MandalaA mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit म�डल,maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a spiritual and ritual symbol inthe Indian religions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainismrepresenting the universe.[1] In common use, "mandala" hasbecome a generic term for any diagram, chart or geometricpattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically orsymbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe.

The basic form of most mandalas is a square with four gatescontaining a circle with a center point. Each gate is in thegeneral shape of a T.[2] Mandalas often have radial balance.[3]

The term appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections ofthe work, and Vedic rituals use mandalas such as the Navagrahamandala to this day. Mandalas are also used in Buddhism.

In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed forfocusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritualguidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid tomeditation and trance induction.โจ นัด จันทร จิต ปู เอ สิริ เป็ด

HinduismReligious meaningPolitical meaning

BuddhismVajrayana

Visualisation of Vajrayana teachingsMount MeruWisdom and impermanenceFive Buddhas

PracticeOfferings

Shingon BuddhismNichiren BuddhismPure Land Buddhism

Mesoamerican civilizationsMayan Tzolk'inAztec Sun Stone

Christianity

Mandalas in Persian art

Western psychological interpretations

In archaeology

Thangka painting of Manjuvajra mandala

Contents

In architecture

In science

In contemporary use

Gallery

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colourpalette. It may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used insadhanas, puja or meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into itsdesign. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity. Each yantra is uniqueand calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaboratesymbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function asrevelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritualaspect of human experience"[4]

Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantrasare not representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khannadescribes:

Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Becauseof the relationship that exists in the Tantras between the outerworld (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm),every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outersynthesis, and is associated with the subtle body and aspects ofhuman consciousness.[5]

The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics, theArthashastra (written between 4th century BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes circles of friendly and enemy statessurrounding the king's state.[6]

In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian politicalformations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized states). It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancientIndian political discourse as a means of avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did Southeast Asian politiesnot conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but

Hinduism

Mandala of Vishnu

Religious meaning

Political meaning

they diverged considerably in the opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could becomposed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration.[7] Empires such as Bagan,Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as "mandala" in this sense.

In Vajrayana Buddhism, mandalas have been developed also into sandpainting.They are also a key part of Anuttarayoga Tantra meditation practices.

The mandala can be shown to represent in visual form the core essence of theVajrayana teachings. The mind is "a microcosm representing various divinepowers at work in the universe."[8] The mandala represents the nature of thePure Land, Enlightened mind.

An example of this type of mandala is Vajrabhairava mandala (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/37614) a silk tapestry woven with gilded paperdepicting lavish elements like crowns and jewelry, which gives a three-dimensional effect to the piece.[9][10]

A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depictedwith Mount Meru as the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by thecontinents.[11] One example is the Cosmological Mandala with Mount Meru (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39738), a silk tapestry from theYuan dynasty that serves as a diagram of the Tibetan cosmology, which wasgiven to China from Nepal and Tibet.[12][13]

In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring ofeight charnel grounds[14] represents the Buddhist exhortation to be alwaysmindful of death, and the impermanence with which samsara is suffused: "suchlocations were utilized in order to confront and to realize the transient nature oflife".[15] Described elsewhere: "within a flaming rainbow nimbus and encircledby a black ring of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight great charnelgrounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature of human life".[16] Inside these ringslie the walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated bydeities and Buddhas.

One well-known type of mandala is the mandala of the "Five Buddhas", archetypal Buddha forms embodying various aspects ofenlightenment. Such Buddhas are depicted depending on the school of Buddhism, and even the specific purpose of the mandala.A common mandala of this type is that of the Five Wisdom Buddhas (a.k.a. Five Jinas), the Buddhas Vairocana, Aksobhya,

Buddhism

Painted 17th-century Tibetan 'FiveDeity Mandala', in the centre is RaktaYamari (the Red Enemy of Death)embracing his consort Vajra Vetali, inthe corners are the Red, Green,White and Yellow Yamaris, RubinMuseum of Art

Sandpainting showing Buddhamandala, which is made as part ofthe death rituals among BuddhistNewars of Nepal

Vajrayana

Visualisation of Vajrayana teachings

Mount Meru

Wisdom and impermanence

Five Buddhas

Ratnasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasiddhi. When paired with another mandala depicting the Five Wisdom Kings, this formsthe Mandala of the Two Realms.

Mandalas are commonly used by tantric Buddhists as an aid to meditation.

The mandala is "a support for the meditating person",[17] something to berepeatedly contemplated to the point of saturation, such that the image of themandala becomes fully internalised in even the minutest detail and can then besummoned and contemplated at will as a clear and vivid visualized image. Withevery mandala comes what Tucci calls "its associated liturgy ... contained intexts known as tantras",[18] instructing practitioners on how the mandala shouldbe drawn, built and visualised, and indicating the mantras to be recited during itsritual use.

By visualizing "pure lands", one learns to understand experience itself as pure,and as the abode of enlightenment. The protection that we need, in this view, isfrom our own minds, as much as from external sources of confusion. In manytantric mandalas, this aspect of separation and protection from the outer samsaric world is depicted by "the four outer circles: thepurifying fire of wisdom, the vajra circle, the circle with the eight tombs, the lotus circle".[17] The ring of vajras forms aconnected fence-like arrangement running around the perimeter of the outer mandala circle.[19]

As a meditation on impermanence (a central teaching of Buddhism), after days or weeks of creating the intricate pattern of a sandmandala, the sand is brushed together into a pile and spilled into a body of running water to spread the blessings of the mandala.

Kværne[20] in his extended discussion of sahaja, discusses the relationship of sadhana interiority and exteriority in relation tomandala thus:

...external ritual and internal sadhana form an indistinguishable whole, and this unity finds its most pregnantexpression in the form of the mandala, the sacred enclosure consisting of concentric squares and circles drawn onthe ground and representing that adamant plane of being on which the aspirant to Buddha hood wishes to establishhimself. The unfolding of the tantric ritual depends on the mandala; and where a material mandala is notemployed, the adept proceeds to construct one mentally in the course of his meditation."[21]

A "mandala offering"[22] in Tibetan Buddhism is a symbolic offering of the entire universe. Every intricate detail of thesemandalas is fixed in the tradition and has specific symbolic meanings, often on more than one level.

Whereas the above mandala represents the pure surroundings of a Buddha, this mandala represents the universe. This type ofmandala is used for the mandala-offerings, during which one symbolically offers the universe to the Buddhas or to one's teacher.Within Vajrayana practice, 1,000,000 of these mandala offerings (to create merit) can be part of the preliminary practices before astudent even begins actual tantric practices.[23] This mandala is generally structured according to the model of the universe astaught in a Buddhist classic text the Abhidharma-kośa, with Mount Meru at the centre, surrounded by the continents, oceans andmountains, etc.

Practice

Tantric mandala of Vajrayogini

Offerings

Shingon Buddhism

One Japanese branch of Mahayana Buddhism—Shingon Buddhism—makesfrequent use of mandalas in its rituals as well, though the actual mandalas differ.When Shingon's founder, Kukai, returned from his training in China, he broughtback two mandalas that became central to Shingon ritual: the Mandala of theWomb Realm and the Mandala of the Diamond Realm.

These two mandalas are engaged in the abhiseka initiation rituals for newShingon students, more commonly known as the Kechien Kanjō (結縁灌頂). Acommon feature of this ritual is to blindfold the new initiate and to have themthrow a flower upon either mandala. Where the flower lands assists in thedetermination of which tutelary deity the initiate should follow.

Sand mandalas, as found in Tibetan Buddhism, are not practiced in ShingonBuddhism.

The mandala in Nichiren Buddhism is called a moji-mandala (文字曼陀羅) and is a paper hanging scroll or wooden tablet whoseinscription consists of Chinese characters and medieval-Sanskrit script representing elements of the Buddha's enlightenment,protective Buddhist deities, and certain Buddhist concepts. Called the Gohonzon, it was originally inscribed by Nichiren, thefounder of this branch of Japanese Buddhism, during the late 13th Century. The Gohonzon is the primary object of veneration insome Nichiren schools and the only one in others, which consider it to be the supreme object of worship as the embodiment of thesupreme Dharma and Nichiren's inner enlightenment. The seven characters Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, considered to be the nameof the supreme Dharma, as well as the invocation that believers chant, are written down the center of all Nichiren-sectGohonzons, whose appearance may otherwise vary depending on the particular school and other factors.

Mandalas have sometimes been used in Pure Land Buddhism to graphically represent Pure Lands, based on descriptions found inthe Larger Sutra and the Contemplation Sutra. The most famous mandala in Japan is the Taima mandala, dated to about 763 CE.The Taima mandala is based on the Contemplation Sutra, but other similar mandalas have been made subsequently. Unlikemandalas used in Vajrayana Buddhism, it is not used as an object of meditation or for esoteric ritual. Instead, it provides a visualrepresentation of the Pure Land texts, and is used as a teaching aid.

Also in Jodo Shinshu Buddhism, Shinran and his descendant, Rennyo, sought a way to create easily accessible objects ofreverence for the lower-classes of Japanese society. Shinran designed a mandala using a hanging scroll, and the words of thenembutsu (南無阿彌陀佛) written vertically. This style of mandala is still used by some Jodo Shinshu Buddhists in home altars,or butsudan.

One of several parallels between Eastern and Mesoamerican cultures, the Mayan civilization tended to present calendars in amandala form.[24] It is similar in form and function to the Kalachakra (Wheel of Time) sand paintings of Tibetan Buddhists.[25]

The tzolk'in wheel has 260 segments, surprising because the Mayans recognized that the calendar year is 365 days long. Theinclusion of the specific number 260 could however relate to the 26,000 year cycle of the precession of the equinoxes. If so, thiswould indicate a remarkable awareness of these great cycles of time by this culture. Ultimately, the symbol was probably used for

Chenrezig sand mandala created atthe House of Commons of the UnitedKingdom on the occasion of the DalaiLama's visit in May 2008

Nichiren Buddhism

Pure Land Buddhism

Mesoamerican civilizations

Mayan Tzolk'in

ritual purposes, and to measure the interval of a number of 9-month intervals likepregnancy, the cultivation time of some crops, and rituals that were performed ata 260-day spacing each year, for example, spring and fall.

This Mayan symbology has even made its way into New Age symbolism as theDreamspell calendar, developed by José Argüelles. Sometimes described as anauthentic Mayan mandala, it is "inspired by" elements of the Tzolk'in wheel oftime.

The Sun Stone of the Aztec civilization was once believed to be their equivalentof a Tzolk'in calendar, but is now thought to be a ceremonial representation ofthe entire universe as seen by the Aztec religious class.

The earliest interpretations of the stone relate to its use as a calendar. In 1792,two years after the stone's unearthing, Mexican anthropologist Antonio de Leóny Gama wrote a treatise on the Aztec calendar using the stone as its basis.[26]

Some of the circles of glyphs are the glyphs for the days of the month.[27] Thefour symbols included in the Ollin glyph represent the four past suns that theMexica believed the earth had passed through.[28]

Another aspect of the stone is its religious significance. One theory is that theface at the center of the stone represents Tonatiuh, the Aztec deity of the sun. Itis for this reason that the stone became known as the "Sun Stone." RichardTownsend proposed a different theory, claiming that the figure at the center ofthe stone represents Tlaltecuhtli, the Mexica earth deity who features in Mexicacreation myths.[27] Modern archaeologists, such as those at the NationalAnthropology Museum in Mexico City, believe it is more likely to have beenused primarily as a ceremonial basin or ritual altar for gladiatorial sacrifices thanas an astrological or astronomical reference.[29]

Yet another characteristic of the stone is its possible geographic significance.The four points may relate to the four corners of the earth or the cardinal points.The inner circles may express space as well as time.[30]

Lastly, there is the political aspect of the stone. It may have been intended to show Tenochtitlan as the center of the world andtherefore, as the center of authority.[31] Townsend argues for this idea, claiming that the small glyphs of additional dates amongstthe four previous suns—1 Flint (Tecpatl), 1 Rain (Atl), and 7 Monkey (Ozomahtli)—represent matters of historical importance tothe Mexica state. He posits, for example, that 7 Monkey represents the significant day for the cult of a community withinTenochtitlan. His claim is further supported by the presence of Mexica ruler Moctezuma II's name on the work. These elementsground the Stone's iconography in history rather than myth and the legitimacy of the state in the cosmos.[32]

Forms which are evocative of mandalas are prevalent in Christianity: the celtic cross; the rosary; the halo; the aureole; oculi; theCrown of Thorns; rose windows; the Rosy Cross; and the dromenon on the floor of Chartres Cathedral. The dromenon representsa journey from the outer world to the inner sacred centre where the Divine is found.[33]

Mayan Tzolk'in wheel from 498 AD.

Aztec Sun Stone

The Aztec Sun Stone as an amateprint.

Christianity

The Cosmati pavements, including that at Westminster Abbey, are geometricmandala-like mosaic designs from thirteenth century Italy. The Great Pavementat Westminster Abbey is believed to embody divine and cosmic geometries asthe seat of enthronement of the monarchs of England.[34]

Similarly, many of the Illuminations of Hildegard von Bingen can be used asmandalas, as well as many of the images of esoteric Christianity, as in ChristianHermeticism, Christian Alchemy, and Rosicrucianism.

Alchemist, Mathematician and Astrologer John Dee developed a geometricsymbol which he called the Sigillum Dei 'Seal of God' manifesting a universalgeometric order which incorporated the names of the archangels, derived fromearlier forms of the clavicula salomonis or key of Solomon.

The Layer Monument, an early 17th-century marble mural funerary monumentat the Church of Saint John the Baptist, Maddermarket, Norwich, is a rareexample of Christian iconography absorbing alchemical symbolism to create amandala in Western funerary art.

In Persian Islamic theosophy, each of us is a part of God. We have beenseparated from our source like the rays of the sun and, we need to always keep inour mind that we have a divine light in us, which is the source of love. This lightalways shows us the right path to grow and find our way back to our source.

Therefore, in Persian Shamseh motif which symbolizes the sun, there is a centerwhich is the symbol of god or the source of energy. This small circle issurrounded by many other circles or polygons with the same center but indifferent sizes. These circles are the light rays of the sun which symbolize everygod's creature. Every creature tends to reach God, so the purpose of life is toreach back the source of energy which is mentioned as pure love in somereferences. Some of us are closer to our origin, while some of us have a longjourney to reach it. As in Shamseh, some circles are smaller, therefore, closer to the center.

Shamseh motif was wildly applied during Safavid time in Iran. Safavid was one of the most important ruling dynasties of Iran inart, architecture, astrology, philosophy, and theosophy. An extraordinary example of Shamseh motif would be the tiling of theceiling of Sheik Lotfollah mosque in Isfahan. Persian "Shamseh" motif painted on a copper plate. The art of hand painting andenameling is called "Meenakari" in Farsi.

According to art therapist and mental health counselor Susanne F. Fincher, we owe the re-introduction of mandalas into modernWestern thought to Carl Jung, the Swiss analytical psychologist. In his pioneering exploration of the unconscious through his ownart making, Jung observed the motif of the circle spontaneously appearing. The circle drawings reflected his inner state at thatmoment. Familiarity with the philosophical writings of India prompted Jung to adopt the word "mandala" to describe these circledrawings he and his patients made. In his autobiography, Jung wrote:

The round window at the site of theMarsh Chapel Experimentsupervised by Walter Pahnke

The Seal of God; a mystic heptagramsymbol composed by Dee

Mandalas in Persian art

Western psychological interpretations

I sketched every morning in a notebook a small circular drawing, ... which seemed to correspond to my innersituation at the time. ... Only gradually did I discover what the mandala really is: ... the Self, the wholeness of thepersonality, which if all goes well is harmonious.

— Carl Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, pp. 195–196.

Jung recognized that the urge to make mandalas emerges during moments of intense personal growth. Their appearance indicatesa profound re-balancing process is underway in the psyche. The result of the process is a more complex and better integratedpersonality.

The mandala serves a conservative purpose—namely, to restore a previously existing order. But it also serves thecreative purpose of giving expression and form to something that does not yet exist, something new and unique.... The process is that of the ascending spiral, which grows upward while simultaneously returning again andagain to the same point.

— Jungian analyst Marie-Louise von Franz, C. G. Jung: Man and His Symbols, p. 225

Creating mandalas helps stabilize, integrate, and re-order inner life.[35]

According to the psychologist David Fontana, its symbolic nature can help one "to access progressively deeper levels of theunconscious, ultimately assisting the meditator to experience a mystical sense of oneness with the ultimate unity from which thecosmos in all its manifold forms arises."[36]

One of the most intense archaeological discoveries in recent years that could redefine the history of eastern thought and traditionof mandala is the discovery of five giant mandalas in the valley of Manipur made with Google Earth imagery. Located in thepaddy field in the west of Imphal, the capital of Manipur, the Maklang geoglyph is perhaps the world's largest mandala builtentirely of mud. The site wasn’t discovered until 2013 as its whole structure could only be visible via Google Earth satelliteimagery. The whole paddy field, locally known as Bihu Loukon, is now protected and announced as historical monument and siteby the government of Manipur in the same year. The site is situated 12 km aerial distance from Kangla with the GPS coordinatesof 24° 48' N and 93° 49' E. It covers a total area of around 224,161.45 square meters. This square mandala has four similarprotruding rectangular ‘gates’ in the cardinal directions guarded each by similar but smaller rectangular ‘gates’ on the left andright. Within the square there is an eight petalled flower or rayed-star, recently called as Maklang ‘Star fort’ by the locals, in thecentre covering a total area of around 50,836.66 square meters. The discovery of other five giant mandalas in the valley ofManipur is also made with Google Earth. The five giant mandalas, viz., Sekmai mandala, Heikakmapal mandala, Phurju twinmandalas and Sangolmang mandala are located on the western bank of the Iril River.[37]

Buddhist architecture often applied mandala as the blueprint or plan to design Buddhist structures, including temple complex andstupas. A notable example of mandala in architecture is the 9th century Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia. It is built as a largestupa surrounded by smaller ones arranged on terraces formed as a stepped pyramid, and when viewed from above, takes theform of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind.[38] Othertemples from the same period that also have mandala plans include Sewu, Plaosan and Prambanan. The similar mandala plandesign are also observable in Cambodia, Thailand and Myanmar.

In archaeology

In architecture

In science

Circular diagrams are often used in phylogenetics, especially for the graphicalrepresentation of phylogenetic relationships. Evolutionary trees often encompassnumerous species that are conveniently shown on a circular tree, with images ofthe species shown on the periphery of a tree. Such diagrams have been calledphylogenetic mandalas.[39]

Mandalas can be found in early Buddhist art from the 14th and 15th centuries.

Fashion designer Mandali Mendrilla designed an interactive art installationcalled Mandala of Desires (Blue Lotus Wish Tree) made in peace silk and ecofriendly textile ink, displayed at the China Art Museum in Shanghai inNovember 2015. The pattern of the dress was based on the Goloka Yantramandala, shaped as a lotus with eight petals. Visitors were invited to place awish on the sculpture dress, which will be taken to India and offered to a genuineliving Wish Tree.[40][41]

Borobudur ground plan taking theform of a Mandala

Phylogenetic tree of Hexapoda(insects and their six-leggedrelatives). Such trees have beencalled phylogenetic mandalas.[39]

In contemporary use

Gallery

Cosmological mandala with Mount

Meru (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/

collection/search/39738), silk tapestry,

China via The Metropolitan Museum of

Art

Vajrabhairava mandala (https://www.m

etmuseum.org/art/collection/search/37

614), silk tapestry, China via The

Metropolitan Museum of Art

A diagramic drawing of the Sri Yantra,

showing the outside square, with four

T-shaped gates, and the central circle

Vishnu Mandala(Traditionally found in

Nepal)

Painted 19th century Tibetan mandala

of the Naropa tradition, Vajrayogini

stands in the center of two crossed red

triangles, Rubin Museum of Art

Painted Bhutanese Medicine Buddha

mandala with the goddess

Prajnaparamita in center, 19th century,

Rubin Museum of Art

Mandala of the Six Chakravartins

Vajravarahi mandala

Kalachakra mandala

Jain cosmological diagrams and text.

Mandala painted by a patient of Carl

Jung

Jain picture of Mahavira

Architectural drawingAstrological symbolsBhavacakra – A symbolic representation of cyclic existenceChakra – Subtle body psychic-energy centers in the esoteric traditions of Indian religionsDharmachakra – A symbol of BuddhismForm constantGanachakraGreat chain of being – Classical and Medieval Christian concept of structure of matter and living thingsHilyaVitalism – Discredited scientific hypothesisMagic CircleMandylion, the first icon in ChristianityNamkhaReligious artSri YantraYantra

See also

1. "mandala" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mandala). Merriam–Webster Online Dictionary. 2008.Retrieved 2008-11-19.

2. Kheper,The Buddhist Mandala – Sacred Geometry and Art (http://www.kheper.net/topics/Buddhism/mandala.html)

3. www.sbctc.edu (adapted). "Module 4: The Artistic Principles" (http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Module-4.pdf) (PDF). Saylor.org. Retrieved 2 April 2012.

4. Khanna Madhu, Yantra: The Tantric Symbol of Cosmic Unity. Thames and Hudson, 1979, p. 12.

5. Khanna, Madhu, Yantra: The Tantric Symbol of Cosmic Unity. Thames and Hudson, 1979, pp. 12-22

6. Singh, Prof. Mahendra Prasad (2011). Indian Political Thought: Themes and Thinkers (https://books.google.com/books?id=80q_hd7ASdEC). Pearson Education India. ISBN 8131758516. pp. 11-13.

7. Dellios, Rosita (2003-01-01). "Mandala: from sacred origins to sovereign affairs in traditional Southeast Asia" (http://epublications.bond.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=cewces_papers&sei-redir=1). BondUniversity Australia. Retrieved 2011-12-11.

8. John Ankerberg, John Weldon, Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs: The New Age Movement (https://books.google.com/books?id=SghdYBbMds0C&pg=PA343), p. 343

9. "Vajrabhairava Mandala" (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/37614). The Metropolitan Museum ofArt. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 19 November 2017.

10. Watt, James C.Y. (1997). When Silk was Gold: Central Asian and Chinese Textiles (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/When_Silk_Was_Gold_Central_Asian_and_Chinese_Textiles). New York: The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. p. 95.

11. Mipham (2000) pp. 65,80

12. "Cosmological Mandala with Mount Meru" (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39738). TheMetropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 19 November 2017.

13. Watt, James C.Y. (2010). The World of Khubilai Khan: Chinese Art in the Yuan Dynasty (https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/The_World_of_Khubilai_Khan_Chinese_Art_in_the_Yuan_Dynasty#). New York: YaleUniversity Press. p. 247. Retrieved 19 November 2017.

14. "A Monograph on a Vajrayogini Thanka Painting" (https://web.archive.org/web/20030813002533/http://www.bdcu.org.au/scw/thanka.html). 13 August 2003. Archived from the original on 13 August 2003.

15. Camphausen, Rufus C. "Charnel- and Cremation Grounds" (http://www.yoniversum.nl/dakini/charnel_g.html).Retrieved 10 October 2016.

16. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060303134523/http://www.sootze.com/tibet/mandala.htm).Archived from the original (http://www.sootze.com/tibet/mandala.htm) on 2006-03-03. Retrieved 2006-11-25.

17. "Mandala" (http://www.jyh.dk/indengl.htm). Retrieved 10 October 2016.

18. "The Mandala in Tibet" (http://www.asianart.com/mandalas/tibet.html). Retrieved 10 October 2016.

19. "Mandala" (http://www.jyh.dk/indengl.htm#Circles). Retrieved 10 October 2016.

20. Per Kvaerne 1975: p. 164

21. Kvaerne, Per (1975). "On the Concept of Sahaja in Indian Buddhist Tantric Literature. (NB: article first publishedin Temenos XI (1975): pp.88-135). Cited in: Williams, Jane (2005). Buddhism: Critical Concepts in ReligiousStudies, Volume 6. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-33226-5, ISBN 978-0-415-33226-2" (https://books.google.com/books?id=Ypsz9qEzZjwC&pg=PA137&dq=g.yu+sgra+snying+po&lr=&ei=HjXIS_SOJoOeMoP9sIEP&cd=21#v=onepage&q=g.yu%20sgra%20snying%20po&f=false). Retrieved April 16, 2010.

22. "What Is a Mandala?" (http://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/tantra/buddhist-tantra/what-is-a-mandala).studybuddhism.com.

23. "Preliminary practice (ngöndro) overview" (http://www.thubtenchodron.org/PrayersAndPractices/preliminary_practice.htm). Retrieved 10 October 2016.

24. Frontiers of Anthropology — The Mayan Mandala (http://frontiers-of-anthropology.blogspot.com/2012/01/mayan-mandala.html)

References

Brauen, M. (1997). The Mandala, Sacred circle in Tibetan Buddhism Serindia Press, London.

Bucknell, Roderick & Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation andSymbolism. Curzon Press: London. ISBN 0-312-82540-4

Cammann, S. (1950). Suggested Origin of the Tibetan Mandala Paintings The Art Quarterly, Vol. 8, Detroit.

Cowen, Painton (2005). The Rose Window, London and New York, (offers the most complete overview of theevolution and meaning of the form, accompanied by hundreds of colour illustrations.)

Crossman, Sylvie and Barou, Jean-Pierre (1995). Tibetan Mandala, Art & Practice The Wheel of Time, Koneckyand Konecky.

Fontana, David (2005). "Meditating with Mandalas", Duncan Baird Publishers, London.

Gold, Peter (1994). Navajo & Tibetan sacred wisdom: the circle of the spirit. ISBN 0-89281-411-X. Rochester,Vermont: Inner Traditions International.

Mipham, Sakyong Jamgön (2002) 2000 Seminary Transcripts Book 1 Vajradhatu Publications ISBN 1-55055-002-0

25. Mandalas of the Maya: Celestial Waters and the Auroral Plumes of Tláloc (http://www.human-resonance.org/maya.html)

26. Antonio de León y Gama: Descripción histórica y cronológica de las dos piedras León y Gama (http://memory.loc.gov/service/rbc/rbc0001/2006/2006kislak2/2006kislak2.pdf)

27. K. Mills, W. B. Taylor & S. L. Graham (eds), Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History, 'The Aztec Stone ofthe Five Eras', p. 23

28. Townsend, Casey (1979). State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks.

29. Getty Museum, "Aztec Calendar Stone" (https://www.getty.edu/research/exhibitions_events/exhibitions/obsidian_mirror/aztec_calendar_stone.html) getty.edu, accessed 22 August 2018

30. K. Mills, W. B. Taylor & S. L. Graham (eds), Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History, 'The Aztec Stone ofthe Five Eras', pp. 23, 25

31. K. Mills, W. B. Taylor & S. L. Graham (eds), Colonial Latin America: A Documentary History, 'The Aztec Stone ofthe Five Eras', pp. 25-6

32. Townsend, Richard Fraser (1997-01-01). State and cosmos in the art of Tenochtitlan (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/912811300). Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University. ISBN 9780884020837. OCLC 912811300 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/912811300).

33. See David Fontana: "Meditating with Mandalas", p. 11, 54, 118

34. "Cosmati Pavement - Video Library" (http://www.westminster-abbey.org/conservation/video-library).www.westminster-abbey.org.

35. see Susanne F. Fincher: Creating Mandalas: For Insight, Healing, and Self-Expression, pp. 1 - 18

36. See David Fontana: Meditating with Mandalas, p. 10

37. Wangam, Somorjit (2018). World's Largest Mandalas from Manipur and Carl Jung's Archetype of the Self, p. 25-33. NeScholar, ed. Dr. R.K.Nimai Singh ,Imphal. ISSN 2350-0336 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2350-0336).

38. A. Wayman (1981). "Reflections on the Theory of Barabudur as a Mandala". Barabudur History and Significanceof a Buddhist Monument. Berkeley: Asian Humanities Press.

39. Hasegawa, Masami (2017). "Phylogeny mandalas for illustrating the Tree of Life". Molecular Phylogenetics andEvolution. 117: 168–178. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.11.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2016.11.001).PMID 27816710 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27816710).

40. "China Art Museum in Shanghai - Forms of Devotion" (http://formsofdevotion.org/china-art-museum-in-shanghai/). Retrieved 10 October 2016.

41. "Haljinu "Mandala of Desires" dnevno posjećuje čak 30 000 ljudi!" (http://wall.hr/fashion/izlozena-haljina-mandali-mendrile-hit-je-izlozbe-u-najvecem-kineskom-muzeju/).

Sources

Somorjit, Wangam (2018). "World's Largest Mandalas from Manipur and Carl Jung's Archetype of the Self",neScholar, vol.04, Issue 01, ed.Dr. R.K. Nimai Singh ISSN 2350-0336 (https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2350-0336)

Tucci, Giuseppe (1973). The Theory and Practice of the Mandala trans. Alan Houghton Brodrick, New York,Samuel Weisner.

Vitali, Roberto (1990). Early Temples of Central Tibet London, Serindia Publications.

Wayman, Alex (1973). "Symbolism of the Mandala Palace" in The Buddhist Tantras Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.

Grotenhuis, Elizabeth Ten (1999). Japanese mandalas: representations of sacred geography, Honolulu:University of Hawai'i Press

Introduction to Mandalas (http://kalachakranet.org/mandala_introduction.html)Mandalas in the Tradition of the Dalai Lamas' Namgyal Monastery by Losang Samten (http://losangsamten.com/mandalas.html)Kossak, S (1998). Sacred visions : early paintings from central Tibet (http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/101557). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (see index)

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