pb1682 tennessee 4-h wildlife judging manual

PB1682

$8.00

4-H Wildlife TENNESSEE

Craig A. Harper, Associate Professor

TheUniversityofTennesseeExtension Forestry,WildlifeandFisheries

Judging Manual

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Acknowledgments

TheTennessee4-HWildlifeJudgingManual wasadaptedinformatfromtheWildlifeHabitatEvaluationProgramNationalManual,editedbyRonMasters,ChampeGreen,JimArmstrongandCharlesLee.

TheauthorisespeciallygratefultoThomasK.Hillforhisroleincoauthor-inganearlierversionofthismanual;toJimByford,ScottChadwell,RickyMathenia,ClintParker,GlennTurnerandRonBlairfortheirhelpinreview-ingapreviousmanuscript;andtoMaryJoHoldenforthemanyhoursspentpreparingthemanuscript,picturesandfiguresforpublication.

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Table of Contents

Introduction...............................................................................................................................................4

Wildlife Management Concepts...........................................................................................................7

Regions.....................................................................................................................................................19

Wildlife Species......................................................................................................................................�7

Wildlife Management Practices (WMP)............................................................................................56

Activities...................................................................................................................................................77

Activity.I.Identifying.Common.Wildlife.Foods...................................................................................79

Activity.II.Interpreting.Wildlife.Habitat.from.Aerial.Photographs......................................................85

Activity.III.Management.Recommendations.......................................................................................95

Activity.IV.Written.Rural.Wildlife.Management.Plan.........................................................................98

Activity.V.Written.Urban.Landscapes.and.Backyard.Habitat.Plans..................................................108

Scoring.the.Contest............................................................................................................................1�1

Glossary..............................................................................................................................................1��

Study.References................................................................................................................................1�6

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Introduction

T he.Tennessee.4-H.Wildlife.Judging.Contest.is.designed.to.teach.4-H.youth.about.the.fundamentals.of.wildlife.ecology.and.management..The.event.is.open.to.junior.(5th.and.6th.grades),.junior-high.(7th.and.8th.grades),.and.senior.(high.school).division.4-H.members..Junior.and.junior-high.

members.are.eligible.to.compete.only.at.region-level.events..Wildlife.and.fisheries.management.is.learned.through.participation.in.the.event.and.other.associated.programs..Additional.benefits.come.from.the.devel-opment.of.leadership.capabilities.and.meeting.other.young.people.and.professionals..

The.Tennessee.4-H.Wildlife.Judging.Contest,.the.first.of.its.kind,.was.started.in.1978.under.the.guidance.of.James.Byford,.wildlife.specialist,.and.Thomas.K..Hill,.fisheries.specialist,.at.the.University.of.Tennessee..Using.the.original.Tennessee Wildlife Judging Manual.as.a.model,.other.states.soon.began.similar.wildlife.judging.events..Interest.increased;.and.in.1987.and.1988,.a.Southern.Region.Invitational.Contest.was.con-ducted..The.first.national.event.was.held.in.1989.and.has.been.conducted.annually.ever.since.

In.this.program,.you.will.learn.that.wildlife.management.includes.managing.habitats.and.populations..The.information.in.this.handbook.provides.wildlife.habitat.management.concepts.in.both.urban.and.rural.settings,.which.will.prepare.you.for.judging.events..The.handbook.and.activities.are.focused.not.only.on.increasing.knowledge.about.wildlife.management,.but.also.in.developing.skills.for.applying.that.knowl-edge..The.contest.addresses.these.management.concepts.with.the.five.activities.listed.below..In.Tennessee,.region-level contests include only the first three activities; the state contest includes all five.

. 1.. Identifying.common.wildlife.foods

. �.. Interpreting.wildlife.habitat.from.aerial.photographs

. �.. Prescribing.wildlife.management.practices

. 4.. Developing.a.rural.wildlife.management.plan

. 5.. Developing.an.urban.landscape.or.backyard.habitat.plan

Before.making.recommendations.on.habitat.management,.you.must.know.all.possible.information.about.the.life.requirements.of.the.specific.animal(s).for.which.the.area.is.being.managed..The.Concepts,.Wildlife Species.and.Foods sections.of.this.handbook.provide.information.for.many.of.the.wildlife.species.found.in.Tennessee.

Wildlife.managers.must.be.able.to.inventory.and.evaluate.the.present.condition.of.the.habitat.and.explain.the.condition.to.landowners.and.other.interested.parties..The.aerial.photography.section.will.help.you.de-velop.an.understanding.of.this.inventory.and.evaluation.process.

Once.the.inventory.is.complete,.wildlife.managers.decide.which.management.practices.can.be.applied.to.improve.the.habitat.for.specified.wildlife.species..The.on-site.management.recommendation.activity.will.give.you.experience.with.this.decision-making.process.

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Finally,.so.that.others.can.clearly.understand.the.proposed.management.decisions,.a.wildlife.manager.must.explain.the.decisions.on.paper.and.locate.them.on.aerial.photos.or.some.other.type.of.map..The.rural.and.urban.management.plan.activities.give.you.an.opportunity.to.explain.and.illustrate.your.decisions.so.others.can.understand.and.carry.out.your.recommendations.

About the Handbook.

This.handbook.is.divided.into.the.following.major.sections:

. 1. Wildlife Management Concepts.introduces.basic.wildlife.management.principles..These.concepts.are.the.basis.for.the.remainder.of.the.handbook.

. �. Areas.of.the.United.States.can.be.separated.into.Regions.having.similar.climate.and.vegetation..Ten-nessee.is.in.the.Eastern.Deciduous.Forest.Region.but.also.contains.wetlands.and.urban.areas..There-fore,.information.regarding.these.three.regions.is.included.

. �. Wildlife Species.provides.information.about.habitat.requirements.and.practices.used.to.manage.habitat.for.the.various.species.in.the.Eastern.Deciduous.Forest,.Wetlands.and.Urban.Regions.

. 4. Wildlife Management Practices.(WMP).explains.the.management.practices.discussed.in.the.Wildlife Species.section.

. 5. The.fifth.section.includes.a.variety.of.Activities and.activity.scorecards.that.will.be.used.in.the.re-gional.and.state.contests.

Activity I Identifying Common Wildlife Foods involves.identifying.foods.used.by.wildlife.and.match-ing.those.foods.to.the.species.or.group.that.uses.them.

Activity II Interpreting Wildlife Habitat from Aerial Photographs.explains.how.to.evaluate.wildlife.habitat.using.aerial.photographs..Examples.of.how.to.rank.photographs.and.measure.interspersion.are.included.

. . Activity III Management Recommendations addresses.the.prescription.of.Wildlife Management Prac-tices and.gives.an.example.

. . Activity IV Written Rural Wildlife Management Plan.explains.how.a.management.plan.should.be.writ-ten,.incorporating.the.appropriate.Wildlife Management Practices.

. . Activity V Written Urban Landscapes and Backyard Habitat Plans.discusses.how.to.apply.wildlife.management.principles.to.urban.environments..It.outlines.an.activity.for.use.in.an.urban.area..Materi-als.for.practicing.the.activity.are.included.

. Scoring the Contest.explains.the.scoring.procedure.for.the.region-.and.state-level.contests,.and.a.Glos-sary provides.definitions.of.many.of.the.technical.terms.used.in.this.handbook..Some.Study Refer-ences for.additional.reading.are.also.included.

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How to Use the Handbook

First,.leaders.and.participants.should.learn.the.wildlife.habitat.concepts.and.terms..Once.you.understand,.these,.the.requirements.for.individual.species.will.be.much.easier.to.understand..Here.are.the.basic.steps:

. 1.. Read.over.and.become.familiar.with.the.Eastern Deciduous Forest, Wetlands and Urban Regions.

. �.. Locate.and.mark.the.selected.species.in.the.Wildlife Species.section..Read.the.species.information.and.identify.the.recommended.habitat.management.practices.

. �...Locate.and.mark.the.appropriate.management.practices.in.the.Wildlife Management Practices.section.

. 4.. All.of.the.information.needed.for.Activity.I.can.be.found.in.the.Identifying Common Wildlife Foods.section..Any.of.the.wildlife.and.food.groups.found.in.this.section.may.be.used..Even.though.Tennes-see.is.in.the.Eastern.Deciduous.Forest.Region,.you should learn all of the information in this sec-tion.

. 5...Using.the.above.steps,.you.should.be.able.to.find.all.of.the.information.needed.for.Activities.II.through.V..Specific.guidance.and.practice.examples.for.Activities.II.and.V.can.be.found.in.the.Aerial Photographs and Urban Landscapes sections,.respectively.

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Preparing for Contests

Leaders.should.read.and.understand.the.Concepts.section.of.the.handbook.first..You.should.explain.the.con-cepts.and,.when.needed,.provide.examples.to.clarify.any.misunderstandings.your.4-H’ers.may.have..This.section.is.important.because.many.of.the.activities.require.a.clear.understanding.of.the.concepts.

Once.your.team.understands.the.concepts,.you.should.review.the.appropriate.regional.information.with.all.participants..Everyone.should.review.the.plant.succession.process,.identify.common.plants.and.wildlife.species,.and.discuss.the.appropriate.management.practices..Specific.information.about.habitat.requirements.as.well.as.recommended.management.practices.are.found.in.the Wildlife Species section,.which.lists.wild-life.species.in.alphabetical.order.by.the.accepted.common.name..Whenever possible, you should go into the field and find examples of the principles and practices found in these sections. You.can.use.“quiz.bowls”.and.question.and.answer.sessions.to.measure.learning.

Following.the.above.exercises,.you.should.introduce.participants.to.the.various.activities.found.in.the.handbook..Conducting.practice.sessions.using.aerial.photographs.and.outdoor.sites.is.helpful..The.most.enlightening.practice.session.is.to.visit.the.site.of.the.aerial.photograph..Evaluate.the.site.on.the.ground.and.then.compare.your.on-site.evaluation.with.your.interpretation.and.evaluation.of.the.aerial.photo..Start.with.two.or.three.wildlife.species.and.add.more.as.you.become.more.knowledgeable..In.addition.you.should.obtain.several.aerial.photographs.(from.your.local.Natural.Resource.Conservation.Service.office).—.pref-erably.with.a.scale.of.8.inches.equals.1.mile..Identify.the.features.and.discuss.how.they.are.important.to.wildlife..Identify.the.habitat.requirements.available.for.the.animals.selected..Then,.you.can.identify.what.needs.of.the.different.species.are.missing.and.rate.the.photos.for.their.habitat.value.to.these.wildlife.spe-cies..Next,.review.your.ratings.and.practice.giving.oral.reasons.to.justify.your.ratings..Review.and.practice.writing.management.plans.in.a.team.group..Finally,.review.the.Wildlife Foods.section.and.practice.identify-ing.foods.used.by.the.various.wildlife.groups..Only.the.wildlife.species.and.activities.recommended.in.this.handbook.will.be.included.in.our.contests..

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Wildlife Management Concepts

Before you can evaluate wildlife habitat and make management recommendations, you need to under-stand some basic concepts about habitats and their relationships with different wildlife species. This section describes some of these basic concepts. Since most of the contest will be based on these con-

cepts, it is important that you study and understand them.

Wildlife management is both an art and a science that deals with complex interactions in the environment. For the purposes of this program, a number of assumptions and simplifications have been made to make the mate-rials more understandable. In actual management cases, trained, experienced professionals should assist you in making proper decisions to meet your goals and objectives.

Look up the definitions of words or terms you do not understand in the glossary found at the back of this handbook.

Concepts

• Habitat requirements

• Featured species

• Species richness

• Plant succession and its effect on wildlife

• Vertical structure

• Juxtaposition and interspersion

• Edges and contrast

• Area-sensitive species

• Migration and home range

• Carrying capacity

• Pond dynamics and balance

• Wildlife damage management

• Food webs

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Concept 1

Habitat Requirements Wildlife have life requirements that must be supplied by the available habitats to ensure their well being. These are known as habitat requirements. The four basic habitat requirements are food, cover, water and us-able space. Each species has its own set of specific requirements. For example, the gray squirrel uses acorns for food, while the woodpecker eats insects. Mallards use grass and forb cover for nesting, while thrashers nest in shrubs. Habitat requirements for wildlife change during the seasons of the year. The food they eat in the winter may be much different than what they eat in the summer. The cover they need for nesting may be very different than the cover they need during a winter storm.

Concept 2

Featured Species There are two basic goals in wildlife habitat management. One is to provide the best habitat possible for fea-tured wildlife species. The other, which is explained on the next page under the concept Species Richness, is to provide habitat for as many different wildlife species as possible in one area.

When evaluating habitat for featured species, you must first decide which species to favor. This can be done in several ways. Landowners may have specific objectives for certain species, or the general public may have concerns about a particular kind of game or endangered species. Once the species have been selected, identify the habitat requirements for each species and evaluate the capability of the area to provide those requirements. If the area can't supply or only partially provides the necessary habitat, management practices may be used to improve the habitat for the selected species.

It is usually best to select management practices that will provide the habitat require-ments that are most lacking, thus limiting the population. For instance, if a species requires trees for cover with water nearby and the habitat you are evaluating has plenty of trees but no water, a management practice that supplies water will improve the habi-tat more effectively than will planting trees. When determining which management practices to apply, remember that management practices to improve habitat for some wildlife species may be detrimental to other wildlife species. It is impossible to manage habitat for any one species without influencing other species in some manner.

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Concept 3

Species Richness Species richness is the number of different kinds of wildlife species found in an area. One goal in habitat management may be to provide habitat for as many species and as many individuals within a species as pos-sible, as contrasted to managing for a featured species (see Concept 2).

Lands that are high in species richness usually have many of the following characteristics:

1. Amixtureofareasindifferentsuccessionalstages

2.Abalanceofedgeswithunbrokenblocksofvegetationinonesuccessionalstage

3. Unbroken(unfragmented)areasofatleast10to40acres

4.Edgeswithlowcontrast(softedge)

5.Awidevarietyofvegetationlayerspresentwithineacharea(verticalstructure)

These characteristics can be used to estimate the relative number of different wildlife species that may be present in separate areas. They also can be used to identify management practices that could increase species richness.

It is important to realize that when you manage for species richness, sometimes you cannot also provide the best habitat for featured species. Instead of providing the best habitat possible for a few species, the goal is to provide some habitat for as many species as possible.

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Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6

Concept 4

Plant Succession and Its Effect on Wildlife Manipulating vegetation and water is the basis of habitat management. Every acre of soil and water has a definite sequence of plant species that occurs over time. The different stages of this sequence are called suc-cessional stages. We can generally predict the type of vegetation that will occur in each stage until a final or “climax” stage is reached. When not disturbed, the climax vegetation will remain the same for long periods of time. If people or nature disturb the vegetation, soil or water level, succession may be set back, and the cycle will continue forward once again. Note:Differentwildlifespeciesareoftenassociatedwithdifferentstagesofplantsuccession.Notallspeciesrequiretheclimaxstage.

In this handbook, areas in different stages of plant succession are often referred to as areas with different veg-etation types or habitat types. In general, the stages of plant succession that occur on land (Figure 1) are as follows:

1. Bareground

2. Annualforbsandgrasses

3. Perennialforbsandgrasses

4. Shrubs

5. Youngforestorwoodland(lessthan40yearsold)

6. Matureforestorwoodland

A single step in vegetation succession may take weeks, months, years or even centuries, depending on a va-riety of natural and human-caused factors. If vegetation is disturbed, succession will revert to an earlier stage and begin anew. Disturbance can be caused by natural factors such as fire, wind or ice storms, and insect or disease outbreaks.

Be aware that many wildlife species require periodic disturbance to meet their habitat needs. Therefore, wild-life managers frequently alter natural succession through disking, prescribed burning and timber harvest — all of which mimic many natural disturbances.

Figure 1

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Understory

Midstory

Overstory

Concept 5

Vertical Structure (Vertical Edge) Vegetation can be classified by how it grows. Grasses and forbs generally grow close to the ground. This her-baceous vegetation, along with small shrubs and tree seedlings, compose the understory of a forest. A middle layer, or midstory, contains the taller shrubs and young trees. The tallest stratum in a mature forest consists of trees and is called the overstory. (Figure 2)

How different layers of vegetation are arranged in relation to each other is important to many wildlife species. For example, some species may require an herbaceous layer for food but also need a tree canopy for cover. Not all areas in the same stage of succession are alike. A forest in stage 6 of succession may have a variety of layers made up of grasses, forbs, shrubs and trees, while another stage 6 forest may have only one distinct layer of tall trees. The trees may be widely spaced or close together, with or without a shrub layer. This di-rectly affects the habitats of many species and determines whether or not a wildlife species is found in a par-ticular area.

Figure 2

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Photo 2. Area with high interspersionPhoto 1. Area with low interspersion

Concept 6

Juxtaposition and Interspersion Juxtaposition (specific arrangement or placement of habitats) and interspersion (mixing of different habitats) are defined by how different successional stages or vegetation types are situated in relation to each other (e.g., size, shape, distribution of habitats). Most wildlife species need more than one successional stage to provide all their habitat requirements, while only a few species can find all their habitat requirements in only one successional stage. To be of value to wildlife (especially species with small home ranges), the required suc-cessional stages must be close to each other or linked by corridors (see WMP 6) to allow for safe travel. This concept is so important that Aldo Leopold wrote in his classic text Game Management (1�33), “The maxi-mum population of any piece of land depends not only on its environmental types or composition, but also on the interspersion of these types in relation to the cruising radius of the species. Composition and intersper-sion are thus the two principal determinants of potential abundance on game range.” A mixture of habitats in a patchwork mosaic represents good interspersion, and increased interspersion results in increased edge (see Concept �). Placing necessary habitats adjacent to each other (juxtaposed) is the optimum arrangement. A way to measure interspersion is explained in Activity II on page �0. Perhaps the most important consideration in habitat management is providing suitable habitat on every acre possible (maximizing usable space).

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Concept 7

Edges and Contrast The boundary where two or more types of vegetation or successional stages meet is called an edge. Some-times there is an abrupt change where one type of vegetation stops and another begins (i.e., hard edge, see Photo 3), or the change can be less distinct, with a gradual transition from one stage to another (i.e., soft edge, see Photo 4). In places where a gradual change occurs, the edge resembles both successional stages or vegeta-tion types. Where abrupt changes occur, the edge is narrow. Edges attract many different wildlife species be-cause a variety of food, cover and other habitat requirements are arranged close together.

Edges that are produced when extremely different successional stages of vegetation meet (i.e., hard edge) are defined as having high contrast. There is high contrast where an area in stage 2 (annual forbs and grasses) meets an area in stage 6 (tall mature trees) of plant succession. A boundary between stages 2 and 3 (i.e., soft edge) has low contrast. Edges with low contrast normally have more species of plants and wildlife associated with them than do edges with high contrast. In general, edge benefits wildlife species with low mobility and small home ranges more than species with high mobility and large home ranges. Edges with low contrast will benefit those wildlife species needing interspersion of several successional stages. Finally, it is most important to understand that "edge," in and of itself, is not necessarily good. The quality, quantity and arrangement of the habitats that form the edge(s) are the most important factors.

Photo 3. Abrupt change in habitat types with high contrast (i.e., hard edge).

Photo 4. Gradual change between two habitat types (i.e., soft edge).

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Concept 8

Area-Sensitive SpeciesEdge is not beneficial for all wildlife species. Some species need large, unbroken (unfragmented) areas in a certain successional stage to provide some or all of their habitat requirements. Such species are referred to as area sensitive. For these species, large areas of vegetation in one successional stage are desirable. For ex-ample, the grasshopper sparrow requires fields of at least 100 acres.

Concept 9

Migration and Home Range Some wildlife species travel during certain seasons of the year. These movements are called migration. Mi-gration distances may be short or very long, depending on the species. These species must find the necessary habitats along their routes in order to survive. The following are examples of migration:

1. Ducks that nest in the northern United States and Canada must fly south to warmer climates to find food sources and wetlands that are not frozen during winter.

2. In winter the mountains of the western United States are covered in deep snow. Mule deer and elk cannot get to the vegetation they usually eat. To find food, they travel to lower elevations where the snow is not as deep.

Other animals reside in the same area all year. The area of con-stant use is called an animal's home range. For example, a bob-white quail spends most of its life on approximately �0 acres of average-quality habitat. If the habitat is better than average and the quail can meet all their needs in a smaller area, their home range will decrease in size.

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Concept 10

Carrying Capacity There is a limit to how many animals can live on a given piece of property. That limit is called the carrying capacity. The quantity and quality of food, cover, water and space determine the carrying capacity. (Figure 3) If one basic requirement is in short supply, the carrying capacity is lowered. We call the requirement(s) that is in shortest supply, or absent altogether, the limiting factor(s). A manager can increase a property’s carrying capacity by improving the kind or amount of food, cover, water or space that is in short supply.

Carrying capacity varies from year to year and from season to season. It is usually greatest from late spring through fall. This is when most young are born and grow. With the coming of winter or a summer drought, food and cover gradually diminish, as does the habitat’s carrying capacity.

More animals are produced each year than will survive to the next. Surplus animals are generally lost to predation, starvation and/or disease. Young wildlife and animals in poor health experience the highest death (mortality) rates. Hunting and fishing are two ways to use the surplus. The obvious way to increase the number of animals is to increase the number born and reduce the number that die. However, if the habitat cannot support any more animals, those efforts will fail.

Along-termincreaseinpopulationcanbeaccomplishedonlybyincreasingthecarryingcapacity.

Photo 5. Where deer are overabundant, their food supply is reduced and less nutrition is available. A “browse line” is usually evident in these areas.

Wat

er

Cov

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Foo

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Wildlife

Figure 3

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Concept 11

Pond Dynamics and BalanceNo two ponds are ever exactly alike. Even ponds located side-by-side in the same wa-tershed can look very different and respond differently to management efforts. These visual differences are usually associated with water quality and algal bloom differ-ences. Management efforts are meant to control water quality, improve fishing and attract wildlife.

Dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, hardness and pH are water quality factors that can be managed in ponds. Water quality affects the natural production of food in the pond and the health of the fish.

Oxygen from the atmosphere dissolves in water through the action of wind and waves or is produced by plants in the water through the process of photosynthesis. Oxygen is only slightly soluble in water, and its solubility is dependent on water temperature (cooler water holds more dissolved oxygen). Dissolved oxygen is measured in parts per million (ppm). Ponds seldom have more than 10 or 12 ppm dissolved oxygen, even on sunny or windy days. Dissolved oxygen below 4 ppm is stressful to most warm-water fish species (e.g., bass and blue-gill), while 6 ppm is stressful to cold-water species (e.g., trout). When dissolved oxygen is below 2 ppm, many species of warm-water fish will die, and below 4 ppm, trout might die. Aquatic plants, particularly planktonic algae (or phytoplankton), produce most of the oxygen dissolved in the pond water during daytime photosyn-thesis. Therefore, dissolved oxygen concentrations tend to increase throughout the day. At night, everything living in the pond (fish, plants, insects, bacteria, etc.) consumes oxygen, and the dissolved oxygen concentra-tions fall. Under normal conditions dissolved oxygen will not fall below 4 ppm overnight. Ponds can be aer-ated to increase oxygen and decrease carbon dioxide when needed.

Alkalinity, hardness and pH of pond water are related to soil and vegetation in the watershed and the pond. Many soils are acidic and need to be limed to adjust the pH, alkalinity and hardness upward to a range that will promote the growth of planktonic algae and other natural food organisms. A pond should have a pH that fluctuates between 6.5 and � and an alkalinity and hardness of at least 20 ppm. Ponds with low pH, alkalinity and hardness should be limed based on soil tests of the pond mud. Usual liming rates can range from one to five tons per surface acre.

Plankton is the term used for all microscopic and near-microscopic life that floats in water. Plankton is divided into plant (phytoplankton) and animal (zooplankton) groups. Phytoplankton (microscopic algae) are the base of the pond food chain (see Concept 13). Zooplankton and aquatic insects feed on phytoplankton; and they, in turn, are eaten by small fish. Small fish are eaten by larger fish and so on. The key to producing abundant and healthy fish populations is managing phytoplankton through fertilizing and liming (if necessary). Suspended mud in ponds blocks sunlight and algal blooms cannot be established. In this case, muddy pond water must be cleared before a phytoplankton bloom can be achieved.

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A pond is balanced when a balance between prey and predator fish is established and maintained. Each state has specific stocking recommendations designed to establish balanced pond populations after the first year or two. In most warm-water ponds, bluegill is the prey species, and largemouth bass is the predator species. In cold-water ponds, trout is usually the preda-tor species and insects and small fish are the prey. Balance between predator and prey is achieved by establishing an adequate food chain for the prey spe-cies and controlling the prey and predator species numbers through fishing. Removal of the predator species is accomplished by selectively harvesting certain sized individuals to maintain a population that has adequate numbers of the various size classes of the predator species. In this way, the prey species is controlled through selective feeding by the predator species.

Concept 12

Wildlife Damage ManagementWildlife damage management is the art and science of working with wildlife, humans and habitats to mini-mize or eliminate damage or danger to people's health or property or other wildlife species. Behaviors of in-dividual wild animals may be troublesome because of health hazards, the destruction of crops or other natural resources, or because the animals are a general nuisance. Professional wildlife biologists often must repel, frighten, catch (trap), release, poison, shoot and/or kill individual animals in order to reduce or eliminate dam-aging behaviors. Examples of wildlife causing damage include deer damaging soybean crops or ornamental plants in the yard; raccoons raiding trash cans; bats or squirrels in the attic; skunks or snakes under the house; cormorants eating catfish fingerlings at an aquaculture facility; or starlings roosting in urban trees and defecat-ing on sidewalks, creating a health hazard. Wildlife damage management specialists are professionals who solve such problems for compensation.

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Concept 13

Food WebsPlants are primary producers in a food chain because they supply food at the lowest level of a food chain. It takes an enormous number of individual plants at the bottom of a food chain to support the next level — primary consumers, who are plant-eating animals (herbivores). Primary consumers include rabbits, mice, groundhogs, deer, and certain other mammals, some insects and fish, and dabbling ducks, geese, and certain other birds.

Primary consumers are eaten by secondary con-sumers (or carnivores — meat-eaters). This group includes predators such as hawks, owls, snakes, foxes and bobcats. Secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers, which may be predators or scavengers such as wolves, mountain lions, snapping turtles and turkey vultures. Note that these categories are very broad and general. Many animals fit into more than one group (omni-vores) and might include black bears, coyotes and people. The relationship be-tween predators and prey can be very complex, as many animals fit into different levels of various food chains. This relationship is called the food web.

Any of the food web components mentioned above can be broken down by de-composers (i.e., organisms such as bacteria and fungi that reduce dead plant or animal matter into smaller particles). A decaying plant, for example, will be broken down into nutrients that enrich the soil. This process supports the growth of more plants.

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Regions

A reas of the country can be separated into regions having similar climate, vegetation and wildlife. Tennessee is part of the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region; therefore, that is the region we study for our regional wildlife judging contests.

Wetlands and urban areas are found across the country and certainly are present in Tennessee. The Urban Region will be included with the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region in the state contest ONLY. On rare occasions, the Wet-lands Region will be used for our state contest. If the national contest is to be held in a Wetlands Region, for example, then we might use the Wetlands Region for our state contest, to help prepare state-winning 4-H’ers for the national contest.

At the end of each region’s description is a list of wildlife species found in that region. Some of the species listed are considered a nuisance in certain areas and under certain circumstances, but they nevertheless have significant roles in habitats.

Each region’s description is followed by a table that identifies some of the practices used to manage habitats for the species listed. Specific information on recommended habitat management practices for each species is found in the Wildlife Species section of this handbook.

20

Eastern Deciduous Forest

Physical Description Most of the terrain is rolling except for the Appala-chian Mountains, which are steep. The average annual precipitation ranges from 35 to 60 inches and is well distributed throughout the year. (Figure 4)

Dominant Vegetation The final stage of succession is dominated by tall broadleaf trees. Depending on the geographic loca-tion, trees such as oaks, beech, basswood, buckeye, hickory, hemlock, walnut, maple and birch can be indicators of climax vegetation. (Photo 6)

There are many lower canopy trees and decidu-ous shrubs that are important, including American hornbeam, hophornbeam, sassafras, eastern redbud, flowering dogwood and striped maple.

Common shrubs include pawpaw, spicebush, arrow-wood, huckleberry, blueberry, hawthorn, witch-hazel and viburnums. A wide variety of forbs are also found on the forest floor.

Farming Large areas of this region have been cleared of native vegetation for the production of crops and livestock forage. Many crops are grown, but corn, wheat, soy-beans, grain sorghum and cotton predominate.

Livestock are grazed on mostly non-native grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass, timothy, bluegrass, dallisgrass and bermudagrass), which displace quality wildlife habitat.

Depending on how croplands are managed, some species of wildlife benefit from farming, especially if trees and shrubs are nearby.

Plant Succession Stages Stage 1 — bare ground; stage 2 — annual forbs and grasses; stage 3 — perennial forbs and grasses; stage 4 — shrubs; stage 5 — young forest or woodland; stage 6 — mature forest or woodland.

Species Recommended for Judging BobcatBroad-winged HawkBrown Thrasher Eastern Bluebird Eastern Cottontail Eastern Gray Squirrel Great Horned OwlHairy WoodpeckerLargemouth Bass/Bluegill Mourning DoveNorthern BobwhiteOvenbird Ruffed Grouse Wild Turkey White-tailed Deer Wood Duck

Figure 4

Photo 6. Stage 6 Eastern Deciduous Forest

21

Eastern Deciduous

ForestSpecies and Management Practices

Bob

cat

Bro

ad-w

inge

d H

awk

Bro

wn

Thr

ashe

r

Eas

tern

Blu

ebir

d

Eas

tern

Cot

tont

ail

Eas

tern

Gra

y Sq

uirr

el

Gre

at H

orne

d O

wl

Hai

ry W

oodp

ecke

r

Lar

gem

outh

Bas

s/B

lueg

ill

Mou

rnin

g D

ove

Nor

ther

n B

obw

hite

Ove

nbir

d

Ruf

fed

Gro

use

Wild

Tur

key

Whi

te-t

aile

d D

eer

Woo

d D

uck

2. Bushhogging (Mowing) X X X X X X X

3. Build Brushpiles X X

5. Controlled (Prescribed) Burning X X X X X X X X X

6. Corridors/Hedgerows X X X X X X X X X X X

8. Decrease Bag/Creel/Season Limit X X X X X X X X X X

9. Disking X X X X X X

10. Fertilize Ponds X

12. Fish (Pond) or Wildlife Survey X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

14. Grain (or Other Seed), Leave Unharvested X X X X X X

16. Increase Bag/Creel/Season Limit X X X X X X X X X X

17. Livestock Grazing Management (Including Fencing) X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

18. Nest Boxes X X

19. Plant Food Plots X X X X X

20. Establish Native Warm-Season Grasses and Associated Forbs X X X X X X

21. Plant Mast Trees X X X X X X

22. Plant Trees or Shrubs X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

24. Ponds, Clear Muddy Water X

25. Pond Construction X X

27. Ponds, Deepen Edges X

28. Ponds, Remove Trees on or Near Dike X X X

29. Ponds, Repair Spillway X X X

30. Ponds, Reseed Watershed/Filter Strip X

31. Ponds, Restock X

32. Ponds, Stop Leaks X X X

36. Small Dikes for Temporary Flooding X

37. Retain Snags and Down Woody Material X X X X X X X X

41. Tillage, Eliminate in Fall X X X X X X

42. Harvest Timber X X X X X X X X X X

43. Timber Stand Improvement X X X X X X X X X X X X X

44. Water Control Structures X X

45. Water Developments for Wildlife X X X X

46. Wildlife Damage Management X X X X X X

22

Physical Description Urban landscapes are broken down into seven catego-ries. At least some of these categories are applicable to nearly all urban areas in the United States.

As with the other regions, vegetation takes on lay-ered characteristics: trees are the highest canopy with shrubs next and herbaceous forbs and grasses lowest.

Additional urban characteristics that can be important to wildlife are the height and age of buildings and how vegetation is located around them. The precipita-tion and climate vary, but irrigation and landscaping produce urban areas with similar habitat. (Figure 5)

Categories 1. Urban Forests: All of the vegetation and buildings of a city are looked upon as a single unit from the perspective of the animal’s habitat requirements and overall management.

2. Corridors: Contain habitat sufficient to enable wildlife to travel within a yard or among various habitats that may be interspersed within an urban area. Corridors are often adjacent to streams that flow through urban areas and are relatively free from inter-ruption by buildings. A tree-lined street could also be a corridor for many species of wildlife.

3. Neighborhood Parks, School Grounds and Golf Courses: Intermediate-sized open areas that may al-ready attract wildlife or can be managed to enhance habitat, in addition to the primary uses.

4. Vacant Land: Lots without buildings and desig-nated open space associated with a town or city can

Urban Areas

provide useful habitat. These can be large or small spaces, with or without alterations by humans.

5. Residential Areas: Individual homes are areas where animals can be attracted by the habitat pro-vided in a single yard or all the yards combined. The age of a residential area can be significant to plants and animals using the area. More established areas tend to have trees, shrubs and other vegetation that is mature and can offer benefits to wildlife.

6. Apartment and Business Lots: These areas commonly have balconies and window ledges with outside access and small grounds beneath the large buildings.

7. Inner City: Characterized by tall buildings with high roof tops, ledges and little vegetation.

Species Recommended for JudgingAmerican Robin Butterflies Common Nighthawk Eastern BluebirdEastern Cottontail Eastern Fox Squirrel European StarlingFrogs

House FinchHouse SparrowHouse Wren Hummingbirds Northern Flicker PigeonRaccoonSong Sparrow

Figure 5.

Photo 7.

Photo 8.

23

UrbanSpecies and Management Practices

Am

eric

an R

obin

But

terfl

ies

Com

mon

Nig

htha

wk

Eas

tern

Blu

ebir

d

Eas

tern

Cot

tont

ail

Eas

tern

Fox

Squ

irre

l

Eur

opea

n St

arlin

g

Fro

gs

Hou

se F

inch

Hou

se S

parr

ow

Hou

se W

ren

Hum

min

gbir

ds

Nor

ther

n F

licke

r

Pig

eon

Rac

coon

Song

Spa

rrow

1. Artificial Feeders X X X X

3. Build Brushpiles X

6. Corridors/Hedgerows X X X X

18. Nest Boxes X X X

19. Plant Food Plots X X X

21. Plant Mast Trees X

22. Plant Trees or Shrubs X X X X X X X X X X X

25. Pond Construction X X

33. Riparian Buffers X X

44. Water Control Structures X X

45. Water Developments for Wildlife X X X X X X X X

46. Wildlife Damage Management X X X X X X X X X

Additional Practices for Urban Region Only

U1. Do Not Disturb Nesting Places X X X X X X X

U2. Plant Flowers X X

U3. Rooftop/Balcony Gardens X X

U4. Use Pesticides Carefully X X X X X X X X X X X X X

24

Physical Description Wetlands can be described as the zone between deep water and upland habitats. They are characterized by various amounts of open water, aquatic vegetation and soil that is often wet or covered with shallow water.

There are many different types of wetlands in Ten-nessee, including beaver ponds, potholes, man-made ponds, small lakes, marshes, rivers, creeks and swamps.

Dominant Vegetation To describe wetland vegetation, the distinction be-tween aquatic vegetation and upland vegetation must be made.

Aquatic Vegetation can survive in the water or on lands flooded or saturated with water for extended lengths of time.

Upland Vegetation cannot tolerate areas saturated or flooded with water for long periods.

The vegetation found in association with wetlands varies, depending on factors such as permanence of the water, depth of water, salinity and the substrate (bottom).

Wetlands with deep, permanent water typically have less emergent (above the water surface) aquatic vege-tation and more floating or submerged (below the water surface) aquatic vegetation. As the water depth decreases, emergent aquatic vegetation becomes more prevalent.

Less vegetation is found on rock and gravel bottoms than on bottoms with characteristics more like

Wetlands

those of soil, such as the presence of silt, clay and organic matter (dead plants and animals that are decomposed).

Emergent aquatic vegetation includes trees, shrubs, grass and grass-like plants. Some examples of trees often found in wetlands include black willow, pin oak, Shumard oak, cherrybark oak, overcup oak, water oak, willow oak, water tupelo, baldcypress, sweetgum, green ash and cottonwood.

Shrubs commonly found in and adjacent to wetlands include smooth alder, ironwood, buttonbush, water elm and silky dogwood.

Grass and grass-like vegetation, such as cattails, rushes and sedges are also examples of emergent aquatic vegetation found in wetlands.

Water lilies, pondweeds, wild celery, water milfoil, duckweeds and coontails are examples of floating and submerged aquatic vegetation.

The amount of open water and vegetation is important in determining how suitable the wetland is for differ-ent wildlife species. For instance, young ducks need open water and emergent vegetation for hiding. Float-ing and submerged vegetation supports large amounts of food high in protein, such as snails, aquatic insects, mollusks and crustaceans that young ducks need for fast growth.

Nesting areas might include tree cavities for wood ducks, native warm-season grasses for mallards, and cattails for red-winged blackbirds and muskrats.

Wetlands that have stable, non-flowing water levels go through successional stages of vegetation develop-ment similar to those found on adjacent upland areas. The open water areas slowly fill in with silt and dead vegetation over time, allowing emergent aquatic vege-tation to become dominant. As the wetland continues to fill in, it becomes drier, allowing upland vegetation to become dominant.

Plant Succession Stages Typically, succession would proceed in the following order: stage 1 — deep water with little vegetation; stage 2 —shallow water dominated by submerged

Figure 6

25

Photo 10. Stage 2 wetland

Photo 12. Stage 4 wetlandPhoto 11. Stage 3 wetland

Photo 9. Stage 1 wetland

and floating aquatic vegetation; stage 3 — very shal-low water or wet ground dominated by any variety of emergent aquatic vegetation; stage 4 — ground becomes drier and upland vegetation similar to the surrounding area becomes dominant.

Fluctuations in water level can cause final stages of this succession to regress to earlier stages. For in-stance, if a wetland in stage 3 of succession is flooded with deep water for a period of time, the aquatic emergent vegetation may die, leaving a wetland in stage 1 or 2 of succession.

The extent of this regression depends on the length of time the wetland is flooded with deep water, how much the water level changes, and the extent (length of time) that the present vegetation can survive in the changed water level.

Management of water levels is an important tool in managing wetlands for wildlife habitat. The succes-sion process described above is often not applicable to wetlands with constantly moving water such as rivers, streams and tidal areas.

Species Recommended for JudgingBeaver Bullfrog Canada Goose (breeding habitat) Largemouth Bass/BluegillMallard (breeding habitat) Mink Muskrat Raccoon Redhead DuckRed-winged BlackbirdWood Duck

26

WetlandsSpecies and Management Practices

Bea

ver

Bul

lfro

g

Can

ada

Goo

se (

bree

ding

hab

itat

)

Lar

gem

outh

Bas

s/B

lueg

ill

Mal

lard

(br

eedi

ng h

abit

at)

Min

k

Mus

krat

Rac

coon

Red

head

Duc

k

Red

-win

ged

Bla

ckbi

rd

Woo

d D

uck

2. Bushhogging (Mowing) X X X X X X X

5. Controlled (Prescribed) Burning X X X X X X X

8. Decrease Bag/Creel/Season Limit X X X X X X X X

9. Disking X X X X X X X

12. Fish (Pond) or Wildlife Survey X X X X X X X X X X X

15. Harvest Timing (Crops/Hay) X

16. Increase Bag/Creel/Season Limit X X X X X X X X

17. Livestock Grazing Management (Including Fencing) X X X X X X X X X X

18. Nest Boxes X

20. Establish Native Warm-Season Grasses and Associated Forbs X X

21. Plant Mast Trees X

22. Plant Trees or Shrubs X X X X

25. Pond Construction X X X X X X X X X

28. Ponds, Remove Trees on or Near Dike X X X X X X X X X X

29. Ponds, Repair Spillway X X X X X X X X X X

30. Ponds, Reseed Watershed/Filter Strips X

31. Ponds, Restock X

32 Ponds, Stop Leaks X X X X X X X X X X

33. Riparian Buffers X X X X X X X X X X X

36. Small Dikes for Temporary Flooding X X X X X X X X

43. Timber Stand Improvement X X

44. Water Control Structures X X X X X X X X X X

46. Wildlife Damage Management X X X X X

27

T his section lists the birds, mammals and other species found in the Eastern Deciduous Forest, Urban and Wetland Regions, as well as a few others also found in Tennessee (which are included for your general information). You should identify the species for the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region and begin to learn

about their needs and the appropriate management techniques. Learning the information for these species is a good place to start. Not all the species will be included in the contest; however, you will not know which ones are included until the day of the contest. Published field guides to North American birds and mammals are good sources for seeing what the species look like and learning more about them.

Wildlife managers must decide which practices are most appropriate for their specific management area. How-ever, the practice of increasing or decreasing bag/creel limits to meet population objectives applies to all game, fur-bearing and fish species, but does not always appear in the narrative for each species. Likewise, the practice of making fish or wildlife surveys is not always listed in the narrative. Monitoring fish and wildlife populations is always important but may not be necessary if a survey was completed recently. The wildlife specialist will give clues as to whether or not an increase or decrease in harvest is necessary and will tell you if a survey has been conducted recently. Finally, all references to burning are to Management Practice 5, Controlled (Prescribed) Burning.

Wildlife Species

28

BirdsAmerican KestrelGeneral Habitat Preference Stages 2, 3 and 4 of plant succession for feeding and stages 5 and 6 for nesting. Large open areas where ad-equate nesting sites are available.

Habitat Requirements Food: Primarily insects and small mammals associ-ated with open areas.

• Bushhog, disk or burn small areas (40 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large ex-panses of stage 4 (shrub) vegetation.

• Harvest timber (even-aged management) in large expanses of stage 6 forest.

• Livestock grazing man-agement should leave enough herbaceous can-opy to support insects and small rodents.

• Establish native warm-season grasses and associated forbs to pro-vide habitat for rodent prey.

Cover: Kestrels nest in tree cavities and other sites, including holes in cliffs and artificial nesting boxes.

Maintain areas in stages 5 and 6 interspersed with ar-eas in stages 2 and 3.

• Plant trees in large open areas on idle lands.

• Provide kestrel nesting boxes in areas lacking ade-quate nesting cavities. Boxes can be placed on fence posts in open areas.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain trees in ripar-ian areas.

Water: Kestrels obtain necessary water from their diet and do not need water for drinking.

American RobinGeneral Habitat Preference Urban settings with large open areas and nearby trees and shrubs. Parks, golf courses and lawns in residen-tial areas are favorites.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Insects and worms in warm seasons. Fruits and berries from shrubs and trees in winter. Generally, robins do not use artificial feeders.

• Plant fruit- and berry-producing shrubs such as sumac, hawthorn and holly.

• Leave open areas of short grass and forbs.

• Use insecticides only when necessary.

Cover: Nesting sites and hiding areas in shrubs, ev-ergreen trees and broad-leaf trees. Evergreen trees are preferred for early nests.

• Plant and maintain trees and shrubs. Include some evergreen trees in plantings.

• Corridors provide important travelways connecting habitats.

Water: Robins require water daily during warm seasons. They obtain water from yard irrigation, rain-filled gutters, low-lying areas, ponds, etc.

• Birdbaths and pans of water can be provided. Do not place water in areas where cats can catch the birds.

29

Broad-Winged Hawk General Habitat Preference Continuous dry woodlands of oaks, beech, maples and other hardwoods mixed with conifers around lakes, streams and swamps. Stages 5 and 6 of plant succession.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Broad-winged hawks hunt from perches in deep, shady woodlands. They feed largely on small mammals, such as mice, moles, shrews and occasion-ally red squirrels and chipmunks. They also eat snakes, frogs, lizards, large moth larvae, caterpillars, grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, crayfish, small fish and some small birds.

• Timber stand improvement practices can be used to improve habitat conditions for prey in stage 5 and 6 forests.

Cover: These hawks nest near water in a variety of tree species — usually from 25 – 90 feet high, but sometimes as low as 3 – 10 feet. Sometimes use old crow, hawk or squirrel nests.

• Leave snags and cavity trees when managing forest land.

• Retain corridors.

• Create water developments if no water source is available to provide suitable habitats for prey.

• Manage livestock grazing in forested areas for residual cover for small mammals.

Water: Broad-winged hawks obtain necessary water from their diet.

Brown ThrasherGeneral Habitat PreferenceStages 3 and 4 of plant succession. Dense, woody vegetation associated with shrub thickets, hedgerows, shelterbelts, forest edges, riparian areas and young forests.

Habitat Requirements Food: Invertebrates and plant seeds are the princi-pal foods. Brown thrashers forage primarily on the ground and occasionally feed on fruits and berries in shrubs and trees. More food is available when there is more ground litter. The management practices listed under “Cover” usually supply sufficient food.

Cover: Nesting and hiding cover are supplied by dense shrubs with some trees. Brown thrashers will use areas that have only shrubs. They need a mini-mum of 2.5 acres of woody vegetation to support a breeding population.

• Improve forest habitat by using timber stand im-provement practices in stage 5 and 6 forest.

• Harvesting timber in stage 6 woodland can improve habitat once succession proceeds to stage 4 after harvest.

• Plant shrubs and trees (hedgerows, field borders, clumps).

• Bushhogging and burning can be used to rejuvenate and improve habitat in large areas of old stage 4 brush or to keep areas in stage 4.

• Manage livestock grazing in riparian areas and other woody areas so shrubs and trees can regener-ate and ground litter is present.

• Manage livestock grazing to prevent succession moving back to stage 2 or 1.

Water: Requirements unknown.

31

Eastern Towhee General Habitat Preference Stage 4 of plant succession. Associated with a wide variety of shrubs.

Habitat Requirements Food: Towhees forage on the ground, eating inverte-brates such as ants, beetles, caterpillars and grasshop-pers. About half of the diet is made up of seeds and the green foliage of forbs, grasses and shrubs.

• Livestock grazing management should be used to keep cows out of woods.

Cover: Towhees use shrubs for hiding and protective cover. Nests are on the ground, usually under shrubs.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses (> 100 acres) of stage 6 forest.

• Timber stand improvement practices can improve forest structure where needed in stages 5 and 6.

• Burning and bushhogging (30 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in old stage 4 vegetation will promote resprouting of shrubs.

• Plant shrubs in large areas of stage 2 and 3 vege-tation where little shrub cover is present.

Water: Towhees obtain adequate water from their diet.

European Starling General Habitat Preference European star-lings prefer older urban residential areas with large trees and shrubs. Most urban areas that have large trees or old buildings with holes and cavities are used.

Eastern Bluebird General Habitat Preference Stages 2 and 3 of plant succession interspersed with stage 5 and 6 vegetation.

Habitat Requirements Food: Insects and spiders make up a large portion of the bluebird’s diet. A limited amount of fruit is also eaten. Bluebirds usually forage in open areas.

• Establish native warm-season grasses when quality early successional cover makes up less than 40 per-cent of the area.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses (> 100 acres) of stage 6 forest land.

• Burn, disk or bushhog small areas (30 acres maxi-mum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses of stage 2, 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Livestock grazing management can be used to keep fields in stage 2 and 3 vegetation.

• Use pesticides carefully in urban areas.

Cover: Nesting sites are in natural cavities and old woodpecker holes.

• Leave three to four large, standing dead trees (snags) per acre during timber harvest operations.

• Place nest boxes 4 to 5 feet high in or adjacent to open areas. Boxes should be spaced more than 200 feet apart.

• If there is no tree cover (less than 10 percent) in the area, plant trees.

• Establish hedgerows in large fields (≥ 4 acres).

• Manage livestock grazing to protect young trees.

Water: Bluebirds obtain necessary water from their diet but will use other water sources when available.

Potential ProblemsHouse sparrows and European starlings often take over bluebird nest boxes. Control of these species may be necessary.

32

Habitat Requirements Food: Insects, fruit, seeds, human garbage including food scraps from restaurants, even dog and cat food. Starlings usually do not use artificial feeders.

Cover: They nest in tree cavities, old buildings and old houses and will use artificial nest boxes.

Water: They require water during warm seasons.

• Birdbaths, pans of water or puddles of water will attract starlings.

Potential ProblemsStarlings were introduced to the United States from Europe and are considered pests because they are over-abundant and often out-compete native birds for available habitat. In such situations, the management objectives should be to reduce the quality and quantity of available habitat. Often, when their numbers are great, wildlife damage management is necessary to control them. When found competing with native bird species and in damage-causing situations, individual starlings, nests and eggs should be destroyed.

Grasshopper SparrowGeneral Habitat Preference Grasshopper sparrows typically nest in grasslands (stage 3 of plant succession), with less than 5 percent shrub cover.

Habitat Requirements Food: Grasshopper sparrows eat insects of all types. As you might have guessed, grasshoppers are a favor-ite. In winter they eat forb (weed) seeds.

Cover: These birds prefer to nest in native warm- season grasses with abundant litter (residual vegetation from the previous year’s growth).

• Establish native warm-season grasses.

• Burning can be used to rejuvenate older grasslands. Disking or bushhogging can be used if burning is not possible.

• Proper livestock management would include leav-ing some residual vegetation for nesting habitat and grazing the area only lightly to moderately during nesting season.

• Delay haying and mowing grass along roadsides and in ditches and hayfields until after the nesting season (late summer).

Water: Grasshopper sparrows obtain necessary water from their diet.

Great Horned OwlGeneral Habitat PreferenceGreat horned owls occur in a wide variety of forested habitats, mainly stage 5 and 6 open forest or wood-lands interspersed with areas of stages 2, 3 and 4, in-cluding orchards, farm woodlots and city parks.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Great horned owls prefer open areas near woodlands, such as marshes or meadows, for hunt-ing. They consume an extremely varied diet but prefer small- to medium-sized mammals and birds. They also prey upon reptiles, amphibians, large insects and fish.

Cover: Great horned owls use the abandoned nests of hawks, herons or crows; large tree cavities; crotches; stumps; caves; and ledges.

• When harvesting timber, leave snags and cavity trees for nesting and perching.

• Establish native warm-season grasses and associated forbs to pro-vide food and cover for rodent prey.

• Establish hedgerows across large fields (≥4 acres) if few perching sites are available and to en-hance habitat for potential prey.

• Harvest timber to create openings in broad ex-panses (> 100 acres) of stage 6 forest.

• Timber stand improvement practices can be used to improve habitat conditions for prey in stage 5 and 6 forests.

33

• Livestock grazing management may be necessary to maintain adequate grass and forb cover for small mammal prey.

Water: These birds obtain necessary water from their diet.

Potential ProblemsIn rare instances, this species can cause damage to free-ranging poultry, and wildlife damage manage-ment may be needed.

Hairy WoodpeckerGeneral Habitat Preference Stages 4, 5 and 6 of plant succession are the best habi-tat. Hairy woodpeckers will use stage 3 if areas with mature trees are nearby. They also use wooded urban and riparian areas.

Habitat Requirements Food: The majority of the hairy woodpecker’s food is animal matter, such as ants, beetle larvae, caterpil-lars and adult beetles. Woodpeckers supplement their diet with fruits and nuts. They forage on a variety of places including tree trunks, stumps, snags, downed logs and the ground. Where adequate cover exists, food is usually not limiting.

• Timber stand improvement practices can be used to increase foraging sites and potential nesting sites.

Cover: Woodpeckers excavate holes for nesting in mature and dying trees and snags.

• Maintain areas with large, mature trees as well as dying trees, especially in open areas.

• Retain snags when implementing timber stand im-provement practices.

• Plant softwood trees.

• Manage livestock grazing in riparian areas to main-tain trees.

• Develop corridors to connect isolated woodlands in urban and other areas.

• Provide snags if few are present.

Water: Not limiting. These birds probably obtain nec-essary water from their diet.

House FinchGeneral Habitat Preference Found in a wide variety of urban areas that have trees, shrubs and some open areas. Not as abundant in inner cities.

Habitat Requirements Food: Soft fruits, buds and weed seeds. In the warm seasons, house finches eat some insects. They use ar-tificial feeders of all types. Millet and sunflower seeds are favorites.

Cover: These birds prefer nesting sites on low branches of trees, on branches of bushes, in natural cavities, in old holes excavated by woodpeckers, and any projection or ledge they can find on houses and buildings. They prefer to place their nests from five to seven feet above the ground. The nest is built of weed stems, small branches and leaves.

• Plant shrubs adjacent to open areas for nesting and hiding cover.

• Do not disturb nests found on houses and buildings unless they are causing a problem like plugging a rain gutter.

Water: House finches require water daily in warm seasons.

• Birdbaths and pans of water can be provided, or a low area in the yard can be filled with water. Try not to place water in areas where cats can catch the birds.

30

Canada Goose (Breeding Habitat)

General Habitat Preference Canada geese nest and rear young in or near stage 2 wetlands interspersed with some stage 3 wetlands. Wetlands containing 20 percent tall emergent aquatic vegetation and 80 percent open water are usually good habitat, as are riparian areas adjacent to rivers.

Habitat Requirements Food: During the nesting season and summer, Canada geese prefer new green forbs and grasses. They also eat some aquatic insects and pond weeds.

• Establish native warm-season grasses and associ-ated forbs.

• Livestock grazing management or burning can be used to produce lush green vegetation.

• Burn or bushhog small areas (40 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) every three to five years.

Cover: Geese nest in a variety of places, such as mats of bulrushes, tops of muskrat houses, in trees, and most of all, on islands.

• Construct ponds and wetlands.

• When possible, use water control structures for managing water levels to maintain approximately 80 percent open water and 20 percent emergent vegetation.

Water: Water is required as described above.

Potential ProblemsIn some areas, Canada geese have become a problem, causing damage to lawns, golf courses and winter wheat fields. Wildlife damage management may be necessary.

Common Nighthawk General Habitat Preference Stage 1, bare ground for nesting. Stages 2 and 3 of plant succession interspersed with areas in stages 4 and 5 of plant succession. Areas such as grasslands, open woodlands, cities and towns. In cities and towns, nighthawks are often seen flying over parks and other open areas in late evening and early morning.

Habitat Requirements Food: Nighthawks eat flying insects captured on the wing. Flying ants, mosquitoes, moths and June bugs are examples.


Cover: Nighthawks do not build nests but lay their eggs on the ground — often gravelly or sandy — and on flat roofs of buildings. Riparian areas, ridge tops and other places with numerous sand and gravel areas are favorite nesting locations.

Do not disturb nests during nesting season (May through June). Stay off roof tops used for nesting.

Water: Nighthawks do not drink water often. They obtain ample water from their diet.

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House (English) SparrowGeneral Habitat Preference This non-native species is found in a wide variety of urban categories that have buildings, trees, shrubs and some open areas.

Habitat Requirements Food: House sparrows eat a variety of insects, fruits, buds and weed seeds. They will use artificial feeders of all types. Millet and sunflower seeds are favorites.

Cover: House sparrows nest on low branches of trees, on bushes, in natural cavities, in old holes excavated by woodpeckers, and on any projection or ledge they

can find on buildings or other structures. They pre-fer to place nests from five to seven feet above the ground. Nests are built of weed stems, small branches and leaves.

Water: House sparrows require water daily in warm seasons.

Potential ProblemsHouse sparrows compete with native bluebirds, house finches and other birds for their habitat requirements. They are often a nuisance, and management objectives may be to reduce the quality and quantity of available habitat. Wildlife damage management may be needed in some cases. When they compete with native bird species and in situations where they are causing dam-age, individuals, their nests and their eggs should be destroyed.

House WrenGeneral Habitat Preference In urban settings, house wrens prefer older residential areas with large shrubs and trees.

Habitat Requirements Food: Spiders, grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, cater-pillars, ants, bees, ticks and millipedes. House wrens rarely use artificial feeders.

• Plant and maintain shrubs and trees.


Cover: House wrens nest in natural cavities in trees and in old buildings and other structures. They will use artificial nest boxes.

• Plant and maintain shrubs and trees.

• Provide nest boxes where adequate nesting sites are lacking. Boxes should be placed high on a tree trunk or under the eaves of a house. The hole should be small (1 3/8 inch diameter) to keep out house sparrows, starlings and other birds.

• Do not disturb nests found on houses and buildings unless they are causing a problem.

For specifics on nest box design and placement for house wrens and other species, visit your local Exten-sion office and ask for the publication Improving Your Backyard Wildlife Habitat (PB1633).

Water: House wrens obtain necessary water from their diet.

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HummingbirdGeneral Habitat Preference Hummingbirds are found in or near mixed woodlands and forests rich in flowering plants. They prefer stages 5 and 6 of plant succession mixed with areas in stages 2, 3 and 4. In urban settings, they prefer areas with large trees and nearby flowering plants.

Habitat Requirements Food: Nectar from flowers and the insects found on flowers. Hummingbirds require high-energy foods. Nectar is high in sugars that supply needed energy. Insects are an important source of protein.

• Plant flowers. Hummingbirds seem to be attracted to the color red. Some preferred flowers are petu-nias, gladiolus, begonias, morningglory, evening primrose, columbine and cardinal flower.

• Plant flowering shrubs and trees. Favorites include, lilac, flowering dogwood and various fruit trees.

• Hummingbirds use artificial feeders filled with sugar-water (1 part sugar to 4 parts boiled water). Keep feeders clean. Never give honey-water to hummingbirds. Honey ferments faster than sugar and quickly develops a mold that kills hummingbirds. For specifics on artificial feeder design and placement, visit your local Extension office and ask for the publication Improving Your Backyard Wildlife Habitat (PB1633).


Cover: Hummingbirds construct small nests on tree branches, usually 5 to 20 feet above the ground. Occa-sionally they build nests in secluded areas on houses and buildings. The nest is made out of leafy materials, lichens and spider silk.

• Plant and maintain trees. Trees with rough bark are preferred.

• Do not disturb nests found on houses and buildings unless they are causing a problem like plugging a rain gutter.

Water: Hummingbirds obtain necessary water from their diet.

Mallard (Breeding Habitat)General Habitat PreferenceRelatively few mallards nest in Tennessee; however, preferred nesting sites include native warm-season grasses and shrubby cover. Mallards need open water (stage 2 of wetland succession) with associated emer-gent aquatic vegetation (stage 3) to raise young.

Habitat Requirements Food: Aquatic plants and insects are common foods. Ducklings eat mostly aquatic insects. Most food is as-sociated with wetlands.

• In areas without wetlands, build ponds with gently sloping banks, flood fields having plenty of adja-cent nesting cover or re-establish old wetlands.

• Construct small dikes to provide temporary open water areas mixed with aquatic emergent vegetation through the breeding season.

• Provide some shallow water areas (< 2 feet deep) adjacent to deep water where emergent and sub-mergent vegetation can grow. Use water control structures.

• Unharvested grain and grain stubble that has not been tilled can provide the high energy food needed by nesting hens.

Cover: Mallards nest in native warm-season grasses and associated forbs (sometimes they nest under shrubs) preferably within 1/2 mile of a wetland that provides open water with some adjacent emergent aquatic vegetation. After ducklings hatch, they use open water and adjacent emergent aquatic vegetation for protection from predators. Ideally, wetlands would have a minimum of 50 percent open water and 10 to 20 percent emergent vegetation.

• Cover can be created using practices described under “Food.”

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• Water developments constructed for wildlife and livestock drinking such as dugouts and catchment ponds are often used to raise broods.

• Control water levels to create some deep-water areas (> 2 feet deep), where emergent vegetation won’t grow, and manage the vegetation in wetlands (stage 2). Water control structures are useful for this purpose.

• Burn, disk, bushhog or use livestock grazing to rejuvenate dense, stagnant vegetation in nesting areas. Burn every three to five years in late winter/early spring before nesting begins. These practices can be used to increase or maintain water and vege-tation interspersion in wetlands.

• Establish native warm-season grasses and associ-ated forbs in blocks or strips ≥ 150 feet wide adja-cent to wetlands that meet the above criteria.

• Livestock grazing should be managed to provide areas with tall, healthy herbaceous vegetation that is not disturbed during the nesting season.

• Delay mowing. Harvest hay and crops adjacent to wetlands after nesting season.

• Riparian buffers may be needed in some regions where cover is limited.

Water: Mallards require and use water as previously described.

Mallard (Winter Habitat)General Habitat Preference Wetlands with open water, harvested grain crops, and riparian areas with open water.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Preferred foods include waste grain from ag-riculture, aquatic plants and invertebrates. Mallards will fly long distances to feed. However, the closer the food is to cover, the more valuable it is.

• Provide waste grain in winter by eliminating fall tillage.

• Leave some grain unharvested.

• Use small dikes to flood grain fields, food plots and oak woodlands in winter.

• Build ponds and shallow impoundments with some water (< 2 feet deep) where aquatic vegetation can grow.

Cover: Mallards rest on open water bodies such as streams, rivers and warm-water sloughs that are not frequently disturbed.

• Build ponds and shallow impoundments.

• Water developments constructed for livestock drinking, such as dugouts and catchment ponds, are also used for resting.

• Livestock should be managed so cover is retained in shallow areas.

• Keep human disturbance to a minimum.

Water: Mallards use water as described above.

Potential ProblemsIn some areas where mallards are fed by humans, large flocks of “tame” mallards can be a nuisance; therefore, wildlife damage management may be necessary.

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Mourning DoveGeneral Habitat PreferenceStages 2 and 3 of plant succession with some shrubs and trees nearby. Mourning doves often feed in agri-cultural areas. Small areas of bare ground (stage 1) are also beneficial.

Habitat Requirements Food: Waste grain from cropland and livestock feed lots and a variety of forb (weed) and grass seeds.

• Eliminate fall tillage. Leave waste grain available.

• Burn and/or disk areas of stage 2 and 3 succession where needed to provide bare ground.

• Leave some areas of small grains (wheat, millet, milo or oats) unharvested.

• Plant annual food plots in areas lacking grain.

• Disk or bushhog areas (30 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses of stage 4 vegetation.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large areas of stage 6 woodland.

• Burn areas (40 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres pre-ferred) in large areas of stage 4 shrubs.

• Livestock grazing can be used to keep some areas in stage 2 and 3 vegetation.

Cover: Mourning doves prefer tall shrubs and trees for nesting and loafing. Nests are made of twigs placed on branches of shrubs or trees. Nests are also placed on the ground.

• Plant shrubs and trees in large areas of stage 2 and 3 plant succession or in agricultural areas hav-ing few trees or shrubs. Plant along field borders, fencerows or on any other idle land area.

Water: Mourning doves require water daily. They prefer shorelines and banks without vegetation. Where water is limited or absent, development of water sources is desirable.

Northern BobwhiteGeneral Habitat PreferenceStages 2, 3 and 4 of plant succession interspersed. Ideal habitat comprises weedy fields with native warm-season grasses well interspersed with low growing shrubs. Cropland planted to grains and well-interspersed, thinned woodlands are also used.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Young quail eat insects. Adult quail eat a vari-ety of seeds, green vegetation (mostly forbs), insects and small grains.

• Convert fields of non-native grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass and bermudagrass) to native warm-season grasses and associated forbs.

• Leave some grain unharvested.

• Eliminate fall tillage.

• Harvest timber (<20-acre patches or strips) in large expanses of stage 6 forest.

• Use timber stand improvement practices where needed to thin trees in stage 5 and 6 forests.

• Plant soft-mast-bearing shrubs where few are pres-ent (hawthorn, crabapple and wild plum).

• Burn areas (40 acres or less) in large expanses of stage 3 and 4 vegetation. Annual burning in stage 5 and 6 forest is also beneficial.

• Disk small areas (10 acres or less) in large ex-panses of stages 3 and 4 to encourage annual forbs and native grasses used by bobwhites.

• Bushhog small areas (10 acres or less) in large ex-panses of stage 4 vegetation where burning and/or disking are not possible.

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• Food plots can provide a supplemental food source where agricultural grain crops are scarce and/or where none is left unharvested for the birds.

• Keep livestock from over-grazing habitats. Ample amounts of herbaceous vegetation used for food by quail should be left in appropriate areas. This is es-pecially important in riparian areas.

Cover: Bobwhites need thick shrubs for hiding and roosting cover. Convert fields of non-native grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass and bermudagrass) to native warm-season grasses and associated forbs.

• Plant shrubs in areas where cover is scarce. Hedge-rows should be established to break up large fields (≥ 4 acres). Excellent choices include wild plum, hawthorn, crabapple, sumac and elderberry.

• Disk strips in large expanses of stage 3 and 4 suc-cession to encourage bobwhites to use annual forbs and grasses as brooding cover.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain dense shrub and herbaceous cover.

Water: Bobwhites do not require freestanding water. They are able to obtain necessary water from their food.

Northern FlickerGeneral Habitat Preference Open areas in stage 2 and 3 plant succession interspersed with areas of stage 5 and 6 plant suc-cession. Northern flickers are often found in riparian and urban areas. They pre-fer older urban residential areas with large trees, golf courses and parks.

Habitat Requirements Food: Ants are a favorite food and over 50 percent of their diet is insects. Northern Flickers also eat seeds, fruits and berries and are partial to the fruit of poison ivy. They usually feed in open areas.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses of stage 6 forests.

• Use timber stand improvement practices where needed in stages 5 and 6 of plant succession.

• Artificial feeders are used in urban areas. Flickers prefer suet feeders fastened to tree trunks.

• Use pesticides with caution in urban areas.

Cover: Northern flickers excavate holes for nesting in softwood trees like poplar, cottonwood and willow. They prefer old, mature trees that show signs of dy-ing or rotting. In treeless areas, they will nest in posts, holes in banks and holes in houses and structures.

• Retain standing dead trees (snags) when harvesting timber.

• Plant softwood trees in large expanses without trees.

Water: Not much is known about daily water require-ments. They probably obtain sufficient water from diet.

Potential Problems European starlings often take over flicker cavities for their own nests. Flickers can become a problem in ur-ban areas where they may create holes in wood siding on houses or damage ornamental trees. Wildlife dam-age management may be necessary.

Northern Harrier (Marsh Hawk)General Habitat PreferencesStages 3 and 4. Northern harriers typically inhabit sloughs, wet meadows, fresh or salt marshes, swamps, prairies and plains. They generally roost on the ground or perch on low objects such as fence posts or tree stumps.

Habitat Requirements Food: Mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects and fishes. Northern harriers eat mostly small mam-mals and hunt for food while on the wing over fields, marshes and meadows.

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OvenbirdGeneral Habitat PreferenceAssociated with stage 5 and 6 plant succession. Lives on or very near the ground.

Habitat Requirements Food: Mainly insects (ants, caterpillars and beetles) slugs, snails and earthworms. Seeds and fruits are also occasionally eaten.

• Use timber stand improvement practices in stage 5 and 6 forests to increase the availability of insects and other invertebrates.

Cover: Ovenbirds nest on the ground. They construct a unique nest, which is arched over in the shape of a Dutch oven, out of grasses and weed stems. The nest is usually well hidden in herbaceous vegetation on the forest floor. This vegetation is also used for hiding cover.

• Livestock should be kept out of woods to maintain a herbaceous understory.

• Timber stand improvement practices in stage 5 and 6 forests could increase cover used by this species.

• Plant trees and shrubs where stages 2 and 3 of plant succession compose more than 50 percent of the management area.

Water: Ovenbirds usually obtain necessary water from their diet but will use other water sources when available.

• Burn, bushhog or disk areas (40 acres maximum, 10 to 20 acres preferred) in large expanses of stage 4 (shrub) vegetation.

• Livestock grazing management should leave enough herbaceous canopy to support insects and small rodents.

Cover: Open country with herbaceous or low, woody vegetation for concealing nests. The northern harrier nests on the ground in tall grass, on a sedge tussock, willow clump, or over water on a stick foundation.

• Establish native warm-season grasses and associ-ated forbs.

Water: They obtain necessary water from their diet.

PigeonGeneral Habitat Preference In urban areas, large buildings, nearby parks and open land are used extensively.

Habitat Requirements Food: Pigeons forage on the ground. They readily eat waste grain and weed seeds. In urban areas they live mostly on human handouts.

Cover: They nest on window ledges, roof tops, bridges and a variety of structures.

Water: Pigeons require water frequently during warm seasons and are able to fly far enough to find it.

Potential ProblemsPigeons are non-native birds that have adapted well to human-altered environments, especially cities. In many areas, pigeons have become so numerous they are considered pests. In such situations, the manage-ment objectives should be to reduce the pigeon popu-lation as well as the quality and quantity of available habitat. Wildlife damage management is often needed.

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Red-eyed VireoGeneral Habitat Preference Associated with stages 5 and 6 of plant succession. Red-eyed vireos inhabit open deciduous and mixed forests with a dense understory of saplings, wooded clearings or borders of burned areas. They are found in both upland and river bottom forests and some-times in residential areas where abundant shade trees provide a continuous canopy. They are seldom found where conifers make up 75 percent or more of the basal area.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Mainly insects gleaned from leaf surfaces in mid- to upper-tree canopies. The red-eyed vireo also eats spiders, a few snails, wild fruits and berries.

• Timber stand improvement practices in stage 5 and 6 forests may increase invertebrate availability.

Cover: These birds nest in deciduous or coniferous trees or shrubs. They suspend deep, cup-shaped nests from a horizontal fork of a slender branch, usually in dense foliage 5 to 10 feet above the ground but some-times as high as 60 feet.

• Timber stand improvement practices in stage 5 and 6 forests could increase cover used by this species.

• Plant trees and shrubs in large areas of stage 3 and 4 plant succession.

Water: Red-eyed vireos obtain necessary water from their diet.

Redhead DuckGeneral Habitat PreferenceStage 2 wetlands for most activities. Redhead ducks usually nest in emergent aquatic vegetation associ-ated with stage 3 wetlands adjacent to stage 2 wetlands.

Habitat Requirements Food: Redheads, and especially ducklings, eat primarily aquatic invertebrates (mollusks, snails, crusta-ceans) during late spring and early summer. During the rest of the year, they prefer aquatic plants such as pondweeds, muskgrass, bulrush seeds, wild celery, water lily seeds and coontail.

• Control water level with water control structures to promote growth of tall emergent aquatic vege-tation (stage 3 wetlands) adjacent to stage 2 wet-lands with an abundance of floating and submerged aquatic vegetation (water depth 3 to 5 feet).

• Build ponds/wetlands with a minimum size of one surface acre of water and manage water levels to provide habitat similar to that described above.

• Construct small dikes to temporarily flood areas dominated by tall emergent aquatic vegetation dur-ing the nesting season.

Cover: Redhead ducks build nests out of emergent vegetation. Nests are usually placed above water or very near the shore in dense vegetation that provides concealment.

• Control water levels to promote growth of tall emergent aquatic vegetation. Strive for wetlands comprised of 50 percent stage 3 interspersed with 50 percent stage 2 wetlands.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain tall emergent aquatic vegetation adjacent to the water. Prolonged protection of nesting areas from disturbances such as fire and grazing can result in deterioration of vegetation structure and composition. Intense graz-ing of such areas every three to five years (after nesting season) often rejuvenates the vegetation. Usually only one-third to one-half of the nesting area should be treated during any one year.

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• Burning every three to five years and bushhogging can be used to rejuvenate deteriorated vegetation (see livestock grazing).

Water: Redhead ducks require water as described above.

Note: Although redheads are included in the Wetlands Region, they are found in Tennessee only in winter during migration.

Red-tailed HawkGeneral Habitat Preference Open areas (stages 2 and 3 of plant succession) inter-spersed with trees (stages 4, 5 and 6 of plant succes-sion). Single trees in open areas are often used.

Habitat Requirements Food: Small mammals, such as ground squirrels, rab-bits and mice, are the major food items. Some birds and reptiles are also eaten.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain some areas with an adequate herbaceous ground layer for small mammals to live in.

• Burn, disk or bushhog areas (40 acres maximum) in large expanses of stage 4 vegetation. Burning, disk-ing, bushhogging and managed grazing can also be used to rejuvenate stage 3 vegetation and improve small mammal habitat.

• Harvest timber (40 acres maximum) in large ex-panses of stage 6 forest.

• Plant trees in areas where trees are absent.

Cover: Nests are usually built 30 to 90 feet above the ground in the crotch or fork of a tree. Cliffs are used less frequently.

• Plant trees where trees are not present.

• Maintain large mature trees in areas where trees are not plentiful.

Water: Red-tailed hawks obtain necessary water from their diet.

Red-winged Blackbird (Breeding Habitat)General Habitat Preference Stage 3 wetlands dominated by emergent aquatic vegetation.

Habitat Requirements Food: Red-winged blackbirds use waste grain and seeds of annual forbs in fall, winter and early spring. They eat a variety of insects in the summer. Many of the insects used for food are associated with tall emer-gent aquatic vegetation such as cattails, bulrushes, marsh grass and a variety of shrubs and trees.

• Control water levels with water control structures and small dikes to provide shallow water where emergent vegetation can grow.

• Construct ponds and wetlands with shallow water (< 2 feet deep) where tall emergent aquatic vege-tation can grow.

• Livestock grazing adjacent to and/or in wetlands should be managed to maintain cattails, shrubs and trees.

• Burning, disking and bushhogging every three to five years can be used to rejuvenate old, decadent emergent aquatic vegetation.

Cover: These birds nest close to the ground or water in dense clumps of emergent aquatic or other herba-ceous vegetation. They often roost (rest) in the same areas or in nearby trees and shrubs.

• The practices listed under “Food” could also be used to manage cover.

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• Plant trees and shrubs adjacent to wetlands and ponds (not on the dike or dam).

Water: Red-winged blackbirds frequent areas associ-ated with water.

Potential ProblemsThis species can be a pest in agricultural areas where they may damage crops. In such situations, manage-ment objectives may be to reduce the quality and quantity of habitat. It is often more appropriate to manage for this species in urban wetlands and other areas where crop damage is not likely.

Ruffed GrouseGeneral Habitat PreferenceStages 4, 5 and 6 of plant succession. Optimum habi-tat includes all three stages interspersed in close prox-imity to each other.

Habitat Requirements Food: Primarily buds, acorns, beechnuts, soft mast, and flowers and leaves of forbs. Young grouse eat insects.

• Harvest timber (20 acres maximum, 0.10 to 10 acres preferred) in stage 6 forest. Grouse begin using regenerated stands about five years after harvest.

• Burning can be used to maintain succession in stages 4 and 5 and improve brood cover in stages 5 and 6.

• Timber stand improvement practices can enhance cover in stages 5 and 6.

• Plant mast trees where stages 2 and 3 compose ≥40 percent of the available habitat.

• Plant trees or shrubs along edges of forest openings where soft mast may be limited.

• Livestock grazing should be managed so young de-ciduous trees and shrubs are maintained in the area (i.e., cows should be kept out of the woods).

• Provide drumming log sites if not available.

Cover: Grouse prefer 6- to 20-year-old stands and mature stands with a dense midstory for cover.

Cover can be improved using practices listed under “Food.”

Water: Grouse obtain necessary water from their diet.

Song SparrowGeneral Habitat Preference Open areas of stages 2 and 3 with nearby shrubs and small areas of stages 5 and 6. Often nest along forest edges.

Habitat Requirements Food: Weed seeds and insects of all kinds. Artificial feeders of all types may be used.

• Provide artificial feeders. Millet and sunflower seeds are favorites.


Cover: Thick shrubs for nesting and hiding. The song sparrow nest, made of grass, leaves and weeds, is often placed on the ground under a shrub or in thick herbaceous cover.

• Avoid disturbing nests.

• Plant and maintain shrubs.

Water: In warm seasons, song sparrows require water frequently.

• Provide birdbaths and pans of water. Place water in areas where cats cannot catch the birds.

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Wild TurkeyGeneral Habitat PreferenceOne-third to one-half of the turkey’s home range in stage 6 of plant succession interspersed with one-third to one-half of range in stages 2 and 3 and one-eighth to one-fourth in stage 4 of plant succession.

Habitat Requirements Food: Turkeys forage mostly on the ground for herba-ceous plant seeds, nuts, acorns and insects. They also feed upon waste grain from croplands.

• Burn every three to five years in stages 3, 5 and 6 to rejuvenate native warm-season grasses and associ-ated forbs and promote herbaceous cover in woods.

• Burn, disk or bushhog small areas to maintain stage 4 vegetation.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum) in large ex-panses (> 100 acres) of stage 6 forest cover.

• Use timber stand improvement practices to enhance structure and composition in stage 5 and 6 forests where needed.

• Plant food plots (annual and perennial) and plant small (2- to 10-acre) fields to native warm-season grasses and associated forbs where there are ex-panses of stage 4, 5 or 6 vegetation and to replace non-native grasses, such as tall fescue, orchard-grass, bermudagrass, etc.

• Plant mast trees in areas where little mast (< ¼ of property in mast producing hardwoods) is available and where roost sites are limited.

• Eliminate fall tillage of grain crops, especially adjacent to woodlands.

• Leave small areas of grain crops unharvested.

• Livestock grazing management should leave some forbs and grasses available for food and brooding cover. This is especially important in riparian areas.

Cover: The nest is a shallow depression on the ground lined with leaves and grass. It is usually well concealed amongst vegetation or against some object (e.g., tree or log). Wild turkeys roost in trees at night.

• Convert fields of non-native grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass and bermudagrass) to native warm-season grasses and associated forbs.

• Retain hardwood corridors in pine plantations.

• Maintain a significant component of vegetation in stages 5 and 6 of succession, especially along ripar-ian areas.

• Plant trees and shrubs where cover is sparse to break up large fields (≥ 4 acres) by establishing hedgerows.

• Livestock grazing management should leave her-baceous cover for nesting and brood rearing during spring and summer.

Water: Wild turkeys will use free-standing water when available; however, they obtain necessary water mostly from their diet.

• Water source may be developed if none is available on property.

Wood DuckGeneral Habitat Preference Shallow-water wetlands with emergent woody vege-tation. Stage 5 and 6 forests shallowly flooded. Also stage 3 and 4 wetlands dominated by trees adjacent to stage 2 wetlands.

Habitat Requirements Food: Acorns and other fruits of woody plants, some grain, seeds of several aquatic plants and insects. In-sects are especially important for young wood ducks.

• Control water levels with water control structures and small dikes to provide shallow water areas for feeding, roosting, loafing and brood rearing.

• During late fall and winter, temporarily flood areas (6 inches to 2 feet deep) of stage 6 deciduous forest

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with mast trees (e.g., several of the oaks) and fields where grain crops have been harvested. Natural flooding may occur, or small dikes and water con-trol structures may be used.

• Leave small areas of unharvested cropland near wetlands and open water.

• Where lacking, mast trees should be planted ad-jacent to wetlands and in areas that can be tem-porarily flooded.

• Timber stand improvement practices can be used to improve mast production in stands that can be flooded.

• Construct wetlands and provide shallow water ar-eas for emergent aquatic vegetation.

Cover: Wood ducks nest in cavities in trees of flooded woodlands or adjacent to water. They use stage 2 and 3 wetlands with an abundance of aquatic vegetation to raise young.

• Temporarily flood stage 4 brushy cover in late fall and winter for loafing and roosting cover. In late spring and summer of alternate years, stage 4 brushy cover (≥ 1 acre) may be shallowly flooded to provide brood-rearing cover.

• Provide nest boxes if nest sites are limited (1 per 100 yards of shoreline).

• Retain snags and large trees with cavities when implementing timber stand improvement practices.

• Where lacking, trees and shrubs that can be shal-lowly flooded should be planted on suitable sites.

• To maintain adequate shrub cover, keep livestock out of woods that are to be flooded.

• Construct wetlands. Provide shallow water areas where emergent aquatic vegetation can grow.

• Control water level to provide open shallow water areas (stage 2 wetlands) adjacent to areas dominated by emergent aquatic (stage 3 wetlands) vegetation.

Water: Water is required as described above.

Yellow-rumped WarblerGeneral Habitat Preference Associated with stages 4, 5 and 6 of plant succession.

Habitat Requirements Food: Mainly insects (ants, caterpillars and beetles) gleaned from branches and leaves of trees and shrubs.

• Uneven-aged forest management (stage 6) and tim-ber stand improvement practices (stages 5 and 6) may increase insect availability.

Cover: These birds nest in both coniferous and de-ciduous trees. Occasionally they nest in shrubs. The nest is placed on small branches 10 to 30 feet above the ground and is made of twigs, bark strippings and weed stems. Trees and shrubs also provide hiding and protective cover.

• To maintain adequate shrub cover, keep livestock out of woods.

• Uneven-aged forest management (stage 6) and timber stand improvement practices (stages 5 and 6) encourage growth of shrubs and young trees that will provide future cover for this species.

• Plant trees and shrubs in large areas of stage 2 and 3 plant succession.

Water: Yellow-rumped warblers usually obtain nec-essary water from their diet, but they use other water sources when available.

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Mammals

BeaverGeneral Habitat PreferenceRiparian areas in stages 4 and 5 of plant succession and wetlands with permanent water and a variety of shrubs and trees adjacent to the water.

Habitat Requirements Food: Primarily the bark and wood of shrubs and trees, also some forbs and grasses. Beavers store shrub and tree cuttings in caches (piles of branches) for use during the winter.

• Plant willows, other shrubs and deciduous trees near water that can be used by beavers. If beavers are already in the area, new plantings may need protection.

• Livestock grazing should be managed so that shrubs and trees are maintained adjacent to waters used by beavers. This may include developing live-stock watering facilities in upland areas to discour-age congregation of livestock around riparian areas.

Cover: Beavers construct lodges from sticks and mud or dig burrows in banks of streams and rivers. Beavers prefer slow-moving or still water with a constant wa-ter level. They build dams out of tree branches, shrubs and mud to form ponds, which stabilize water levels, slow water movement and provide shelter beneath the ice in winter.

• Protect and maintain beaver dams. When beavers construct dams in places that cause problems for people, removal of the beaver(s) is usually the best solution. If the dam is destroyed and the beavers remain, they will usually build the dam again. Another option is to install a water control device, such as a Clemson Beaver Pond Leveler, in the beaver dam.

Water: Water requirements are discussed under cover requirements. Water should be deep enough (5 feet) to allow free movement under the ice in winter.

Potential ProblemsIn some areas, beavers are a nuisance. Beavers can cut down trees people want to save. They often dam up ditches and streams in undesirable places, flooding cropland and causing trees to die from flooding. Wild-life damage management may be necessary.

• Beavers can become too numerous and eat all available shrubs and trees. To prevent this, it may be necessary to periodically remove some beavers through trapping.

BobcatGeneral Habitat PreferencesBobcats occur in a wide variety of habitats and are often associated with rocky outcrops (stage 1); semi-open farmlands (stages 2 and 3); brushy areas (stage 4); heavily wooded uplands, including the mountains; and bottomland forests (stages 5 and 6). Bobcats are nocturnal and seldom active in the daytime. The bob-cat is classified as a furbearer.

Habitat RequirementFood: Rodents (squirrels, chipmunks, voles, rats and mice), domestic poultry, rabbits, opossum, raccoons, skunks, birds and snakes are preyed on by bobcats.

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Bobcats are capable of killing a mature deer, but most of the deer they kill are fawns. The bobcat is not a sig-nificant cause of deer mortality in Tennessee.

• Harvest timber in stage 6 woodlands and burning in stages 3 – 6 can increase prey abundance.

• Timber stand improvement practices can be imple-mented in stage 5 and 6 forests where needed to enhance habitat for prey species, thus benefitting bobcats.

• Protect poultry from predation by bobcats by keep-ing poultry in cages or predator-proof exclosures.

Cover: The importance of rockpiles or broken rocky ledges to bobcats for dens is well known. Bobcats also use brushpiles, cavity trees and hollow logs as rest areas and birthing dens.

• Construct brushpiles where cover is scarce.

• Retain large cavity trees, snags and downed hollow logs during timber harvest.

• Establish hedgerows across large fields (≥ 4 acres) to increase usable space for bobcats.

• Manage livestock grazing so that adequate cover for prey is retained.

Water: Although water requirements are not well documented, bobcats are known to use free standing water. Much of their water requirement may be met by their diet.

Potential ProblemsIn some areas, bobcats can become too numerous and attack livestock and pets. To pre-vent this from happening, it may be necessary to periodically remove some bobcats. Bobcat pelts are also valuable for their fur.

CoyoteGeneral Habitat PreferenceCoyotes are found throughout the continental United States. Coyotes have also been observed in large cities and urban areas. Stages 2, 3 and 4 are primary coyote habitats, particularly grasslands and areas where tim-berlands have been cleared for agriculture. Coyotes also use stage 5 and 6 forests. They den in a wide va-riety of places, including brush-covered slopes, steep banks, rock ledges, thickets and hollow logs. Coyotes may be active throughout the day but tend to be more active during the early morning and around sunset. Coyotes may live in packs, alone or in mated pairs.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Coyotes eat insects, rodents, persimmons and other fruit, songbirds, rabbits, deer, groundhogs, goats, poultry, cattle and watermelons. Livestock and wild ungulates (deer, elk, pronghorn) are eaten pri-marily as carrion. However, in some cases, coyotes have been known to prey heavily on deer and prong-horn fawns, limiting their reproductive success. In 16 studies, coyotes were responsible for 82 percent of all sheep losses that resulted from predation.

• Harvest timber using creating clearcuts in large expanses of stage 5 and 6 forests can increase prey abundance.

Cover: Coyotes are, perhaps, the most adaptable wild-life species on earth. They may use essentially any source of natural cover where prey might be found.

Water: Water requirements for coyotes are not well documented. Much of their water requirement should be met by their diet.

Potential ProblemsIn some instances, the predatory habits of coyotes can be a problem for wildlife managers and livestock pro-ducers; therefore, wildlife damage management may be necessary.

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Eastern CottontailGeneral Habitat PreferenceStages 2, 3 and 4 of plant succession. Ideal habitat would be one-third grassland, one-third cropland and one-third shrub cover, all interspersed. Eastern cotton-tails also use parks, golf courses and stream corridors in urban areas.

Habitat Requirements Food: A variety of forbs and grasses are eaten from spring through fall. In winter, they often eat the bark of shrubs and trees.

• Plant one-eighth- to one-quarter-acre annual and perennial food plots (grain and forage plots) in areas where cropland and/or natural forage are not plentiful. One plot per 15 acres maximum.

• Burning, disking and bushhogging can be used to maintain or rejuvenate small areas of stage 2, 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Harvest timber (10 acres maximum) in large ex-panses of stages 6 forest.

• Timber stand improvement practices can provide additional forage in stages 5 and 6.

• Livestock grazing management should keep cows out of food plots and leave ample amounts of her-baceous vegetation in other areas used by cotton-tails for food and cover.

Cover: Cottontails use thick shrub or herbaceous vegetation for hiding and resting cover.

• Plant shrubs in large areas of stage 2 and 3 plant succession or in agricultural areas having few trees or shrubs. Plant along field borders, fencerows or other idle land areas. Establishing hedgerows is also appropriate.

• Establish native warm-season grasses and associ-ated forbs, which is especially helpful when they

replace non-native, sod-forming grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass and bermudagrass).

• Harvesting timber (stage 6) will increase available cover for rabbits for a few years after harvest.

• Timber stand improvement practices (heavy thin-nings) implemented adjacent to fields will enhance cover for rabbits.

• Provide brushpiles around fields if additional cover is needed.

• Eliminating tillage in the fall helps conserve cover and food resources for rabbits.

Water: Cottontails obtain necessary water from their diet.

Potential ProblemsWhen overabundant, they can cause damage to orna-mental and garden plants and may require wildlife damage management.

Eastern Fox SquirrelGeneral Habitat Preference Stages 5 and 6 of plant succession with interspersed small openings (stages 2 and 3 of plant succession). Riparian areas are important, and fox squirrels also use urban areas with lots of trees.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Fox squirrels spend much time foraging on the ground. They feed on a variety of nuts, acorns, seeds, mushrooms, bird eggs and, in places, corn.

• Harvest timber in large areas of stage 6 forest. Leave three to four den trees and several other ma-ture trees per acre.

• Timber stand improvement practices can improve food availability in stages 5 and 6.

• Burning and bushhogging can be used to maintain small areas in stage 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Plant mast-producing trees along fencerows, adjacent to streams or in other idle land areas. When possible, locate plantings adjacent to existing croplands.

• Leave some grain unharvested in croplands adja-cent to trees.

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• Leave some crop residue untilled in the fall, espe-cially near woodlands.

• In urban areas, corn or sunflower seeds can be spread out on the ground under trees used by fox squirrels. Artificial feeders can also be used.

Cover: Fox squirrels nest in cavities in trees or build a nest out of twigs and leaves. The nest is usually placed in the crotch of a tree over 30 feet above the ground. In areas where den sites are scarce, fox squir-rels will use nest boxes.

• Need 3 to 4 den trees or suitable nest boxes per acre. Nest boxes are most beneficial in stage 5 woodlands and urban areas lacking den sites.

• Leave hardwood corridors.

• Plant trees in large areas of stage 2, 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Manage livestock grazing in riparian areas to main-tain large deciduous trees and provide adequate herbaceous vegetation.

Water: Water requirements are generally met by the food consumed. However, in late summer, this may not be adequate. In urban areas, provide a pool or pan of water if other sources are not available.

Potential ProblemsAlthough problems are rare, fox squirrels can be a nuisance and cause property damage, thus requiring wildlife damage management techniques in some situations.

Eastern Gray SquirrelGeneral Habitat Preference Deciduous forests in stages 5 and 6 of plant succession.

Habitat Requirements Food: Gray squirrels spend much time foraging on the ground. They feed on a variety of nuts, grains, acorns, seeds, mushrooms and buds.

• Timber stand improvement practices can increase food availability in stages 5 and 6. Potential den trees and snags should be retained.

• Plant mast trees where stages 5 and 6 make up < 40 percent of the area.

• Leave some grain unharvested (corn preferred) and/or eliminate fall tillage of croplands adjacent to stage 5 and 6 vegetation.

• Plant mast-producing trees along fencerows, adjacent to streams or in other idle land areas. When possible, locate plantings adjacent to existing croplands.

• Keep cows out of woods through livestock grazing management.

• Maintain deciduous tree corridors along streams. Trees and shrubs may be planted to establish a hedgerow, providing a corridor across a field.

Cover: Gray squirrels nest in cavities in trees or build nests out of twigs and leaves. The nest is usually placed in the crotch of a tree over 30 feet above the ground.

• Three to four den trees per acre are desirable.

Water: Water requirements are generally met by the food gray squirrels consume.

Potential ProblemsGray squirrels commonly become nuisances and cause property damage. They may require wildlife damage manage-ment techniques in some situations.

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MuskratGeneral Habitat PreferenceStage 2 and 3 wetlands interspersed.

Habitat Requirements Food: Muskrats eat the roots, tubers and the green parts of emergent aquatic vegetation such as cattails and bulrushes.

• Burning, disking and bushhogging can be used to rejuvenate old, decadent wetland vegetation.

• Control water levels with water control structures. Provide wetland areas where the water is < 2 feet deep so cattails and bulrushes can grow. Up to 80 percent of the wetland should be able to grow such vegetation.

• Ponds and wetlands can be constructed with shal-low water areas where emergent aquatic vegetation can grow.

• Provide shallow water areas in existing ponds and wetlands so that emergent vegetation can grow.

• Small dikes can be used to temporarily flood areas to promote the growth of cattails and bulrushes.

• Livestock grazing should be managed to maintain healthy vegetation along the banks and shores of streams, rivers and other wetlands. In some regions, this may include the development of livestock wa-tering facilities in uplands to discourage congrega-tion in and overuse of riparian areas.

Cover: Muskrats build lodges out of bulrushes and cattails usually in dense stands of the same plants. Muskrats rest on open shorelines, floating logs or on tops of lodges. They also make dens in banks.

• Practices under “Food” can provide areas for lodges.

Water: Muskrats need water, either sufficiently deep (4 feet) or flowing to allow free movement under the ice during the winter. During warm seasons, muskrats prefer water 1 to 2 feet deep, with around 20 percent of the wetland composed of open water, free of emer-gent aquatic vegetation. Again, controlling the water level when possible can be a beneficial management practice.

MinkGeneral Habitat Preference Mink prefer habitat associated with stream and river banks and the shores of a variety of wetlands.

Habitat Requirements Food: Mink eat rabbits, mice, waterfowl, muskrats, fish and crayfish, depending on availability. They find most of their food in close association with dense vegetation along the shores of wetlands.

• Burning, disking and bushhogging can rejuvenate old, decadent wetland vegetation that, in turn, can improve habitat for animals mink prey upon.

• Control water levels with water control struc-tures to promote the growth of emergent aquatic vegetation adjacent to open water.

• Ponds and wetlands can be constructed with shal-low water areas where emergent aquatic vegetation can grow.

• Provide shallow water areas in existing ponds and wetlands where emergent vegetation can grow.

• Small dikes can be used to temporarily flood areas, which can improve habitat for animals mink prey upon.

• Livestock grazing should be managed to maintain healthy vegetation along the banks and shores of streams, rivers and other wetlands. In some regions, this may include the development of livestock wa-tering facilities in uplands to discourage congrega-tion of livestock along riparian areas.

Cover: Mink use dens made in log jams, old muskrat burrows, rockpiles and under tree roots. The availabil-ity of den sites is considered to be a key factor in de-termining how many mink can use an area. Areas near shorelines with limited livestock grazing and lots of trees and shrubs usually have more potential den sites.

The practices discussed under “Food” also can improve cover.

Water: Mink are found in association with water.

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Potential ProblemsMuskrats are a common nuisance in wetlands man-aged for waterfowl and other wetland wildlife because they dig tunnels in dikes used to manage water levels. Wildlife damage management is often necessary.

RaccoonGeneral Habitat Preference Raccoons are most abundant near water and in ripar-ian areas and land adjacent to wetlands. They are also found in urban areas. They prefer areas interspersed with different successional stages. Riparian areas in stages 5 and 6 of plant succession are ideal.

Habitat Requirements Food: Raccoons eat a wide variety of foods, includ-ing birds, eggs, fish, small mammals, insects, crayfish, grains, seeds, fruits, and foods prepared for human and pet consumption.

• Burning, disking and bushhogging can be used to reju-venate old, deca-dent wetland vegetation.

• Control water levels with water control structures. Pro-vide wetland areas where water is < 2 feet deep so aquatic emergent vege-tation can grow.

• Wetlands can be established, using small dikes, to provide shallow water areas where emergent aquatic vegetation can grow.

• Provide shallow water areas where emergent vege-tation can grow in existing ponds and wetlands.

• Leave small, unharvested areas of grain crops adja-cent to woodlands.

• Plant annual food plots to grains.

• Timber stand improvement practices can stimulate soft mast production and provide habitat for in-creased prey species.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain healthy vege-tation along the banks and shores of streams, rivers and other wetlands.

Cover: Raccoons nest and rest during the day in natu-ral tree cavities; dens in the ground; under brush and junk piles; in old, abandoned buildings; and on rocky cliffs and ledges.

• Plant and maintain large deciduous trees (where lacking), especially in riparian areas and areas adja-cent to wetlands.

• Maintain corridors and establish riparian buffers where needed.

Water: Raccoons require water frequently during warm seasons.

• Build ponds or wetlands.

• Provide pools of water in urban areas.

Potential ProblemsRaccoons can become pests in urban areas and also in wetlands where waterfowl nesting is important. In such instances, the management objectives may be to make the habitat less suitable for raccoons. They are also major predators of quail and turkey eggs and broods. Wildlife damage management may be necessary.

Red Squirrel (Boomer)General Habitat Preference Stages 5 and 6 of plant succession.

Habitat Requirements Food: Seeds of conifer trees, nuts, fruits, eggs and mushrooms.

• Using timber stand improvement practices in stage 5 and 6 woodlands can increase the variety of avail-able foods where needed.

Cover: Red squirrels nest in natural tree cavities or old woodpecker holes or build nests out of twigs, leaves, and shredded bark. Nests are built on large tree limbs close to the trunk. Maintaining trees provides cover.

• Maintain corridors between patches in stages 5 and 6.

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Water: Red squirrels require water regularly; how-ever, there is usually an adequate supply of water where red squirrels are found.

Wapiti (elk)General Habitat Preference Stages 3 and 4 of plant succession intermingled with stages 5 and 6.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Perennial grasses are the primary food source, but elk also eat substantial amounts of forbs and shrubs.

• Burn small areas (40 acres maximum) in large ex-panses of stage 4, 5 and 6 vegetation.

• Where burning is not possible, bushhog small areas (40 acres maximum) in large expanses of stage 4 vegetation.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum) in large ex-panses of stage 6 forest.

• Use timber stand improvement practices where needed in stage 5 and 6 forests.

• Plant fields of native warm-season grasses and as-sociated forbs where they represent < 25 percent of the area. Also, plant cool-season forage food plots where winter forage is limiting. This is most effec-tive when done in areas used in the winter.

Cover: Elk use thick shrubs and various types of for-est cover for seclusion and calving cover.

• Maintain 40 percent of the area in stage 5 and 6 forest. Areas of forest do not need to be larger than 100 acres.

• Maintain strips of stage 5 and 6 vegetation for use as travel corridors between large blocks of stage 5 and 6 vegetation.

Water: Elk use water regularly in the summer. Areas with water within one-half mile are preferred.

• Where water is limited or absent, development of water sources is desirable.

White-tailed Deer General Habitat Preference Stages 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of plant succession inter-spersed. Ideal habitat for white-tailed deer may in-clude roughly 45 percent mast-producing hardwoods, 30 percent dense cover and 25 percent early succes-sional growth, of which 2 to 5 percent may be in man-aged food plots.

Habitat Requirements Food: Acorns, forbs, browse of certain plants and waste grain are favorite foods.

• Harvest timber (30 acres maximum, 2 to 20 acres preferred) in stage 6 forest cover.

• Timber stand improvement practices in stage 5 and 6 forests can increase food resources where needed.

• Plant forage and grain food plots in large expanses of stage 5 and 6 woodland and where fields are dominated by grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchard-grass and bermudagrass) that provide little benefit to deer and other wildlife.

• Plant mast trees when < 40 percent of the area is in mast-producing hardwoods.

• Plant soft-mast-producing trees and shrubs where none or few are present.

• Leave small areas of unharvested cropland adjacent to woodlands.

• Eliminate fall tillage of grain crop residue adjacent to woodlands.

• Time harvest of crops and hay so fawning sites are not disturbed (i.e., late May through June).

• Plant fields of native warm-season grasses and as-sociated forbs where quality early successional cover makes up < 25 percent of the area.

• Burn at two- to five-year intervals in stage 5 and 6 forest and in stage 3 and 4 vegetation.

• Disk stage 2 and 3 vegetation every 1 to 2 years to stimulate fresh forb growth for grazing.

• Bushhog small areas to maintain stage 3 and 4 vegetation when/where burning and/or disking are not possible.

• Livestock grazing management should be used to keep livestock out of the woods to increase forb and browse availability.

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Cover: White-tailed deer use forests, brush thickets and tall grasses for hiding and travel cover. They also use tall emergent aquatic vegetation in riparian areas and brushy upland drainages for cover.

• Plant trees and shrubs in open ravines, along field borders and on other idle land areas where cover is lacking.

• Plant trees (especially pines) in blocks where cover is limited (e.g., large, open fields > 50 acres).

• Establish native warm-season grasses — especially big bluestem, indiangrass and switchgrass — and associated forbs in large open fields where cover (i.e., forest and shrubland) is limited (< 30 percent).

• Provide corridors (hedgerows) in open areas (> 4 acres) for travel lanes.

Water: White-tailed deer drink free water when it is available. A dugout water development may be appro-priate if there is no standing water on the property.

Potential ProblemsWhen overabundant, white-tailed deer can be a nui-sance because they feed on crops, ornamental shrub-bery and flowers and can seriously degrade habitat. Wildlife damage management may be necessary. Increasing bag limits for females can be essential for proper management.

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BullfrogGeneral Habitat Preference Bullfrogs inhabit permanent bodies of standing or slow-moving water. They prefer shorelines with dense vegetation (stages 3 and 4 of wetland suc-cession), adjacent to shallow open water areas (stage 2) domi-nated by floating and submerged aquatic vegetation. Bullfrogs prefer a soft mud bot-tom under unfrozen water for hibernation. All habitat require-ments are often found in and around a single pond.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Major components of the diet include snails, insects, crayfish, other frogs, fish, reptiles, and occa-sionally small mammals and birds!

Cover: Bullfrogs use dense emergent aquatic and up-land herbaceous vegetation adjacent to water for hid-ing and foraging.

• Construct ponds and wetlands with shallow water areas.

• Control water levels with water control structures to encourage the growth of emergent aquatic vegetation adjacent to open water.

• Provide shallow water areas in existing ponds and wetlands.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain dense vege-tative cover on shores and banks adjacent to water. Limit livestock watering access to only a small area of the wetland.

Water: Bullfrogs need stable water levels for hiberna-tion and egg development.

• Control the water level. When possible maintain a constant water level.

ButterfliesGeneral Habitat PreferenceIn urban areas, butterflies are found in gardens, yards and parks planted with shrubs and flowers attractive to them. Butterflies often lay their eggs on a specific kind of plant.

Habitat RequirementsFood: Usually consists of sweet liquids such as nectar from flowers.

• Establish and maintain shrubs and herbaceous plants that attract butterflies. Examples include asters, verbenas, zinnia, marigold, lilac, bush cinquefolia, butterflyweed, dogbanes, milkweeds, goldenrods, wintercress, vetches, blackberries, sun-flowers, ironweed.

• Rooftop and balcony gardens planted with some of the plants mentioned above may also attract butterflies.

Cover: Butterflies need shelter from wind. Plant the above in areas sheltered from the wind.

• Use pesticides carefully.

Water: Some butterflies can be seen collecting on moist sand or mud around water puddles.

• Providing water puddles in an area may attract groups of these butterflies.

Other Species(Amphibians, Fish & Butterflies)

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FrogsGeneral Habitat Preference Weeds and aquatic vegetation on the edges of ponds, lakes and slow-moving streams. Mud bottoms are needed so frogs can bury themselves for hibernation during the winter.

Habitat Requirements Food: Insects.

• Use pesticides carefully.

Cover: Thick herbaceous vegetation on bank or shore adjacent to water. Frogs also hide among floating vegetation in the water next to the shore.

• Construct ponds and wetlands with both shallow water areas to encourage emergent aquatic vege-tation and deep water for hibernation. Small back-yard pools are often adequate.

• Control water levels with water control structures to insure adequate water depth for hibernation. This is also useful for encouraging emergent aquatic vegetation.

Water: Frogs need water to hide in. If their skin is not kept moist, many kinds of frogs will dry up and die.

• Riparian buffers should be established where lack-ing to maintain water quality.

Potential ProblemsFrogs can become so numerous that they become a problem in some areas. Vegetation control and other wildlife damage management practices may be needed.

Largemouth Bass/BluegillGeneral Habitat PreferencePonds, lakes and slow moving rivers.

Habitat Requirements Food: Young bass eat insects and other invertebrates, such as worms, crayfish and zooplankton (micro-scopic animal life). Adult bass eat other small fish

such as bluegill and a variety of minnows, tadpoles, crayfish, and even ducklings. In addition, adult bass may eat small mammals (e.g., voles, bats) that ac-cidentally get into the water. Bluegill eat a variety of zooplankton, insects, tadpoles, small minnows and crayfish.

• Construct ponds if no suitable water habitats is available.

• Maintain a green color in pond water (green enough that you cannot see a white disk placed 18 inches deep in the water). The color is caused by phytoplankton (microscopic plant life).

• If water is clear, fertilizer may be added to increase or promote phytoplankton.

• Determine pond balance using a minnow seine and catch records. A bluegill to bass ratio of 3 to 6 pounds of bluegill to 1 pound of bass is considered a good fish population balance.

• Harvest more or fewer bluegill, depending on seine sample results.

• Harvest more or fewer bass, depending on seine sample results.

• Remove existing fish and restock pond if warranted.

• Clear muddy water (brown or gray color) to allow phytoplankton growth.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain thick herba-ceous vegetation surrounding pond and in the wa-tershed that drains into the pond. Develop livestock watering facilities away from pond or allow access to only a small part of the pond.

• Reseed watershed if erodible bare areas are present.

Cover: Bass and bluegill are often found near sub-merged rocks, stumps, shrubs and near aquatic vegetation where small fish (used for food) hide.

• Artificial reefs constructed of rockpiles, sections of plastic or cement pipe (a minimum of 6 inches in diameter and 18 inches long), and brushpiles and tires (sunk with weight) can be used for additional cover. These practices are recommended for ponds larger than 10 surface acres in size.

• Deepening pond edges to 2 feet deep or more dis-courages rooted aquatic vegetation growth.

Water: These fish require an adequate quantity and quality of water.

• Stop pond leaks if and when they occur.

• Add water control structures if none are present.

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• Repair spillway if needed and remove trees near the dam or dikes.

• Bass/bluegill need specific water characteristics: (1) dissolved oxygen —minimum of 4 parts per million (ppm); (2) carbon dioxide — should not ex-ceed 20 ppm; (3) pH ranging between 6.5 and 9.0; and (4) water temperature of at least 80 degrees Fahrenheit sometime during the summer (one foot below surface in shade).

Rainbow TroutGeneral Habitat PreferenceCold-water lakes, ponds and fast-moving streams and rivers.

Habitat Requirements Food: Trout eat primarily insects; they also eat snails, crayfish and smaller fish. The amount of available food is often related to the quality of water and avail-able habitat for insects. In streams and rivers, many aquatic insects need fast moving water (riffles) high in dissolved oxygen along with a gravel or cobble bot-tom. Ideally a stream should have 50 percent riffles and 50 percent pools (slow moving water).

It is difficult to make riffles. Maintenance of riffles is important in streams with small amounts of them.

Aquatic vegetation provides habitat for insects in ponds and lakes. Some aquatic vegetation should be maintained (not over 30 percent of surface area). Vegetation on banks and shores provides habitat for insects.

• Manage livestock grazing to maintain thick vegetation on banks and shores. Develop livestock watering facilities away from streams, rivers, lakes or ponds. Or allow grazing access in small areas only.

• Collect fish (seine, fishing rod, electroshock) and determine their health.

• Harvest more trout if lack of food is inhibiting growth.

Cover: In streams and rivers, trout need pools for cover.

• Construct small rock or log dams. Changing a stream’s flow can have negative effects, such as increased erosion. Design of such dams should be done by an expert who understands stream flows.

• Place large rocks in fast moving water. Again, loca-tions should be selected with care.

• Riparian buffers may be needed to maintain water quality.

Water: Rainbow trout need high-quality water with specific characteristics: (1) dissolved oxygen — mini-mum of 6 parts per million (ppm); (2) pH should range between 6.5 and 9.0; and (3) water temperature should not exceed 70 degrees Fahrenheit at any time (one foot below surface in shade).

Test the water to see if it meets requirements. For ponds and lakes, these tests are especially important in the winter when ice prevents aquatic plants from receiving sunlight. Aerate to increase oxygen and de-crease carbon dioxide.

All practices related to ponds discussed under large-mouth bass and bluegill may be applicable to ponds for trout.

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Wildlife Management Practices (WMP)

I n this section, various habitat management practices are described. Identify and learn the practices recom-mended for each of the species listed in the region you are studying (i.e., Eastern Deciduous Forest, Wet-lands or Urban).

Reading additional materials and gaining experience in the field are important for making good habitat manage-ment decisions. It is also important to realize, however, that landowner objectives as well as the needs of dif-ferent wildlife species determine which practices you recommend.

At times, the best habitat management is maintaining an area in its current condition. This can include protecting the area from development and applying various management practices that will help keep the area in the desired condition. Note also that habitat management practices should be recommended for a specific site, based on the present condition(s) of the habitat.

It is important to visit a site in order to evaluate the conditions of the habitat. Habitat recommendations should be made only after evaluating a site. If a WMP can improve the habitat conditions on a site, then that WMP should be recommended. For example, bushhogging may be used to set back succession in an old-field. However, if you can see that the field has been bushhogged recently or if there is insufficient woody growth to warrant bushhogging, then do not recommend the practice.

Another example is the use of prescribed fire. Some practices call for burning forest stands on a three to five year rotation. However, if it is evident — or if the wildlife specialist tells the contestants — the stand has been burned in the last two years, then controlled (prescribed) burning should not be recommended. However, prescribed fire should be recommended for an old-field (or woods) if the practice is needed, even if conditions may not be opti-mal. For example, an old-field has small saplings growing in it and needs to be burned in order to set succession back to stage 3. The practice should be marked during a contest held in May or June even if burning may not be possible at that time of year.

This handbook does not consider costs or budgets when determining recommended practices. However, in actual situations, wildlife managers must consider economics when planning and recommending management practices.

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1. Artificial Feeders

General descriptionArtificial feeders are used primarily to feed wildlife in urban/suburban areas. A wide variety of feeder designs, methods and foods are available. Black-oil sunflower seeds and white proso millet are favorites for most birds. Some species prefer to eat suet (fat) rather than seeds (e.g., hairy woodpecker). Some spe-cies prefer to eat on the ground (e.g., brown thrasher) rather than in a tree or on a balcony. For details on dif-ferent designs and placement of artificial feeders, pick up a copy of Improving Your Backyard Wildlife Habi-tat (PB1633) at your county Extension office.

2. Bushhogging (Mowing)

General descriptionBushhogging involves mowing dense vegetation (in-cluding fairly large shrubs) with a large rotary mower mounted behind a tractor. When used to maintain early successional habitat, bushhogging should not be conducted until late winter/early spring to avoid

disrupting nesting birds and destroying cover. When used to maintain early successional fields, bushhog-ging should be prescribed only when it is apparent that woody species are encroaching in the field. In other words, bushhogging grassy fields is unneces-sary. When possible, prescribed burning and disking are preferred over bushhogging. Do not recommend more than one practice for a specific site at the same time. The wildlife specialist will make it clear whether or not burning is possible.

Effect on habitat • Helps keep vegetative succession in stages 2 or 3.

• Sometimes reverts succession from stage 4 to stage 3.

• Helps remove competition from some kinds of shrubs, allowing grasses and forbs to grow better.

• Sometimes helps keep vegetative succession in stage 4. Maintains low shrub growth with certain species of shrubs by encouraging resprouting.

• In stages 2, 3 and 4, helps rejuvenate grasses, forbs and shrubs, which improves nesting habitat for many species of birds.

• May be used to reduce weed competition in forage food plots.

• May be used in wetlands to increase interspersion by reducing vegetative cover.

• May cause thatch build-up, reducing availability of invertebrates and seed to young quail and turkeys and other ground feeding birds. Thatch build-up also reduces the ability of these animals to travel

Photo 14. Bushhogging can be used to set back succession and mow vegetation prior to preparing a seedbed for a food plot.

Photo 13. A variety of feeder types may be used to attract birds.

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5. Controlled (Prescribed) Burning

General descriptionPrescribed burning may be the most effective and effi-cient practice for managing one or more habitat types for most wildlife species. Burning, however, should be conducted only when danger of wildfire is low (i.e., when the wind, temperature and humidity allow a controlled burn). Burning early in the spring will not negatively affect ground-nesting wildlife. Burning fields before spring green-up ensures a complete burn. Burning fields later in the growing season may not be possible unless conditions are quite dry.

through the field and may reduce plant diversity by preventing the seedbank from germinating.

3. Build Brushpiles

General descriptionBrushpiles can be made from trees, saplings, branches or brush available from land clearing, timber harvest operations, tree pruning, etc. For best results, piles should be three to five feet high, 15 feet in diameter and relatively loose. This will allow grass and forbs to grow in them, creating more food and cover for wildlife. All larger limbs or sections of trunks should be placed on the bottom of the brushpiles with the smaller limbs and brush thrown on top. This allows more crevice space for denning and escape cover on the bottom of the brushpile. In areas with little brushy cover, five or more brushpiles per acre are recommended.

Effect on habitat • Particularly useful for rabbits (and bobcats) in areas

with little brushy cover, especially when placed ad-jacent to food resources.

• Useful at the edge between fields and woodlands.

Photo 15. Build brushpiles with the largest stems on the bottom to create more crevice space for wildlife.

Photos 16 &17. Burning is strongly recommended for both woods and fields. It is by far the best way to set back succession and manage fields for wildlife. Burning consumes the litter layer, allowing small wildlife to travel through the field easily. It also stimulates plant growth and allows the seedbank to germinate. The top picture was taken in March when the field was being burned. The bottom picture was taken in July. Conditions for brooding quail and turkeys were optimal, browsing by deer was obvious and rabbits were seen throughout the field when this picture was taken.

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Burning stages 4, 5 and 6 during April and May is fairly common in the South to control woody vege-tation and promote herbaceous plants. Burning should be conducted under the close supervision of forestry or wildlife professionals experienced with prescribed fire.

Results vary with the type of vegetation being burned, burning conditions, and the frequency and season of burning.

Prescribed fire should be used in fields instead of bushhogging whenever burning is possible.

General effects of fire • Reduces litter layer (e.g., dead leaves and grass),

which reduces chance of wildfire and enables seeds to reach mineral soil so they can germinate.

• Rejuvenates and stimulates herbaceous vegetation, improving nesting habitat for many bird species while enhancing forage, seed and invertebrate availability for deer, quail, turkeys, grouse, blue-birds and thrashers.

• Some shrubs are reduced, which improves the vigor and quality of forbs and grasses.

• Some understory shrubs sprout.

• Scarifies (breaks down outside coating) some seeds so they can germinate.

• Releases nutrients into the soil.

Effect on HabitatAnnual Burning

• Used primarily to manage brooding habitat for bobwhites and turkeys, creating a relatively sparse, open structure at ground level and enabling chicks to travel through the field or forest stand to find bugs and seeds.

• Promotes and maintains herbaceous vegetation in stages 2 and 3.

• In stage 4, causes succession to revert to stage 3.

• In stages 5 and 6 (pines and upland hardwoods), keeps understory shrubs thinned out and stimulates herbaceous undergrowth if stands are properly thinned.

Burning in 3- to 5-year intervals

• In stages 2 and 3, allows succession to progress, but more slowly than if left alone.

• Allows quail to use senescent leaves for nest material.

• Supports large and diverse populations of small mammals, benefitting bobcats and other predators.

• In stage 4, may make shrub growth more dense, because of abundant sprouting of shrubs; however, this depends upon the season and the intensity of the burn.

• In stages 5 and 6 (pines and upland hardwoods), may stimulate thicker understory of shrubs if stands are properly thinned; however, this depends upon the season and the intensity of the burn.

• Rejuvenates grass and grass-like vegetation in stage 3 and 4 wetlands.

• Periodic burning of vegetation-choked wetlands can improve water and cover interspersion, which benefits many wetland species.

6. Corridors/Hedgerows

General descriptionCorridors are areas of continuous habitat that permit animals to travel securely from one suitable habitat to another. As the landscape becomes more fragmented

(broken up) from housing developments, urbaniza-tion, clearing for agriculture, etc., small patches of suitable habitat are created. Corridors are important in connecting these “islands.” Corridors are normally quite large and cannot be readily identified on the ground. A smaller example of a corridor, however,

Photo 18. Corridors can be created across fields by establishing hedgerows.

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Bluegill Needed when seine samples and fishing records of pond reveal any of the following situations:

• Many recently hatched bluegill.

• Very few medium-sized bluegill.

• Bass less than one pound in poor condition.

• No young bass.

Trout Needed when seine and fishing records of pond reveal any of the following situations:

• Fish in good condition.

• Few medium- and large-sized fish.

• Many small fish.

Game birds and mammalsUsed when surveys show a continual population decline or when hunting success has continued to de-cline over a long period of time.

9. Disking

General descriptionAreas in successional stages 2, 3 and 4 can be disked to maintain/promote growth of annual and peren-nial forbs and grasses. Disking is a highly preferred management practice to set back succession in fields and stimulate the seedbank. Disking should be used instead of bushhogging where slope is not extreme (≤ 40 percent) and should be used where burning is not possible.

is a hedgerow. Hedgerows can be used in the same manner to connect woodlots across a field. Fields > 4 acres may be broken up by establishing hedgerows.

Note: Riparian buffers may act as corridors, but are not necessarily recommended for the same reasons. Corridors are often needed in upland areas as well.

Effect on Habitat• Corridors allow animals to meet and mate with

other animals of the same species from different populations, thus maintaining genetic diversity.

• Corridors are particularly effective at joining oth-erwise separate habitats for bobcats, broad-winged hawks, gray squirrels, wild turkeys and white-tailed deer. Other species, such as brown thrashers, blue-birds, rabbits, great-horned owls, hairy woodpeck-ers and quail use the corridor or hedgerow more as a separate habitat.

• Corridors and hedgerows allow animals to find suitable habitat for feeding, nesting or cover. In urban areas, relatively unbroken corridors found along stream side (riparian) areas and ravines allow wildlife to move into parks and other suitable habi-tats. Preservation, maintenance and creation of un-interrupted corridors are very important in wildlife habitat management.

• Establishing hedgerows increases the amount of edge, and the resulting smaller fields can be man-aged differently to meet the various food and cover requirements for different wildlife species.

8. Decrease Bag/Creel/Season LimitNote: The wildlife specialist will provide clues as to whether or not this practice is necessary.

Bass Needed when seine samples and fishing records of a pond reveal any of the following situations:

• No recent bluegill hatch.

• Many medium-sized bluegill in poor condition.

• Bass are few in number but large and in good condition.

Photo 19. Harvest fish of all species throughout the entire year.

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While disking is often used to create firebreaks to facilitate controlled burning, it should not be recom-mended in order to burn.

Effect on habitat • Keeps vegetative succession in stages 2 and 3.

• Promotes fresh herbaceous growth and enhances foraging habitat for eastern bluebirds, eastern cot-tontails and white-tailed deer.

• Enhances brood habitat for wild turkeys and bob-white quail where old-field vegetation has become rank (≥ 3 years old)

• In stage 3, causes succession to revert to stage 2.

• In stage 4, causes succession to revert to stage 2 or 3.

• Disking can be used to change the vegetation com-position where plants undesirable for wildlife occur.

• Can be used to decrease vegetative cover and increase interspersion in wetlands (during dry periods).

10. Fertilize Ponds

General descriptionWell-fertilized ponds can produce up to three times as many pounds of fish as unfertilized ponds. Ponds should not be fertilized if they have an aquatic weed problem.

Fishponds with water clear enough for you to see a white object placed 18 inches deep need to be fertil-ized. Start fertilizing fishponds in the spring when the water temperature reaches 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Apply at the rate of 40 pounds of 20-20-5 (or its equivalent) granular or one gallon of 11-36-0 liquid per acre at two-week intervals or until a good green color (phytoplankton bloom) develops in the pond. Make additional applications of fertilizer (at the same rate per surface acre) every three to four weeks or when the water clears and you can see deeper than 18 inches into the water. Continue this program until water temperatures drop below 60 degrees Fahrenheit in the fall.

If a pond does not develop a green bloom after several fertilizations, it is probably acidic and needs to be limed, or it has an aquatic weed problem. The need for lime is determined by the results of soil tests of pond mud. When water quality tests show total alka-linity below 20 ppm agricultural lime should be used.

If a pond has been properly fertilized for the past five years and if there is no concentration of weeds, future fertilizations can be done using phosphate only. The rate is 10 pounds of super-phosphate per acre per ap-plication. Make the first three applications two weeks apart. Apply at three to four week intervals thereafter.

Granular fertilizer must be distributed from an under-water platform in water less than 2 feet deep. Liquid fertilizer should be mixed with pond water and broad-cast from a boat (for large ponds) or from the bank of small ponds. Water-soluble powdered fertilizers can be broadcast from a boat or from the bank.

Effect on habitat • Fertilizer in ponds stimulates phytoplankton pro-

duction, which is the first link in the food chain of a fish pond.

12. Fish (Pond) or Wildlife Survey

General descriptionNote: While fish/wildlife surveys are always impor-tant, they should not be recommended if the wild-life specialist states that a survey has recently been completed.

Photo 20. Disking stimulates germination of seeds in the seedbank, providing increased forage and seed production, as well as cover.

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Fish surveys

In a farm pond, population balance is first established by stocking the correct number and kinds of fish. After the first year, check population balance during early summer by using a 1/8-inch mesh minnow seine, 15 feet long and 3 feet deep. Seine at intervals around the pond by anchoring one end at the bank, pulling the seine straight out from the bank to its full length, and then sweeping in an arc back to the bank. Four to five seine sweeps are usually enough in an average pond.

Balance is determined by comparing age groups, condition, numbers of bass and bluegill caught in the seine and fishing records for the pond. Recent reproduction of both bass and bluegill in the seine indicate that the fish population is balanced. Fish caught by hook-and-line can be evaluated on body condition (fat, skinny, size of head in relation to body, etc.). Evidence of disease is a good indicator of pond imbalance.

Unwanted species (bullheads, crappie, etc.) caught in the seine or when fishing indicates the pond needs to be rotenoned or drained.

Trout do not often reproduce in ponds, so overall health of the fish is used as an indicator of pond bal-ance. Growth rate, body condition (fat, skinny, size of head in relation to body, etc.), and no evidence of disease are good indicators of pond balance.

Wildlife surveys

Monitoring wildlife for trends of increasing or de-creasing populations or body weights of animals is important for wildlife managers. Data on white-tailed deer, black bear, wild turkeys, ruffed grouse, bobwhite quail, mourning doves and many songbirds are rou-tinely collected by wildlife biologists using infrared-triggered cameras, roadside counts, call counts, check stations, transects and questionnaires. These data are then used to prescribe future harvesting or land management strategies.

14. Grain (or Other Seed), Leave Unharvested

General descriptionStrips or blocks of grain or other crops (e.g., soy-beans) can be left unharvested. This is especially valuable if the strips are left adjacent to cover. This practice should be recommended only if there is an unharvested crop present. It is not applicable to grain food plots. For example, this practice should NOT be marked for a harvested cornfield in October but SHOULD be marked if evaluating a young cornfield in May or June.

Effect on habitat • Provides a valuable food source for many species of

wildlife (e.g., squirrels, quail, wild turkeys, white-tailed deer). This is especially important during years with poor mast crop. Wood ducks also benefit, especially if a suitable water source is nearby.

Photo 22. Recent reproduction of both bass and bluegill in the seine sample show that a pond is balanced.

Photo 21. A 15-foot minnow seine is used to determine pond balance.

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15. Harvest Timing (Crops/Hay)

General descriptionWhen possible, avoid harvesting crops or hay during nesting and fawning seasons to reduce nest destruc-tion and mortality.

16. Increase Bag/Creel/Season Limit

Note: The wildlife specialist will provide clues as to whether or not this practice is necessary.

BassNeeded when seine samples and fishing records of the pond reveal any of the following situations:

• Many recently hatched bluegill.

• Very few medium-sized bluegill.

• Bass less than one pound in poor condition.

• Few or no young bass.

Increase bass harvest cautiously. Target bass of less than 1 pound. Spread the harvest over the entire summer.

BluegillNeeded when seine samples and fishing records of pond reveal any of the following situations:

• No recent bluegill hatch.

• Many medium-sized bluegill in poor condition.

• Bass few, large and in good condition.

Target medium-sized bluegill using seine harvest or shoreline rotenone.

TroutNeeded when seine and fish records of pond reveal this situation:

• Many fish, small and in poor condition.

In many areas, extremely cold water reduces trout growth. In these situations, harvesting more may not be helpful.

Game birds and mammalsNeeded when animals show signs of stress and over-population, such as any of the following:

• Increase in prevalence of diseases and parasites.

• Destruction of habitat by overgrazing or over- browsing.

• Poor body condition and weight loss.

• Poor reproduction.

Photo 23. Young bass are easily caught.

Photo 24. Harvest 4 to 5 pounds of bluegill for every 1 pound of bass.

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17. Livestock Grazing Management (Including Fencing)

General descriptionThis practice is for managing the use of vegetation by livestock to enhance habitat for many wildlife spe-cies. Obviously, this practice should be recommended only when evidence of livestock is present and it is evident that livestock use is damaging wildlife habitat or is needed to improve habitat for selected wildlife species. If cows are grazing in woods, for example, a fence needs to be erected to keep them out.

In Tennessee, the primary use of this practice is to exclude livestock from food plots, woodlots, ponds, creeks and wetlands by using fencing. Be aware, however, that the national manual recommends this practice to manipulate successional stages to benefit wildlife, including grazing rangeland and woodlots. We do not advocate grazing cattle in woodlots. But, livestock may be used to manipulate the height and structure of native warm-season grasses in Tennes-see because these grasses provide excellent wildlife habitat. We do not recommend using livestock to manipulate non-native forage pasture (e.g., tall fes-cue, orchardgrass, bermudagrass) for wildlife because these grasses are detrimental to wildlife, displacing otherwise suitable habitat. Regardless of pasture type, high intensity grazing should be avoided and

rotational grazing (i.e., moving livestock from one paddock to another) practiced to prevent overgrazing.

Effect on habitat • Fencing livestock out of areas intended for wildlife

helps to maintain quality wildlife habitat and helps establish wildlife habitat.

• Rotational grazing prevents livestock from over-grazing vegetation also used by wildlife (e.g., na-tive warm-season grasses).

• If properly managed, livestock grazing may not be harmful to wildlife habitat, and in some instances, can be used to improve wildlife habitat.

• Fencing helps reduce siltation, turbidity and stream bank erosion while reducing stream and pond pollution from livestock wastes.

18. Nest Boxes

General descriptionSome species den, nest and/or roost in cavities they don’t excavate themselves (e.g., bluebirds, wood ducks, screech owls). If natural cavities are not avail-able, artificial cavities (nest boxes) can be used.

Many species need a certain kind of cavity (e.g., di-ameter of hole, depth, area) in a certain location (field,

Photo 25. Livestock should be fenced from ponds to prevent excessive erosion.

Photo 26. All wood duck boxes should have a conical shield below the box to keep predators (e.g., raccoons and rat snakes) out. Use no more than one box per 100 yards of shoreline.

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woods or water) and at a certain distance above the ground (4 to 20 feet).

The particular design and placement of nest boxes often determines which wildlife species will use the structures. Contact your county Extension office for specific designs of nest boxes and other artificial nest-ing/roosting structures.

Note: Nesting structures for Canada geese or mallards are not recommended in Tennessee because resident Canada geese have become so numerous and are a nuisance in most areas and because extremely few mi-gratory mallards nest in Tennessee.

Nest boxes are not recommended for squirrels or great horned owls in Tennessee because they commonly build nests outside cavities; thus, cavities are not a limiting resource for nesting.

Effect on habitat • In open areas (stages 2, 3 and 4): Always useful

for bluebirds unless an abundance of nesting cavi-ties or locations, such as hollow fence posts, iso-lated den or nesting trees, already exist.

• In ponds and wetlands: Provides secure nesting sites where trees with cavities suitable for nesting are absent.

19. Plant Food Plots

General descriptionPlanting grain and forage food plots can be very beneficial for many wildlife species (game and non-game, birds and mammals) primarily by providing supplemental food but also by providing additional cover in some circumstances. Grain food plots are annual warm-season plantings that include corn, milo and millet, as well as other seed, such as buckwheat, sunflowers, soybeans and cowpeas. Forage food plots may be annual or perennial, warm- or cool-season plots. Popular forage plantings include clovers, rape, winter peas, wheat, oats, cowpeas and lablab.

Food plots should be relatively small (1/8 to 2 acres — with the exception of fields/plots for doves) and well dispersed throughout the property being man-aged. Generally, 1 to 5 percent of a property being managed for wildlife may be in food plots. Food plots may be long and narrow (300 to 400 feet long and 15 to 20 feet wide) or blocky in shape (depending on wildlife species managed for and the type of food plot

planted), preferably located at an edge between two or more habitat types (e.g., between a woodlot and an old-field, perhaps near a creek). If possible, food plots should be located adjacent to natural cover (e.g., brushy fencerows, hedgerows and other thicket-type areas). Exclusion cages should be erected in all forage plots to monitor planting success and amount of graz-ing pressure.

Be aware that food plots are not planted for upland wildlife only (e.g., rabbits, quail, turkeys and deer), but also for waterfowl. Canada geese often feed in warm-season grain food plots and in winter wheat. Plots of Japanese millet, milo or corn may be flooded a few inches deep during the fall to provide an addi-tional food source for ducks through the winter.

For information on recommended plant species, seeding rates, seeding depth and soil type, visit your county Extension office and ask for a copy of Growing and Managing Successful Food Plots for Wildlife in the Mid-South (PB1743).

Effect on Habitat • In areas where row-cropping (corn, milo, soybeans,

etc.) is scarce, grain food plots can supply high- energy foods through fall and into late winter.

• In areas where little herbaceous vegetation is pres-ent (e.g., large areas of stages 4, 5 and/or 6) and/or where herbaceous vegetation is of no value to wild-life (e.g., fields of tall fescue, orchardgrass, bermu-dagrass, etc.), forage plots can supply high-protein foods, especially during late summer and through winter and spring.

Photo 27. Lush growth in the exclusion cage shows white-tailed deer have used the food plot heavily.

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20. Establish Native Warm-Season Grasses and Associated Forbs

General DescriptionNative warm-season grasses (NWSG) and associated forbs are recommended primarily to provide nesting and escape cover for small game, especially quail and rabbits. They also serve as bedding cover for white-tailed deer, nesting cover for wild turkeys and several songbirds, and as a haven for many small mammals. NWSG commonly found in Tennessee include broom-sedge bluestem, big and little bluestem, indiangrass, switchgrass, eastern gamagrass and sideoats grama.

Introduced grasses (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass, bermudagrass) are not recommended because they do not provide suitable habitat structure, and their com-petitive nature keeps native grasses and forbs from establishing.

NWSG may be planted or can be established by kill-ing existing non-native cover — especially tall fes-cue and crabgrass — with selective herbicides (e.g., imazapic) and allowing seeds lying dormant in the seedbank to germinate. If planted, native legumes (e.g., partridge pea, Illinois bundleflower) may be sown with the NWSG. Seed from these legumes are relished by quail and other birds during fall and winter.

These plantings should be burned or disked occasion-ally (annually to every five years) to prevent deteriora-tion of the vegetative structure through litter buildup and excessive woody plant succession. It is good to have fields or sections of NWSG fields that are burned/disked each year to provide a diversity of habi-tat types to serve the different needs of wildlife. Usu-ally burning/disking are conducted just prior to spring green-up, so that nests and young wildlife are not dis-turbed. Ideally, NWSG should not be bushhogged.

If used for grazing or haying, paddocks of NWSG should be rotated and not clipped below 6 to 8 inches.

Note: When recommending NWSG in wooded areas during the contest, you do not need to mark Har-vest Timber unless that practice is required for other reasons.

Effect on Habitat • Fields of NWSG are particularly useful for wildlife

in areas with little acreage in stages 2 and 3 and in areas where the majority of early successional habitat is in hayfields or pastures of non-native for-ages (e.g., tall fescue, orchardgrass, etc.).

• Fields of NWSG enhance habitat for many wild-life species (e.g., rabbits and quail) by providing winter, nesting and/or roosting cover. Ground-nest-ing birds usually build their nests at the base of a NWSG bunch/clump.

• Fields of NWSG also provide food, through the various forbs present, for many species including white-tailed deer, rabbits and groundhogs.

• Fields of NWSG can provide additional prey for great horned owls.

• Fields of NWSG provide foraging opportunities for bluebirds.

• Fields of NWSG that are burned provide an open structure at ground level, which is excellent brood-ing habitat for young quail and turkeys, who can walk about easily between the bunches of NWSG, picking invertebrates off the vegetation and seed from various “weeds” off the ground.

• Fields of NWSG that are burned or disked on a two-to-five year rotation provide dead, dry vegeta-tive material that birds use for building nests.

For additional information on establishing and main-taining these grasses, visit your county Extension office and ask for a copy of A Landowner’s Guide to Native Warm-Season Grasses in the Mid-South (PB1746).

Photo 28. Fields of native warm-season grasses and associated forbs provide habitat for many wildlife species.

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21. Plant Mast Trees

General DescriptionMast is seed or fruit that provides food for wildlife. For the purpose of this manual, mast trees are defined as those trees which produce hard mast, such as acorns or nuts. This practice is recommended for the appropriate wildlife species when less than 40 percent of the area under consideration is in mast-producing hardwoods.

Mast trees should be planted in winter while they are still dormant. For specifics about what, when, and how to plant mast trees, contact your county Extension office.

Effect on Habitat • Especially useful for deer, squirrels, turkeys, grouse

and wood ducks in areas with little available mast, such as farmland, pine woodlands, urban areas, etc.

22. Plant Trees or Shrubs

General DescriptionWhen properly located, various trees and shrubs can benefit many species of wildlife. In large open areas, multirow plantings of tress and shrubs are beneficial for those species requiring additional tree/shrub cover.

Fruiting shrubs and evergreen trees are especially good when planted in fencerows, hedgerows, field/woods borders, odd areas (e.g., field corners and gullies) and any other areas where soft mast may be lacking.

Establishing hedgerows of trees and shrubs to break up large fields (≥ 4 acres) is very beneficial, especially when planted adjacent to native warm-season grasses and/or a good food source.

Plant shrubs and trees in winter while they are still dormant. For specifics about what, when and how to plant, contact your county Extension office.

Effect on Habitat • Can provide additional food and cover for many

wildlife species in areas where specific species of trees and shrubs are lacking.

• Trees and shrubs are an important component of travel lanes, which allow wildlife to move safely across open fields between two areas of cover. Es-tablishing hedgerows also increases the amount of edge (used by brown thrashers) and may be used to increase interspersion of cover types.

• Hedgerows attract prey for bobcats.

• Can enhance habitat for ovenbirds where few trees are present.

• Can be a valuable practice for restoring and im-proving riparian areas, providing additional cover for wood ducks.

• In large fields (≥ 4 acres) where hedgerows are needed, provides additional perching sites needed by bluebirds.

Photo 29. Acorns from white oaks are relished by many wildlife species.

Photo 30. Soft-mast species, such as this wild plum, should be used when creating hedgerows to break up large fields.

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24. Ponds, Clear Muddy Water

General DescriptionYou can use any of the following methods to clear muddy pond water and settle suspended silt:

• Broadcast agricultural limestone on the pond sur-face at the rate of 500 to 1000 pounds per surface acre or at the rate recommended based on a pond mud soil test.

• Broadcast agricultural gypsum on the pond surface at 12 to 25 pounds per 1000 cubic feet of water (500-1000 pounds per acre-foot of water).

• Dissolve aluminum potassium sulfate (commercial alum crystals) in water and spread on the entire surface at the rate of 5 to 15 pounds per acre-foot of water.

• Broadcast cottonseed meal on the pond surface at the rate of 100 pounds per acre.

At the same time, any erosion of the watershed (which may have caused the muddy water) must be stopped.

Draining the pond may be necessary for pond reno-vation if common carp or many large catfish are the cause of the muddy water.

Effect on Habitat • Allows sunlight to penetrate the water, which stim-

ulates the growth of phytoplankton, the first step in the pond food chain.

25. Pond Construction

General DescriptionThis practice should be recommended for creating new ponds with permanent water.

Dams, dikes and levees can be used in natural drain-ages to create ponds for use by fish and wildlife. Pond designs will vary, depending on the purpose for constructing the pond and the region where it is con-structed. For example, steep sloping sides benefit fish and gentle sloping banks benefit waterfowl.

Contact your county Extension office for design details.

Note: When this practice is recommended, it is as-sumed that adequate water control structures will be included. You do not need to mark additional pond maintenance practices.

27. Ponds, Deepen Edges

General DescriptionUsually used to improve ponds for fish. To deepen pond edges, draw the water down, let banks dry out, and use a bulldozer or tractor with blade.

Edges should be deepened to a minimum of two to three feet with steep side slopes.

Soil removed from the edge can be piled around the bank, smoothed out and planted to grass and/or legumes.

Effect on Habitat • Reduces rooted aquatic vegetation around the edge

of a pond.

28. Ponds, Remove Trees on or Near Dike

General DescriptionThe roots of trees growing on a dam will loosen the compacted soil and cause leaks. This practice is needed any time trees are growing on a dam. While having some trees nearby is desirable for many wild-life species, they should not occupy more than one-third of the remaining pond bank because trees may also reduce the water level in the pond.

It also improves the pond’s capability to hold water, and cleans pond banks for use by doves.

Effect on Habitat • Improves the pond’s capability to hold water.

• Provides clean banks, which some species (such as doves) prefer for watering.

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29. Ponds, Repair Spillway

General DescriptionNeeded if the spillway in existing dam or dike is erod-ing or otherwise damaged, keeping the pond level too low and increasing the chance of the dam washing away during heavy rains.

30. Ponds, Reseed Watershed/Filter Strips

General DescriptionBare ground in the watershed of a pond often results in cloudy or muddy water. Prepare, fertilize and reseed bare areas to establish vegetative cover and

reduce soil movement into the pond. Bare ground is defined (for this practice) as enough area without vegetation to cause soil movement and siltation.

Effect on Habitat • Reduces erosion in the watershed.

• Improved water quality promotes phytoplankton growth.

31. Ponds, Restock

General DescriptionRestock only after all fish in pond have been removed, either by draining pond or applying rotenone. This practice is needed when ponds have extremely unbal-anced fish populations, an overabundance of small, stunted bluegill, few fish of usable size and/or un-wanted fish species such as carp, shad, goldfish, suck-ers, crappie, green sunfish or bullhead catfish.

Rotenone kills fish by interfering with the fish’s abil-ity to use oxygen, or breathe. It is applied as a liquid or powder during early fall. Bluegill fingerlings are then stocked in the late fall, and bass fingerlings are stocked the following June.

Current stocking rates are 1,000 bluegill and 100 bass per surface acre if the pond will be fertilized or 500 bluegill and 50 bass per surface acre if the pond will not be fertilized. Each state has its own stocking recommendations.

As many as 100 channel catfish fingerlings per acre may also be stocked at the same time as the bluegill. To help avoid filamentous algae and aquatic weed problems, stock 15 Chinese grass carp per acre.

Trout are usually not stocked with bluegill and bass because of differing water temperature requirements.

Effect on Habitat • Draining or rotenoning ponds removes unbalanced

fish populations to allow new ones to be started with a balanced ratio of bass to bluegill.

Photo 31. This is the perfect example of why trees should be removed from dikes. As the tree matures and roots develop, soil is loosened and the dike can erode.

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32. Ponds, Stop Leaks

General DescriptionThis practice is necessary in leaking ponds that have a limited water supply. Leaks in existing ponds may be stopped using any one of the following applications:

• Bentonite at 100 pounds per 100 square feet.

• Tetrasodium pyrophosphate at two tons per acre.

• Soda ash at five tons per acre.

• In severe cases, plastic liners may be used, but this is expensive.

The makeup of soil in the pond site determines which additive is best used. Consult your Extension agent for recommendations.

33. Riparian Buffers

General DescriptionA riparian buffer is an area of trees, shrubs, forbs and grasses located adjacent to streams, lakes, ponds and wetlands. Riparian buffers are important for providing habitat and protecting water quality in streams and wetlands. The recommended minimum width is 100 feet.

Note: This is a distinctly different practice from WMP6, Corridors/Hedgerows. If an area needs cor-ridors and/or hedgerows, you will need to check that practice instead of or in addition to this one.

Effect on Habitat • Riparian buffers provide shade for summer cooling

and cover in the stream or wetland.

• They provide corridors for wildlife to move from one habitat to another.

• Buffers slow overland flow of water and help main-tain water quality.

• They provide structural diversity both adjacent to and within the stream. As trees die then fall into the stream, the large woody debris helps create pools and riffles and provides cover for fish and other aquatic life.

• Leaves, stems, branches and large woody debris fall into streams, providing nutrition and habitat

for aquatic insects, a major food source for fish and amphibians.

• Insects from the trees fall into the stream and pro-vide a food source for fish, amphibians and other aquatic life.

• Tree roots improve soil and stream bank stability.

36. Small Dikes for Temporary Flooding

General DescriptionIn the fall and winter, small dikes are used to tempo-rarily flood potential feeding areas for waterfowl by holding rainwater on a field or woods. Grain fields (e.g., corn and milo), Japanese millet plantings, and stage 5 and 6 hardwood stands are examples of feed-ing areas flooded to attract waterfowl. This practice is recommended in areas where there are potential sites for waterfowl feeding and nesting.

A water-control device in the dike allows the water level to be manipulated. The water is removed from the field prior to spring (similar to letting the water out of a bathtub) so the field can be planted again.

Note: When this practice is recommended, it is assumed that adequate water control structures are included and should not be an additional recommendation.

Effect on Habitat• Temporary flooding can improve existing wet-

lands for nesting and brooding for some waterfowl species, such as wood ducks.

Photo 32. Riparian buffers improve water quality and enhance/preserve wildlife habitat.

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Effect on Habitat • Snags provide roosting and perching sites for

broad-winged hawks, great horned owls and many other bird species.

• Snags provide woodpeckers with sites for cavity construction. Later, other species (e.g., bluebirds, owls, squirrels, and wood ducks) may use these cavities for nesting and roosting.

• Snags provide foraging sites for many species.

• Down woody material provides sites for feeding, reproducing, hiding and resting that are important to numerous species of terrestrial wildlife.

• Down logs provide denning sites for bobcats.

• Down logs provide a rich food source for insect- and fungi-eating animals, which may increase available prey for bobcats.

• As down logs decompose, they can hold more moisture, providing an essential cool, moist micro-habitat for many species of reptiles, amphibians and small mammals.

• Down logs provide drumming sites that are impor-tant for the mating rituals of ruffed grouse.

• Dead and down material provides sites for regen-eration of some tree and shrub species.

• Dead and decaying logs serve as sites for nitrogen fixation by some bacteria.

• Logs, large limbs and smaller branches in and near water provide shade, cover and food for aquatic or-ganisms, some of which are food for young fish.

37. Retain Snags and Down Woody Material

General DescriptionSnags are standing dead trees. They provide cavities used by many birds and mammals. Snags should be retained during timber harvest for their current value to wildlife and as an eventual source of dead and down woody material. A minimum of seven snags, (10 to 20+ inches in diameter) and four down logs per acre should be left following timber harvest operations.

In streams, woody material creates stream diversity and structure that may be used as cover.

Photo 35. Snags and down woody debris provide habitat for nesting, denning, roosting, perching and also escape cover for birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians.

Photo 33. A shallow dike is being constructed to hold rainwater and provide winter habitat for waterfowl and other wildlife.

Photo 34. Finished dike holding water from winter rains on the field shown above

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41. Tillage, Eliminate in Fall

General DescriptionWhen fall tillage is necessary, avoid inversion tillage (soil is turned over and covers up crop residue), such as moldboard plowing or disking. Instead, till with implements such as chisel plows that can be used without turning the soil over.

Note: Recommend this practice only if a crop is present.

Effect on Habitat • Increases supply of waste grain, which is a food

source used by rabbits, squirrels, quail, turkeys, deer and many other wildlife species.

42. Harvest Timber

General DescriptionHarvesting timber is necessary to get wood for build-ing materials and other products, to regenerate (start anew) forest stands and to enhance wildlife habitat. Several silvicultural methods are used to regenerate forest stands. The method recommended for a given stand varies greatly depending on forest type and composition and the objectives of the landowner. For the purposes of this contest, all regeneration methods are grouped together and termed Harvest Timber.

Regeneration methods are generally divided into three groups: even-aged, two-aged and uneven-aged. Even-aged silviculture produces stands in which the ma-jority of the trees are about the same age. Two-aged silviculture produces stands with two predominant age classes. Uneven-aged silviculture produces stands with trees in at least three age classes.

Whatever the method used, forested land to be har-vested should be chosen so that food and cover for wildlife are in close proximity. Tracts harvested should have adjacent unharvested stands to provide travel corridors and space for wildlife that do not use young stands.

Even-aged silviculture

The clearcut regeneration method harvests all the trees on a given site. More sunlight is allowed in to the forest floor with this method than with any other. Clearcutting generally releases shade intolerant spe-cies (e.g., yellow poplar, black cherry, basswood) when present. The shelterwood regeneration method removes a pre-determined number of trees from the stand (either in the midstory and/or in the overstory) to allow development of seedlings (regeneration) from beneath. Later (6 to 8 years), the remaining overstory (shelterwood) is removed as the regeneration becomes developed. The seed-tree regeneration method leaves a few good seed-producing stems per acre to regener-ate a new stand. This method is often used in pines and other species with light-weight, wind-carried seeds. The seed trees are usually harvested after the crop of new trees becomes established.

Two-aged silviculture

A clearcut with reserves or an irregular shelter-wood leaves a few to several quality overstory trees per acre for the life of the regenerating stand. This is often the best regeneration method if wildlife is a consideration, especially if quality mast-produc-ing species are retained. This provides both food and cover in the same stand.

Uneven-aged silviculture

The single-tree selection method harvests individual trees based on their size and age. Typically, the old-est and largest trees are selected and seedlings or

Photo 36. Timber harvest operations such as this clearcut can provide early successional habitat required by many species, both birds and mammals.

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saplings grow up in the spaces provided. This method favors trees that are shade tolerant. The group selec-tion method harvests small groups of trees (0.10 – 2.0 acres) within a stand, creating areas that resemble small clearcuts. Regeneration within the small openings is considered part of the stand. Relatively frequent harvests are required with both selection methods to maintain a balance of tree age classes and sizes within the stand.

Note: This practice should be recommended as a sil-vicultural tool to regenerate stands — not merely to create “openings.” Regenerated forests result in new forests, not fields. Where additional fields (e.g., na-tive warm-season grasses) are needed, Harvest Timber should not be recommended automatically.

Effect on Habitat• Harvesting timber generally sets back succession

and produces new forest growth with a greater stem density. According to the site and regenera-tion method, timber harvest reverts stage 6 forest to stages 3 and 4, which will grow into stage 5 within a few years.

• Enhances cover for many prey species, which pro-vedes food for bobcats and great horned owls.

• According to the site and regeneration method, harvesting timber can stimulate forb growth, pro-viding additional food (forage, seeds and insects) and cover for brown thrashers, bluebirds rabbits, bobwhite quail, ruffed grouse, wild turkeys and white-tailed deer.

• Retaining snags and cavity trees when harvesting timber provides nesting, roosting, denning and perching sites for those species that use them.

43. Timber Stand Improvement

General DescriptionTimber Stand Improvement (TSI) may involve any of several techniques used to improve the quality and composition of forest stands by shifting resources (sunlight and nutrients) toward production of desired products, which include timber and/or wildlife. TSI most often involves some type of thinning, which reduces stand density to influence stand growth. Thinnings may be pre-commercial or commercial.

Pre-commercial thinnings are conducted before the trees have sale value. Commercial thinnings involve removing at least part of the tree for a useful product. Release operations remove unwanted trees in very young stands to improve quality and regulate compo-sition. Improvement cuttings meet the same objec-tives in older stands. These techniques influence the amount of sunlight entering the forest canopy and are used to promote increased growth of the remaining trees through changes in stand composition and struc-ture (cover) in the understory and midstory to favor food producing plants, both woody and herbaceous.

When conducting this practice specifically for wild-life, you can thin stands without felling or removing trees. Trees can be killed and left standing (snag) by girdling the tree with a hatchet or chainsaw and apply-ing an appropriate herbicide to the wound.

Effect on Habitat• Increased herbaceous growth in the understory im-

proves brooding habitat for bobwhites, wild turkeys and ruffed grouse. Increased herbaceous cover can also enhance habitat for ovenbirds and provide ad-ditional forage for white-tailed deer and rabbits.

• A well-developed understory provides better habi-tat conditions for brown thrashers and rabbits as well as many small rodents, which are prey for bobcats, broad-winged hawks, great horned owls and raccoons.

• Increased woody stem density in the understory and midstory improves cover for ruffed grouse.

Photo 37. Timber Stand Improvement can increase forage and mast production, increasing food availability and nesting sites for many species.

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• Can be used to manage the quality of water in the pond or wetland and to control unwanted fish.

• Managing water levels in flooded timber (greentree impoundments), can prevent tree mortality.

45. Water Developments for Wildlife

General DescriptionDugouts: Basins (dug out with bulldozers or back-hoes) designed to collect water from run-off and/or precipitation. Side slopes should be gentle to provide easy access for wildlife.

Catchment Ponds: Earthen dikes are constructed to retain water (usually run-off water from precipitation) in natural drainage areas. Placement of the dike is critical to avoid damage from floods and also to col-lect sufficient water. They are also used by waterfowl for resting and brood habitat.

Birdbaths and Backyard Ponds: Small ponds can be constructed in backyards and other urban areas to pro-vide water for a variety of wildlife. Birdbaths are also useful for providing water in urban settings.

Effect on Habitat Provides habitat for wood ducks, drinking water for wild turkeys, white-tailed deer, and a source of prey for broad-winged hawks. Creating or providing water developments for wildlife should be recommended when there is no free water available on the area.

• Thinning without removing trees provides snags for woodpeckers and other cavity-nesting birds, including wood ducks. Snags also provide perching sites for great horned owls.

• Releasing oaks, American beech, black cherry, hickories, blackgum, persimmon and others in-creases mast production, which provides additional food for many wildlife species.

44. Water Control Structures

General DescriptionVarious structures made out of concrete, pipes, wood, etc., are useful for controlling the water level in wet-lands and ponds. They are usually combined with dams and shallow dikes.

This practice is recommended only when inadequate or no such structures are present on an existing dam or dike. For specific designs of water control structures, contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service office.

Effect on Habitat • Managing water levels influences the amount and

type of aquatic vegetation present. Managing water levels can also be used to control the mix (intersper-sion) of open water and emergent aquatic vegetation.

• Can be used to create shallow water areas.

Photo 38. A flashboard riser with all boards in place and water level full.

Photo 39. A flashboard riser with half of the boards in place and the water level half full.

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Photos 41 & 42. Artificial water sources such as birdbaths and backyard ponds can attract a variety of wildlife species.

Photo 40. Small dugouts can be created to attract a variety of wildlife.

46. Wildlife Damage Management

General DescriptionWildlife managers often have to exclude, trap, relo-cate, frighten, repel, poison, shoot or otherwise kill individual animals in order to reduce or eliminate damaging behaviors and/or health hazards presented by some wildlife species. Examples of wildlife dam-age include woodpeckers hammering on the side of the house, squirrels nesting in the attic, deer eating ornamental plants in the yard or feeding in soy-bean fields, bobcats/coyotes/owls preying on live-stock, rabbits/raccoons eating vegetable gardens, beavers killing trees, red-winged blackbirds eating crops, and Canada geese loitering on lawns and golf courses. In additions, starlings roosting in urban trees and defecating on sidewalks can create a health haz-ard.

Wildlife damage management may be recom-mended in addition to the practice of increasing bag/creel limits if special problems exist on the area being evaluated.

• Direct control techniques like shooting, trapping and the use of toxicants to reduce problem animals are commonly used and effective.

• Non-lethal methods of predator control — includ-ing habitat modification, repellents and the use of exclusion fences or guard dogs — are also com-monly used.

• Methods of controlling herbivores (deer, rabbits, etc.) include shooting, exclusion fences, taste and area repellents, and scare tactics (such as propane cannons).

• Methods of bird control include frightening de-vices, exclusion devices and shooting.

Note: The wildlife specialist will provide clues as to whether or not this practice is necessary.

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Urban Areas

These additional practices are for use only in the Urban Written Management Plan activity, which is a part of the state contest.

U1. Do Not Disturb Nesting Places

General descriptionThe majority of bird species are quite sensitive to dis-turbance when nesting, especially once incubation has begun. Although no evidence shows birds will aban-don a nest if eggs are handled, it is best to leave the nest alone. When a bird nest has been located, the im-mediate area should receive as little human activity as possible to help ensure the bird continues to lay and/or incubate the clutch and later care for the nestlings.

U2. Plant Flowers

General descriptionCultivated flowers provide a source of nectar for but-terflies and hummingbirds. Bergamot, blazingstar, butterflyweed, cardinal flower, columbine, evening primrose, jewelweed and others are good choices. Flowers can be planted alongside houses and other buildings, in flower beds away from structures, or in pots or boxes on decks or window ledges.

Effect on habitatProvides a source of nectar where few or no other de-sirable flowering plants exist.

U3. Rooftop/Balcony Gardens

General descriptionVarious shrubs and flowering plants can be planted in beds, boxes or pots and placed on rooftops and balco-nies to provide additional sources of food and cover for butterflies and hummingbirds.

Effect on habitatProvides a source of nectar where few or no other de-sirable flowering plants exist.

U4. Use Pesticides Carefully

General descriptionPesticides are commonly used to manage problem plants and invertebrates. Occasionally, pesticides are used to manage vertebrate pests. Pesticides should be used only as described and allowed by the pesticide label. Evaluate possible impact on non-target plants and animals carefully before using any pesticide.

Effect on habitatIf pesticides are used responsibly and only within the label recommendations, they should have maximum effect on targeted plants and animals while leaving other species unharmed.

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Activities

T he following pages contain information and examples for the various wildlife judging activities. Region-level contests will include only activities I, II and III. In the state event, contestants will be expected to participate in all five activities presented in this handbook. The five activities are pre-

sented in the following order:

Activity I Identifying Common Wildlife Foods

Activity II Interpreting Wildlife Habitat From Aerial Photographs

Activity III Management Recommendations

Activity IV Written Rural Wildlife Management Plan

Activity V Written Urban Landscapes and Backyard Habitat Plans

Scorecards, similar to the ones shown for the Foods, Aerial Photographs and Management Practices activities, will be used in both the regional and statewide events.

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Index to Activities

Activity I

Identifying Common Wildlife Foods ..........................................................................................79

Example — Wildlife Foods ...................................................................................................79

Wildlife and the Foods They Eat ................................................................................................80

Food Category Definitions ..........................................................................................................81

Table I Wildlife Foods .................................................................................................................82

Activity I Scorecard ....................................................................................................................84

Activity II

Interpreting Wildlife Habitat from Aerial Photographs ..............................................................85

Sample Aerial Photographs .........................................................................................................86

Example — Interpreting Aerial Photographs ........................................................................88

Measuring Interspersion ..............................................................................................................90

Activity II Scorecards .................................................................................................................93

Activity III

Management Recommendations .................................................................................................95

Example of Habitat Management Recommendations ..........................................................95

Activity III Scorecards ................................................................................................................96

Activity IV

Written Rural Wildlife Management Plan ..................................................................................98

Examples of Written Rural Management Plan Scenario .............................100, 102, 104, 106

Examples of Written Rural Management Plan Justification ........................101, 103, 105, 107

Activity V

Written Urban Landscapes and Backyard Habitat Plans ..........................................................108

Examples of Written Urban Plan Scenario ..........................................................110, 112, 115

Examples of Written Urban Management Plan Justification ..............................111, 113, 116

Example of Urban Plan Map ...............................................................................................114

Urban Plan Practice Maps .........................................................................................................118

Scoring the Contest ......................................................................................................................121

Glossary ...........................................................................................................................................123

Study References ..........................................................................................................................126

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Activity I. Identifying Common Wildlife Foods

Activity I (worth 20 points) involves identifying foods used by wildlife and matching those foods to the wildlife species or groups that eat them. A list and table of foods commonly used by certain wildlife species or groups are provided on the following pages. The list is not complete, because most species of wildlife oc-casionally eat unusual things if they happen upon them by chance. In addition, some generalizations have been made. All species in a certain wildlife group do not necessarily eat all foods listed for that wildlife group. For example, not all turtles eat fruit. Some species eat fruit and not mussels; others eat mussels and not fruit. Likewise, wildlife do not necessarily eat all species in a certain food group. Deer, for example, do not eat tender twigs and leaves from all trees and shrubs — only from certain species.

For purposes of the contest, if any species in a wildlife group commonly eats any species in a food group, the food group should be marked for the appropriate wildlife group.

An example of the scorecard for Activity I can be found on page 84.

In a judging event, there will be ten numbered food items for you to identify and list in the ten numbered columns on the Activity I scorecard. For each food item, read down the list of wildlife groups on the form and place an “X” in the box for each wildlife group that eats that food. During an event, foods may be shown in the form of pictures, plant parts, growing plants, mounted specimens and/or live animals.

Example — Wildlife FoodsThe judge has brought a persimmon tagged with the number 7. This would be classified as a fruit, so the ap-propriate box for each wildlife group that eats fruit should be marked with an “X” in the column numbered 7. Boxes for bats, bluebirds, butterflies, deer, ducks, foxes, grouse, marten, quail, rabbits, sparrows, squir-rels, thrashers, turkeys, turtles, wapiti (elk) and woodpeckers should be marked. To verify, check the wildlife food tables on pages 82 and 83. Not all species of turtles eat fruit. But, remember, if any species of turtle eats fruit, column 7 should be marked for turtles.

For the purposes of this manual, barley, corn, grain sorghum (milo), millets, oats, rice, rye and wheat are considered grains. However, the following are considered miscellaneous seeds: buckwheat, cowpeas, soy-beans, sunflowers.

Note: Not all species mentioned in the Wildlife Species section of this handbook are listed on the foods chart. Likewise, not all wildlife species or groups listed on the foods chart are included in the Wildlife Spe-cies section. Nevertheless, you will be expected to identify foods for all the wildlife species and groups listed on the foods chart in both regional and statewide contests.

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Wildlife and the Foods They Eat

Bass Birds (ducklings), crayfish, earthworms, fish, frogs and salamanders, insects, mammals (e.g., voles, bats), snails, snakes, spiders and turtles

Bats Fruit and berries, insects

Beaver Aquatic plants, bark, buds, forbs, leaves and twigs

Bluebirds Earthworms, fruit and berries, insects, seeds, spiders

Bluegill Crayfish, earthworms, eggs, fish, insects, spiders

Butterflies Fruit and berries, nectar (from flowers)

DeerAquatic plants, bark, buds, forbs, fruit and berries, fungi, grain, grass, leaves and twigs, lichens, nuts, seeds (e.g., sumac)

Doves Grain, seeds

DucksAquatic plants, crayfish, earthworms, fish, frogs and salamanders, fruit and berries, grain, insects, nuts, seeds, snails, tubers

Foxes Birds, carrion, crayfish, earthworms, eggs, frogs and salamanders, fruit and berries, insects, lizards, mammals (e.g., rats, mice and rabbits), snakes

Frogs Crayfish, earthworms, frogs and salamanders, insects, snails, snakes, spiders, turtles

GrouseBuds, earthworms, forbs, fruit and berries, grain, grass, insects, leaves and twigs, nuts, seeds, spiders,

HawksBirds, carrion, crayfish, fish, frogs and salamanders, insects, lizards, mammals (e.g., rats, mice, rabbits, squirrels), snakes

Lizards Birds, eggs, insects, lizards, mammals (e.g., mice), scorpions, snails, snakes, spiders

Marten Birds, eggs, fish, frogs and salamanders, fruit and berries, insects, mammals

Mink Birds, crayfish, eggs, fish, frogs and salamanders, insects, mammals

Moles Centipedes and millipedes, earthworms, insects, snails

Otter Birds, crayfish, eggs, fish, frogs and salamanders, mammals, mussels

Owls Birds, insects, lizards, mammals (e.g., mice, rats, rabbits, shrews, moles, opossums), snakes

Pronghorn Buds, forbs, grass, leaves and twigs

Quail Earthworms, forbs, fruit and berries, grain, insects, nuts, seeds, spiders

Rabbits Bark, buds, forbs, fruit and berries, grain, grass, leaves and twigs, seeds

Salamanders Centipedes and millipedes, earthworms, insects, snails

Shrews Earthworms, frogs and salamanders, insects, mammals, snails

SnakesBirds, crayfish, earthworms, eggs, fish, frogs and salamanders, insects, lizards, mam-mals (e.g., mice, rats), snakes, turtles

Sparrows Buds, earthworms, forbs, fruit and berries, insects, seeds, spiders

Squirrels Bark, buds, eggs, fruit and berries, fungi, grain, insects, leaves and twigs, nuts, seeds

Thrashers Earthworms, fruit and berries, insects, seeds, spiders

Trout Crayfish, earthworms, eggs, fish, insects, snails, spiders

TurkeysBuds, centipedes and millipedes, earthworms, forbs, fruit and berries, fungi, grain, grass, insects, leaves and twigs, nuts, seeds, snails, snakes, spiders, tubers

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Food Category Definitions Grains: Seeds* that are cereal grains (seed crops for human consumption grown from edible grasses). In-cludes wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, corn, grain sorghum (milo) and millet. (All other seeds are categorized as either fruits and berries, nuts [hard mast], or miscellaneous seeds).

Mammals: Any mammal, regardless of size. A photograph, live animal, museum mount specimen or any part thereof may be used for the contest.

Carrion: Defined as stinking, rotten, flesh. Do not confuse this category with mammal, bird, etc. For ex-ample, a bird bone (bare, without flesh) represents the bird category, not carrion. In contests, an item that has maggots (insect larvae) in it is still considered carrion (not insects).

Eggs: Only vertebrate eggs (birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish). Invertebrate eggs (spiders, insects, etc.) repre-sent the adult invertebrate.

Fruit and Berries: Seeds* covered with a soft, fleshy, pulp. (see also nuts, grains, and miscellaneous seeds).

Nuts: The dry, single-seeded* fruit of trees and shrubs, usually with a hard, woody or leather-like shell or cover (walnuts, hickory nuts, acorns, beechnuts, pecan, hazelnuts, almonds, etc.). Also called hard mast.

Miscellaneous Seeds*: Buckwheat, cowpeas, sunflowers, soybeans. Generally anything that does not fall into one of the other three categories of seeds.

Tuber: Includes chufa, potatoes and onions.

Nectar: Represented by flowers presented by themselves (no other plant parts attached) or by honey (pro-cessed nectar).

Forbs: Broadleaf herbaceous plants; annual or perennial. In contests, may have a flower as part of the plant.

Aquatic Plants include the following:

algae - various genera naiads - Najas spp. American lotus - Nelumbo lutea pondweed - Potomageton spp. arrowhead/duck potato - Saggitaria spp. rushes - Juncus spp. bladderworts - Utricularia spp. sedges - Carex spp. bulrushes - Scirpus spp. smartweed - Polygonum spp. burreeds - Sparganium spp. spikerush - Eleocharis spp. cattails - Typha spp. waterlily - Nymphaea spp. coontail - Cerratophylum spp. watermeals - Wolffia spp. cordgrass- Spartina spp. watermilfoil - Myriophyllum spp. duckweed - Lemna or Spirodela, spp. water primrose - Ludwigia spp. floating hearts - Nymphoides spp. waterweed - Elodea spp.

Turtles Aquatic plants, birds (ducklings), carrion, crayfish, fish, forbs, fruit and berries, insects, mussels, spiders

Wapiti (elk) Bark, buds, forbs, fruit and berries, fungi, grain, grass, leaves and twigs, tubers

Warblers Earthworms, insects, spiders

Woodpeckers Fruit and berries, grain, insects, nuts, seeds, spiders

Wrens Centipedes and millipedes, earthworms, insects, spiders

*A seed is the part of a plant that contains an embryo and a food supply and is capable of producing a new plant. Seeds usually have some kind of protective coating.

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Table 1 — Wildlife Foods

FOODS

Bas

s

Bat

s

Bea

ver

Blu

ebir

ds

Blu

egill

But

terfl

ies

Dee

r

Dov

es

Duc

ks

Fox

es

Fro

gs

Gro

use

Haw

ks

Liz

ards

Mar

ten

Min

k

Mol

es

Ott

er

Aquatic Plants X X X

Bark X X

Birds X X X X X X X

Buds X X X

Carrion X X

Centipedes & Millipedes X

Crayfish X X X X X X X X

Earthworms X X X X X X X X

Eggs X X X X X X

Fish X X X X X X X

Forbs X X X

Frogs & Salamanders X X X X X X X X

Fruit & Berries X X X X X X X X

Fungi X

Grain X X X X

Grass X X

Insects X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Leaves & Twigs X X X

Lichens X

Lizards X X X

Mammals (small) X X X X X X X

Mussels X

Nectar (from flowers) X

Nuts (including acorns) X X X

Scorpions X

Seeds X X X X X

Snails X X X X X

Snakes X X X X X

Spiders X X X X X X

Tubers X

Turtles X X

WILDLIFE

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Table 1 cont’d — Wildlife Foods

FOODS

Ow

ls

Pro

ngho

rn

Qua

il

Rab

bits

Sala

man

ders

Shre

ws

Snak

es

Spar

row

s

Squi

rrel

s

Thr

ashe

rs

Tro

ut

Turk

eys

Turt

les

Wap

iti (

elk)

War

bler

s

Woo

dpec

kers

Wre

ns

Aquatic Plants X

Bark X X X

Birds X X X

Buds X X X X X X

Carrion X

Centipedes & Millipedes X X X

Crayfish X X X

Earthworms X X X X X X X X X X

Eggs X X X

Fish X X X

Forbs X X X X X X X

Frogs & Salamanders X X

Fruit & Berries X X X X X X X X X

Fungi X X X

Grain X X X X X X

Grass X X X X

Insects X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Leaves & Twigs X X X X X

Lichens

Lizards X X

Mammals (small) X X X

Mussels X

Nectar from flowers

Nuts (including acorns) X X X X

Scorpions

Seeds X X X X X X X

Snails X X X X

Snakes X X X

Spiders X X X X X X X X X

Tubers X X

Turtles X

WILDLIFE

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Name __________________________________________ County _______________________________

Activity I ScorecardWildlife Foods

(20 points)

Jr. _____ Jr. High _____ Senior _____ F703-A

Food Items

Wildlife 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

BassBatsBeaverBluebirdsBluegillButterfliesDeerDovesDucksFoxesFrogsGrouseHawksLizardsMartenMinkMolesOtterOwlsPronghornQuailRabbitsSalamandersShrewsSnakesSparrowsSquirrelsThrashersTroutWild TurkeysTurtlesWapiti (elk)WarblersWoodpeckersWrens

Number Correct

Total Correct________

Activity I Score _____Score = [total correct ÷ 350] x 20

Instructions: For each wildlife species above, mark an “X” in the appropriate box for all food items that may occur in its diet. Some species may not eat any of the food items shown.

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Activity II. Interpreting Wildlife Habitat From Aerial Photographs

This activity is divided into two parts (II-A and II-B). Activity II-B (oral reasons) will be conducted at the state contest only.

Activity II-A (worth 20 points) involves using four aerial photographs (or four portions of a photograph) to judge the quality of an area for different wildlife species. An example of the scorecard used for this part of Activity II is shown on page 93. You will be given a list of wildlife species and asked to rank each photo-graph in relation to the habitat needs of that species. You should write down the species on the scorecard in the spaces provided. Rank the photographs by number from left to right, starting with the best one, for each species. If a portion of a photograph is circled or otherwise marked, consider only the area outlined — do not consider surrounding areas. Rank the photographs one species at a time, then mark an “X” in the box that corresponds to your rankings. All possible combinations are listed, but only one box should be marked under each species.

When looking at aerial photos, imagine how the countryside would look if you were a bird flying over it. If you have flown in an airplane, you know how it looks. The way a bird or a pilot sees land is the way it ap-pears on an aerial photograph. For example, a silo appears round, buildings look like squares or rectangles, woods are rough, and fields are smooth.

When reading aerial photographs, hold them so that shadows of objects fall toward you. Otherwise, valleys might appear as ridges and vice versa. All objects are small, but you can determine what they are by com-paring their size with the size of a known object. Other things that help are tone (shade of gray), shape and shadow. The length of the shadow indicates the height of an object. The tone varies with the seasons of the year, so it is important to know the season when the aerial photographs were made.

Most of the photographs used in judging events are made by the U.S. government, and the date the photo-graph was taken is usually in the upper left hand corner. The scale of such photos can vary, but often either 4 or 8 inches on the map equals 1 mile on the ground.

Activity II-B (worth 10 points) involves giving an oral presentation before a judge to demonstrate your un-derstanding of the aerial photographs and your rankings. Each participant in the state contest is required to give oral reasons for one or more of the species used in Activity II-A. You will be told which species to con-sider so you can make notes while studying the photographs. Oral reasons are limited to a total of five min-utes for all species. You should include the order of selection and the reasons that order was chosen. Practice photographs and examples of how to rank them for various wildlife species begin on the following page. The written reasons given in the example demonstrate how oral reasons should be presented.

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Aerial Photos

Photo 1

Photo 2

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Aerial Photos — cont’d

Photo 3

Photo 4

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Example — Interpreting Aerial Photographs After ranking the photos for each of the different wildlife species, the judges determine the margin of dif-ference between each of three pairings of the photos (photos placed 1 and 2, photos placed 2 and 3, photos placed 3 and 4) and assign numeric values. This represents the “cut” between the pairings. The following reasons are offered for the photographs found on pages 86 and 87. The cut between the pairings (based on a 14-point scale) is also given. You can find an explanation of scoring on page 121.

BobcatBobcats prefer a mix of habitats with a considerable amount of cover that will allow concealment and harbor abundant prey. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 2,1,3,4 for bobcats. Photo 2 contains mature woodland, brushy cover and open fields with a considerable amount of edge. Many different species of prey would be found in these variable habitats. Photo 1 is all mature woodland, providing abundant cover for bobcats, but there is less diversity than photo 2. Photo 3 is placed after photo 1 because photo 3 contains less woodland than photo 1 and no brushy cover. Photo 4 is last because it is all open field and cropland with no woodland or brushy cover. The cuts between pairings would be 3:4:7.

Broad-winged HawkBroad-winged hawks are primarily woodland hawks, preferring continuous woodlands interspersed with fields situated near lakes, creeks and swamps. None of the photos contain water, therefore other habitat com-ponents must be considered. Thus, the photos would be ranked 1,2,3,4, based on the amount of stage 5 or 6 woodland. The cuts between pairings would be 2:4:8.

Brown ThrasherBrown thrashers spend most of their time near the ground — feeding and nesting in the lower stratum of vegetation found primarily in stage 3 or 4 succession. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 2,3,1,4 for brown thrashers. Photo 2 contains more edge and brushy habitat than photo 3. Photo 3 contains more edge habitat than photo 1. Photo 4 is ranked last because it contains very little edge habitat or brushy cover. The cuts between pairings would be 3:5:6.

Eastern BluebirdBluebirds prefer early successional habitats, primarily stage 2 or 3 interspersed with stage 5 or 6 for perch-ing sites and nesting cover. Individual trees can serve as perching sites and nesting cover. Fence posts can serve as perching sites, but not nesting cover (there is a greater likelihood that trees will contain cavities for nesting than fence posts). Considering this, the photos would be ranked 3,2,4,1. Photo 3 is ranked highest because there is a greater ratio of treeline to open field than found in photo 2. Photo 2 is ranked above photo 4 because there are fewer perching sites and potential nesting sites in photo 4. Photo 1 is ranked last because there is no early successional habitat (stage 2 or 3). The cuts between pairings would be 4:2:8.

Eastern CottontailRabbits prefer stage 3 or 4 succession, interspersed with cropland. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 2,3,4,1. Photo 2 is placed higher than photo 3 because there is more brushy cover available, and there is an overabundance of cultivated cropland in photo 3. Photo 3 is ranked higher than photo 4 because there is more cover and edge in photo 3. Photo 1 is ranked last because there is no suitable habitat for rabbits. The cuts between pairings would be 4:7:3.

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Eastern Gray SquirrelGray squirrels need mature forest or woodlands and may use young forests and croplands during certain times of the year, when interspersed with mature woodlands. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 1,2,3,4. Photo 1 is ranked highest because it contains an abundance of mature hardwoods. Photo 2 also con-tains mature hardwoods, but has a considerable amount of grassland and some brushy cover, which provides little or no benefit for squirrels. Photo 3 contains more mature woodlands than photo 4. The cuts between pairing would be 2:4:8.

Great Horned OwlGreat horned owls prefer mature woodlands interspersed with early- and mid-successional habitat, providing a diversity of habitat types with an abundance of potential prey species. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 2,3,1,4. Photo 2 contains more habitat types than photo 3. Photo 3 contains more edge habitat than photo 1. Photo 4 is ranked last because there is no mature woodland cover. The cuts between pairing would be 3:4:7.

Hairy WoodpeckerHairy woodpeckers prefer mature woodlands but will use young woodlands and some stage 3 or 4 habitat, if in close proximity to mature woodlands. The photos would be ranked 1,2,3,4. Photo 1 is ranked highest because all of the habitat represented in the photo would be used by hairy woodpeckers. Not all of photo 2 would be of much benefit (i.e., grass field). Photo 3 has some mature woodland, whereas photo 4 has no woodpecker habitat. The cuts between pairings would be 3:3:8.

Mourning DoveMourning doves prefer stages 2 and 3 of plant succession with small areas of stage 1 (such as recently disked fields) interspersed to facilitate feeding. Stages 5 and 6 are also needed for nesting. The photos would be ranked 4,3,2,1. Photo 4 is ranked highest because it contains considerable area in stages 2 and 3, and there are trees available for nesting. Photo 3 also contains an abundance of stages 2 and 3 with trees available for nesting. Photo 2 contains much less habitat in stages 2 or 3 than Photo 3 and Photo 4 is not suitable for mourning doves. The cuts between pairings would be 2:4:8.

Northern BobwhiteBobwhites prefer stages 2, 3 and 4 of plant succession. Ideally, these successional stages should be well-interspersed with row crop agriculture. The photos would be ranked 2,3,4,1. Note that none of the photos represent really good habitat for bobwhites. Photo 2 is ranked the highest because there is some brushy cover (that may be used for escape cover, brooding and nesting) and interspersion with stage 2. Photo 3 has inter-spersion of woods and fields, but no brushy cover and no good nesting cover (native warm-season grasses). Photo 4 has virtually no cover at all, except a thin line of brush along a fence and a small block of trees. Photo 1 does not represent suitable habitat for bobwhites. The cuts between pairings would be 3:7:4.

OvenbirdThe ovenbird is a songbird of the forest, living in the lower stratum of vegetation in stage 5 or 6 forests. Con-sidering this, the photos would be ranked 1,2,3,4. This merely corresponds with the amount of woodland in the photos. The cuts between pairings would be 2:4:8.

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Ruffed GrouseThe ruffed grouse is a game bird of the forest, preferring young forest cover interspersed with mature forests and brushy habitats. Although there is little young woodland habitat available in any of the photos, the pho-tos would be ranked 2,1,3,4. Photo 2 is ranked highest because there is an abundance of stage 5 or 6 wood-land with some brushy cover. Photo 1 is ranked ahead of photo 3 because there is more woodland in photo 1, providing considerably more cover. Photo 4 is ranked last because there is no ruffed grouse habitat available. The cuts between pairings would be 2:4:8.

Wild TurkeyWild turkeys need a variety of habitat types for various life requirements, including stages 2 or 3 for brood rearing and mature woodlands for mast production, loafing and roosting habitat. Wild turkeys also use cropland, when found adjacent to or interspersed with stage 5 or 6 woods. Given this, the photos would be ranked 2,3,1,4. Photo 2 provides all the habitats necessary. Photo 3 is ranked second because there are ma-ture woodlands available with open fields and cropland adjacent, providing brooding habitat and potential food resources. Photo 1 is ranked third because no stage 3 or 4 vegetation is present, limiting the amount of brooding habitat available. Photo 4 is ranked last because there is no mature woodland available, limiting winter food availability and roosting sites. The cuts between pairings would be 3:3:8.

White-tailed DeerWhite-tailed deer use a wide variety of habitat types, preferably stages 3, 4, 5 and 6, as well as interspersed cropland. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 2,3,1,4. Photo 2 contains a mix of forest, brushy cover and early successional openings, yet provides more cover and potential mast production than photo 3. Photo 3 contains woodland, cropland and considerably more edge than photo 1. Photo 1 provides mature woodland with potential mast production and is ranked higher than photo 4, which contains little cover for white-tailed deer. The cuts between pairings would be 2:4:8.

Measuring InterspersionAs discussed in the Concepts section, many wildlife species prefer areas with high interspersion of lands in different successional stages. It is important to consider the amount of interspersion when ranking aerial photographs. One way of measuring the amount of interspersion of an area is to apply the “interspersion index” principle. This can be done using aerial photographs by counting the number of times the habitat changes along an imaginary north-south line across the widest part of the area, then along the widest east-west line. Next, add these two numbers together to get an interspersion index value. Compare this value with those of the other three areas to be judged. Given the different habitat types generally, the higher the value, the better for bobwhite, rabbits and other wildlife species that use a variety of habitat types with small home ranges. The interspersion indices for the four aerial photographs are shown below:

Photo Interspersion Index2 9

3 5

4 2

1 0

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The following photos are for ranking wetlands for wood ducks. The rankings, reasons for the rankings and the cuts between pairings are given below.

Wood DuckWood ducks prefer wetland areas with abundant emergent woody vegetation. This may be stage 3 or 4 wet-lands dominated by trees and brush or stage 2 wetlands situated adjacent to and/or intermingled with mature woodlands. These wetland habitats may be rivers, creeks, beaver ponds, other ponds and lakes, as well as flooded woods and brushy areas. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 1,2,3,4. Photo 1 shows a river with wooded cover along both banks and is ranked highest because it provides more cover than any of the other photos. Photo 2 has a pond with wooded cover along one side; therefore, it is ranked higher than the pond in photo 3, which has no cover whatsoever, and would receive very little use by wood ducks. Photo 4 does not show any source of water; therefore, it is ranked last. The cuts between pairings would be 4:7:3.

Photo 1 Photo 2

Photo 3 Photo 4

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The following photos are for ranking ponds for largemouth bass/bluegill. The rankings, reasons for the rank-ings and the cuts between pairings are given below.

Largemouth Bass/BluegillLargemouth bass and bluegill use ponds, lakes and slow-moving rivers. Bass serve as predators with bluegill being the primary prey. Bluegill feed on a variety of naturally occurring foods found in the water. Food avail-ability for bluegills is directly dependent on the quality of water. Water clarity is evident on an aerial photo as clear ponds appear dark because they do not reflect as much light as a muddy pond, which resembles a bare field. A pond with a desirable plankton bloom will appear gray, much as a grassy field. Considering this, the photos would be ranked 2,1,4,3. The pond in photo 2 is ranked first because it has a good plank-ton bloom. It is full of water and has only one small bare area on the edge. The small amount of algae and emergent weeds present around the perimeter should pose no problem. The pond in photo 1 is placed over the pond in photo 4 because it is full, has no problems with turbidity, and no weeds can be seen. The pond in photo 4 is ranked third because of the plankton bloom and cover of the watershed. There is also a circle of emergent weeds in this pond. The pond in photo 3 is placed last because of erosion around and turbidity in the pond. The cuts between pairings would be 4:4:6.

Photo 1 Photo 2

Photo 3 Photo 4

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Instructions: For each species, rank the photos for their habitat value. Mark

an “X” in the box with the appropriate ranking for each species. DO NOT

consider potential of the area — only its present quality.

Habitat Evaluation ofAerial Photographs

(20 points)

Wildlife Species

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.Ranking1 2 3 4

1 2 4 3

1 3 2 4

1 3 4 2

1 4 2 3

1 4 3 2

2 1 3 4

2 1 4 3

2 3 1 4

2 3 4 1

2 4 1 3

2 4 3 1

3 1 2 4

3 1 4 2

3 2 1 4

3 2 4 1

3 4 1 2

3 4 2 1

4 1 2 3

4 1 3 2

4 2 1 3

4 2 3 1

4 3 1 2

4 3 2 1

Score

Total Raw Score _______

Mean Score ________

Activity II-A Score ________Total raw score ÷ number of species = mean scoreMean score x 20-point calculation factor = Activity II-A score

Name __________________________________________ County _______________________________

Jr. _____ Jr. High _____ Senior _____F703-B

Activity II-A Scorecard

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Activity II-B (State contest only) F831

Judges Card for Scoring Oral Reasons

Name ____________________________________________ County ________________________

Logic of ranking and photo interpretation ____________ (4 points)

Knowledge of species, use of wildlife terms and concepts ____________ (3 points)

Presentation, poise and appearance ____________ (3 points)

TOTAL for Activity II-B ____________

Judge ____________________________________________________________________________

Scorecard judges will use for scoring the oral reasons activity:

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Activity III. Management Recommendations

Activity III (worth 30 points) addresses the prescription of Wildlife Management Practices (WMPs) neces-sary to improve a designated site for each of the wildlife species listed for the contest. A blank scorecard is shown on page 96. It provides space to write in the species given for judging.

The scorecard for Activity III should be completed using information learned from the tables for the Eastern Deciduous Forest, Wetlands and Urban Regions and from the Wildlife Species and Wildlife Management Practices sections of the manual. Place an “X” in the appropriate boxes for all WMPs that would improve the area for each of the species listed on the scorecard.

Consider each species separately. For example, WMPs for deer would not necessarily be the same as those for bluebirds. Choose only the appropriate practices from all the WMPs listed as applicable to the species.

WMPs for the Eastern Deciduous Forest can be used in both rural and urban areas. Practices prescribed in urban areas should not be limited to the additional urban-oriented practices listed at the bottom of the Urban Region table.

Cost or other land management objectives should not be considered.

Example of Habitat Management Recommendations Suppose the area you are judging is 300 acres of all stage 6 mixed hardwood forest, and wild turkey is the wildlife species of concern.

If you read about the wild turkey in the Wildlife Species section and look at the table included in the Eastern Deciduous Forest Region description, you can see that practices 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 41, 42, 43, 45 and 46 are appropriate practices when managing for wild turkeys. From these practices, select the ones that will improve the habitat and are otherwise appropriate for wild turkeys in the area described above.

You would not mark the box for WMP 2 because there are no open areas. You would check WPM 5 because prescribed burning is commonly practiced in stage 6 forest to promote herbaceous vegetation in the under-story. Because the area is all stage 6, you would not check WMPs 6 or 9. You do not have any information on population status, so you cannot check WMPs 8, 16 or 46. However, you do need to find out the current population status — to help better manage for wild turkeys — so you would check WMP 12. This area does not have any agriculture (remember, it is all stage 6), so WMPs 14 and 41 do not apply. If there are livestock on the area (in the woods), you would check WMP 17. You would choose to plant food plots (WMP 19) be-cause food plots are maintained as annual or perennial openings, and wild turkeys require some open areas. You would mark practice 20 because there are no openings present, and fields of native warm-season grasses would provide brooding habitat and possible nesting habitat. There are plenty of trees already, so WMPs 21 and 22 are not needed. You would mark WMPs 42 and 43 because these would provide additional succes-sional stages and improve habitat conditions in some areas of the forest. If there is no water on the site, you would also mark WMP 45. So, based on the information given, you would mark WPMs 5, 12,19, 20, 42, 43, and possibly 17 (if cows are present and not fenced out of the woods) and 45 (if there is no water).

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Activity III Score _______

Activity IIIScorecard

Wildlife ManagementRecommendations forEastern Deciduous Forest

(30 points)

Wildlife Species

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.Wildlife Management Practices (WMPs) 2. Bushhogging 3. Build Brushpiles 5. Controlled (Prescribed) Burning 6. Corridors/Hedgerows 8. Decrease Bag/Creel/Season Limit 9. Disking10. Fertilize Ponds12. Fish (Pond) or Wildlife Survey14. Grain (or other seed), Leave Unharvested16. Increase Bag/Creel/Season Limit17. Livestock Grazing Management (including fencing)18. Nest Boxes19. Plant Food Plots20. Establish Native Warm-Season Grasses and Associated Forbs21. Plant Mast Trees22. Plant Trees or Shrubs24. Ponds, Clear Muddy Water25. Pond Construction27. Ponds, Deepen Edges28. Ponds, Remove Trees on or Near Dike29. Ponds, Repair Spillway30. Ponds, Reseed Watershed/Filter Strip31. Ponds, Restock32. Ponds, Stop Leaks36. Small Dikes for Temporary Flooding37. Retain Snags and Down Woody Material41. Tillage, Eliminate in Fall42. Harvest Timber43. Timber Stand Improvement44. Water Control Structures45. Water Developments for Wildlife46. Wildlife Damage Management

Number Correct

Score = (total correct ÷ total possible correct) x 30

Total Possible Correct __________ (# of species x 32)

Total Correct __________

Name __________________________________________ County _______________________________

Jr. _____ Jr. High _____ Senior _____F703-C

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Activity III Score _____

Activity IIIScorecard

Wildlife ManagementRecommendations for

Wetlands(30 points)

Wildlife Species

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.Wildlife Management Practices (WMPs) 2. Bushhogging

5. Controlled (Prescribed) Burning

8. Decrease Bag/Creel/Season Limit

9. Disking

12. Fish (Pond) or Wildlife Survey

15. Harvest Timing (Crops/Hay)

16. Increase Bag/Creel/Season Limit

17. Livestock Grazing Management (including fencing)

18. Nest Boxes

20. Establish Native Warm-Season Grasses and Associated Forbs

21. Plant Mast Trees

22. Plant Trees or Shrubs

25. Pond Construction

28. Ponds, Remove Trees on or Near Dike

29. Ponds, Repair Spillway

30. Ponds, Reseed Watershed/Filter Strip

31. Ponds, Restock

32. Ponds, Stop Leaks

33. Riparian Buffers

36. Small Dikes for Temporary Flooding

43. Timber Stand Improvement

44. Water Control Structures

46. Wildlife Damage Management

Number Correct

Score = (total correct ÷ total possible correct) x 30

Name __________________________________________ County _______________________________

Jr. _____ Jr. High _____ Senior _____F703-D

Total Possible Correct __________ (# of species x 23)

Total Correct __________

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Activity IV. Written Rural Wildlife Management Plan

This activity is for the state contest only.

Activity IV is a team activity worth 30 points.

Using the same tract of land you used in Activity III, each team will prepare written recommendations based on the objectives of the landowner, as stated in the Written Plan Scenario provided. As a team, you will in-terpret the objectives, state which wildlife management practices are to be used and how the practices should affect the species listed, and tell where on the tract these practices can be applied.

Activity IV will be timed. You will have 45 minutes to one hour to complete the exercise. No more than one side of a sheet of paper may be used for the written plan. You may be asked to draw a map and locate where recommended practices will be put in place.

Written Plan ScenarioThe Written Plan Scenario may contain the following information:

1. Landowner’s objectives

2. Aerial photograph or sketch map of the property

3. Definition of property boundaries, size of tract

4. Population conditions for some of the species

5. Special considerations, which might include cost restraints

If any of the above are omitted, they are not needed for the development of the wildlife management plan.

FormatYour written wildlife management plan should follow the format outlined below.

I. Plan Background

Once you receive the Written Plan Scenario, your team will need to identify the species to be man-aged and develop specific objectives for each species.

A. Identify the species to be managed as related to the landowner’s objectives.

B. Develop specific management objectives. Objectives must be measurable. Do not just say you are going to manage for the various species mentioned in the scenario.

II. Plan Development

This is where the actual plan takes shape.

A. Habitat Assessment

To begin developing a plan, you must be able to inventory and evaluate the present condition of the area and explain the condition. You must determine whether the basic habitat requirements for the species listed are present and in the right arrangement. To do this, you must know the ba-sic habitat requirements of the wildlife species listed.

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B. Recommended Wildlife Management Practices

Once your assessment is made, you should develop a list of management practices that could be implemented to achieve the desired condition. To do this, the team must rely on their knowledge of the practices used to manage habitat for the listed species. The management practices pre-scribed must be specific for the given area.

III. Plan Implementation

In this part of the written plan, you identify where, when and how each management practice will be applied as well as the effect it will have on the habitat. This information should be provided for each species identified.

The plan implementation should identify where, when, how and why. A statement must be provided for each practice selected for each species to be managed.

IV. Plan Evaluation

This is an important part of management plans that is often overlooked. Wildlife managers (or you) will never know whether a plan was successful without doing some type of monitoring to determine what effects the wildlife management practices had on the populations being managed. Your team should identify how you will determine the effects of the wildlife management practices imple-mented on population numbers or species use of the area. This usually requires doing some type of standardized surveys or counts of the populations.

Examples of Written Plan Scenarios from previous State Wildlife Judging Contests are printed on the fol-lowing pages followed by the written justifications. Keep in mind the contest has been revised over the past several years; therefore, you may see some inconsistencies with material printed in this revised manual.

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Example of Written Rural Management Plan Scenario

2001 State Wildlife Judging Contest Written Rural Management Plan Scenario

The Wilson County James E. Ward Agricultural Center Management Committee has recognized there is ad-

ditional acreage on the back of the property that hasn’t been used and won’t be developed for some time.

The Board has decided the area should be managed for wildlife if not being used for Fairground activities.

Their plan is to develop nature trails going through the back of the property to allow more people to enjoy

this area of the Ag Center. Of particular interest is developing a bluebird trail, allowing youth groups to

monitor bluebird nest success. The elderly also would be able to walk the trails and enjoy viewing different

wildlife species.

The local chapter of The National Wild Turkey Federation has expressed interest in providing seed and other

materials to help develop a demonstration site for their JAKES youth program in hopes of seeing more wild

turkeys on the area. One of the Ag Committee members has helped conduct the annual drum count for ruffed

grouse. He is interested in seeing some type of management practice implemented to enhance conditions for

ruffed grouse to facilitate restoration efforts in the area.

Visitors on the trails leading into the woods might enjoy seeing many of our forest birds. Birds such as the

hairy woodpecker and ovenbird should be given consideration in the management plan.

What suggestions/recommendations can you provide the Management Committee to help them meet their

objectives? Please provide your plan on the sheet attached.

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Example of Written Rural Management Plan Justification

2001 State Written Rural Management Plan (30 points total) Team________KEY___________________I. Plan background (worth 3 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point) Eastern bluebird Ruffed Grouse Ovenbird Eastern wild turkey Hairy woodpeckerB. Management objectives (worth 2 points)

1. Create “bluebird trail” for increased viewing opportunities2. Improve habitat conditions for wild turkeys for educational demonstration3. Improve habitat conditions for restoring ruffed grouse in the surrounding areas4. Manage woodlot for increased viewing opportunities for forest birds, in particular, the ovenbird and

hairy woodpeckerII. Plan development (worth 12 points)A. Habitat assessment (worth 4 points)

• There are insufficient nesting cavities and perching sites in the field for bluebirds.• There is virtually no interspersion among habitat types on the site.• There are no food plots for wild turkeys available for demonstration to the JAKES program. • Forest conditions could be improved to enhance habitat for wild turkeys, ruffed grouse, ovenbirds,

and hairy woodpeckers • Population condition and status of bluebirds, wild turkeys, ovenbirds and hairy woodpeckers unknown

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 8 points)Bluebirds: wildlife survey, erect nest boxes, plant trees/shrubsWild turkeys: controlled burning, create corridors, disk, wildlife survey, plant food plots, establish

native warm-season grasses, plant mast trees, plant trees and shrubs, selective-cut timber harvestRuffed grouse: controlled burning, plant mast trees, retain snags/downed woody material, selective-cut

timber harvestOvenbirds: wildlife survey, plant trees and shrubs, selective-cut timber harvestHairy woodpeckers: create corridors, wildlife survey, plant trees and shrubs, provide snags

III. Plan Implementation (worth 12 points)Nest boxes: provides cavities for several species to nest and roostControlled burning: reduces litter layer, allowing seeds in the seedbank to germinate and provide

herbaceous cover for nesting turkeys, grouse and ovenbirds, while increasing seed and invertebrate availability for turkeys and grouse

Corridors: provides increased interspersion, allowing for additional habitat types for wild turkeys; pro-vides site to plant soft- and hard-mast bearing trees and shrubs; provides additional habitat for hairy woodpeckers for foraging and nesting

Disking: stimulates germination of seeds in the seedbank that will be used for food and cover by wild turkeys; provides source of grit; quality brooding habitat

Wildlife survey: for bluebirds, wild turkeys, ovenbirds and hairy woodpeckers, it is imperative to know their relative abundance. Survey not needed for grouse because one is already being conducted on the area.

Plant food plots: important as an additional food source for wild turkeys and for demonstration area for the JAKES program

Plant mast trees: provides important food resources for wild turkeys and ruffed grousePlant trees and shrubs: provides food and cover for wild turkeys and is used to create additional cover

for ovenbirds and hairy woodpeckersSnags and dead/down woody material: provides feeding and nesting sites for hairy woodpeckers and

drumming sites for ruffed grouse Selective-cut timber harvest: creates additional cover for nesting wild turkeys, ruffed grouse, and

ovenbirdsIV. Plan Evaluation (worth 3 points)

Surveys will be conducted for the appropriate species. Visitors on the area should record numbers of all species seen while walking the trails. The bluebird trail should be monitored to determine use as well as nesting success. Presence and relative abundance of wild turkeys should be monitored via gobbler sur-veys in the spring and track/scat counts. Ovenbirds and hairy woodpeckers should be monitored using point counts and nest surveys. Ruffed grouse are currently being monitored via drumming counts.

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The Hobart Ames Foundation has recognized there is potential revenue available through leasing the wetland

before you for hunting and fishing. This revenue could be used to help cover the ever-increasing expenses

associated with managing a plantation. Before the area is leased, however, the Ames Plantation staff realizes

several wildlife management practices must be in place in order to get a relatively high bid.

The plan is to develop the wetland and surrounding area, making it attractive for a sportsman’s club. This in-

cludes improving the road coming into the property, building a cabin for club members, constructing a boat

ramp and implementing the appropriate wildlife management practices.

Wildlife management practices will concentrate on those species that would naturally be attracted to such an

area. Although several species of ducks might visit the area in fall/winter, the area is particularly well suited

for wood ducks, which are known to nest here and increasing their numbers is desired. Because this wetland

was created primarily by beavers, they should be considered in the management plan. Another consideration

is the large raccoon population, which has been observed depredating wood duck nests and broods.

Duck hunting is restricted to fall and winter. Thus, the Ames staff decided that providing opportunities for

“alternative” activities during spring and summer would make the area even more attractive for potential

club members. Fishing for largemouth bass/bluegill and gigging for bullfrogs are two possibilities that lease

holders might enjoy.

A comprehensive wildlife management plan is necessary in order to carry out these activities and make this

endeavor profitable. What suggestions/recommendations can you provide the Ames Plantation staff to help

them meet their objectives? Please provide your plan on the sheet attached.

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2002 State Written Rural Management Plan (30 points total) Team____________KEY_______________I. Plan background (worth 3 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point) wood duck bullfrog largemouth bass/bluegill beaver raccoon B. Management objectives (worth 2 points)

1. Develop the area for a sportsman’s club2. Improve habitat conditions for wood ducks 3. Address the problem of overabundant raccoons and possible beaver activity4. Improve habitat conditions for bullfrogs5. Improve/create habitat conditions for largemouth bass/bluegill

II. Plan development (worth 12 points)A. Habitat assessment (worth 4 points)

• Currently, there is no way to fluctuate/manage the water level of the wetland.• The number of nesting cavities for wood ducks is limited.• There is a sufficient number of mast trees in the area, but forest stand composition could be im-

proved.• Adequate cover for wood ducks is provided in the wetland by abundant trees and shrubs.• Habitat manageable for largemouth bass/bluegill is not present.• Riparian buffers are present.

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 8 points)Wood duck: wildlife survey, nesting boxes, maintain riparian buffers, construct small dike, selective cutRaccoon: increase bag/season limit, wildlife damage managementBullfrog: wildlife survey, maintain riparian buffersBeaver: riparian bufferLargemouth bass/bluegill: pond construction

III. Plan Implementation (worth 12 points)Wildlife survey: for wood ducks and bullfrogs, it is important to monitor their relative abundance.

Survey not needed for raccoons and beavers because one is being conducted annually by the Ames Plantation staff.

Nesting boxes: provides additional nesting cavities for wood ducksRiparian buffers: important in providing habitat for various species as well as improving water qualityConstruct small dike: needed in order to manage water levelSelective-cut timber harvest: used to increase mast production and improve composition of stands

adjacent to wetlandIncrease bag/season limit: needed to control the raccoon populationWildlife damage management: additional measures needed to control overabundant raccoonsPond construction: needed to provide manageable habitat for largemouth bass/bluegill

IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 3 points)Surveys should be conducted for the appropriate species. Numbers and success of wood ducks nesting on the area should be monitored through a nest box program. Predation rates by raccoons should be followed closely, and possible damage by beavers should be assessed through time. Use of the wetland created and managed with a small dike should be monitored. Bullfrog populations should be monitored with call surveys. Increased mast production should be observed over time following selective timber harvest. Largemouth bass/bluegill populations should be monitored with seining surveys and fishing success.

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Johnny and Pat Lynch own and operate the Farmhouse Gallery and Gardens, which includes 25 wooded

acres, 30 acres of hayfield and oldfield habitat, and another 20 acres near the highway where the house and

other buildings are located. Johnny is an artist and sells paintings in the gallery. The gardens and remainder

of the property are available for various individuals and groups to use. These visitors might include youth

groups, civic club meetings, book clubs, and students interested in natural resources.

Mr. Lynch has identified the need to develop the upper fields and woods for wildlife because there is so

much interest in wildlife viewing among the groups who use the property. He recognizes the fact that a trail

needs to be established with interpretive signs describing plants, habitat types, and the wildlife that frequent

the property. In addition to a trail, it is obvious that various wildlife management practices are needed in or-

der to make the area more attractive to focal species. This should increase wildlife viewing opportunities for

visitors.

Wildlife management practices will concentrate on those species that already occur in the area and on those

most easily seen and/or heard. White-tailed deer frequent the property, and it is hoped the fields can be made

more attractive to deer to alleviate browsing pressure on the wildflowers in the woods and to increase view-

ing opportunities. Wild turkeys and ruffed grouse are also present, and visitors always enjoy hearing a gob-

bler or drumming male grouse in the springtime. There are many migrant songbirds that use the forested

area. Some species, such as the ovenbird, have a melodious, flute-like call that adds enjoyment to a morning

walk through the woods.

Mr. Lynch has thought for a long time that it would be nice to have a recreational fishing pond for large-

mouth bass and bluegill. This should provide an added attraction to increase visitation to the property. Mr.

Lynch tried to establish a pond 25 years ago, but the pond did not hold water and trees have overtaken the

site.

A comprehensive wildlife management plan is necessary in order to carry out these activities and make this

endeavor more enjoyable and profitable. What recommendations can you make to help the Lynch’s meet

their objectives? Please provide your plan on the sheet attached.

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2003 State Written Rural Management Plan (30 points total) Team:____________KEY_______________I. Plan background (worth 3 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point) white-tailed deer wild turkey ruffed grouse ovenbird largemouth bass/bluegill B. Management objectives (worth 2 points)

1. Develop the property for a variety of wildlife species2. Establish an interpretive trail 3. Increase wildlife viewing opportunities4. Alleviate browsing pressure on woodland wildflowers5. Establish a recreational pond for largemouth bass and bluegill6. Develop a comprehensive wildlife management plan


• Mature hardwood stand is present, providing habitat for white-tailed deer, wild turkeys, ruffed grouse, and ovenbirds

• Mature hardwood stand is of mast-bearing age• Fields contain tall fescue, providing poor early successional cover• Little brushy cover is available for white-tailed deer and wild turkeys• There is no pond for largemouth bass/bluegill

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 8 points)white-tailed deer: prescribed burning, create hedgerows, wildlife survey, increase bag limit, plant food

plots, establish native warm-season grasses, plant mast trees, plant trees or shrubs, selective cut, water developments for wildlife

wild turkey: prescribed burning, create hedgerows, wildlife survey, disking, plant food plots, establish native warm-season grasses, plant mast trees, plant trees or shrubs, selective cut, water developments for wildlife

ruffed grouse: prescribed burning, wildlife survey, plant mast trees, plant trees or shrubs, retain down woody material, selective cut

ovenbird: wildlife survey, plant trees or shrubs, selective cutlargemouth bass/bluegill: pond construction

III. Plan Implementation (worth 12 points)prescribed burning: needed to maintain early successional habitat and improve ground cover condi-

tions for white-tailed deer, wild turkeys, and ruffed grousecreate hedgerows: needed to increase cover, connect other habitats, and provide soft mast for deer and

wild turkeysdisking: needed to stimulate the seedbank, set back succession, enhance brooding cover, and to create

firebreakswildlife survey: needed to monitor population response of all species to the various management practicesincrease bag limit: needed to limit the increasing deer populationplant food plots: needed to provide increased visibility and additional food resources for white-tailed

deer and wild turkeysestablish native warm-season grasses: provide enhanced early successional habitat for white-tailed

deer and wild turkeysplant mast trees: needed to provide additional food resources for white-tailed deer, wild turkeys and

ruffed grouseplant trees or shrubs: needed to establish hedgerows for white-tailed deer and wild turkeys, to provide

additional soft mast for ruffed grouse, and to improve habitat conditions for ovenbirds in open areasretain down woody material: needed for drumming sites by ruffed grouseselective-cut: used to increase mast production and improve structure of forest for deer, wild turkeys,

grouse and ovenbirdswater developments for wildlife: needed to provide water resources for white-tailed deer and wild turkeyspond construction: needed to provide manageable habitat for largemouth bass/bluegill

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Montgomery Bell State Park encompasses nearly 4,000 acres of mature mixe-hardwood forest, with several

recreation opportunities, including camping, golfing, hiking and picnicking. Although several wildlife and

plant species are found within the park, very little acreage is composed of young forest or other early succes-

sional habitats. The park is committed to providing a quality outdoor experience for its visitors but wants to

ensure quality wildlife habitat is available for a variety of wildlife species, including those that require early

successional habitats.

Annual bird surveys through Montgomery Bell have shown species such as brown thrasher, eastern bluebird,

eastern cottontail and northern bobwhite are relatively uncommon, and the park staff would like to see them

increase. Wildlife viewing is a popular activity within the park. A goal for Montgomery Bell is to increase

wildlife viewing opportunities for a wide variety of wildlife species, including those species associated with

early successional habitats.

While visitors enjoy seeing wildlife, an overabundance of wildlife can be a problem. White-tailed deer have

become so numerous at Montgomery Bell that browse lines are apparent in the forest. Flowers and shrubbery

around buildings and the golf course are being eaten, which is a concern for the park staff. A plan to correct

this problem needs to be developed.

Although it is recognized that several habitat improvement and other wildlife management practices are

needed, funding is somewhat limited. A source(s) for funding any practices implemented needs to be

identified.

A management plan designed specifically to meet the needs and goals identified above is needed. What rec-

ommendations can you provide to help the staff at Montgomery Bell State Park meet their objectives? Please

provide your plan on the sheet attached.

IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 3 points)Surveys should be conducted for the appropriate species. White-tailed deer populations may be moni-tored by infrared-triggered cameras. Wild turkeys can be monitored by brood counts, ruffed grouse can be censused with drumming counts, and ovenbirds can be monitored through point counts. Increased mast production should be observed over time following selective timber harvest. Other management practices can be evaluated with plant surveys. Largemouth bass/bluegill populations should be monitored with seining surveys and fishing success.

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2005 State Written Rural Management Plan (30 points total) Team:____________KEY______________I. Plan background (worth 3 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point)

brown thrasher eastern bluebird eastern cottontail northern bobwhite white-tailed deerB. Management objectives (worth 2 points)

1. Increase abundance of species associated with early successional habitats2. Increase wildlife viewing opportunities, including those associated with early successional habitats 3. Ameliorate problem associated with overabundant white-tailed deer4. Identify source(s) for funding any practices implemented


• Majority of Montgomery Bell State Forest is mature mixed hardwood forest• Very little acreage in early successional habitats• Browse lines created by an overabundant deer herd are present

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 8 points)brown thrasher: clearcut timber harvest, selective timber harvesteastern bluebird: establish native warm-season grasses, nest boxes, retain snags, clearcut timber harvesteastern cottontail: build brushpiles, wildlife survey, plant food plots, establish native warm-season

grasses, clearcut timber harvestnorthern bobwhite: build brushpiles, plant food plots, establish native warm-season grasses, clearcut

timber harvest, selective timber harvestwhite-tailed deer: wildlife survey, plant food plots, establish native warm-season grasses, clearcut tim-

ber harvest, selective timber harvest, wildlife damage managementIII. Plan Implementation (worth 12 points)

build brushpiles: provide additional cover adjacent to newly created openings for rabbits and quailwildlife survey: needed to estimate rabbit and deer populations and evaluate success of practices

implementednest boxes: provide additional nesting space adjacent to newly created openings for bluebirdsplant food plots: needed to provide additional food resources for rabbits, quail, and deerestablish native warm-season grasses: provide quality early successional habitat for bluebirds, rabbits,

quail and deerretain snags: provide possible nesting cavities adjacent to newly created openings after clearcut timber

harvestclearcut timber harvest: provide early successional habitat for brown thrashers, bluebirds, rabbits,

quail and deer; provide funding source for other management practicesselective timber harvest: provide better understory forest structure for brown thrashers, quail and deer;

provide funding source for other management practiceswildlife damage management: help remedy the problem associated with overabundant deer herd

IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 3 points)Practices should be evaluated for response by targeted species. A walking trail could be created through/along harvested areas to provide wildlife viewing opportunities. Species using the harvested areas, food plots, and native grass fields should be recorded. The food plot and native grass plantings should be monitored for growth and food/cover provided. Nest boxes, brushpiles, and snags should be monitored for activity. Surveys should be conducted for appropriate species.

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Activity V. Written Urban Landscapes and Backyard Habitat Plans

This activity is for the state contest only.

Activity V is a team effort worth 30 points.

This activity involves evaluating habitats in urban areas and developing a written management plan with a map outlining your recommendations.

Most people live in urban areas with intensively managed landscapes around their homes. Rural homes also have backyards that can be managed intensively for wildlife habitat and personal enjoyment. This activity allows you to evaluate landscapes in suburban and urban environments.

Species that have adapted to human development were selected for this activity. Habitat requirements pro-vided by the environment are still basic to wildlife survival and are supplied by vertical layers of short, in-termediate and tall plants, as well as buildings in the area. The arrangement of vegetation and/or buildings of different layers (heights) determines which wildlife species use the area. Corridors that enable movement of animals between different areas are also important features of horizontal arrangement. Remember, buildings in urban areas can also serve as places to roost, nest and hide for some wildlife species.

Activity V is a timed team event. You must complete and hand in all phases of the exercise within 45 minutes to one hour after the instructions are given. Each team will be given a written plan scenario with necessary information about the site. Each team must draw a map of the area indicating where you would place plant-ings and implement other wildlife management practices. A written justification for your management deci-sions must also be included. Your map must be constructed on one sheet of paper, oriented to the site, with features of the landscape, including your alterations and a legend. Each change you make to the existing landscape must be justified in writing using simple statements about the benefits of the management propos-als for the wildlife being considered and how your proposals relate to the landowner’s objectives.

Plain white paper, pencils and a clipboard are the only materials needed (colored pencils are allowed at the state contest but may not be allowed at the national contest). Each team should bring its own materials — they will not be supplied at the event. No other materials (rulers, stencils, etc.) will be allowed.

The goal for Activity V is to manage for the wildlife species or groups listed on one of the seven categories of urban land. You must work under the environmental conditions of the contest area. At the time of the com-petition, you will be told the needs and/or desires of the landowner. You may also be given population condi-tions for some of the species as well as the property boundaries and size of the property. You should know from information provided at this time whether the wildlife in question is found seasonally or year-round in the area, and you must make management decisions accordingly.

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Written Plan ScenarioThe Written Plan Scenario contains the landowner’s objectives and any special considerations — for exam-ple, do wildlife species use the area only during certain seasons?

FormatThe format for the written urban management plan is the same as that for the rural plan on page 98. Exam-ples for the written urban management plan and map are on pages 110 – 120.

On page 118, a hypothetical yard with property boundaries, structures and vegetation has been drawn for you to practice on. Page 119 contains symbols for vegetation and other items that may be placed in the yard to enhance wildlife habitat. If you make copies of these pages before drawing on them, you can use them many times.

An example of what a finished management plan map for the yard might look like is given on page 120. Remember, it is unlikely that areas used in the state event will be similar to this yard, and the practices illus-trated in the example may not be applicable. Remember to also include a legend with your map so symbols can be identified.

The size of existing features in the habitat can be determined by pacing off distances or visual estimation. Features recommended to improve the existing habitat should also be drawn.

It is important to give special attention to where planned features are placed in relation to existing features. For example, young trees planted too close to buildings can cause problems with building maintenance. In addition, the tree will not grow as well when planted too close to buildings or other trees.

Examples from previous State 4-H Wildlife Judging Contests are on the following pages.

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Example of a Written Urban Plan Scenario

2001 State Wildlife Judging Contest Written Urban Plan Scenario

Area: Grounds surrounding the W.H. Neal Building, Lebanon, Tennessee

Objectives:

The Agricultural Extension Service wants to enhance the grounds surrounding the W.H. Neal Building for

wildlife. Some of the personnel have a fascination with hummingbirds and butterflies. Habitat improvement

for bluebirds, nighthawks, house finches, house wrens, flickers and song sparrows is encouraged.

Special considerations

The Agricultural Extension Service wants the landscape to look good while benefiting various wildlife spe-

cies. Fruiting trees and shrubs that may cause a mess, however, are not wanted. Parking area around the

building cannot be reduced; thus, project work will be limited to open ground areas. The project should be

economically efficient, but adequate funding will be provided.

The urban wildlife management plan should consist of the following:

1. A hand-sketched map of the building and the surrounding area being considered (worth 10 points)

2. A one-page justification of the management plan (worth 20 points), including

• management objectives

• assessment of existing habitat conditions by identifying the needed habitat components that are

missing or limiting for each target species

• habitat management practices recommended for each target species

• project evaluation

Note: The existing vegetation and management structures will not be counted in your written justification

unless they are drawn on your map.

The management plan is due in one hour. Good luck!!

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Example of Written Urban Management Plan Justification

2001 State Written Urban Management Plan (30 points total) Team____________KEY_____________I. Plan background (worth 2 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point) hummingbirds, bluebirds, house finch, northern flicker, butterflies, house wren, song sparrowB. Management objectives (worth 1 point) Enhance habitat for butterflies and several bird species surrounding the W. H. Neal Building.II. Plan development (worth 8 points)A. Habitat assessment (worth 4 points)

• There are some blooming plants present currently; however, there are areas with none.• There are no nesting cavities available for those birds needing them.• There are no artificial feeders present on the area.• There are few trees and shrubs available.• There is no water source available.

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 4 points)Hummingbirds: artificial feeders, plant trees/shrubs, do not disturb nests, plant flowers, use pesticides

carefullyBluebirds: nest boxes, plant trees/shrubs, water development, do not disturb nests, use pesticides care-

fullyHouse finches: artificial feeders, plant trees/shrubs, water development, do not disturb nests, use pesti-

cides carefullyHouse wrens: nest boxes, plant trees/shrubs, do not disturb nests, use pesticides carefullyFlickers: artificial feeders, plant trees/shrubs, use pesticides carefullySong sparrows: artificial feeders, plant trees/shrubs, water development, do not disturb nests, use pesti-

cides carefullyButterflies: plant trees and shrubs, water development, plant flowers, use pesticides carefully

III. Plan Implementation (worth 7 points)Artificial feeders: provides supplemental food for hummingbirds, house finches, flickers, and song

sparrowsNest boxes: provides cavities for bluebirds and house wrens to nest inPlant trees/shrubs: provides food and cover for hummingbirds, bluebirds, house finches, house wrens,

flickers, and song sparrows, butterfliesWater developments: provides water for drinking and other functions for bluebirds, house finches,

song sparrows, and butterfliesPlant flowers: provides nectar for hummingbirds and butterfliesUse pesticides carefully: for all species for obvious reasons

IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 3 points)Observations of the various species should be recorded to determine use of practices implemented and relative abundance of the animals.

V. Map (worth 10 points)

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Area: The area to be considered is the grounds and pond surrounding the gallery and pavilion (including

the parking area) of the Farmhouse Gallery and Gardens (approximately 3 acres). Within the Urban Areas

Region as identified in the 4-H Wildlife Judging Manual, this site would be included in the Residential Areas

Category.

Objectives

Mr. and Mrs. Johnny Lynch want to increase the wildlife viewing opportunities surrounding the gallery and

pavilion of the Farmhouse Gallery and Gardens. This effort may include landscape plantings and structures.

The landscape plantings should both be pleasing to look at and provide habitat to attract American robins,

Eastern bluebirds, butterflies, frogs, house wrens, hummingbirds and song sparrows.


Adequate funding is available to meet reasonable expenses.

The Urban Wildlife Management Plan should consist of the following:

1. A hand-sketched map of the area being considered with the buildings appropriately located

(worth 10 points)

2. A one-page justification of the management plan (worth 20 points), including:

• plan background —species to be managed and objectives

• plan development — habitat assessment and practices for target species

• plan implementation — what is the purpose(s) of each practice?

• plan evaluation — how do you know practices were worthwhile?

Note: the existing vegetation and management structures will not be counted in your written justification

—unless they are drawn on your map.

The management plan is due in one hour. Good luck!

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2003 State Written Urban Management Plan (30 points total) Team____________KEY_____________I Plan background (worth 2 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point) American robins Eastern bluebirds butterflies frogs house wrens hummingbirds song sparrowsB. Management objectives (worth 1 point)

Enhance habitat for American robins, Eastern bluebirds, butterflies, frogs, house wrens, hummingbirds, and song sparrows in area around the gallery and pavilion of Farmhouse Gallery and Gardens in an ef-fort to increase wildlife viewing opportunities while improving the overall appearance of the area.


• There are trees and shrubs present to provide nesting cover and a source for invertebrates for house wrens.

• There are relatively few soft mast-producing trees and shrubs. • Additional trees and shrubs and flowering plants is warranted for hummingbirds and butterflies.• There are plenty of evergreen trees present for nesting.• There are no artificial feeders present.• Cavities are limited for species needing them for nesting.• Pond is providing excellent habitat for frogs.

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 6 points) American robins: plant trees or shrubs, do not disturb nesting places, use pesticides carefullyEastern bluebirds: nesting boxes, do not disturb nesting places, use pesticides carefully Butterflies: plant trees or shrubs, plant flowers, use pesticides carefullyFrogs: use pesticides carefullyHouse wrens: nesting boxes, do not disturbs nesting places, use pesticides carefullyHummingbirds: artificial feeders, plant trees or shrubs, do not disturb nesting places, plant flowers,

use pesticides carefullySong sparrows: artificial feeders, do not disturb nesting places, use pesticides carefully

III. Plan Implementation (worth 8 points)Artificial feeders: provides supplemental food for hummingbirds and song sparrowsNesting boxes: provides cavities for Eastern bluebirds and house wrensPlant trees or shrubs: provides food for American robins, butterflies, and hummingbirds Do not disturb nesting places: increases nesting success for all birdsPlant flowers: provides nectar for butterflies and hummingbirdsUse pesticides carefully: consideration for all species

IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 2 points)Monitor success of plantings — whether trees, shrubs, and flowers survived and appearance was im-proved. Record species and number of animals using artificial feeders, nesting boxes, and plantings for food and cover. Presence of healthy animals should indicate no adverse effect from pesticide use.

V. Map (worth 10 points)

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Example of Urban Plan Map

2003 State Wildlife Judging Contest Entry submitted by McNairy County team(Actual contest entry redrawn for inclusion in manual)

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Area: The area to be considered is the building, parking lot and grounds around the Montgomery Bell State

Park Visitor’s Center. Within the Urban Areas Region, as identified in the 4-H Wildlife Judging Manual, this

site would be included in the Neighborhood Parks Category.

Objectives

The administration of the Montgomery Bell State Park is working to improve the general appearance of the

lot and grounds and attract non-intrusive wildlife. The project may include landscape plantings and struc-

tures. This effort should be both pleasing to look at, educational for visitors and provide habitat to attract

American robins, Eastern bluebirds, butterflies, frogs, house wrens, hummingbirds and song sparrows. The

presence of house sparrows and European starlings causes concern about attracting bluebirds and wrens.


Adequate funding is a concern and appropriate steps should be taken to limit spending.

The Urban Wildlife Management Plan should consist of the following:

1. a hand-sketched map of the area being considered with the buildings and other structures appropriately

located (worth 10 points)

2. a one-page justification of the management plan (worth 20 points), including

• plan background — species to be managed and objectives

• plan development — habitat assessment and practices for target species

• plan implementation — what is the purpose(s) of each practice?

• plan evaluation — how do you know practices were worthwhile?

Note: the existing vegetation and structures will not be counted in your written justification unless they are

drawn on your map.

The management plan is due in 45 minutes. Good luck!

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2005 State Written Urban Management Plan (30 points total) Team____________KEY_____________I Plan background (worth 2 points)A. Species to be managed (worth 1 point) American robins Eastern bluebirds butterflies European starling frogs house sparrow house wren hummingbirds song sparrowsB. Management objectives (worth 1 point)

Enhance habitat for American robins, Eastern bluebirds, butterflies, frogs, house wrens, hummingbirds and song sparrows around the Montgomery Bell State Park Visitor’s Center in an effort to improve the general appearance of the area, while attracting non-intrusive wildlife to increase viewing and educa-tional opportunities.


• There are a few trees and shrubs present for nesting, perching and foraging.• There are few mast-producing trees and shrubs. • Additional trees and shrubs and flowering plants are needed for most of the species identified.• There are evergreen trees present for nesting and roosting.• There is one artificial grain feeder and one hummingbird feeder present, but neither contains food.• There are no nest boxes present.• There is a spring seep, but it needs to be developed further to provide more aquatic habitat.

B. Wildlife management practices for the targeted species (worth 6 points) American robins: create hedgerow, plant trees or shrubs, water development (birdbath), do not disturb

nesting places, use pesticides carefullyEastern bluebirds: nest boxes, plant trees or shrubs, water development (birdbath), do not disturb

nesting places, use pesticides carefully Butterflies: plant trees or shrubs, plant flowers, use pesticides carefullyEuropean starlings: wildlife damage management, use pesticides carefullyFrogs: water control structure, use pesticides carefullyHouse sparrows: wildlife damage management, use pesticides carefullyHouse wrens: nest boxes, plant trees or shrubs, do not disturb nesting places, use pesticides carefullyHummingbirds: artificial feeders, plant trees or shrubs, do not disturb nesting places, plant flowers, use

pesticides carefullySong sparrows: artificial feeders, plant trees or shrubs, water development (birdbath), do not disturb

nesting places, use pesticides carefullyIII. Plan Implementation (worth 8 points)

Artificial feeders: provide supplemental food for hummingbirds and song sparrowsNest boxes: provide nesting sites for Eastern bluebirds and house wrensPlant trees or shrubs: provides food and cover for American robins, Eastern bluebirds, butterflies,

house wrens, hummingbirds and song sparrowsWater control structures: maintains and allows water level to be managed for frogs Water development: provides water source for American robins, Eastern bluebirds and song sparrowsWildlife damage management: needed to protect nesting Eastern bluebirds and house wrensDo not disturb nesting places: increases nesting success for all birdsPlant flowers: provides nectar for butterflies and hummingbirdsUse pesticides carefully: consideration for all species, including predators that might prey upon birds

IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 2 points)Monitor success of plantings—whether trees, shrubs and flowers survived and if appearance was im-proved. Record species and number of animals using artificial feeders, nesting boxes, water develop-ment and plantings for food and cover. Presence of young indicates nesting sites were not disturbed. No presence of house sparrows in nesting boxes and successful nests of Eastern bluebirds and house wrens indicates house sparrows were not limiting or problematic for those species. Presence of healthy animals should indicate no adverse effect from pesticide use.

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V. Map (worth 10 points)Building is approximately 75 feet by 110 feet with a concrete walkway with a drive-through at front entrance. Two additional buildings and a gazebo are present on the site. Approximately one-half acre on north side with no plantings and on the south area is a large grassy area with a few trees. Parking area surrounds the building.

118

Urban Plan Practice Maps

119

HerbaceousVegetation

(Flowers, Etc.) 2 to 4 ft. H

Large Evergreens75 ft. H x 20 ft. W

Small Evergreens25 ft. H x 10 ft. W

Large Deciduous75 ft. H x 30 ft. W

Small Deciduous20 ft. H x 15 ft. W

Large Shrubs

10 ft. H x 10 ft. W

Small Shrubs5 ft. H x 5 ft. W

AF—Artificial Feeders for Seeds BB—Bird Baths NB—Nest Boxes AS—Artificial Feeders, Suet AH—Artificial Feeders, Hummingbirds


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Home

MastNB

Mast

BB

Flowers

Soft Wood

NB

AH Cement

Garage

Cem

ent

Garden

Flowers &HerbaceousVegetation

Shed

Pond

Herbaceous Veg.

NB

AlleyPower Lines

Clo

thes

Lin

e

AS


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Scoring the Contest

Activity I — Foods — 20 points

The score for this activity is based on the formula: [Total correct ÷ total possible correct answers] x 20. Ev-ery block space is considered a possible correct answer. There are 350 blocks on the score sheet so there are 350 possible correct answers.

If you mark a block that is not supposed to be marked, it is counted as a wrong answer. Likewise, if you do not mark a block that should be marked, it is counted as a wrong answer. Blocks that should not be marked are counted as correct answers when you leave them blank.

Suppose you have 300 correct answers and 50 wrong answers. Divide the 300 correct answers by 350 (pos-sible correct answers) and then multiply by 20. ( [300 ÷ 350] x 20 = 17.14 ) Your score for Activity I would be 17.14 out of 20 possible points.

Activity II-A — Aerial Photo Interpretation — 20 points

The contest judges use the Hormel computing slide to score Activity II-A. For each species of wildlife given, the judges will determine the official order of the photographs, then establish, by number, the margin of dif-ference between each of the pairings when the photographs are in the correct order. These three numbers are referred to as the “cut.” The Hormel slide penalizes you by the amount of the assigned margin for the two photographs involved in each incorrect decision.

Once a total score for this part is computed, the score is adjusted to a scale of 0 to 20 points, because the maximum number of points for Activity II-A is 20.

Activity II-B — Aerial Photo Interpretation — Oral Reasons (state contest only) — 10 points

Activity II-B is judged subjectively by contest officials. Your oral reasons will be judged based on logic; photo interpretation; knowledge of the species; use of wildlife terms and concepts; and presentation, poise and appearance. You will give oral reasons to one or more judges for how you ranked the aerial photographs for the one or two species under consideration. Oral reasons should be short and concise. Even when you give an incorrect order for the photographs, it is possible to score well by giving logical and concise reasons.

A different judge (or judges) will evaluate each of the species used in the contest.

When explaining the reasons for your choices to the judges, you should:

• remove your hat• not chew gum or tobacco• identify yourself and the species you are addressing• not stare at floor or ceiling, but make eye contact with the judges, smile, and be enthusiastic• stand up straight and not cross your legs• not read verbatim from notes (but occasionally referring to notes is acceptable)• state reasons in terms of concepts presented in the manual, successional stages of each photograph

and habitat requirements of the species of interest• summarize at the end of each species presented by restating the order of selection.

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Activity III — On-site Wildlife Management Recommendations — 30 points

This score is calculated the same way as in Activity I, except the total possible correct will vary based on the area chosen for the contest. For example, the Eastern Deciduous Forest has 32 potential management prac-tices. Therefore, the total possible correct for this region would be 160 when 5 species are used in the contest or 216 when 8 species are used.

Activity IV — Rural Wildlife Management Plan (state contest only) — 30 points

This activity is scored subjectively by the contest judges. Judges look for how well contestants perceive the needs of the landowner, which WMPs to use, and how well the contestants make compromises for the spe-cies the landowner wants to manage as well as their creativity in helping landowners meet objectives. The written plan is judged and scored in four parts.

I. Plan Background (worth 3 points)A.Speciestobemanaged(worth1point) For correctly identifying the species, the team is awarded 1 point.B.Managementobjectives(worth2points) For correctly stating measurable management objectives, the team is awarded 2 points.

II. Plan Development (worth 12 points)A.Habitatassessment(worth4points) For making a written assessment concerning the present condition of the area and realizing the basic habitat requirements of the species concerned, the team is awarded 4 points. B.WildlifeManagementPractices(worth8points) For identifying the correct practices, the team is awarded up to 8 points.

III. Plan Implementation (worth 12 points) For identifying where, when and how each management practice is to be applied for each wildlife species identified, the team is awarded up to 12 points.IV. Plan Evaluation (worth 3 points) For developing a monitoring plan, the team is awarded 3 points.

Activity V — Urban Landscapes and Backyard Habitat Plans (state contest only ) — 30 points

This activity is scored in the same manner as Activity IV, except the map is included in the scoring. The ur-ban wildlife management plan is scored subjectively. The judges look for how well the contestants perceive the needs of the landowner, choose which WMPs to use, draw an accurate and logical sketch and make com-promises to help the landowner meet objectives.

Total Contest ScoreFor regional and state contests, the team score (if there are four members on a team) is calculated by drop-ping the lowest score, then adding the remaining scores. The maximum team score for regional contests is 210 points (Activities I, II and III). For the state contest, the team scores for Activities II-B, IV and V are added to create a maximum score of 300 points. The scores are calculated as follows:

Regional contests State contest Activity I (20) x 3 = 60 Activity I (20) x 3 = 60 Activity II-A (20) x 3 = 60 Activity II-A (20) x 3 = 60 Activity III (30) x 3 = 90 Activity II-B (10) x 3 = 30 210 Activity III (30) x 3 = 90 Activity IV (30) = 30 Activity V (30) = 30 300

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Glossary

egg. Invertebrate eggs (spiders, insects) represent the adult invertebrate category.

endangered species: a species that is in danger of becoming extinct.

environment: the surroundings that affect the growth and development of an organism. The surroundings of an organism, including other plants and animals, climate and location.

evergreen: plants that do not lose all their leaves at one time. Usually conifer trees, but also some broad-leaf trees, such as live oak or rhododendron.

excavate: to make a cavity or hole. To hollow out.

exclusion: keeping something out of an area.

fertile: rich in material needed to support plant growth.

fluctuate: to vary, or rise and fall irregularly.

forage: refers to the vegetation eaten by animals.

forb: low growing, nongrassy herbaceous plants, both annuals and perennials. Can be shown with a flower as part of a plant. Sometimes referred to as weeds.

fruit: fleshy fruit and berries.

glean: to gather food in a systematic manner with a minimum of waste and unnecessary effort.

grain: cereal grains for human consumption (includes wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, corn; all other commer-cially grown crops are considered seeds except for fruits or mast species).

grass: herbaceous plants typically having long, nar-row leaves and hollow, jointed stems. Flowers are inconspicuous and often in clusters.

greentree impoundment: bottomland hardwoods flooded during the winter to provide a feeding and resting area for migrating and wintering waterfowl.

ground litter: layer of the forest floor or old field, consisting of decaying organic matter such as leaves, branches and dead plants.

hardwood: certain deciduous or broadleaf trees hav-ing wood conspicuously harder than other trees (e.g., oak, hickory, beech).

herbaceous: all grasses and forbs having soft rather than woody stems; includes flowers and plants called weeds.

acre-foot: the volume of water that will cover a 1-acre area to a depth of 1 foot (43,560 cubic feet).

aerate: to supply or expose water with air to increase dissolved oxygen and release harmful gases.

annual: when referring to plants, those that complete their life cycle from seed to mature seed-bearing plant in one growing season.

arid: dry, receives little precipitation.

broadleaf: a plant with wide blade leaves, such as an oak or cottonwood. Seeds are born from flower-ing parts in contrast to conifers which bear seeds in cones.

canopy cover: the amount of ground covered by the branches, leaves and stems of plants. Can specify as herbaceous, shrub or tree cover. Expressed as a percentage.

carrion: stinking, rotten, flesh.

competition: when two or more organisms use the same resource.

congregate: when animals group together in an area.

conifer: usually refers to needleleaf trees that bear their seeds in cones. Pines, firs and spruces are examples.

cover: vegetation and other land features that provide areas for wildlife to hide, sleep, feed, and reproduce.

cultivate: tilling or working the soil for the purpose of growing crops and other desired plants.

decadent: declining in health and/or productivity.

deciduous: trees or shrubs that shed their leaves annually.

dense: thick, or crowded closely together.

detrimental: having harmful effects.

dew: water droplets condensed from the air onto cool surfaces such as leaves. Usually occurs at night.

dominant: the plant or animal species that is the most noticeable and common in an area. Often are a con-trolling force in the community where they occur.

drought: the lack of normal precipitation for an extended period of time. A long period with little or no rain.

egg: for the purpose of the contest, eggs shall be clas-sified as a vertebrate (reptile, amphibian, fish, bird)

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Glossary — cont’d

herbicide: chemicals used to control the growth of or kill undesired plants.

insecticide: chemicals used to control insects.

invertebrate: animals lacking a backbone. Some ex-amples are insects, spiders, mollusks and crustaceans.

irrigate: to supply cropland, parks, yards, etc., with water through the use of diversions, ditches and pipes.

legume: plants that bear seeds in a pod. Typically have characteristics that allow them to improve the fertility of the soil. Some examples are alfalfa, clover, soybeans and peas.

mammal: an animal with self-regulating body tem-perature, hair, and, in the females, milk-producing glands.

manipulate: manage or influence to achieve desired results.

moldboard plow: a type of plow that turns the soil completely upside down, burying all crop remains underneath. Does not leave crop residue on ground surface.

nectar: for purposes of the contest, will be repre-sented by flowers presented by themselves (no other plant parts) or honey (processed nectar).

nutrients: elements required for plants and animals to grow and exist.

nuts: includes walnuts, hickory nuts, acorns, beech nuts, pecans, hazel nuts, almonds.

old-field: a field not in agricultural production, under-going succession with various forbs and grasses and, sometimes, shrubs and tree seedlings.

peninsula: a long, narrow projection of land into water.

perennial: a plant that lives for several years. Having a life span of more than two years.

phytoplankton: microscopic floating and suspended aquatic plants. The first link of the food chain in many aquatic systems.

plateau: an elevated, relatively level expanse of land. Sometimes called tableland.

release operations: a thinning operation in young stands of trees designed to regulate species composi-tion and improve stand quality.

regenerate: term used to replace a forest stand with a new one.

rejuvenate: to stimulate and return to youthful health and vigor.

riparian: on or near the bank of water areas. The land area that is influenced by the adjacent water.

secluded: removed or screened from view of other areas and disturbances.

sedge: grass-like plant with long narrow leaves and triangular stems. Many sedges are found in wet areas.

seed: the propagative part of the plant, but for the purpose of the contest, it is not fleshy, is not a nut or acorn, and is not a cereal or small grain.

senescent: refers to dead plant leaves, including those from trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs that remain on the plant or fall to the ground after the growing season.

shrub: plants with woody stems that are usually less than 12 feet tall. Often have many main stems rather than one main stem (trunk).

siltation: deposition or accumulation of silt; move-ment of soil particles, usually from precipitation, into creeks, ponds, or other bodies of water.

silviculture: the art of tending a forest; the theory and practice of controlling forest establishment, composi-tion, structure and growth.

slash: the residue left on the ground after trees have been harvested.

slope: the degree that the land surface is inclined.

softwood: usually refers to coniferous trees. Some deciduous trees such as yellow poplar also have rela-tively soft wood.

species: animals and plants that are the same kind and can successfully reproduce the same kind of plant or animal.

stagnant: sluggish, not producing to potential.

subclimax: a stage in succession that is short of the climax stage, but further development is inhibited by some factor(s) other than climate.

succulent: having thick fleshy leaves that conserve moisture.

terrain: the character or topography of the land.

transitional: the process of changing from one form to another.

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Glossary — cont’d

tree: a plant that is usually more than 12 feet tall and has a single main woody stem with a distinct crown of leaves.

tuber: a swollen, fleshy, starchy end of an under-ground side shoot or stem, distinguished by their eyes, which sprout into plants with shoots and roots. Chufa and potatoes are examples; peanuts are not tubers.

turbidity: the result of having sediment stirred up or suspended; muddy water.

undulating: a regular rising and falling or side to side motion.

valley: an elongated lowland between mountains, hills or other upland areas, often with a river or creek running through it.

vigor: in plants and animals, refers to the capacity for strong growth and high survival.

waste water: the water that runs off cropland during irrigation.

zooplankton: microscopic animals that float/swim in water; consume phytoplankton and are an important part of the aquatic food chain.

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Study References

If you would like to do more reading about individual wildlife species, you can find a variety of field guides in most book stores and libraries.

If you want to read more about wildlife management, here are two books you may want to check out from the library or purchase from a bookstore or online service.

Dickson, J.G. 2001. Wildlife of Southern Forests: Habitat and Management. Hancock House Publishers. Blaine, WA. ISBN 0-88839-497-7

Yarrow, G.K. and D.T. Yarrow. 2005. Managing Wildlife. Sweetwater Press. Birmingham, AL. ISBN 1-58173-157-4

For additional information related to wildlife management and habitat management, ask your Extension agent or your Extension Wildlife Specialist. You can also look at other Extension publications on related subjects by going to http://www.utextension.utk.edu/publications/. Local offices of the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency are also a good source for additional information. You can look at their Web site at http://www.tennessee.gov/twra/index.html.

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Notes

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Notes

Visit the UT Extension Web site at http://www.utextension.utk.edu/and the Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries Web sie at http://fwf.ag.utk.edu/

PB1682-500-2/06(REV) E12-4915-00-007-06 06-0026Copyright 2006 The University of Tennessee. All rights reserved. This document may be reproduced and distributed for nonprofit educational

purposes providing that credit is given to University of Tennessee Extension. Programs in agriculture and natural resources, 4-H youth development, family and consumer sciences, and resource development.

University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture and county governments cooperating.UT Extension provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.

pb1682 tennessee 4-h wildlife judging manual

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