PDHPE HSC Summaries – Core 2 Factors Affecting Performance How does Training Affect Performance? • Energy Systems - Alactacid System (ATP-PC) This system is used in explosive events such as 100m sprint, long-jump, and shot-put. This system is anaerobic.

ATP-PC system Fuel CP or PC à Creatine Phosphate Efficiency of ATP production Very fast produced but very limited to amount Duration of system 10 seconds of explosive activity Cause of fatigue When CP stores run out By-products Heat Recovery Rate 50% of stores are replaced within 30 seconds

100% of stores are replaced within 2-5 minutes The continuous cycle of the ATP splitting to produce the energy required for muscle contraction, and then the CP compound splitting to re-synthesize the ADP (adenosine di-phosphate) into ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) - Lactic Acid system This system is used in events such as 400m, gymnastics routine, 100m swim, and 500m kayak. This system is anaerobic.

Lactic Acid System Fuel Glycogen Efficiency of ATP production Relatively fast produced but very limited to the

amount + produced bad bi-product Duration of system 10 seconds – 2/3 minutes Cause of fatigue The accumulation of lactic acid By-products Lactic acid Recovery rate 20 minutes – 2 hours depending on the amount

Of training and you fitness level The break down of glycogen leads to the production of 2 ATP molecules and pyruvic acid. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid. The build up of lactic acid in an athletes muscles results in muscular fatigue. The breakdown of glycogen into ATP + pyruvic acid in the absence of oxygen, it is referred to as anaerobic glycolysis. - Aerobic System Used in events such as marathons, 3km run, 1km swim, long distant cycling etc. Aerobic system now that oxygen is present. Breakdown of glycogen in presence of oxygen is called aerobic metabolism.

Aerobic System Fuel Glycogen à fats à protein Efficiency of ATP production Excellent and most efficient + advantageous bi-

Product à water + ATP +CO2 Duration of system 3 minutes onwards Cause of fatigue When carbohydrate stores run out and fat

Becomes the dominant fuel source (“hitting The wall)

Bi-products CO2 + water + 36xATP Recovery rate Within 10 hours (active recovery) Rest only 24-46 hours

• Types of training and training methods - Aerobic e.g. continuous, fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit Continuous: a continuous sustained effort for a period of longer than 20 minutes. Heart rate must remain within the aerobic training zone for the duration of the training session e.g. long distant running, swimming. Fartlek: is training in which participants vary the speed and terrain (intensity) in a number of ways + in doing so use different energy systems. As this is continuous the aerobic system would be predominant but the anaerobic system is also developed. For example regular bursts of speed/sprinting in the 5km run, or varying the intensity like running up hills and different terrains. This type of training is good for activities which require an interchange of energy systems such as hockey, AFL and NRL. Aerobic Interval: alternating sessions of work and recovery. The player performs a given amount of work (400m run) in a particular time or at a specific intensity (70 seconds or 65% effort). Then followed by a period of recovery (30seconds) before the task is repeated a number of times in the same manner. Rest period is important in differentiating between aerobic interval + anaerobic interval. Rest period very short for aerobic interval (20-30 secs) preventing full recovery maintaining stress on aerobic system. This method effectively develops aerobic system as: - sustained effort of mod intensity ensures aerobic system is stressed not completely fatigued - level of intensity can be adjusted to achieve desired level aerobic capacity The overload principle can be applied by manipulating à work intensity, work time, number of reps + work to rest ratio. Circuit Training: develops aerobic capacity + can improve musc endurance, strength + flexibility. Participants move from one activity to next after completing required reps/time for the exercise. Can be used anaerobically or aerobically depending on type of exercises, time spent on each exercise + number of circuits required. Effectiveness relies on the overload principle, which can be achieved by: - Increasing number of stations - increasing time at each station - > reps at each station + reps of whole circuit - decreasing time allowed to do circuit - When it’s a particular time on each station à fitter athletes will do more reps than less fit ones - Anaerobic e.g. anaerobic interval Anaerobic training uses high intensity work followed with limited recovery to develop the energy systems that function in the absence of O2. Anaerobic training is short in duration (approx 2 mins) + activity is brief + effort is maximal, followed by short rest periods that don’t allow full recovery of system. Aims to enhance systems supply of energy under intense activity + develop greater tolerance to lactic acid. - short anaerobic à less than 25 secs + develops ATP-Pc system - medium anaerobic à 25 secs – 1 minute develops lactic acid system - long anaerobic à lasts 1-2 mins + develops lactic acid/aerobic systems Anaerobic Interval: alternating sessions of work and recovery. Used to develop speed + power.

Interval Use Work duration

Rest Duration

Work-rest Ratio

Reps % of effort

Anaerobic Interval

Speed + Power

10-30 secs 30-90 secs 1:3 25+ 100%

For example 200m sprint interval training. Would have to complete each 200m sprint in under 30 secs at max effort. Then given 90 second recovery period before the 200m sprint is repeated again. 10 reps. Nee dot follow the principle of progressive overload à frequency of training, intensity, length of rest + reps - Flexibility Training e.g. static, ballistic, PNF, dynamic Flexibility is the range movement (ROM) in a joint. Flexibility is very important to enhance performance and decrease injury. Static flexibility: involves holding a stretch at its end point for up to 30 seconds. Stretching should be slow and gentle. Following the principle of specificity, stretches must develop flexibility required in the certain sport for example hamstring stretch for hurdles.

Dynamic Flexibility: referred to as ROM stretching. Dynamic stretching involves the rhythmical movement of the major muscle groups to be used in an activity e.g. arm circles for swimmers. The movement is generally slow, gentle and repeats movements that will accurately occur in activity e.g. arm circles for swimmer, hurdle action for athletes participating in hurdles. PNF (Propioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation): most preferred method of improving flexibility as it can lead to the greatest benefits in ROM. PNF stretching involves a gentle static stretch, followed by an isometric contraction against resistance (often another person) followed another static stretch, repeated 2-3 times. Ballistic Flexibility: involves stretching a muscle to its end point and then over stretching it by bouncing. It is useful for some sports as it can imitate the speed of movement required in the sport e.g. ankle bounces for tumbling in gymnastics. However for most sports it is unsuitable as it can lead to intra-muscular damage. Benefits of Flexibility Training - increased performance as a flexible joint has greater ROM and requires less energy - decreased risk of injury + muscle soreness + tightness - improved bio-mechanical efficiency/ neuromuscular co-ordination + posture + reduces stress Factors affecting Flexibility: training, age + inactivity (decreases elasticity + flow of nutrients), gender (females generally more flexible than males), heat (more temp the greater the ROM + elasticity of muscle) and specificity (is flexibility training is highly specific to sport, individual + joint involved in movement max benefits will occur) - Strength Training e.g. free/fixed weights, elastic, hydraulic There are two types of resistance training programs à isotonic and isometric. Isotonic strength training is where the athlete raise/lower or push/pull free weights to contract and lengthen muscle fibres. Isotonic training revolves around Repetition Maximum (RM), which is the max reps a muscle can lift before fatigued e.g. 10RM mean it can lift the weight 10 times before the muscle is fatigued + cant lift anymoe. Isometric training develops strength by applying a resistance where the muscle fibres don’t change in length e.g. handstand hold. Free weights: barbells, dumbbells and hand weights used to develop isotonic strength in all muscles in a group e.g. quads in upper leg. Using free weights can be time consuming (loading + unloading plates) + requires strict form and good technique to avoid injury. Example of some movement’s à bench press squats with barbell. Versatile + can imitate many movements specific to various sports e.g. lunges with hand weights for sprinting. Doesn’t develop strength in full ROM. Fixed weights: fixed weights develop strength isotonically and isokinetically. Fixed weights are in the form of weight machines where resistance is usually provided by stacked weights where you can change loads by simply changing pin placements. Preferred by beginners as less chance of injury as these machines greatly enhances stability + are beneficial for isolating a specific muscle for development e.g. hamstring curl machine, leg press for quads etc. They also restrict the ROM. Elastic: strength training uses bands to increase strength as resistance is generated by increasing tension of band. Exposure to progressively increasing resistance ensures muscles strengthened through full ROM, esp at end of movement where most strength gains are made. Effective because of their versatility, portability + adaptability to ROM. However they are not very durable as they can wear and tear. Need to regularly inspect for frays, wearing or tears. Hydraulic: training generates resistance in both movement phases e.g. the pushing and the pulling of a bench press or the lifting/lowering. And also the amount of resistance depends on the speed of movement, the faster the movement the more resistance is generated. Used in circuits, cardio-fitness + anaerobic exercises. Hydraulic exercises are part of an isotonic strength program. Designing programs for specific type of strength

Type of Strength Weight Sets Reps Speed of Mvmnt Absolute Heavy 3-5 Max of 6 slow Power Medium – heavy 3-5 6 Fast/quick Muscular Endurance Light 3-5 20-30 Fast Lean Body Mass Medium 3-5 8-15 Medium

Absolute Strength – the maximum weight a person can lift Muscular Endurance - is the ability of a muscle to sustain repeated contractions against a resistance for an extended period of time. Power – ability of a muscle to lift a heavy load rapidly or quickly.

• Principles of Training There are 6 principle of training: - Progressive overload, specificity, training thresholds, reversibility, variety and warm-up/cool-down - Training Thresholds Aerobic threshold: is the minimum level of exercise intensity causing HR to be high enough at which an athlete produces an aerobic effect. It occurs at approx 70% of max heart rate. This is their target heart rate if they want to improve aerobically. Thus if an athlete exercises at an intensity lower than the target HR no training effect will occur. Anaerobic threshold: is reached at the highest level of oxygen uptake that can be sustained without the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles (occurs close to max HR). a higher anaerobic threshold means an athlete can exercise for a longer period of time at higher intensities (accumulation of lactic acid is delayed, thus fatigue is delayed). Untrained athletes have anaerobic threshold of around 50% VO2 max while trained athletes can be a high as 80% VO2 max. Can improve tolerance to lactic acid by training for short periods above anaerobic threshold e.g. 200m sprinter would do 5x200m sprints with 1 minute rest in between to increase tolerance to lactic acid. This could be incorporated into a resistance training program as the anaerobic threshold is necessary to improve strength. If training for absolute strength, the threshold is represented by a high load/resistance and only a few repetitions to challenge anaerobic threshold. For muscular endurance, the threshold is represented in terms of quantity, with a high number of reps to challenge threshold. - Reversibility Most benefits gained from training are quickly lost once training has ceased, known as reversibility. The speed of this principle varies e.g. physiological adaptations can decline within two weeks of cessation of training and others may take months e.g. VO2 max can decrease by 6.7% from 1 week of complete rest. - Specificity States that maximum benefits will only occur if the training program is based on the specific needs of the sport/activity, which is the predominant energy system/s used, specific muscle fibres used, specific muscle groups involved and the specific movement skills involved the sport e.g. pointless for a 100m sprinter to train slow twitch muscle fibres as their event only requires fast twitch muscle fibres. A resistance program would be specific to the type of strength required for sport, the muscles used for that sport and obviously either the ATP-PC system and/or lactic acid system would be specific. For example a resistance training program for a sprinter would focus on the quadriceps, calves and hamstring muscles. It would include exercises like squats, leg dips, leg press, calf raises etc. These exercises would be done to train power, to the reps, sets load and speed of movement are specific to improve power. This would include doing the leg press fast, with a medium-heavy load, 5-8 reps and 3-6 sets. - Variety This principle is based upon the fact that athletes are better motivated if they are offered changes to the “same old routine”. For example you could incorporate varying strength techniques each week in a resistance program. You could also have alternating programs each two weeks. You could also suggest alternative activities that can help the sport e.g. beach running, cycling etc. - Progressive Overload Involves gradually increasing an athletes training load so that improvements can occur. This increase needs to big enough to encourage improvement but not too big that exhaustion results or athlete loses motivation. Once athlete can perform comfortably at this level, they have ‘adapted’ to that level. On=ce this happens load can then be increased again. In resistance/anaerobic training sets, reps, load, recovery time and be manipulated to show progressive overload. For example a gymnast does 3 sets of 15 dips, once they can do this comfortably the reps or sets can be increased to 3 sets of 20 dips. - Warm-up/Cool-down Warm-up is performed for the following reasons:

- Prepare body physically + mentally - reduces risk for injury - To increase blood flow to the muscles - Increased body + muscle temp which increases metabolism, improves contraction of muscles + improves elasticity. Example of a warm-up 1. General gross motor skills/activity e.g. jogging 2. Stretching 3. Calisthenics e.g. push-ups, star-jumps, tuck jumps etc 4. Formal activity i.e. drills or warm-up actions performed in sport A cool down should occupy the last 5 minutes of a training session. Consists of light general exercise e.g. slow jog/ swimming. Main function of a cool-down is: - Minimise muscular stiffness - return pooled blood from muscles back to heart - remove any lactic acid from muscles • Physiological Adaptations in response to aerobic training - Resting heart rate (RHR) The number of times the heart beats per minute. Aerobic training reduces RHR. It decreases because of the increased SV and CO increasing the amount of blood pumped around the body by heart, therefore heart can reduce the number of beats. - Stroke Volume (SV) SV is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle each contraction. It is measured in ml per beat. SV increases in response to training. It increases because of improved muscular contraction of the heart and the increased capacity of the Left ventricle so heart can receive and pump out more blood per beat. - Cardiac Output (CO) Amount of blood pumped out by heart per minute. The combination of decrease in HR and increased SV allows the heart to send blood through the body more efficiently. CO of a trained athlete is to an untrained person at rest but during exercise the trained athlete CO is much higher. - Oxygen Uptake (VO2 max) Refers to the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered. Oxygen uptake is the amount of oxygen that is consumed and utilised by the working muscles. Maximal oxygen uptake is used as a measure of cardio-respiratory fitness (referred to as VO2 max). VO2 max is affected by gender (males have higher VO2 max due to higher muscle % + hemoglobin levels), age (decreases after 25) and training status (aerobic training increases VO2 max). Trained athlete has much higher VO2 max. - Lung Capacity Amount of oxygen lungs can hold. There are 4 lung volumes that make up max volume of lungs. They are: - Inspiratory - Expiratory - Residual Volume - Vital Capacity Vital capacity increased slightly in response to training, and the other four remain relatively unchanged. May only increase due to maximal training, not sub-maximal training. - Haemoglobin Levels Haemoglobin is found on RBC’s, it binds to and carries oxygen. Haemoglobin levels increase in response to training. Aerobic training is said to increase Hb levels by 20%. This is linked to an increase in blood plasma, blood volume and increase in RBC numbers. - Musclular Hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy refers to the increase in the size of a muscle i.e. bulking up. This occurs as a result of strength/resistance training. Muscle hypertrophy is a positive response to training, with fast-twitch muscle fibres being slightly more responsive than slow-twitch muscle fibres. Muscle atrophy is the decrease in muscle size. - Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres There are two types of muscle fibres: - Fast twitch muscle fibres (white) - Slow twitch muscle fibres (red) Slow twitch muscle fibres, contract slowly and for long periods of time. They are recruited for endurance type events such as marathons, triathlons etc. Fast twitch muscle fibres contract rapidly and are recruited for power movements such as throwing, sprinting etc.

The most significant physiological adaptations to muscle fibres occur when they are subjected to training programs specific to their role. While all muscles shorten and lengthen during movement, the bulk of the work is done by muscle fibres most suited to the specific type of activity. White fibres benefit most by anaerobic training e.g. sprints, short intervals + resistance training. Red muscle fibres benefit most from endurance type activities that engage the aerobic system e.g. jogging, long distant swimming. The red fibres are recruited because they suit the aerobic activity and metabolic requirements for efficiently.

How can Psychology affect Performance? • Motivation Motivation is an internal state that activates, directs + sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal. - Positive and Negative Positive: comes from rewarding experiences e.g. receiving praise and encouragement form a coach, winning a competition etc. The athlete’s primary goal is to pursue success. Can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Relies on continual reinforcement internally or externally. To maintain high levels of positive motivation, coaches must strive to find unique ways of reinforcing the desired behaviour in the athlete e.g. vie incentives, progress charts. Negative: some athletes may be inspired to perform more from fear or consequences of not performing. Negative motivation is one that results from a fear of failure or of unpleasant reactions/comments. The athlete’s primary goal is to avoid failure. This method can result in improved performance, but most athletes perform most effective in the long term with positive motivation. Negative can cause diminished confidence, initiative + self belief. - Intrinsic and Extrinsic Intrinsic: is motivation that comes from within the athlete themselves. It is the internal desire to do well. This is the most preferred form of motivation as the athlete is then able to control situations at any time without needing to rely on anyone else. Extrinsic: is motivation derived from an external source, such as coaches pre-pep talk, parents judges, friends, the opportunity of a financial reward or parental praise etc. Factors that reduce motivation: Injury, pressure form others e.g. coach, poor time management, fatigue from poor diet + overtraining + anxiety, failure to achieve goals + lack of fun in training and competitions. Useful Motivational Strategies: make friends with team members, surround yourself with motivated people, reward yourself for achieving a goal, positive self talk, motivational sayings + picture around house, listen to motivational music + speakers i.e. professional sportsman, organise + prioritise time + use goal setting to manage time. Keep involved with team so don’t feel left out if injured, if fatigue is an issue take time to analyse diet, training load + get enough sleep. • Anxiety and Arousal - Trait and State Anxiety Trait Anxiety: is a person’s general level of anxiety linked to daily living. Certain personalities respond differently to everyday stresses and how they respond determines their level of trait anxiety. It is generally controlled by relaxation techniques. State Anxiety: this form of anxiety is situational e.g. anxiety caused by pressure of the grand final I the last 5 minutes of the game. It relates to how a person responds to a certain situation. For example a golfer putting on the 18th green for the championship. State anxiety is harder to control + generally involves training in mental rehearsal + relaxation. - Sources of Stress Social Stresses: include events + people in your life which place demands upon you e.g. deadlines for school/work, disagreements, financial problems, parental pressure etc. Environmental stresses: as environment constantly changes the adjustments someone has to make can cause stress e.g. weather conditions noise distractions etc. Physiological Stresses: is the stress that’s placed upon you body. It could be exercise induced e.g. injuries, overload, lack of exercise or other sources such as illness, puberty, menopause, aging, sleep disturbances etc. Psychological Stresses: your thoughts impact greatly upon stress. Negative thoughts can produce poor results + low self esteem. Positive thoughts can result in improved performance + better confidence. - Optimal Arousal Arousal is the emotional, mental or physiological activation required to produce a response. Arousal is a necessary ingredient in sports performance. Its level can either facilitate or hinder the execution of a specific skill. Both over arousal + under arousal are detrimental to performance, that’s why it is so important for the level of arousal to be at an ‘optimum’ level.

The ‘inverted U’ hypothesis illustrates this connection between arousal and performance:

The level of arousal necessary for ‘optimum’ performance differs depending on the nature of the skill/activity: - Complex movement (fine motor skills) à e.g. archery, darts require a low level of arousal to be optimum - Simple movements (gross motor skill)à e.g. running, swimming requires a high level of arousal to optimum Reasons for arousal too low: lack of motivation, disinterest, poor concentration, inability to cope with distractions Reasons for arousal too high: excessive concern about performance, feeling anxious leading to muscular tension, + mental confusion as person results in poorer performance, worried about losing. • Psychological Strategies to enhance motivation + manage anxiety - Concentration/attention skills (focusing) Often the key to sporting success is concentration or the ability to focus on the task at hand. It’s important to focus on only the relevant cues in the sporting environment + eliminate distractions. Players also need to be able to adapt to changing situations. - Mental Rehearsal/ Visualisation Mental Rehearsal: Involves the repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the minds familiarity with the desired motion. It can enhance competition performance + the acquisition of motor skills. It relies on the power of imagery + used sports like gymnastics, high jump + weight-lifting. Benefits are: - Increased performance - improved concentration - Elevates body to desired level of arousal - Removes need for total reliance on physical training - additional practice Visualisation: incorporates all the skills required in mental rehearsal. However here the focus is on picturing a specific aspect of the performance/skill ensuring image is correct e.g. straight legs in handstand. Athlete should be relaxed focused on the important points that are essential for skill execution. - Relaxation techniques Relaxation techniques may assist the athlete to control anxiety. Without relaxation techniques, athlete may not be able to reproduce what is learned in training because of factors like distractions, interfering with athletes [ ]. Some techniques commonly used are: - Progressive muscular relaxation: relaxing muscle groups in special exercises. - Mental relaxation: relaxing body by controlling breathing, relaxing mind + gaining a ‘floating feeling’. - Meditation: narrowing of thoughts using repetitive images + sounds - Centered breathing: controlling breathing to release tension before performance

- Goal Setting Setting goals related to performance can provide motivation + commitment. It also is a way of planning + monitoring progress. They provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training over extended periods. They provide focus, give direction + help people realise their aspirations. Goals should be short term and long term: - Long term: should be established at the start of a training program + be for an extended period of time e.g.

to throw a javelin longer than 50m after 12 months of training. - Short term: should be set to serve as progressive milestones along the way to achieve long term goals e.g. to

jog 2.5km 4 days a week.

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance? • Nutritional considerations - Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading - Consume large meals 3-4 meals before competition/performance + 1-2 hours prior if a snack - avoid foods high in fat + protein e.g. meats because these take longer to digest - eat mostly complex carbohydrates e.g. pasta, cereal bread etc - Liquid meals effective if solid food hard to digest. However they must be high in carbs to be effective. - Must drink adequate fluid day before especially endurance athlete’s e.g. marathon, triathlon (i.e. 500-600ml in 2-3 hour period prior to endurance competition). Drink till wee is clear à good indicator.

e to 3-4 hours before exercise 1-2 hours before exercise >1hour before exercise Baked potato + milk Liquid meals supplement Sports drink Breakfast cereal with milk Milkshake/ fruit smoothie Carbohydrate gel Bread roll with cheese+meat Sports bars Cordial Fruit salad with yoghurt Cereal bars Sports bars Pasta/rice with tomato based Sauce/ lean meat

Yoghurt Jelly lollies

Baked beans on toast Fruit - Carbohydrate loading is the technique of loading the muscles with glycogen in preparation for high

intensity endurance activity of more than 90 minutes. The original method of a depletion stage (via a lot of high intense training + low carb consumption to fully deplete glycogen stores) followed by a saturation phase (low training + high consumption of carbs + increased glycogen storage) has created problems such as reduced energy levels following depletion stage leading to lethargy, irritability, poor [ ] + possible lack of motivation. Now believed that athletes in short-term, low-intensity activities don’t need ‘glycogen saturation’. In the case of endurance athletes, muscle saturation is best achieved through:

• Balanced diet high in complex carbs (7-12g per kilo of body weight) e.g. rice, pasta breads, grains + taken with some simple carbs like soft drinks, honey + jams to ensure carb intake is maximized.

• Tapering of training for 2-4 days prior competition, enabling glycogen stores to maximise. - During Performance Endurance events, particularly in hot/humid conditions can have a significant impact on body’s fuel + fluid supplies. The following nutritional considerations need to be taken into account during performance: - aim is to conserve muscle glycogen + maintain blood glucose levels - carb supplementation needed to avoid glycogen depletion. At exercise intensities above 75% of aerobic

capacity liquid carb drinks can delay glycogen depletion by 30 minutes. - Adequate hydration by regular fluid intake must be maintained. Suggested that 200-300ml of fluid

(preferably sports drink) be taken every 15-20 minutes during exercise. Athlete should not wait until thirst develops before replenishing lost fluid.

- Wear clothing that breathes to promote heat loss through evaporation + convection

- Post Performance Post p fluid + nutritional plan aims to: - replace glycogen stores via high carb foods - re-hydrate to replace lost fluid during event e.g. water/carb solutions are recommended - return body pre-performance state ASAP Suggested that 50-100 grams of carbs be consumed within 2 hours after endurance activity + 50-75 grams every 2 hours after that until a total of 500-600grams have been consumed will be most beneficial. Fluid recovery is essential for a full recovery to replace fluid + electrolytes. Fluid intake needs to maintained until the athletes urine is clear. It is suggested that consumption of up to 150% of fluid losses is necessary to make a full recovery.

• Supplementation Supplementation is routine for many competitors because it is believed to improve performance. However in most cases, the concern, effort + money is wasted because a well balanced diet can supply all the necessary nutrients for optimal performance. - Vitamins/minerals Vitamins are organic compounds essential to maintaining bodily functions and only required in small amounts. They assist in energy release, metabolic regulation + tissue building. However vitamin supplementation isn’t necessary to improve performance because all necessary vitamins can be provided by a well balanced diet. The main vitamins needed by an athlete would be: - A, D, E, K (fat soluble + toxic in high levels) - B group, vitamin C (water soluble + need to be taken regularly as lost easily lost from body through water) Vitamin supplementation isn’t needed if athlete has balanced diet + is serious about health maintenance, training + improved performance Minerals are inorganic substances found in body that are necessary for it to function properly. They don’t provide energy but are necessary for the body to function properly e.g. iron, calcium + potassium. Which are important for cellular functions such as muscular contraction, fluid balance + energy systems. Inadequate supplies of minerals contribute to health problems + affect performance, therefore mineral supplementation may be necessary for some athletes suffering mineral deficiencies such as female athletes and iron deficiencies. - Protein supplementation Studies into protein supplementation show that it’s not necessary to take to improve performance, as a well balanced diet (rich in fish + red meat) can provide adequate protein levels. Although protein does facilitate growth + repair of body tissues, excess protein can have negative effects on health + hinder performance. It leads to increase of calcium excreted, possibly contributing to osteoporosis later in life. On the whole research supports idea that most athletes don’t need/benefit from protein supplementation. Used in sports like body building, weight-lifting, gymnastics, strength athletes etc.

- Caffeine Supplementation - Caffeine does improve alertness + studies have reported ‘clear headedness’ improved [ ] + memory. Evidence related to caffeine + performance is inconclusive but agreement on areas like cognitive function + anaerobic performance. It doesn’t help short intense activities such as sprinting, long-jump etc. - It causes de-hydration due to its diuretic properties - It helps mobilise fat stores assisting aerobic performance, therefore it can be used to improve aerobic performance. The mobilising of fat stores helps as it allows aerobic performance to be continued for longer periods of time (glycogen sparing). Thus endurance athletes would use this but is banned in many sports.

For caffeine supplementation Against caffeine supplementation Helps assist with aerobic performance May cause dehydration due to its diuretic props Improves concentration, alertness + memory Doesn’t help with high intensity activities Gives athlete “clear headedness” Promotes glycogen sparing (fat used earlier)

- Creatine Products Supplementation - used by athletes in events requiring strength, delaying fatigue + stimulating fat burning e.g. sprinting, shot-put. - Assists in re-synthesis of ATP, which is vital for the improved performance in explosive activities e.g. weight lifting, gymnastics + sprinting. - Creatine can’t be stored in body so supplementation is believed to improve anaerobic performance esp. assisting ATP-PC system.

For protein supplementation Against protein supplementation Growth + repair of body tissues esp muscles i.e. muscular hypertrophy

Excess protein can have negative health effects à increased calcium excreted + possibly Contribute to osteoporosis

Beneficial for sports such as body builders, weight lifters + strength athletes. Also good for injury rehabilitation

Many protein supplements contain additives that Have no health benefit and may increase risk Of certain cancers

- may improve performance in vegetarians because they have very low Creatine stores compared to normal diets. - much evidence is inconclusive in regard to Creatine supplementation, while there may be benefits in some anaerobic activities, little else may be gained from consumption. Excess dosage can possibly cause renal disease

For Creatine supplementation Against Creatine supplementation Creatine cant be stored in body, thus Supplementation advantageous

High amounts can cause renal disease

May assist fat burning Little benefits may be gained Helps explosive/strength athletes only Much evidence is inconclusive Helps vegetarians because they have abnormally Low Creatine stores.

Only helps with anaerobic exercise

• Recovery Strategies Recovery strategies aim to ensure that the athlete is able to resume full training and competition in the shortest possible time. Active rest is regarded the most beneficial form of recovery. There are 4 main areas of recovery strategies: - Physiological Strategies à cool down + nutritional plan (food + fluid) - Neural Strategies à hydrotherapy + massage - Tissue Damage Strategies à cryotherapy - Psychological Strategies à relaxation methods - Physiological Strategies e.g. cool down, hydration Focuses on two elements - Removal of metabolic by-products via an effective cool-down - A nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy Cool Down To gradually reduce HR, metabolism to pre-exercise state. Cooling down effectively removes waste products, decreases blood pooling and assists in preventing muscle soreness +spasms. Cool down should be active and gradual. A warm down should consist of à 1.10 minutes of walking/jogging/swimming aim to return body to pre-exercise state 2. Stretching exercises. Nutrition Plan: addresses both fluid and food intake. Effective measures to address + prevent dehydration need to be included in pre, during and post event plans. The body loses considerable fluid in endurance events, threatening dehydration. Amount of fluid replacement depends on temp, exercise intensity/duration, and sweating. Thirst isn’t reliable indicator of hydration, the colour of urine is. If it’s dark in colour your dehydrated and fluid need to be consumed. If its pale/clear your hydrated + need to maintain hydration. Drink roughly 600ml for every ½ kilo of body weight lost. Severe dehydration may require 24-48 hours to totally replace fluids. For e.g. drink water, electrolyte drink, juices etc. The need to replenish depleted glycogen + blood sugar in first 30 mins-2hours after exercise is essential for fuel recovery. In not replenished within 2hours a decrease in glycogen absorption will occur (during 30mins-2hours after event muscles are most receptive to glycogen enrichment). A high carb diet (50-100g after exercise) that is balanced (in terms of carbs, protein, and fat) is recommended for exercise recovery. Carb : protein ratio is 4:1. - Neural Strategies e.g. hydrotherapy and massage Such as massage and hydrotherapy aim to relax muscles that have been fatigued/damaged from high intensity exercise. Hydrotherapy: involves the use of water to relax, soothe and assist metabolic recovery. It involves steam rooms, spas, underwater massage (spa jets) and heated swimming pools. Active rest is included in hydrotherapy through using gravity assisted movements in swimming pools e.g. running, jumping, combat exercises + flotation exercises can be performed in this gravity assisted environment, lessening risk of injury. Used in conjunction with cryotherapy techniques to accelerate blood flow e.g. hot and cold method. Massage: can be performed prior/following an event. This is a specialised massage focusing on recovery. Following eventà sports massage focuses on body + mental relaxation and injury prevention. Post event massage aims to help relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension, assists in eliminating toxic by-products and promotes flexibility, preparing athlete for next training session. Rehab massage focuses on injury treatment i.e. muscle

damage, ligament repair etc. Properly used massage shortens recovery time between workouts. Massage needs to address needs of the athletes demands from the sport (i.e. specific muscle groups). Range of techniques, the most popular are: compression massage, cross-fibre massage, Swedish massage etc. - Tissue Damage Strategies Cryotherapy: involves the use of cooling of the tissue damage. Ice is the most common form of cryotherapy, because of its ability to slow down the tissue inflammatory response preventing build-up of waste, that if isn’t removed creates muscle soreness/stiffness. RICER: is used in rehab of soft tissue injury. This technique involves Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation and Recuperation to enhance recovery. Ice baths are also popular in contact sports like football (NRL) and endurance training recovery programs. Cold baths work on the principle that decreased temp contracts the blood vessels, slowing down the blood flow to injury site. As the body emerges or is put into hot bath, blood vessels dilate allowing oxygen rich blood flow stimulating recovery. Short periods of 1 minute in each temp bath are recommended + build on top of that as body adapts. - Psychological Strategies e.g. relaxation After intense exercise athletes may experience low concentration +motivation and high anxiety. The following strategies will help recover the emotional, spiritual + mental state: Relaxation Methods: like performance evaluations, debriefing sessions, reading, music and movies. Some athletes participate in leisure activities like golf, swimming + surfing can help. Visualisation and positive self talk are other methods of psychological strategies to recover. Adequate Sleep: a body harboring mental/physical tension is not able to sleep + experience full recovery. Adequate sleep is considered the most important recovery strategy. Not enough and too much sleep can be detrimental to performance, so roughly 8-9 hours is adequate.

How does the Acquisition of skill affect performance? • Stages of skill acquisition - Cognitive Stage - The cognitive stage is the first stage where an athlete begins when learning a new skill. - Athlete needs to understand what has to be done i.e. insight on what to do + how to do it. - Thinking and planning how to do the skill takes most of the athlete’s attention. - Demonstrations + instruction are vital to help athlete - Errors are usually large and frequent - Constant reinforcement + feedback is necessary (a lot of external + knowledge of results from coach) - Associative Stage - Associative stage is identified by an emphasis on practice, it is the practice stage - The athlete begins to more accurately perform the skill + error become less frequent - Skill should be practiced in a variety of situations, becoming more open by increasing the complexity of practice - Accuracy + consistency are increased where feedback is still very important (extrinsic from coach + intrinsic from developing kinesthetic sense). More reliance is put on knowledge of performance (KP) than previously - Athlete can minimally use concurrent feedback - Autonomous Stage - When athlete gains automatic performance of a skill. The athlete has largely gained control over the skill, so therefore can direct attention towards other factors such as strategies + tactics e.g. in a netball game the players have gained automatic passing and think about who to pass the ball to, not how to pass the ball. - Feedback is predominantly concurrent + intrinsic with KP being essential. - Correction of errors is made by athletes during execution of skill because of their developed kinesthetic sense. • Characteristics of the Learner e.g. personality, heredity, confidence, prior experience + ability - Heredity Muscle fibre Composition: the proportion of red and white muscle fibres inherited determines weather your better suited to explosive or endurance type events. A higher % of fast twitch fibres à better suited to explosive events like sprinting, shot-put, long-jump etc. A higher % of slow-twitch muscle fibres would be better suited to endurance events like marathons and triathlons. Gender: females and males have biological differences that influence performance. During adolescence males develop more muscle tissue as females develop more body fat, therefore males have advantage in strength/power events. While females are generally more flexible + have advantage in events involving flexibility. Somatotype: or body type. Ectomorphy (linearity), mesomorphy (muscularity) and endomorphy (roundness). To a degree we tend to play sports which suit our somatotype e.g. taller members of B-Ball team would be given the forward position/ or muscular boys would be used as forwards in NRL. Research has suggested that these body shapes can influence the impact of training + ability to perform skills. - Personality Personality refers to an individual’s characteristic way of behaving. The traits (willingness to learn, enthusiasm, dedication, motivation, reliability etc) that make up someone’s personality and ability to learn and implement a new skill are vital to the speed of acquisition of a skill. There traits will either facilitate the learning process or it can hinder it. The traits that can facilitate performance are determination, focus and positive attitude. - Confidence Confidence is a firm belief in ones own ability. Confidence is critical in skill acquisition. Confidence comes from experiencing success in learning situations. Successive failures may destroy confidence. Unless presented as positive learning opportunities i.e. to learn from mistakes - Prior Experience If someone had earlier learned a movement similar to one they are learning or have previously been taught, they have potential to accelerate the learning process (known as the transfer of learning). Someone with no prior experience would take longer to learn the skill.

- Ability Ability is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine. Ability is the way in which an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills. It incorporates a range of features such as acuity, perception, reaction time and intelligence, which combines to allow the individual to do what is intended. Someone’s ability determines how learning process can either be accelerated or not, and how effectively the skill is executed. • The Learning Environment - Nature of the Skill (open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self paced, externally paced) Open Skill: occur in a changing, unpredictable environment. The pace/speed which we perform open skills is determined by factors outside ourselves e.g. weather, player affected surfaces + tactics in team games (externally paced e.g. batsman facing a bowler or a surfer). Ultimately athletes executing open skills need to modify their techniques to adapt to the instability. Closed Skill: occurs in an environment that is unchanging and predictable .A closed skill much more conductive to learning because the learner isn’t distracted by other factors e.g. other players, weather. E.g. ten pin bowling is a closed skill because the environment (lane, pins, ball + weather) is the same every time the skill is executed. Some sports contain both closed + open e.g. in tennis serve in tennis is closed where receiving end of serve is open. Few skills fit perfectly into open or closed categories. Most can be placed on a continuum illustrating a progression form closed to open. Gross Motor Skill: refers to the control of large muscle groups, to successfully perform a skill e.g. running, swimming, talking in football. Fine Motor Skill: requires the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement e.g. darts, sewing Some fine skills in sports are à catching in cricket, serving in table tennis + putting in golf. Fine and Gross motor skills are also placed along a continuum as fine + gross skills rarely fit as single classification. Discrete Skill: are those which have a distinct beginning and end i.e. easy to see where skill begins and ends e.g. shooting a goal, t-ball, hitting a ball. Serial Skill: involve a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total skill e.g. number of discrete skills put together, place kick, gymnastics routine. Continuous skill: have no distinct beginning and end. Some skills are repetitive + may appear ongoing and unbroken within a particular period e.g. swimming, jogging, rowing, skiing + rock climbing. Self paced Skill: a skill where timing if the movement is controlled completely by athlete e.g. runnig, swimming, kayaking, serving in tennis, bowling in cricket etc. Externally Paced skill: skill where timing of movement is not under your control e.g. receiving serve in tennis, dancing, female gymnastics floor routine, defending in football. - Performance Elements Performance elements are essential to improve performance of athletes, especially in team sports such as AFL and NRL. They are the teaching/coaching strategies that emphasise the game centered approach. Performance elements aim to improve the knowledge, confidence + decision making skills necessary for success, because there’s no point being skilled if you can’t use the skills in game situations. There are two areas of performance elements that need to be focused on to improve performance: - Decision making - Strategical and Tactical Development Decision Making: is most effectively improved through having to make decisions in game-like situations. Decision making skills are developed through: - observing demonstrations + use of coaching boards + observing other players and their decisions +

movements - Questioning of athletes: highlighting options + players through real scenarios e.g. using objects as players on

coaching boards + athletes get asked “what would you do if this player did this?” - Whole-part-whole Approach: game strategy taught as whole to see overall plan, then players learn specific

roles e.g. walking through plays at game speed the done in game situation. - Variation: of strategies in rehearsal to cover a variety of situations e.g. changing defensive alignment +

innovative options

- Creativity of decision making: encouraged to identify with each problematic situation + solve as a group Strategic and Tactical Development: is the way we play, where we should be + what to do e.g. return ball with back-hand in tennis. Tactical awareness is the gaining of an advantage over an opponent e.g. ‘double-teaming’ in basketball. Strategic + tactical awareness is developed by the following principles: - Technical efficiency: players need skills to be executed correctly + consistently before they can focus on

strategies + tactics. - Understanding: of what is required. Need to understand the options, possible variations + what to do if things

don’t work out. - Skill execution: pressure must be applied when learning moves to foster the development of creative options.

Best enhanced through invasive/part invasive game play drills encouraging players to make decisions + create options.

- Practice Method (massed, distributed, whole, part)

Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages Best suited for Massed Massed practice involves pract-

icing a skill continuously, with- out any breaks until skill Is learned or the rest intervals being shorter then the practice intervals.

Get a lot more practice of skill If you have not much time or A deadline you can practice Quicker + faster if you have other Commitments When coach has to fit more train- ing session into a limited time Advantageous for motivated athletes, skill will be learned + improve quicker.

Boredom Repetitive Possible injury from repetitive use i.e. overuse injury athlete would get fatigued a lot quicker

Athletes who are highly motivated When performers cannot attend a number of training sessions When a coach has to fit more training sessions into a limited time If athlete has other commitments skills can be learned in their limited amount of time

Distributed (or spaced practice) involves a Broken practice session, with Intervals of rest or alternative Activities being longer then the Practice intervals.

Works effectively if done Frequently Reduces risk of injury Less boredom

Get less practice therefore the Skill will take longer to learn and Develop. Not as much practice as massed

Younger children who get bored easily Less motivated people and athletes who are unfit and get fatigued easily

Whole Involves teaching a skill in its Entirety or as a whole

Effective when skill/routine being Practiced is simple and can be Taught as a whole e.g. running, Pass in football etc. Effectively trained if skill is Continuous + has no natural Breaks e.g. kayaking/running

Might not spend enough time on The harder specific skills Athlete might learn better by Breaking up the skill into parts Has to be simple skill Whole method wont work Effectively is practicing a hard Skill such as a gymnastic routine

Skills that don’t involves many sub-skill/sub-routines Athletes that are doing skills that are continuous and have no natural breaks e.g. kayaking, running, passing in football

Part Involves breaking a complex skill Down into simpler sub-skills and Practicing each sub-skill Individually e.g. gymnastics Routine à teach each individual Skill in routine then put it together

Part method is advantageous when Skill being practices/learned is Complex or has naturally occurring Breaks e.g. gymnastics routine

Might not pick up the smooth flow Of the skill.

It is best suited for skills or athletes Practicing skills that require routines Such as dancing and Gymnastics

Whole Part whole method: is a combination of both the whole and part methods. It involves demonstrating + practicing the whole skill first, then breaking it down to analyse the problems with specific parts of the skill + finally practicing the whole skill again. Best used when performers have to develop a picture of the flow of the complete skill, with the skill being made up of a number of sub-routines that needs to be learned first. - Feedback (internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance) Feed back is any form of information an athlete gets about their performance. It is an essential component for optimal performance. It has 3 main functions: - allows athlete to make changes to performance by info bout errors - serves to reinforce skill learning - it can motivate an athlete Knowledge of Results (KR): feedback that refers to the outcome of a performance e.g. he scored 3 points, Ashley jumped 4.6 meters + Alicia missed the bulls-eye by 2cm Knowledge of Performance (KP): how the skill was executed i.e. the quality of the skill e.g. good body shape, Ben had an excellent follow through on that shot + Annabel had great hip flexion on that take-off.

A combination of both KR + KP is necessary for optimal learning to occur. Feedback needs to be concise + given prior to practice. Athlete in early stage of skill acquisition needs KR often. As athlete progresses (associative stage), coach provides KR less, encouraging athlete to become independent + self reliant as skill improves. KP is more difficult for coach to give + athletes to analyse. Videos + demonstrations excellent for providing KP. Athletes in later stages of acquisition (associative/autonomous), they need greater emphasis on KP + often these athletes can use kinesthetic sense to provide their own KP without coach. The timing of feedback is also important: Concurrent Feedback: occurs whilst the performance of skill is happening. Useful because it allows athlete to make changes during execution of the skill, increasing chances of successful outcome e.g. aerial skiing coaches whistle/shout when skier is to open out of somersaults/twists to land safely + used in gymnastics also. Internal concurrent feedback is relayed throughout the body by the Propioceptive mechanism (kinesthetic sense) of athletes e.g. the feedback a gymnast receives while balancing in a handstand. It is mostly intrinsic but can be extrinsic e.g. aerial skier. Delayed Feedback: occurs after the performance of skill has been completed. Can occur immediately after (e.g. referee signaling goal kick was successful or not) or any time after performance (e.g. coach showing video of game 5 days after game at training). External (extrinsic) Feedback: gained from stimuli outside the body e.g. coach, team-mate, crowd, judge etc. athletes in the early stages of acquisition heavily rely on external feedback as they have little idea of how a movement is supposed to feel like. As they improve + progress to higher stages of acquisition their Propioceptive feedback will become more important. Visual aids like videos + demonstrations are forms of external feedback. Internal (intrinsic) Feedback: is feedback experienced during execution of skill + is received from the body’s Propioceptive senses. Propioception relays information about how the movement feels (Propioceptive feedback). It helps us develop a kinesthetic sense or ‘feel’ for a movement + eventually to differentiate between skillful application + error e.g. feedback a gymnast receives while balancing in a handstand. • Assessment of Skill and Performance - Characteristics of skilled performer’s e.g. kinesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique Kinesthetic Sense: is an athlete’s ability to feel what their body is doing. An awareness of where the body is in space and what it is doing. A skilled performer will have a highly developed kinesthetic sense, especially alert to movement error + able to make modifications to skill during execution. Anticipation + timing: Athlete’s ability to perceive what may happen + organise their movements in response e.g. predict possible flight path, speed, and direction of ball in basketball. A skilled performer will have a high development of anticipation + timing. Consistency: skilled performers show much more consistency than unskilled performers. The skilled performer is able to execute the desired movement repeatedly e.g. gymnast consistently completing double back landing safely on their feet. Technique: is a practical method applied to a particular task e.g. the task is to perform a back-sommie, good techniques have been established where gymnasts learn to carry out the technique effectively i.e. pull-up first to get height, then tuck knees in to rotate. - Objective and Subjective performance measures The measurement of skill and performances can either be subjective or objective. We often measure our success weather it be in terms of a score, a time or win/lose. Objective Measure: is less open to personal interpretation. An objective measure uses instruments like measuring tapes, stop-watches increasing the degree of objectivity e.g. he won the race in 10.03 seconds. Objective skill measurement is the preferred option as it isn’t influenced by factors such as personal preference or politics found in many sports. Subjective Measure: comes from a person’s opinion of how well a skill was performed e.g. a parent commenting “great pass” or a judge rewarding a gymnast a 8.9 out of 10 for a routine. Subjective measure is made as objective as possible so personal feeling, politics + opinions don’t interfere with the outcome of the measure. Subjective measurements are made more objective by: checklists, measurement systems, established criteria (e.g. rules indicating how a skill is to be assessed) and rating scales (e.g. degree of difficulty sheet that rewards more marks for skills difficult to perform).

Activity Objective Measurement Subjective Measurement Gymnastics Gymnast scored 7.0 on floor Routine lacked creativity

- Validity and Reliability of tests For any skill related test to be credible it must be both valid and reliable. Validity: is the that a test should measure what it is designed to test/measure e.g. a stop-watch measures time + its no use to perform a maximum chin-up test if you want to measure cardio-vascular endurance. Establishing validity is about determining the strength of a relationship between a component of health (e.g. strength) + a test designed to assess that component (handgrip-dynamometer test). Reliability: refers to the degree of consistency of a test, a credible test should be able to be repeated in similar conditions with consistent results e.g. the 50 meter sprint test, is a reliable test of speed if the same tester repeats the same test on the same athlete under the same conditions + gets consistent results. - Personal versus Prescribed judging criteria Prescribed Judging Criteria: is established by an organisation or body of sport + form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport/activity e.g. Gymnastics Australia have clearly set routines with directions on deductions for faults in execution. A child performing a level 2 floor routine in a NSW club, should get the same score from any judge in Australia, as they all use the prescribed judging criteria set by GA. Prescribed judging criteria makes the judging of subjective sports like dancing + gymnastics more objective by giving it prescribed criteria which converts the appraisal into meaningful measurements such as a score. Personal Judging Criteria: is the pre-conceived ideas and expectations that an individual brings to appraisal. This type of criteria is used frequently by people selecting teams for e.g. next week’s soccer game. It is about feelings and personal interpretation + appreciation. Very subjective + spectators commonly use it evaluating a dance performance and movies because there assessments are based on feelings + impressions rather then prescribed criteria. Total reliance on personal criteria is more suited to appreciation of performances rather then the impartial judgment of a performance. For Example – Gymnastics A gymnastics judge has task of detecting errors + allocating a ‘deduction’ for each fault. The criteria is prescribed - there is little interpretation required by judges. A gymnastic judge needs to know + identify: - Skills the gymnast performs + how well they were executed - Qualities required for an ideal execution of a routine.