world bank documentdocuments.worldbank.org/curated/en/479851468182957759/...the nature of project...

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SECTORAL LIBRARYINTERNATIONAL BANK

RECONSTRUCllON AND DEVELOPMENT

FEB j;z YBb

Agro-Industry ProfilesOIL PALM

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PROFILES IN THIS SERIES:

OILCROPS - OVERVIEW ........... FAU-01

OIL SEEDS ................... . FAU-02

OIL PALM. ......... . .. . . . . ... e. FAU-03

COCONUT ee............. . . ......... FAU-04

SUGARe...........................e. FAU-05

ETHANOLe.....e....................... FAU-06

WHEAT. . .. . .e... . . . . ....... FAU-07

RICE ..e.e............e.....e.e..FAU-08

CORN .. oe.......o................FAU-09-

CASSAVA . . ......... ... . . .e..ee. FAU-10

ANIMAL FEEDS...... ........ .. ..... FAU-11

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ....... . FAU-12

RUBBERo..e........ ........... e..... FAU-13

COFFEE. . .. . . ............. o...e. FAU-14

TEA ............................FAU-15

COCOA....... . . . . ............ e. FAU-16

COTTON. .......... . . . . ....... e . FAU-17

MEAT ND e......e..........e....FAU-18

SPICES AND ESSENTIAL OILS ................. FAU-19

ABSTRACT

The objective of this Profile is to provide a technical review ofthe oil palm processing industry. It explores the industry fromraw material varieties and planting characteristics to millingand refining, and marketing aspects. It contains specificationson oil extraction efficiencies, yields and fruit composition, aglossary defining key words, and indicates useful references. Ittraces the milling process including harvesting and handling,sterilization, stripping, digestion, oil extraction,clarification and filtration, storage and distribution, andeffluent disposal. Palm kernel processing is covered, addressingnut recovery, nut drying and cracking, shell and kernelseparation, drying and bagging, and oil extraction. Refining isalso covered, with an emphasis on fractionation andhydrogenation, and marketing aspects, including utilization,substitution and quality control are addressed. Other factorssuch as location of mill and mill capacity are touched upon, withinvestment and operating costs examples presented in an Annex.

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FOREWORD

The nature of project and sector work in the World Bank is suchthat staff are often called upon to work outside their majorfields of specialization, if only to make an initial judgement onthe utility of further, often costly, investigation. Under thesecircumstances, up-to-date and authoritative reference material isessential.

The profiles in this series are designed for use by operationalstaff with experience in the agricultural sector but who do nothave a technical knowledge of the particular commodity underdiscussion. Their purpose is not to substitute for technicalexpertise but to provide a reliable inhouse reference which willhelp Bank staff to determine when and what expertise is needed inthe detailed evaluation of investment proposals in agro-processing.

The conditions for any particular proposal are bound to be uniquein a number of respects, and the use of norms and general data inproject analyses could give rise to significant errors. On theother hand, by providing responsible staff with a guide to theissues on which appropriate expertise should be sought, theseprofiles can contribute to the overall quality of agro processing

* investment. Used with care, they should also facilitate broadpre-screening such as may occur during sector work andreconnaissance.

Questions, comments and further inquiries should be addressed to:

Agro-Industries AdviserFinance and Agro Industry UnitAgriculture and Rural Development Department

The contribution of Harrisons Fleming Advisory Services, Ltd. inthe review of this profile is gratefully acknowledged.

September 1985

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Oil Palm

CONTENTS

DATA SHEET .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .i. 0. . .

INTRODUCTION ...... s ****............se ....... 1

GLOSSARY .............

RAW MiATERIALS ....... ....... 3

MILLING.***.* ........

PALM KERNELS PROCESSING .......... 9es.......... 4-9

REFINING .. . . . . .... . . . . . . .. l0 . . .1

MARKETING ASPECTS............ 1 .......... 4

OTHER FACTORS ............ ....... Ge........... .17

BIBLIOGRAPHY...G........ e................ ..... 18

ANNEX I EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS

ANNEX II CONVERSION TABLES (METRIC/US)

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Oil Palm

DATA SHEET

Typical Mature Fruit Composition

Portion Share of FFB weiQht4

Dura Mesocarp 60-65%Shell 25%Kernel 1.3-4.5%

Tenera Mesocarp 75-80%Shell 17%Kernel 1.3-4.5%

Indicative Mesocarp 50%Oil Content Kernel 46-57%

Total FFB 22-24%

Extraction Rates 19-22%

Extraction Efficiency

* The percentage of total palm oil extracted from FFB by differenttechniques is:

Traditional systems: Hard Oil' 20-30%'Soft Oil' 40-45%

Intermediate systems: Hand Press 70%Hydraulic 90%

Modern Systems Screw or Hydraulic up to 98%

Yield

Average yields of palm oil range as follows:

6.0 tons oil per hectare (fully mature plantations, Malaysia).1.2 tons oil per hectare (plantations, West Africa)300 kg oil per hectare (wild and semi-wild, West Africa)

(FFB: Fresh Fruit Bunch)

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Mill Capacity

Common size: 30 tons FFB per hour initial capacity, expanding to60 tons per hour as plantation matures.

Mill should be able to process a peak monthly production of 12.5%of projected annual FFB production. (25 days @ 20 hrs/day).

Collection radius should not exceed 60 km.

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INTRODUCTION

Oil palm fruits are large very compact bunches of fruitlets whichcan average around 20 kgs in weight. Palm oil is obtained from thefleshy pericarp of the fruitlets. Palm kernels are recovered bycracking the nuts inside the fruitlets. Kernels are subsequentlycrushed to give palm kernel oil and palm kernel cake. Bunch wasteand kernel shells provide fuel for mill boilers. Palm oil and palmkernel oil are distinct products, the latter being a lauric oilvery similar to coconut oil.

The basic milling process is the extraction of oil from the fruitand the kernels. The crude oils can then be refined to improvetheir quality by removing any impurities (colour, flavour, andmoisture) and reducing their free fatty acid (FFA) content. Lossesof edible oil during refining are approximately 1.5 times the FFAcontent, hence the importence of minimizing FFA at earlier stages.Hydrogenation and fractionation of the refined oils enlarge theirrange of end uses. Processing to the crude oil stage is usuallyperformed on or near the estate, while the economies of scale amongother factors result in most refining being done at a separatelocation.

A key text which provides more detail on aspects of oil palmproducts and their processing is:

Cornelius, J A. (1983) Processing of Oil Palm Fruit and itsProducts. London : Tropical Products Institute. Report No. G149.

For detailed investment information the forthcoming Industry Guide:Palm Oil, by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), isrecommended.

GLOSSARY

Clarification Post-extraction separation of water and othercontaminants from crude oil.

Digestion Preliminary pressing of fruit before oilextraction.

Extraction Oil recovery from the mash, usually bypressure.

FFA Free fatty acids.

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FFB Fresh fruit bunch.

Fractionation Separation of crude or refined oil intosolid and liquid fractions.

Olein Liquid fraction from fractionation.

Stearine Solid fraction from fractionation.

Sterilization Boiling or heating of fresh fruit, firststage in milling.

Stripping Separation of fruitlets from stalks beforedigestion.

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RAW MATERIALS

Introduction

The oil palm (Elaeis quineensis) is grown throughout the humidtropics of West and Central Africa, the Far East, and Central andSouth America. Oil is obtained from both the fleshy mesocarp ofthe fruit and the central kernel. The oil palm produces bunchesof fruit referred to as fresh fruit bunches (FFB). The fleshypulp or mesocarp of the fruitlet contains approximately 50% palmoil by weight and the kernel between 46 and 57% palm kernel oil.

Oil palms are classified into three main forms on the basis oftheir internal characteristics: dura have fruits which contain athick shell between the mesocarp and the kernel. Depending onwhether the fruit is of African or Asian origin, the mesocarpwill comprise 46 to 65%, and the shell 25 to 35% of the fruit.The African varieties tend to have less mesocarp; pisifera havefruits which contain no shell; tenera is a cross between theother forms. Good commercial tenera fruit will contain 75-80%mesocarp and about 17% shell. Mixing dura and tenera in millingoperations results in reduced extraction efficiency because ofthe different size and composition of the fruitlets. If mixingis necessary because of plantation composition, no more than15-20% of the minority type should be present.

Selection and breeding programs aim for high mesocarp content andreduced shell weight. Practically all palms planted commerciallyin the world today are grown from tenera seed produced by acarefully controlled system of selection and hand pollinationwith dura as the female parent and pisifera as the male. Theratio of oil to bunch in mature commercial teneras is about22-24%. Sustained extraction rates of 19-22% can be achievedunder conditions of good management and equipment. Immaturepalms bear smaller fruit which contains as little as 12% oil.

Oil palm clones are now being produced from elite teneras withgreater oil content, but some time will elapse before clones havebeen proven, and made available for large scale planting.

Wild oil palms start to fruit after 10 years and do not reachfull production until 20 years. Cultivated hybrids begin to fruitaround their fourth year, reaching their peak after 8 to 10years. There are considerable variations in fruit, oil and kernelyields dependent mainly on climatic factors. Soil, variety, ageof tree and harvest time are also significant. In Malaysia

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yields can average about six tons of oil per hectare in maturestands. The norm on West African plantations is nearer 1.2 tonsper hectare. Yields from the semi wild groves are much lower,and harvesting from these groves is declining steadily.

The oil content in the fruit increases rapidly and synthesiscontinues to take place in individual fruitlets until they detachfrom the bunch. Oil palms yield throughout the year but there issignificant seasonal variation caused by climatic factors.Normal monthly yields fluctuate as a percentage of the annualtotal between peaks of 12.5% and troughs of 6.0%. Monthly peaksof up to 20% of annual production are experienced in some Africancountries. Milling capacity has to be adequate to process peakharvests without delays.

Ouality Control

The object of all activities before sterilization is to minimizeFFA formation by minimizing damage to the fruit. Ripe unbruisedfruit contain around 1% FFA when harvested. In bruised ordamaged fruit, FFA can rise to between 4.0 and 6.0% within anhour of harvesting. Undamaged fruit will reach about 5% FFA intwo days after harvesting. The current standard in most marketspermits up to 5% of FFA, for which processing must take placewithin 24 hours and damaged fruit must have been removed.Premiums are paid for lower levels of FFA, and levels of 3% orless are common in efficient operations.

In order to inactivate the enzymes which cause FFA formation, itis critical that fruit be sterilized as soon after harvest aspossible. Bruising and damage to the fruit during transport tothe mill should be minimized, and rotten or damaged fruit shouldnot be processed. Storage of fresh fruit is virtually impossibledue to the high rate of FFA buildup; it must be processed as soonas possible and at latest within 24 hours of harvesting.

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MILLING

The object of milling is to extract palm oil and palm kernels fromthe fresh fruit bunches.

Milling Systems

The oil produced by the traditional methods still common in WestAfrica is of poor quality, high in free fatty acids, and isclassified as 'hard' or 'soft'. In both cases, shells are crackedand the kernels separated from the shells by hand. Production ofhard oil involves fermentation of the fruitlets in pits or varioussurface containers, followed by treading and separation of the oil.This is the least efficient extraction system (only 20-30% of theoil is extracted), and produces oil with FFA content between 30 and50%. Soft oil is produced by pounding boiled and quarteredfruitslets. Forty to 45% of the oil can be extracted and the FFAcontent is often between 7 and 12%.

An interim stage of processing between traditional and modernsystems involves use of hand-operated or small hydraulic presseswhich result in extraction rates of 70-90%.

* In modern oil mills the major operations involved are: harvestingand collection, sterilization, stripping, digesting, oilextraction, oil clarification, oil filtration, storage anddistribution. The modern hydraulic and continuous screw pressesextract up to 98% of the oil depending on the variety andprocessing conditions. Flowchart 1 provides an overview of theprocessing operations.

Harvesting and Collection

The oil content of the fruitlets increases rapidly in the latestages of development, actuallly tripling as a percent of dryweight in the last week before loosening and falling to the ground.There is a time lag of 16-20 days between the loosening of thefirst and the last fruitlets in a bunch. Harvesting at the propertime is therefore critical to the entire enterprise. The ripenessof a FFB is considered optimal when there are two fruitlets on theground per kilo of estimated bunch weight, but a compromise withharvesting frequency must be achieved. While this varies to someextent, it is common to harvest every 7-10 days and to cut buncheswhich have a minimum of 10-12 fruitlets on the ground beneath them.

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Fresh Fruit Bunches

Treated PotashEffluent j j

Effluent Sterilization IncineratorTreatment _ t

Stripping PunchWaste

Digestion mlulch

Clarificationh Extraction

Filtration Kernel FibreRecovery Dryer

Oil Storage Drying

------_ --- (Estate) Cracking

(Other):

Shell/Kernel aShellRefining ' Separation

Kernel Bie r-.Drying

BaggingL I

Extraction

Kernel cakeOil

Flowchart 1: Oil Palm Processing - Overview

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Bunches are cut by hand and carried to accessable collection pointsthroughout the plantation. To minimize handling, the vehicle thatcollects FFB from these points should deliver them to the mill. Acollection radius of 60 km is normally considered the limit for amill.

Sterilization

It is essential that sterilization of the fruit occur as soon afterharvesting as possible. Excessive delays will result in fungalgrowth, especially on damaged or bruised fruit, causing rapidquality deterioration.

Sterilizing, normally by injection of superheated steam into apressure chamber containing a charge of FFB, also inactivatesenzymes and other substances responsible for FFA buildup, andsoftens or loosens the fruit for subsequent operations. Thetemperature and duration of sterilization is important as too longor too high a temperature can cause excessive kernel browning andimpaired bleachability. Although the appropriate sterilizationtime depends on the size of the bunches and their degree ofripeness, fifty minutes at about 135 degrees C is common practice.

O Stripping

Stripping or threshing the sterilized bunches separates the fruitand the calyx leaves from the stalks and should be accomplishedwithin two hours after sterilization. Two types of stripper areemployed in modern mills: the beater-arm type, and the rotary drumtype. Beater-arm strippers are more suitable for small mills withcapacities of up to 5 tons of bunches per hour. Rotary drumstrippers can handle up to 20 tons of bunches per hour andgenerally run more efficiently and smoothly than beater-arm types.Losses of fruit during stripping should not be more than 4 - 6%.

Digestion

Digestion of the fruit is a preliminary pressing before extractionin which slowly rotating beater arms (30 rpm) rupture theoil-bearing cells, producing a 'mash' of mesocarp and nuts. Theideal temperature for this process is 95 degrees C.

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Oil Extraction

Using either screw, hydraulic, or centrifugal presses, oil isextracted from the mash. Centrifugal presses are inefficient andmodern mills use hydraulic or screw presses. The advantages ofscrew presses include higher throughput, lower capital outlay perton of throughput, lower power consumption, lower labourrequirements, and greater flexibility. Disadvantages of the screwpress include higher kernel breakage, more costly and difficultclarification, and in some cases, higher maintenance costs.

Major factors dictating extraction rates and efficiency are thepressure applied, the temperatures maintained, the duration of thepressing, and the ratio of fibres to kernels.

Solvent extraction has been tried on a pilot scale but technicalproblems remain and a viable process has not yet been developed.

Oil Purification

The crude oil from pressing contains quantities of water andnon-oily solids which must be removed. On a small scale this can beachieved by passing the oil through hot water (90-95 degrees C).The dirt tends to fall to the bottom of the tank, and the clear oilis drawn off as it rises. Modern systems use the same principles.Initially the oil is led over a screen to remove the major part ofthe fibre and other solids. Hot water is added to the sludge(comprising oil, dirt and moisture) to reduce its viscosity and aidseparation. Centrifuges may be used for the separation, but theircosts are high. Large amounts of effluent are generated duringclarification.

After clarification the oil still contains about 0.5% water andsignificant quantities of sludge and other impurities which causeoxidation and quality deterioration. High speed centrifuging orpurification reduces the water content to about 0.25% and the dirtcontent to about 0.005 to 0.013% To stabilize the FFA content ofthe oil, the moisture content has to be further reduced to between0.15 and 0.2% One way in which the oil is 'dried' is by means of acascade dryer where the oil passes over a series of horizontalsteam pipes arranged in a vertical stack. A vacuum dryer whichallows the oil to be dried at lower temperatures with little or noexposure to air and subsequent oxidation is to be preferred.

Filtration is necessary to remove small particles of suspendedmatter retained in the oil after clarification. It can be carried

out either in a filter press or in an oil centrifuge simultaneouslywith drying.

Storage and Distribution

Palm oil requires careful handling if quality deterioration is tobe avoided. It is especially important to keep oxidation as low aspossible, since the peroxides formed during oxidation decompose andcause rancidity. Iron or copper traces also affect quality.Therefore oil is normally kept in stainless steel or lined tanks.To be pumped efficently, oil must be heated to 45-50 degrees C, butperoxide formation at these temperatures is very rapid on exposureto air so transfer systems must be air tight. It is generallyaccepted that combined mill and bulk storage capacity should not beless than 30% of annual production so that oil can be kept duringslack trading periods.

Effluent Disposal

Palm oil milling generates substantial amounts of waste, mainlysludge and sterilizer condensates. For each ton of finished oilproduced there are 3 tons of liquid effluent. Milling 20 tons ofbunches per hour for 24 hours will produce about 300 tons ofeffluent, which although non-toxic has a high biological oxygendemand (BOD) that damages water quality.

Although it is technically feasible to use this effleunt inirrigation and in fertilizer, animal feed or biogas production,these applications are not commercially viable. Anaerobic oraerobic settling ponds are commonly installed adjacent to the mill,and when properly managed render the effluent harmless to thenatural waterways into which it is subsequently drained.

PALM KERNELS PROCESSING

Introduction

Apart from palm oil, the main product from oil palm fruit is thekernel. Oil is extracted from the kernel by crushing and theremaining cake is used for animal feed.

Pressing the 'mash' of oil palm fruit coming from the digesterproduces crude palm oil and a 'matte' of nuts and fibre. Extraction

9

of the kernels involves separation of the nuts from the fibre, nutdrying and cracking, shell and kernel separation, and drying andbagging of kernels.

Nut Separation

Although hydrolic and mechanical separation have been used in thepast to separate the nuts and fiber, modern mills use pneumaticsystems. Problems at this stage relate to variations in nut size(dura/tenera) and to cracked nuts and free kernels in the mash.

Nut Drying and Cracking

Clean nuts require drying before being graded and cracked, theobject being to shrink the kernels within their shells tofacilitate cracking. Drying is particularly important for smallernuts such as those from tenera varieties which are harder to crack.Careful control is important as overheating or prolonged dryingdiscolours or breaks the kernels.

Shell and Kernel Separation

Separation of the heavier shells from the kernels is accomplishedeither by clay baths or hydrocyclone units. The shells can then beused for boiler fuel or road surfacing.

Drying and Bagging

Kernels are dried to a moisture content of 6-7.5%. Since kernelvolumes are relatively small in milling operations, shipments arealso small and bulk handling is usually not feasible. Kernels arebagged for storage and shipment.

Oil Extraction

Although palm kernel oil can be extracted by primitive methods on avery small scale for local use, the bulk of the oil is produced byconventional mechanical or solvent processes. For details on theseprocesses see the appropriate sections of the oilseed profile. Inaddition to oil, a press cake is produced which contains 18 to 19%protein and can be used in animal feeds.

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REFINING

Introduction

Although used directly as food in some parts of the world, crudepalm oil needs further processing for use in margarine,shortenings and other more sophisticated edible uses.

Methods of refining and further processing of palm oil and palmkernel oil are broadly similar and include purification of theoil, and fractionation into liquid and solid components. Inaddition, depending on final uses the oils may be hydrogenated.Figure 1 on the following page is an overview of the uses of palmoil and shows the products from each of the processes.

The quality of the crude oil is critical to the refiningprocesses. In addition to FFA content, contamination by waterand dirt, and oxidation levels are important.

Processes

The basic steps comprise neutralization of the FFA, bleaching toremove carotenoid pigments, and deodourization to remove volatileodours and flavours. In addition, a degumming step is sometimescarried out in order to remove phosphatide materials. Refiningmay be by batch, continuous or semi-continuous processes(Cornelius, 1983).

The purpose of refining is to convert crude oil into a bland,neutral, colourless, odourless product that can be converted todesired consumer goods. During refining care should be taken toprevent damage to tocopherols present in the oil which protectthe oil from oxidation.

There are basically two methods for refining: alkali refining andphysical refining. The difference between the systems is at theneutralization step. With physical (or steam) refining the FFAare removed by steam distillation rather than by the addition ofalkali.

Most palm oil refineries use alkali refining. However, recentdevelopments in environmental legislation have renewed interestin physical refining which recovers the FFA in the distillatewithout the environmental problems associated with disposal ofthe soapstock residue of alkali refining. Oil losses are also

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Figure 1: Uses of Palm Oil

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AaacDrea from Pasm Oil ut,ilzat,oon Charroy Palm 0,1 Researcr i,rswaure ot Malaysia

12

reduced with physical refining. However, up to 50% of thetocopherols are also removed in distillation and the refinedproduct is more subject to oxidation than products of alkalirefining.

Capital costs, refining patterns, cost of utilities and overalllosses from crude to edible stage must be taken into account whencomparing the different processes. However, when crude oilquality is good, throughput is sufficient, caustic soda has to beimported or the soapstock creates an effluent problem, then steamrefining may be the appropriate choice (Cornelius, 1983).

A particular problem with palm oil is its color. The oilcontains carotenoid pigments which give it a dark orange colorand make bleaching difficult. To achieve the lightest color,vacuum dried bleaching earth is added to the oil at 75 degrees C.The temperature is raised to 100 degrees as the mixture isagitated and kept under vacuum. After 15 minutes at thattemperature, the oil is filtered before being pumped to acontinuous deodorizer. Deodorization by steam distillation takesapproximately 2 hours at 230 degrees C. The oil is then cooledto 55 degrees and passed through a final filter to give thefiltered oil its sparkle.

. Fractionation

Fractionation is the controlled cooling or winterization of crudeor refined oils into liquid (olein) and solid (stearine)fractions. The former is then used in cooking and salad oils,the latter in margarine and shortening.

Three main processes are in use: dry, detergent and solventfractionation. Dry fractionation or winterization is a simplecooling which produces 65% olein and 35% stearine. In thedetergent fractionation process, the oil is cooled and mixed withan aqueous solution of detergent and magnesium sulphate. Themixture is separated by centrifuging producing 70% olein and 30%stearine. Solvent fractionation is achieved by continuouscrystallization in a solvent, often hexane, followed by coolingand separation into 70-75% olein and 25-30% stearine.

* - Double fractionation, a second separation from the first oleinfraction, is also possible.

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*Hydrogengation

The high melting point of palm oil permits its utilization inmargarine formulation without hydrogenation. Fractionationenables the preparation of fat with still higher melting points.However, hydrogenation may still be of interest for some palm oilmarkets, for example as a substitute for vanaspati in South Asia,and it has the advantage of also destroying the carotenoidpigments.

MARKETING ASPECTS

PALM OIL

Utilization

Palm oil is composed of approximately 50% saturated fatty acids,primarily palmitic and 50% unsaturated acids, primarily oleic andlinoleic. As a result, it-tends to be semi-liquid at roomtemperature. Crude oil is an important part of the diet in someareas of West Africa, but the majority of commercially producedoil is fractionated. The liquid fraction (olein) is used in theproduction of cooking oils in which it substitutes for seed oils.The solid fraction (stearine) is used for margarine andshortening production in the manufacture of soap.

Market Substitution

Palm oil competes directly with soybean, sunflowerseed, rapeseedand marine oils and its use depends more on its cost andavailability relative to other oils, than on its specificattributes. Other determinants of its use include reliability ofsupply and the supplier's adherence to quality standards. Inpractice, palm oil is generally strongly competitive because ofits high production per hectare (up to 2 tons refined oil), andbecause the oil palm bears fruit throughout the year with aconsequent continuous availability from established suppliers.

Quality Control

Crude palm oil has to meet the particular requirements andspecifications of various processors. The specification used byone large food manufacturer for palm oil is as follows: a clear,

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bland, pale-yellow oil obtained from the outer flesh of the palmfruit, refined, double-bleached and deodourized (Berger, 1977).

Criteria for measuring quality are free fatty acid (FFA) content,level of contamination, bleachability and oxidation. Theserequirements are not entirely independent; high water and dirtcontents contribute to higher FFA, for example. In some areasthe quality requirements differ, for example local consumers insome parts of Africa prefer oil with FFA around 10 to 20%,whereas European and American standards typically require FFAbelow 3%.

Greatest formation of free fatty acids in the fruit is duringharvesting and transport before reaching the mill.

Quality deterioration can be minimized by reduction in damage andbruising of the fruit during transport to the mill, rapidsterilization, rapid oil extraction, good handling and storage.Poor bleachability is partly the result of oxidation frombruising or during processing and storage. In particular though,it results from blending, storage and transport of the crude oilin metal containers.

Palm oil, due to its comparatively high tocopherol content, isrelatively stable and resistant to rancidity. Loss oftocopherols and their anti-oxidation properties during refiningshould be minimized.

PALM KERNELS

Palm kernels produced during milling are usually bagged forfurther processing elsewhere in the country of origin oroverseas. In the past, much of the crushing was done in thedeveloped countries. In recent years the emphasis has shiftedand the major producer countries now crush most of their kernels.Exports of kernels are still made from sources where supplies arelimited and crushing uneconomic.

Palm kernel oil is a member of the lauric acids group, has a highproportion of saturated acids and normally has a FFA contentbetween 0.5 and 10% depending on kernel quality.

Utilization

Palm kernel oil is used primarily in soap and margarine

15

production and in confectionery and compound cooking fats. Therefined oil may undergo fractionation in order to obtain stearinefractions for use as substitutes for cocoa butter. The oleinfraction is used in baked goods, in hydrogenation and in soapmanufacture. Palm kernel cake, although relatively low inprotein content, is an ingredient of animal feeds.

Market Substitution

Palm kernel oil resembles coconut oil with which it isinterchangeable.

Quality Control

The quality of palm kernel oil and cake depend primarily on thequality of the kernels. Palm kernel oil should have low FFAcontent, light color and be easily bleached. Palm kernel cakeshould be light colored and its nutritive value should not beimpaired.

In crude form palm kernel oil becomes rancid rapidly, but oncerefined it keeps well.

The quality criteria for palm kernels, unlike most products, aredetermined by factors within the processing cycle. These.criteria are : FFA content, coloring, moisture content andproportion of broken kernels in the bag. Broken and moistkernels facilitate FFA formation and overheating can lead todiscoloration. Hand-cracked kernels from traditional processeswhich do not use high temperatures are of the highest quality.

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OTHER FACTORS

Location

Siting of the mill should include reference to the followingfactors:

- water supply in terms of quantity and quality;- proximity to raw materials;- proximity to palm oil shipment facilities;- space for factory building and ancillary buildings;- effluent disposal;- transport facilities, especially from field to mill;- accomodation and amenities for personnel.

Mill Capacity

At one time it was thought that the optimum plantation size forone factory was about 25,000 acres (10,000 hectares) (Little andTipping, 1972). While it is now generally recognized that thereare few economies of scale beyond a mill with an hourly capacityof 30 tons, it is still common to build mills with initialcapacity of 30 tons per hour, expandable to 60 tons per hour.0 Such a mill can accomodate the yields of about 9,000 per hectareat maturity. It is important in capacity and phasing aspects ofmill design to recognize the build-up of FFB yields from thefourth to the ninth year after planting, as well as the build-upin total deliveries as a result of different initial plantingtimes. The following table based on Malaysian data assumingannual yields of 11 tons Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) per acreprovides a rule-of-thumb method of assessing mill size inrelation to acreage. In this example a 30 ton mill would beloaded from plantings of abut 4,500 hectares (11,520 acres).

Mill hourly Peak MonthCapacity (528 hrs 12.5% Yield per Annum Acerage

per month) (tons FFB) (tons FFB)

10 5,280 42,240 3,84020 10,560 84,480 7,68030 15,840 126,720 11,52040 21,120 168,960 15,360

(Source: Abdullah, 1970)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Abdullah, E R. (1970) The Establishment and Operating Costsof a 40 ton per hour Palm Oil Mill in West Malaysia. CaseStudy - Chan Wing Palm Oil Mill.Review of Agricultural Economics (Malaysia), 4(2):11-21.

2. Ariffin Bin Mohd Nor & Maamunor, T. (1978) A ComparativeStudy of Investment in Rubber and Oil Palm in PeninsularMalaysia.Planter, 54(633) : 757-773.

3. Asian Development Bank. (1980) Appraisal of Palm OilProcessinQ and Smallholder Development Project in theRepublic of Indonesia.Manila : Asian Development Bank. Report No. INO:Ap-61.

4. Bek-Nielsen, D B. (1979) Production of Palm Oil in Relationto Quality.Planter, 55(642) :,452-466.

5. Bek-Nielsen, D B. (1977) Quality Preservation and Testing ofMalaysian Palm Oil from Fresh Fruit Bunches to the OilRefinery. IN : Earp, D A. & Newall, W. InternationalDevelopments in Palm Oil.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 159-168.

6. Bek-Nielsen, D B. & Krishnan, S. (1979) Refining of PalmOil.Planter, 55(645) : 809-822.

7. Berger, K G. (1979) Palm Oil - Quality in Relation to theEnd User.Planter, 55(645) : 847-856.

8. Berger, K G. (1977) Technical Requirements for MarketinaPalm Oil in the Food Industry. IN : Earp, D A. & Newall, W.International Developments in Palm Oil.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 435-454.

9. Blaak, G. (1979) A Village Palm Oil Mill.Oil Palm News, (23) : 5-11.

10. Cawkwell, B K. (1969) An Outline of Factory Processing ofOil Palm Fruit.Planter, 45(515) : 85-90.

* 18

11. Chan, K W. et al. (1981) Use of Oil Palm Waste Material forIncreased Production.Planter, 57(658) : 14-37.

12. Chin, A H G. (1979) Palm Oil Standards in Relation toMarketing and Refining Behaviour.Planter, 55(642) : 414-439.

13. Commonwealth Development Corporation. (1973) Contract for aPalm Oil Mill in Guadalcanal : Instructions to Tenderers.London : CDC. Contract No. SIPL/MILL/73.

14. Cornelius, J A. (1983) Processing of Oil Palm Fruit and itsProducts.London : Tropical Products Institute. Report No. G149.

15. Cornelius, J A. (1977) Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil.Prog. Chem. Fats other Lipids, 15 : 5-27.

16. Davis, J B. (1978) Palm Oil Mill Effluent : A Review ofMethods Proposed for its Treatment.Tropical Science, 20(4) : 233-261.

17. Davis, J B. & Reilly, P J A. (1980) Palm Oil Mill Effluent.Oleacineux, 35(6) : 323-330.

18. Fleming, T. (1969) Co-ordination of Harvesting, Transportand Processing of Oil Palm Crop. IN : Turner, P D.Progress in Oil Palm.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 302-310.

19. Hancock, R F. (1983) Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil in theWorld Fats and Oils Economy. IN : Pushparajah, E. &Rajadurai, M. Palm Oil Products Technoloqv in theEighties.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 3-18.

20. Hartley, C W S. (1977) The Oil Palm.London : Longmans.

21. International Finance Corporation (Forthcoming) IndustryGuide: Palm Oil.Washington : International Finance Corporation.

22. Jacobsberg, B. (1971) La Production d'une Huile de Palme deHaute Qualite.Oleagineux, 26(12) : 781-788.

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23. Johansson, C-. (1975) Quality of Palm Oil.Chemistry and Industry, (1 Nov) : 902-910.

24. Lanagan, K J. (1977) The Palm Oil Industry in WestMalaysia.Washington, DC : USDA, FAS. Report No. FAS M-276.

25. Landon, J W. (1975) Some Commercial Aspects of Palm Oil.Chemistry and Industry, (1 Nov) : 898-898.

26. Little, I M D. & Tipping, D G. (1972) A Social Cost BenefitAnalysis of the Kulai Oil Palm Estate, West Malavsia.Paris : OECD.

27. Lynam, J. (1972) West African Production and ExportProspects for Palm and Palm Kernel Oil to 1980.Washington, DC : USDA, FAS. Report No. FAS-M-248.

28. Madsen, K K. & Walker, J B R. (1982) Process Control in thePalm Oil Industry a New Approach.Planter, 58(670) : 14-19.

29. Maycock, J H. (1975) The Developments in Palm Oil FactoryDesign Since the Early 1900's.Planter, 51(593) : 335-354.

30. Moolayil, J. (1977) Uses of Palm Oil. IN : Earp, D A. &Newall, W. International Developments in Palm Oil.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 411-434.

31. Olie, J J. (1969a) The Active Development of ProcessTechnology in the Recovery of Palm Oil and Palm Kernels.OleaQineux, 24(5) . 293-299.

32. Olie, J J. (1969b) Total N.O.S., N.F.P.Q. and EfficiencyGuarantees.Oleagineux, 24(10) : 557-562.

33. Opeke, L K. (1982) Tropical Tree CroPs : Ch. 13 Oil Palm.Chichester, UK : Wiley : 251-274.

34. Pritchard, J L R. (1975) Refining of Palm Oil.Chemistry and Industry, (1 Nov) : 899-902.

35. Rao, S J. et al. (1982) Processing of Oil Palm Kernel.Journal of Plantation Crops, 10(1) : 39-44.

* 20

36. Ringkasan. (1982) Protection of Oils and Fats AgainstOxidative Deterioration with Special Reference to Palm Oil.PORIM Bulletin, (5) : 39-46.

37. Rowan, C M. & Ruths, D W. (1975) Palm Oil Steam Refining.Oleagineux, 30(10) : 423-428.

38. Rutkowski, A. (1983) Traditional Palm Oil Processing inWestern Africa.Fette Seifen Anstrichmittel, 85(7) : 262-267.

39. Sarawak Land Consolidation & Rehabilitation Authority. (1976)A Feasibility Study of Proposed Oil Palm Proiect inBau/Lundu Districts, Sarawak.Malaysia : SALCRA.

40. Tang, T S. et al. (1983) Importance of Crude Oil Quality andPretreatment in Physical Refining of Palm Oil Products. INPushparajah, E. & Rajadurai, M. Palm Oil ProductsTechnology in the Eighties.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 195-204.

41. Thiam, T B. (1977) Trade Prospects for Malaysian Palm Oil.IN : Earp, D A. & Newall, W. International Developmentsin Palm Oil.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 479-490.

42. Tjeng, T D. & Olie, J J. (1975) Why Solvent Extraction ofPalm Oil is not to be Recommended.Oleagineux, 30(12) : 523-528.

43. Turner, P D. (1969) The Quality and Marketing of Oil PalmProducts.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters.

44. UNIDO. (1974) Technical and Economic Aspects of the OilPalm Fruit Processing Industry.New York : UN. Report No. ID/123.

45. Webb, B H. et al. (1977) Palm Oil Mill Waste as Animal Feed- Processing and Utilization. IN : Earp, D A..& Newall, W.International Developments in Palm Oil.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 125-146.

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46. Wong, C Y. (1983) Survey of Malaysian Crude Palm Oil QualityDelivered to Refiners. IN : Pushparajah, E. & Rajadurai, M.Palm Oil Products Technology in the Eighties.Malaysia : Incorporated Society of Planters : 81-87.

47. Wood, B J. & Beattie, T E. (1981) Processing and Marketingof Palm Oil.Planter, 57(664) : 379-400.

48. Young, F V K. (1983) Deodorising/Physical Refining: CurrentPlant and Future Outlook. IN : Pushparajah, E. &Rajadurai, M. Palm Oil Products Technology in theEighties.Malaysia Incorporated Society of Planters 19-47.

* 22

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ANNEX I:

EXAMPLES OF INVESTMENT AND OPERATING COSTS

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0OIL PALMEXAMPLE 1

Page 1 of 3

Representative Investment and Operating Costs

OIL PALM MILL_____________

Establishment of a 70 ton/hour FFB oil palm factory.

COUNTRY: Indonesia (East Kalimantan)

NOTE: These data are intended as indicative only and are uniqueto the time, country and circumstance of the identifiedinvestment. Their applicability to other situations mayvary considerably.

Annual Full Development Production (tons):------------------------------------------

FFB 237000.00Oil (at 22%) 52140.00Kernels (at 4%) 9480.00

Capacity Utilization at Full Development: not available

-- US$ 'G00--Mid 1982 Prices

Total CostI. Investment Costs:____________________

Civil Workssoil tests, site preparation 60.61civil works including roads 1303.03

and drainsbuildings, foundations, floors 1287.88plant foundations 303.03

Sub-Total Civil Works 2954.55Engineering & Design 219.70

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OIL PALMEXAMPLE 1

Page 2 of 3



--US$ '000--Mid 1982 Prices

Total Cost

(Investment Costs, continued)Machinery & Mechanical/Electrical Works

FFB reception 378.79steriliser station 1538.46threshing station 1153.85pressing station 3076.92clarification station 2692.31kernel station 1538.46oil storage 409.09water, steam, power 3333.33workshop equipment 106.06laboratory equipment 45.45firefighting equipment 45.45miscellaneous 242.42

Sub-Total Machinery 14560.61Transport & Installation 3333.33

Total Investment Costs 21068.18

OIL PALMEXAMPLE 1

Page 3 of 3



--US$ '000--Mid 1982 Prices

Total Cost

II. Annual Full Development Operating Costs:

Variable Costsraw materials 28.98oil production costs 9.48

Sub-Total Variable Costs 38.47

Fixed Costsadministration 5.88depreciation 1.77

Sub-Total Fixed Costs 7.64

Total Operating Costs 46.11

DATA SOURCE: Adapted from World Bank report No. 4091-IND NucleusEstate and Smallholders VII Project, Project File,Staff Working Papers Nos. 3 and 4.

NOTES:Exchange rate - Rp 660 = US$ 1.00Details on foreign/local cost breakdowns are not presented in thereport.Data are net of contingencies.

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OIL PALMEXAMPLE 2

Page 1 of 3


PRODUCTION OF VEGETABLE OIL AND GHEE-_.----------------------------------

Establishment of a factory to refine palm oil into vegetableoil and ghee.

COUNTRY: Yemen Arab Republic (National Company for Vegetable Oiland Ghee, Hodeida Plant)

NOTE: These data are intended as indicative only and are unique tothe time, country and circumstance of the identified invest-ment. Their applicability to other situations may varyconsiderably.

Annual Full Development Production (tons):------------------------------------------

cooking oil 11970.00ghee 5130.00FFB 134.00

Capacity Utilization at Full Development: 95.00%

US $ '000March, 1984 Prices

Total CostI. Investment Costs:____________________

Land Acquisition 590.00Civil Works

main factory building 138.00boiler house/refrigeration 76.00packaging house/storehouse 658.00workshop 50.00foundations 169.00roads/fencing 74.00drainage works 32.00other 13.00

Sub-Total Civil Works 1210.00

OIL PALMEXAMPLE 2

Page 2 of 3



US $ '000March, 1984 Prices

Total Cost

Investment Costs (cont'd)_________________________

Equipment & Machineryrefining unit 608.00fractionation unit 409.00ghee blending 436.00packing equipment 1443.00boiler 126.00water supply equipment 438.00refrigeration/electrical equipment 449.00laboratory/workshop equipment 105.00miscellaneous 223.00steam distribution equipment 77.00other 149.00

Sub-Total Equipment & Machinery 4463.00Utility Connections 291.00Erection & Installation 760.00Testing & Commissioning 150.00Design & Engineering 182.00


OIL PALMEXAMPLE 2

Page 3 of 3

Representative Investment and Operating Costs---------------------------------------------


Us $ '000March, 1984 Prices

Total Cost

II. Annual Full Development Operating Costs:(excluding raw materials)

--------------------------------------------

Variable Costsraw materials 12038.19packaging containers 1492.80O other materials 187.08utilities 461.62fuel 261.81production labor 877.68

Sub-Total Variable Costs 15319.19

Fixed Costsmaintenance 127.12administration & overheads 101.48management staff 683.03

Sub-Total Fixed Costs 911.62


DATA SOURCE: Adapted from National Company for Vegetable Oil& Ghee Industries project proposal report of March,1984, submitted to the International Finance Corpor-ation. Data was adapted from Annexes 2 and 4.

NOTES:* Exchange rate - YR 5.42 = US$ 1.00

Full development is reached in four after project start-up.Details on foreign/local cost breakdowns are not presented in thereport. The only details presented are on foreign/local currencyfinancing plans.

Data are net of contingencies.

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0OIL PALMEXAMPLE 3

Page 1 of 3


OIL PALM MILL

Establishment of a 54 ton/hour capacity palm mill.

COUNTRY: Malaysia (Palong Timur Mill)

NOTE: These data are intended as indicative only and are uniqueto the time, country, and circumstance of the identifiedinvestment. Their applicability to other situations mayvary considerably.

Annual Full Development Production:-----------------------------------

142,560 tons of palm oil

* Capacity Utilization at Full Development: not available

US $ '0001984 pricesTotal Cost

I. Investment Costs:____________________

Civil Workssite preparation, earth works,

buildings, roads 1706.41water supply and treatment plant 310.26

Sub-Total Civil Works 2016.67Mechanical/Electrical Works

mechanical & electrical installation 2326.92bulk storage tank 206.84FFB loading ramp 258.55incinerator 155.13

Sub-Total Mechanical/Electrical Works 2947.44

.

OIL PALMEXAMPLE 3

Page 2 of 3




Investment Costs (cont'd)

Equipment & Machineryturbo alternator 118.93sterilizer door 77.56nutcracker 25.85diesel alternator 93.08deaerator -31.03oil purifier 93.08sludge seperator 222.35screw press 217.18weighbridge 72.39hoisting crane 51.71water softeners 20.68boilers 1070.38vacuum oil dryer 25.85

Sub-Total Equipment & Machinery 2120.09Effluent Treatment 310.26


OIL PALM* EXAMPLE 3

Page 3 of 3




II. AnnualFull Development Operating Costs:(excluding raw materials)

-------------------------------------

Variable Costsprocessingproduction labor 182.77maintenance 335.08fuel, chemicals, water 60.92

packing materials & labor 60.92Sub-Total Variable Costs 639.69

Fixed Costsoverheads

staff 60.92office & maintenance 91.38

depreciation 913.85Sub-Total Fixed Costs 1066.15


DATA SOURCE: Adapted from project preparation reports for WorldBank project 5324-MA, Malaysia Oil Palm MillProject.

NOTES:Exchange rate - Malaysian $ 2.34 = US $ 1.00 per the May, 1985IMF International Financial Statistics publication.Data are net of contingencies.Capacity utilization at full development is contingent upon thesupply of raw materials.Production based on 330 working days/annum.

0OIL PALMEXAMPLE 4

Page 1 of 3


OIL PALM MILL___________ _

Establishment of a 25 ton/hour capacity palm mill. The projectwas begun in 1979 with the installation of a 15 ton/hour plant.This was upgraded to 25 tons/hour in 1980.

COUNTRY: Ghana

NOTE: These data are intended as indicative only and are uniqueto the time, circumstances, and country of the identifiedinvestment. Their applicability to other situations mayvary considerably.

Annual Full Development Production:

105,000 tons ffb

Capacity Utilization at Full Development: not available

Us $ '0001979 pricesTotal Cost

I. Investment Costs - 1979:____________________

Civil Works 2226.50Factory Buildings 581.10Machinery & Equipment

fruit bunch reception 210.10sterilizing station 505.95threshing station 521.55pressing station 350.05clarification station 573.35kernel recovery plant 610.55service plant equipment 1840.70electrical plant equipment 359.95pipework & valves 288.60miscellaneous 238.20effluent disposal equipment 7.80

Sub-Total Machinery & Equipment 5506.80

Total Investment Costs - 1979 8314.40

OIL PALMEXAMPLE 4

Page 2 of 3


NOTE: These data are intended as indicative only and are uniqueto the time, circumstance, and country of the identifiedinvestment. Their applicability to other situations mayvary considerably.


Investment Costs - 1980:

Machinery & Equipmentsterilizing station 270.00threshing station 140.00pressing station 195.00clarification station 265.00kernel recovery plant 275.00service plant 610.00electrical plant 145.00pipework & valves 125.00miscellaneous 35.00

Total Investment Costs - 1980 2060.00

OIL PALMa EXAMPLE 4

Page 3 of 3


NOTE: These data are intended as indicative only and are uniqueto the time, circumstance, and country of the identifiedinvestment. Their applicability to other situations mayvary considerably.


II. Annual Full Development Operating Costs:(excluding raw materials)

--------------------------------------------

Variable + Fixed Costsproduction labor 70.83equipment 0 & M 902.83management salaries 75.46overheads 9.96


DATA SOURCE: Adapted from preparation and appraisal reportsfor World Bank project 3724-GH, Ghana Oil PalmDevelopment Project Phase II.

NOTES:Exchange rate - Ghanaian Cedi 35.00 = US $ 1.00Data are net of contingencies.Capacity utilization at full development is contingent uponsupply of raw materials.

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ANNEX II:

CONVERSION TABLES

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WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

avoirdupois

Ton: short ton 20 short hundredweight, 2000 pounds;0.907 metric tons;

long ton 20 long hundredweight, 2240 pounds;1.016 metric tons.

Hundredweight cwt;short hundredweight 100 pounds, 0.05 short tons; 45.359

kilograms;long hundred weight 112 pounds, 0.05 long tons; 50.802

kilograms.

Pound lb or lb av; also #;16 ounces, 7000 grains; 0.453 kilograms.

Ounce oz or oz av;16 drams, 437.5 grains; 28.349 grams.

Dram dr or dr av;27.343 grains, 0.0625 ounces; 1.771 grams.

Grain gr;0.036 drams, 0.002285 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

Troy

Pound lb t;12 ounces, 240 pennyweight, 5760 grains; 0.373kilograms.

Ounce oz t;20 pennyweight, 480 grains; 31.103 grams.

Pennyweight dwt also pwt;24 grains, 0.05 ounces; 1.555 grams.

Grain gr;* 0.042 pennyweight, 0.002083 ounces; 0.0648 grams.

.

METRIC SYSTEM

Square kilometer sq km or km2;1,000,000 square meters;0.3861 square mile.

Hectare ha;10,000 square meters;2.47 acres.

Hectoliter hl;100 liters; 3.53 cubic feet; 2.84 bushels;

Liter 1;1 liter; 61.02 cubic inches; 0.908 quart(dry); 1.057 quarts (liquid).

Deciliter dl;0.10 liters; 6.1 cubic inchs; 0.18 pint(dry); 0.21 pint (liquid).

Centiliter cl;0.01 liters; 0.6 cubic inch; 0.338fluidounce.

Metric ton MT or t;1,000,000 grams; 1.1 US tons.

Quintal q;100,000 grams; 220.46 US pounds.

Kilogram kg;1,000 grams; 2.2046 US pounds.

Gram g or gm;1 gram; 0.035 ounce.

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