphlets, and books10. Newspapers and journals11. Records, radio, and television12. Skywriting and earthwritingGroup Representations13. Deputations14. Mock awards15. Group lobbying16. Picketing17. Mock electionsSymbolic Public Acts18. Displays of flags and symbolic colors19. Wearing of symbols20. Prayer and worship21. Delivering symbolic objects22. Protest disrobings23. Destruction of own property24. Symbolic lights25. Displays of portraits26. Paint as protest27. New signs and names28. Symbolic sounds29. Symbolic reclamations30. Rude gesturesPressures on Individuals31. “Haunting” officials32. Taunting officials33. Fraternization34. VigilsDrama and Music35. Humorous skits and pranks

36. Performances of plays and music37. SingingProcessions38. Marches39. Parades40. Religious processions41. Pilgrimages42. MotorcadesHonoring the Dead43. Political mourning44. Mock funerals45. Demonstrative funerals46. Homage at burial placesPublic Assemblies47. Assemblies of protest or support48. Protest meetings49. Camouflaged meetings of protest50. Teach-insWithdrawal and Renunciation51. Walk-outs52. Silence53. Renouncing honors54. Turning one’s backMethods of Social NoncooperationOstracism of Persons55. Social boycott 56. Selective social boycott57. Lysistratic nonaction58. Excommunication59. InterdictNoncooperation with Social Events, Customs, and Institutions60. Suspension of social and sports activities61. Boycott of social affairs62. Student strike63. Social disobedience64. Withdrawal from social institutionsWithdrawal from the Social System65. Stay-at-home66. Total personal noncooperation67. “Flight” of workers68. Sanctuary69. Collective disappearance70. Protest emigration

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Methods of Economic Noncooperation: Economic BoycottsActions by Consumers71. Consumers’ boycott72. Non-consumption of boycotted goods73. Policy of austerity74. Rent withholding75. Refusal to rent76. National consumers’ boycott77. International consumers’ boycottAction by Workers and Producers78. Workmen’s boycott79. Producers’ boycottAction by Middlemen80. Suppliers’ and handlers’ boycottAction by Owners and Management81. Traders’ boycott82. Refusal to let or sell property83. Lockout84. Refusal of industrial assistance85. Merchants’ “general strike”Action of Holders of Financial Resources86. Withdrawal of bank deposits87. Refusal to pay fees, dues, and assessments88. Refusal to pay debts or interest89. Severance of funds and credit90. Revenue refusal91. Refusal of a government’s moneyAction by Governments92. Domestic embargo93. Blacklisting of traders94. International sellers’ embargo95. International buyers’ embargo96. International trade embargoMethods of Economic Noncooperation: The StrikeSymbolic Strikes97. Protest strike98. Quickie walkoutAgricultural Strikes99. Peasant strikes100. Farm Workers’ strikeStrikes by Special Groups101. Refusal of impressed labor102. Prisoners’ strike103. Craft strike104. Professional strike

Ordinary Industrial Strikes105. Establishment strike106. Industry strike107. Sympathetic strikeRestricted Strikes108. Detailed strike109. Bumper strike110. Slowdown strike111. Working-to-rule strike112. Reporting “sick”113. Strike by resignation114. Limited strike115. Selective strikeMult-Industry Strikes116. Generalized strike117. General strikeCombination of Strikes and Economic Closures118. Hartal119. Economic shutdownThe Methods of Political NoncooperationRejection of Authority120. Withholding or withdrawal of allegiance121. Refusal of public support122. Literature and speeches advocating resistanceCitizens’ Noncooperation with Government123. Boycott of legislative bodies124. Boycott of elections125. Boycott of government employment and positions126. Boycott of government depts., agencies, and other bodies127. Withdrawal from government educational institutions128. Boycott of government-supported organizations129. Refusal of assistance to enforcement agents130. Removal of own signs and placemarks131. Refusal to accept appointed officials132. Refusal to dissolve existing institutionsCitizens’ Alternatives to Obedience

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133. Reluctant and slow compliance134. Nonobedience in absence of direct supervision135. Popular nonobedience136. Disguised nonobedience137. Refusal of an assemblage or meeting t disperse138. Sitdown139. Noncooperation with conscription and deportation140. Hiding, escape, and false identities141. Civil disobedience of “illegitimate” lawsAction by Government Personnel142. Selective refusal of assistance by government aides143. Blocking of lines of command and information144. Stalling and obstruction145. General administrative noncooperation146. Judicial noncooperation147. Deliberate inefficiency and selective noncooperations by enforcement agents148. MutinyDomestic Governmental Action149. Quasi-legal evasions and delays150. Noncooperation by constituent governmental unitsInternational Governmental Action151. Changes in diplomatic and other representations152. Delay and cancellation of diplomatic events153. Withholding of diplomatic recognitions154. Severance of diplomatic relations155. Withdrawal from international organizations156. Refusal of membership in international bodies157. Expulsion from international organizationsMethods of Nonviolent InterventionPsychological Intervention158. Self-Exposure to the elements159. The fast

a) Fast of moral pressure

b) Hunger strikec) Satyagrahic fast

160. Reverse trial161. Nonviolent harassmentPhysical Intervention162. Sit-in163. Stand-in164. Ride-in165. Wade-in166. Mill-in167. Pray-in168. Nonviolent raids169. Nonviolent air raids170. Nonviolent invasion171. Nonviolent interjection172. Nonviolent obstruction173. Nonviolent occupationSocial Intervention174. Establishing new social patterns175. Overloading of facilities176. Stall-in177. Speak-in178. Guerrilla theater179. Alternative social institutions180. Alternative communication systemEconomic Intervention181. Reverse strike182. Stay-in strike183. Nonviolent land seizure184. Defiance of blockades185. Politically motivated counterfeiting186. Preclusive purchasing187. Seizure of assets188. Dumping189. Selective patronage190. Alternative markets191. Alternative transportation systems192. Alternative economic institutionsPolitical Intervention193. Overloading of administrative systems194. Disclosing identities of secret agents195. Seeking imprisonment196. Civil disobedience of “neutral” laws197. Work-on without collaboration198. Dual sovereignty and parallel government

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The Albert Einstein Institution: Research, Publications and Consultations of Nonviolent Struggle, 198 Methods of Nonviolent Action, Found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 4, pp. 2-3.

Appendix 4

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Tips for Conflictants in Peacebuidling

Accept conflict is natural

Bring hidden conflicts out into the open

Disagree with ideas, not with people

When talking about a problem or issue, refer to it as shared

Identify and focus on the most important, central issues of the conflict

Do not polarize the issue (either you are for me or against me). There may by many options

Do not compromise too quickly. Allow full exploration of the problem

If you are not centrally involved, do not take sides too quickly

Try to be aware of your own feelings an opinions during a conflict

Ask for a few minutes of silence when the atmosphere gets too argumentative

If the issue is not resolved in the discussion process, set up a special, structured process for dealing with it

Building United Judgment, Center for Conflict Resolution, found in Paula Green, n.d., Sec. 2, p. 14.

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peace education manual-unac

Documents