pastures for profit: a guide to rotational grazing (a3529)

Pastures for profit: A guide to rotational grazing

Dan UndersanderBeth AlbertDennis CosgroveDennis JohnsonPaul Peterson

A3529

ContentsIntroduction 1

Why rotational grazing? 1

What is rotational grazing? 1

Who is using rotational grazing? 2

Why use rotational grazing? 2

Understanding plant growth 5

Plant response to grazing 5

Seasonal pasture growth patterns 8

Weed control 8

Soil fertility 10

Pasture establishment/renovation 10

Stockpiling forage 16

Estimating forage yield 16

Animal needs 20

Animal digestion and nutrient requirements 20

Animal water needs 21

Animal grazing 23

Grazing patterns 23

Selective grazing 23

Amount of available forage 24

Grazing habits of different animals 24

Animal impact on pasture 25

Setting up a rotational grazing system 26

Setting goals and assessing resources 26

Length of rest periods 26

Length of grazing periods 27

Grazing groups 28

Spring start-up 28

Seasonal fluctuations in pasture growth rate 28

Determining stocking rate and acreage needed 29

Drought 30

Moving livestock 30

Paddocks: How many and how big? 30

Paddock layout 31

Fencing 33

Lanes and laneways 33

Designing a pasture system 34

Deciding when to move livestock 35

Evaluating and improving your grazing system 36

Animal health on pasture 37

Parasites 37

Bloat 37

Nitrate poisoning and poisonous plants 38

Additional reading back cover

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Why rotationalgrazing?

P astures represent a largelyuntapped resource for farmers.More than one quarter of the

Midwest’s agricultural land is insome form of pasture. Yet, 80% ofthese pastures suffer from poor,uneven fertility coupled with seriousweed and erosion problems. Mostpastures are continuously grazedthroughout the season. However, con-tinuous grazing results in the lowestpossible pasture yields since theforage is not allowed to recuperatebetween grazing. The lack of manage-ment makes these pastures a poorforage source and most farmers arereluctant to rely too heavily onpastures to feed their high-producinglivestock.

To produce good livestock feed frompasture, we must manage ourpastures differently. This bulletinoutlines an alternative: rotationalgrazing. By using rotational grazing,you can make a profit from pastures.This bulletin covers the basics ofsetting up rotational grazing on yourfarm.

What is rotationalgrazing?Under rotational grazing, only oneportion of pasture is grazed at a timewhile the remainder of the pasture“rests.” To accomplish this, pasturesare subdivided into smaller areas(referred to as paddocks) and live-stock are moved from one paddock toanother. Resting grazed paddocksallows forage plants to renew energyreserves, rebuild vigor, deepen theirroot system, and give long-termmaximum production.

For rotational grazing to be success-ful, the timing of rotations must beadjusted to the growth stage of theforage. Unfortunately, rotationalgrazing is often reduced to regularanimal shifts from paddock topaddock based on rigid time sched-ules rather than in response to foragegrowth rate. Rigid schedules reducethe benefit of rotational grazing.

Rotational grazing can be practiced ina variety of intensities. Systems canrange from 2 to 30 or more paddocks.Management intensive rotationalgrazing involves a higher level ofmanagement with greater paddocknumbers, shorter grazing periods,and longer rest periods. Generally,more intense management results ingreater livestock production per acre.

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Introduction

This bulletin covers the basic princi-ples underlying all types of rotationalgrazing. Management intensive rota-tional grazing will be emphasizedbecause it offers a number of advan-tages over both continuous grazingand less intensive rotational systems.These include

■ more stable production duringpoor growing conditions (espe-cially drought),

■ greater yield potential,

■ higher quality forage available,

■ decreased weed and erosionproblems, and

■ more uniform soil fertility levels.

There are many names for intensiverotational grazing: Voisin grazing,Hohenheim grazing, intensive grazingmanagement, management intensivegrazing, short duration grazing,Savory systems, strip grazing, con-trolled grazing, and high-intensity,low-frequency grazing. Although each

term implies slight differences in man-agement, they all refer to some sort ofintensive rotational grazing system.

Who is using rotational grazing?Many farmers throughout theMidwest practice rotational grazing.Wisconsin surveys indicate that in the1990s, the number of rotationalgraziers among dairy farmers hasincreased from essentially 0 to over21% (figure 1). These range from alarge dairy farmer who rotationallygrazes 1,600 head on his 2,100 acreall-grass farm to much smaller dairy,beef, sheep, hog, and even chickenoperations. Most livestock have thepotential to receive a substantialamount of their feed from pasture.

Why use rotationalgrazing?Everyone with livestock and grazingland can benefit from rotationalgrazing.

Economic benefitsMost farmers try rotational grazingbecause of the economic savings. InWisconsin, graziers averaged about$200 more per cow net farm incomethan confinement dairy farms accord-ing to farm financial data collectedfrom 1995 to 1999 according toUniversity of Wisconsin Center forDairy Profitability. During the sameperiod, graziers averaged more than$1.50 higher net farm income perhundredweight equivalent of milksold than achieved by confinementdairies. Beef, sheep, and dairy heifergrowing operations have also seenreduced costs and increased profitfrom rotational grazing systems.

Both start-up and maintenance costsare less for grazing compared to con-finement systems. The only capitalcost specific to rotational grazing isfencing. Costs for new fencing rangefrom $1.18 per acre for mobile electricfencing with fiberglass posts to $18.37per acre for high-tensile electricfencing. Setting up the whole system(using new fencing, fencers, andwater systems) costs from $30 to $70per acre. The higher price rangeincludes the cost of constructing somelivestock lanes.

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_____________________________________________________________________________________________ P A S T U R E S F O R P R O F I T

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Source: Program on Agricultural Technology Studies (www.wisc.edu/pats/dmirgperc.htm)

Figure 1. Estimated percent and number of Wisconsin dairy farms using management intensive rotational grazing (MIRG), 1993–1999

If you haven’t already invested inconfinement feeding systems, thisrepresents a tremendous savings; ifyou have, maintenance costs arereduced since your confinementsystem needs to be operated onlyduring the cold months. Once inoperation, grazing will reduce equip-ment, fertilizer, pesticide, and laborcosts.

Because grazing operations can beless capital intensive they can also bemore financially flexible.

Time savingsMany farmers are reluctant to tryrotational grazing because of the timethey assume it will take to move live-stock. However, the time to movecattle is minimal if paddock andfencing design is efficient and cattleare moved after a milking, often aver-aging only 15 minutes per day. Incontrast, feeding hay and silage in aconfinement system may take 20minutes to 1 hour. Grazing may alsodecrease your need to make haywhich takes an average of 7 hours peracre each season. It also reduces theneed to haul manure because mostmanure is dropped by the cattle onthe pasture.

What if you have to move a hugeherd? A large-scale stocker farmerprefers to move 250 to 500 head at atime since he has found that it takesno more time to move large groups ofcattle than it does to move smallgroups (such as 50 or less).

Environmental benefitsWell-managed perennial pastureshave several environmental advan-tages over tilled land: they dramati-cally decrease soil erosion potential,require minimal pesticides and fertil-izers, and decrease the amount ofbarnyard runoff.

Data from the USDA NaturalResources Conservation Service(NRCS) shows that in 1997, anaverage of 3.3 tons of soil per acrewere lost each year due to sheet andrill erosion on Wisconsin cropland. InMinnesota an average of 2.1 tons ofsoil per acre were lost each year oncropland due to sheet and rill erosionand 5.8 tons of soil per acre per yearfrom wind erosion.

Converting erosion-prone land topasture is a good way to minimizethis loss since Wisconsin andMinnesota’s perennial pastures havean average soil loss of only 0.5 tonsper acre per year from water erosionand less than 0.1 tons per acreannually from wind erosion.Reducing erosion rates will preservethe most fertile soil with higher waterholding capacity for future crop pro-duction.

Pasturing helps water quality inseveral ways. High levels of nitratesand pesticides in our ground andsurface waters can cause human, live-stock, and wildlife health problems.Pasturing reduces the amount ofnitrates and pesticides leaching intoour groundwater in two ways: less isapplied and the deeper forage rootsystems take up nutrients fromgreater depths. Pasturing also reducescontamination of streams and lakes.Nutrients contained in surface runoffenrich waters of lakes and streamswith nitrogen and phosphorouswhich promotes excessive aquaticplant growth (leading to low oxygenlevels in the water which suffocatesmost water life). Pastures havereduced runoff compared to croppedfields and, since cattle spend less timein the barnyard, less manure isdeposited there and barnyard runoffis reduced.

Wildlife advantagesPopulations of native grassland birds,such as upland sandpipers,bobolinks, and meadowlarks, havedeclined significantly within the past50 years. These birds once thrived inthe extensive native prairies thatcovered the state. As the land wasconverted to row crops and fre-quently mowed hay fields, the birds’habitat has dwindled and their popu-lations are now at risk. Many aspectsof rotational grazing systems can helpreverse this decline: the restedpaddocks provide undisturbednesting habitat; leaving at least 4inches of growth in cool-season grasspastures during the spring providesneeded cover for the nests; andcreating large blocks (50 or moreacres) that are not grazed or har-vested between mid-May and earlyJuly give many young birds time tomature. Also, warm-season grasspaddocks, which aren’t grazed untillate June, provide especially goodnesting habitat. Game birds, such aspheasants, wild turkey, and quail alsobenefit from pastures, as do bluebirdswhose favorite nesting sites are fenceposts. For more details about settingup a bird-friendly grazing system, seeWisconsin Extension publicationGrassland Birds: Fostering HabitatsUsing Rotational Grazing (A3715).

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I n t r o d u c t i o n ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Pesticides can be very damaging towildlife. Examples include someinsecticides that are toxic to birds andmammals (including humans) andbroad-spectrum insecticides that killthe target pest as well as beneficialinsects that could help prevent futurepest outbreaks. Insecticides in surfacewaters may kill aquatic invertebrates(food for fish, shorebirds, and water-fowl). Herbicides can also be toxic toanimals and may stunt or killnon-target vegetation, which mayserve as wildlife habitat. The reducedneed for pesticides in rotationalgrazing systems benefits all.

Increased pasture productivityRotational grazing can help improvelong-term pasture quality and fertilityby favoring desirable pasture speciesand allowing for even manure distri-bution. Rotational grazing also canincrease the amount of forage har-vested per acre over continuousgrazing by as much as 2 tons drymatter per acre.

Aesthetics and human health benefitsOne of the greatest advantages tousing rotational grazing is that it is a“peaceful way of farming.” It isquieter than mechanically harvestingyour feed and it gives you the excuseto stretch your legs and take a look atwhat’s happening in your pasture.You might even hear the birdssinging or see a deer grazing as youmove the fence.

Animal health and welfareAnimals in grazing systems are oftenhealthier than animals housed in con-finement. Animals have more spaceand fresh air, reducing their exposureto high levels of microorganisms.Increased freedom for movementenhances physical fitness anddecreases opportunity for injuries andabrasions. However, risks associatedwith exposure to severe weather orpredators may be increased ingrazing.

Many have reported fewer herdhealth problems after switching tograzing. For many graziers, cullinganimals for health reasons hasdropped from about 35% of the herdannually to approximately 10%. Ahealthier herd is more profitable andit allows the option of increasing herdsize or improving the herd by select-ing animals based on higher milkproduction or reproductivity.

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Agood understanding of thebasics of plant growth is key toestablishing and maintaining

profitable pastures.

Plant response to grazingGrazing isn’t “bad” for pastureplants. Pasture plants have specialways to cope with grazing. Grazingmay actually stimulate pasturegrowth because old or dead leaves nolonger shade young leaves.

Most pasture forages regrow fromlow-lying or underground stems,crowns, or roots, which are notgrazed off by livestock. Though theirgrowing points are protected fromgrazing, few of these forages are welladapted to continuous grazing. Onlyplants such as Kentucky bluegrass,white clover, and many prostrateweeds, whose low-growing leavesescape being completely grazed off,survive well under continuousgrazing.

Taller growing forages, on the otherhand, usually die under continuousgrazing since most of their leaves canbe grazed off. They need rest betweengrazings to survive in a pasture, soare well suited to rotational grazing.If allowed to grow tall, they willshade out shorter forages and weeds.Pastures that are routinely rested mayhave less bluegrass and a larger per-centage of taller growing species,even if tall species have not beenrecently seeded in the field.

Carbohydrate storagepatternsPlants get the energy needed forgrowth from the sun through photo-synthesis which occurs in greenleaves. The plant immediatelyconverts this energy to carbohydrateswhich can either be used right awayfor growth or stored in the roots forfuture use (figure 2). In the fall mostof these carbohydrates are stored asplants ready themselves for winter. Inspring these carbohydrates are usedto provide energy for early regrowth.At some point (usually at about 6 to 8inches tall) plants are large enoughand photosynthesizing enough toprovide energy for growth plus haveadditional carbohydrates for storage.After grazing, these stored carbohy-drates provide energy for regrowthuntil the plant is once again largeenough to provide for itself throughphotosynthesis. This cycle repeatswith each grazing until growth ceasesin fall. Managing these carbohydratecycles is the key to vigorous, longlasting stands. Grazing too frequentlydoes not allow for replenishment ofroot reserves which weakens plants,slows recovery, and lowers yields.

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Understandingplant growth

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Figure 2. Carbohydrate reserves ateach stage of the plant growth cycle


Plant yield and qualityForage growth is slow when plantsare small and have few leaves (earlyspring growth or after grazing) andyield is low. As leaves get bigger,photosynthesis increases dramatically,allowing for rapid growth andincreased yields. Prior to flowering,most pasture plants are growing asfast as possible if other factors are notlimiting. As plants mature, growthslows since most energy is diverted toflower and seed production. Whileyield is highest at heading, quality isvery low. Quality is high when plantsare small and vegetative and declinesas plants mature. This occurs because,as plants get larger and stemmier, agreater percentage of nutrients and

dry matter is tied up in undigestibleforms (such as lignin). Greateramounts of undigestible fiber resultin lower quality forage withdecreased amounts of total digestiblenutrients (TDN).

The goal of a good grazing programshould be to maximize both forageyield and quality. As shown in figure3, the best time to graze is immedi-ately following the most rapid growthbut before flowering and seeding.Species develop differently howeverand the best time to graze one grassspecies may not be the best foranother. For advice on ideal grazingheights and rest periods for variousspecies, see the section on “Length ofRest Periods.”

Grass growth patternsIn the seeding year, grass seeds ger-minate and give rise to a single shoot.As the season progresses additionalshoots called tillers develop.Removing the top growth throughgrazing or mowing encourages tiller-ing. Some species such as orchard-grass, tall fescue, and ryegrass formtillers from buds on the originalshoot. These are called bunch-typegrasses as the tillers stay fairly closetogether and form discreet bunches inthe field. Other grasses tiller bysending out short rhizomes whichform new shoots. These grasses areknown as sod-forming grasses as theyform a dense sod in the field. Tilleringcontinues throughout the seedingyear and the plants enlarge. Mostcool-season grasses (with the excep-tion of timothy) don’t form seedheads in the seeding year. Buds thatform in late summer are the nextyear’s flower buds. They must beexposed to cold temperatures duringwinter (vernalized) to produceflowers the following year.y

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Figure 3. Relationship between yield and quality

Figure 4. Grass development

The spring growth of the season is reproductive(produces seedheads); following grazing or harvesting,the regrowth of most species is vegetative only.

leaves only stem begins tillers forming jointingto elongate

Spring growth (reproductive)

Regrowth (vegetative)

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As illustrated in figure 4, after theseeding year, early growth is allleaves. The growing points that willbecome the seedheads are belowground and protected. Eventually thestems begin to elongate. The stagewhen the stems are elongating butbefore seedheads can be felt is knownas jointing. These stems will produceseedheads if not removed. Once theseshoots are removed, the plant willremain vegetative through the rest ofthe growing season for smoothbromegrass, orchardgrass, quack-grass, and reed canarygrass.

Some grasses such as tall fescue,perennial ryegrass and Kentuckybluegrass tiller early and produceheads profusely throughout the year.The stems of these grasses do notelongate after initially heading. As aresult, these grasses may be grazedmore aggressively than others.

Bromegrass and timothy, on the otherhand, develop tillers more slowly.Stems elongate after heading, liftingthe potential growing points abovethe soils surface where they may beremoved by grazing. These speciesmust be managed differently thanothers. They should not be grazeduntil new tillers are visible at the baseof the plant. Grazing during jointingbut before new tillers form willseverely damage or kill these grasses.

Legume growth patternsLegume seedlings consist of a singleshoot. Additional shoots (tillers)eventually form from buds below thesoil surface. These tillers form thecrown of the plant. Like grasses,grazing or harvesting top growthencourages development of newtillers at the crown. Additional shootsalso develop from above ground budsin leaf axils. Regrowth may comefrom buds on the crown or on stems(axillary buds) depending on severityof grazing. Some legumes, such aswhite clover, spread by means ofprostrate stems called stolons. Thesetypes of plants are very low growingand tolerate close grazing. Legumescontinue to branch and enlarge andeventually flower. Unlike grasses,legumes flower in the seeding yearand several times annually every yearthereafter.

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U n d e r s t a n d i n g p l a n t g r o w t h ____________________________________________________________________________________________

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boot stage early heading flowering

Seasonal pasturegrowth patternsIdeally, forage production (or avail-ability) should correspond with live-stock needs. Livestock need forage allyear round, but providing anadequate supply of yearly foragefrom pasture alone is difficult to do inthe upper Midwest. First, the growingseason is short, ranging from about185 days in southern Wisconsin to142 days in northern Minnesota.Secondly, pasture production isuneven during the growing seasonwhile livestock feed needs are stableor increasing (figure 5).

There are several ways to lessen thisproblem. One is to make hay from somepastures during periods of rapid foragegrowth. Also, lambing or calving beforerapid spring growth will allow theperiod of highest animal need to matchthe greatest production of qualityforage. Some dairy farmers haveswitched to seasonal milking to achievethis goal. You can even out pasture pro-duction throughout the season andextend the grazing season using themethods described below.

Managing for more uniformpasture growth■ Healthy, unstressed plants begin

growth earlier in the spring,produce higher yields during thesummer, and continue growinglonger in the fall.

■ Switching from continuous torotational grazing can extend thegrazing season and boost yields,since rotational grazing, by virtueof its rest periods, is less stressfulto the forage.

■ A good fertility program willextend the season and boost yields.

■ Pastures should be grazed early inthe spring to help stagger growththat will occur during the flush oflate May and early June.

Weed controlNot all plants that are consideredweeds in row crops are a problem inpastures. Many “weeds” such asquackgrass and lambsquarters arevery nutritious at certain growthstages and need not be removed. Beconcerned mainly about those plantsyour livestock avoid eating, that havelow nutritive value such as golden-rod, or are poisonous like hoaryalyssum.

Good rotational grazing systems willtend to keep most weeds out ofpastures. Grazing management alone,however, will not normally correctserious preexisting weed problemswithout causing great losses inanimal performance. Plants such asthistles, brush, and poisonous plantsmay continue to be a problem evenafter you have intensified yoursystem since they are seldom eateneven at high stocking rates.

Before taking action, identify theweeds that are a problem in yourpasture. Your county Extension agentcan give you specific control recom-mendations. Thistles are by far themost troublesome weeds in pastures.There are two types of thistlescommonly found in pastures—bienni-als and perennials. Each type requiresdifferent control measures.

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April May June July August Sept. Oct. Nov.

pa

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amount produced

amount needed by a milking animal

amount needed by a growing herd

Figure 5. Typical pattern of pasture production and animal needs during the grazing season

Biennial thistles live for two years. Inthe first year they form a group ofleaves called a rosette. The rosettegrows very close to the ground andusually escapes grazing. In thesecond year the rosette “bolts” orsends up a tall shoot, which producesflowers and seeds. After this the plantdies. Bull, musk, and plumelessthistle are in this group. These thistlesshould be dug up or sprayed beforethey set seed, preferably during theirfirst year of growth. Biennial thistlesare prolific seed producers. If allowedto set seed they will rapidly spreadthroughout a pasture.

Perennial thistles live for three ormore years. They spread by seed andby roots. The roots can grow far fromthe original plant and send up shootswhich themselves form roots andspread. In this way perennial thistlescan spread very quickly. Canadathistle and perennial sowthistle are inthis category. Digging up thesethistles is impractical as new plantsmay form from any part of the rootleft behind. The most effective meansis the use of herbicides. Anotherapproach is to mow or graze thethistle patch frequently (every 10 to14 days) throughout the growingseason. These plants will eventuallyrun out of food reserves and die or beweakened and killed over winter. Thebest strategy is to detect these patchesearly and keep them from spreadingor setting seed.

Cultural controlSeveral cultural practices helpmaintain a weed-free pasture. Weedsare generally more of a problem inovergrazed, infertile pastures than infertile, well-managed pastures. Goodgrazing management (with pasturerest periods) and good fertility will goa long way in keeping the foragehealthy and able to compete withpasture weeds. To prevent spread ofweeds, avoid spreading manure con-taminated with weed seeds, cleanequipment after working inweed-infested pastures, and keepfencerows free of problem weeds.

Mechanical controlRepeated mowing, clippings, andhand weeding can diminish weedinfestations. When flower buds areclosed or just starting to open, cutweeds 3 to 4 inches above the ground.Some farmers clip each paddock afterevery grazing period. This weakensexisting weeds by depleting rootreserves and prevents further spreadby preventing seed production.Cutting controls bull thistle. Muskand plumeless thistles, however,commonly produce new shoots aftermowing. If these shoots are notmowed, they will flower and set seed.

Tillage can be used to suppress weedsas part of a pasture renovationprogram, but is seldom used tomanage weeds in a good pasture.

Chemical controlGood management greatly reducesthe need for herbicides. But even withthe best cultural and mechanicalmethods of control, serious weedproblems can persist and herbicidesmay be needed. If weeds are aproblem across the entire pasture,herbicides can be broadcast sprayed.Keep in mind, however, that mostpasture herbicides will remove desir-

able legumes as well as weeds. Morefrequently, weeds are patchy, makingspot spraying the preferred methodof control. Spot spraying is less costlythan broadcast treatments.

Before applying any herbicides, besure problem weeds have been accu-rately identified. Wait until animalshave left a paddock before sprayingand do not graze treated areas untillabel restrictions allow.

Integrated controlNo single practice will produce ormaintain weed-free pastures. Anorganized system that combines theappropriate preventative, cultural,mechanical, and chemical measuresfor each pasture is required. Start byevaluating the present status of yourpastures and devise a 3- to 5-yearplan of pasture improvement. Followthe above recommendations and withgood management and perseverance,you will achieve more productionfrom your grass and grass-legumepastures.

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Soil fertilityMany agronomic and environmentalproblems can be avoided by fertilizingat the correct levels. To determine fer-tilizer requirements, take regular soiltests and follow the recommendationsgiven. Be sure to state the type ofpasture being grown when submittingyour sample because fertilizer recom-mendations from soil test will bebased on the crop stated (or assumed)to be grown. Recommendationswould be different for grass/legumepasture and tall grass pasture, forexample. When switching from onetype of management to another (e.g.,continuous to rotational grazing),sample yearly until your managementhas stabilized. After that, testing every3 years should be sufficient.

To get a good representative soilsample take 10 cores, or subsamples,and mix them together. Scrape aninch of surface soil to the side; thenuse an auger (works best for com-pacted or frozen soil), or probe tosample to a depth of 6 inches. Mix thesubsamples together in a clean con-tainer to form your representative (orcomposite) soil sample. Transfer to aclean bag and label well. You shouldtake one representative soil sample(about 2 cups of soil altogether) fromeach major soil type in your pastureor one for every 5 acres.

Fertilizer recommendations are basedon a number of factors including soiltype, climate, yield goals, future croprotations, nitrogen credits frommanure and legumes, pH, percentorganic matter, etc. For this reason, itis important that you fully completethe soil test form. If you are notcertain what types of soil are on yourfarm, you can obtain a soil survey

report for your county from theNatural Resource ConservationService. Since local testing labs aremore attuned to local soil types andclimate, send your sample to thenearest reputable lab.

All pastures with less than 40%legume need nitrogen fertilization foroptimal growth. All available nitrogenis taken up by the next cycle ofgrowth. The most efficient use ofnitrogen is to apply it immediatelyafter each grazing cycle. However, thisis generally not practical and mostgraziers apply nitrogen three times ayear (early spring, mid-June, and earlyAugust). The spring application maybe skipped if hay will not be har-vested, otherwise the spring flush ofgrowth from the entire pasture willexceed the animals’ needs.

To maintain healthy pastures, manageso that soil nutrients are returned tothe soil at the same rate they areremoved. Once soil nutrient levels areat optimal levels, nutrients shouldcycle naturally in a well-managedpasture through nitrogen fixationfrom legumes and livestock excre-ment. Since grazing animals normallyreturn 60 to 80% of available pasturenutrients (providing their manure isreturned to the pasture), some addi-tional fertilization will probably berequired depending on your manage-ment and supplements being fed toanimals. Pastures rotationally grazedby dairy cows receiving high levels ofsupplemental feeding can actuallyincrease in phosphorus and potas-sium levels and thus not need main-tenance fertilization.

Pasture establishment/renovationBefore tearing up your currentpasture, consider improving what’salready there. Pasture renovation isless expensive than tillage and con-ventional establishment, providesforage more quickly, and is less riskyin terms of stand loss and erosion.Many naturally growing forages mayalready be present in your pasture,and their yields can be improvedwith proper fertilization and goodgrazing management. In fact, justswitching from continuous to rota-tional grazing can boost yields by upto 40%. Quackgrass, for example, isan excellent forage which makes goodsod, produces high yields, and hasgood quality.

Many farmers use grass/legumemixtures to meet most of their pro-duction needs from pasture. Seedinglegumes into run-down pastures isthe most common form of renovation.Legumes reduce dependence onnitrogen fertilizer, complementgrasses by balancing forage produc-tion throughout the season, andimprove pasture quality.

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The method of renovation you choosedepends on a number of factors:

■ What are the current conditionand species composition of theexisting pasture?

■ How much money and effort areyou willing to spend?

■ How long are you willing to takea field out of production?

■ How long are you willing to waitto get good establishment?

■ Are you willing to use tillageand/or herbicides?

Seeding methodsThere are a number of differentapproaches for establishing and reno-vating pastures. The followingsections describe these methods.

No-till or reduced tillage. With thismethod, seed is drilled into existingsod. Modified grain drills can beused, but no-till drills are recom-mended because they give better seedplacement and are designed to pene-trate sod. Soil erosion is greatlyreduced with no-till. Reducing com-petition from existing sod is critical tosuccess. Options for reducing sodcompetition include applying a non-selective herbicide before seeding(e.g., a suppression rate of Roundup),grazing heavily the summer and fallbefore seeding, and/or using limitedtillage to kill up to 50% of the stand.Note, though, that disking causesaverage soil losses of 12 tons per acreon a 15% slope and 2 tons per acre ona 6% slope.

Controlling competition duringlegume establishment is also critical.Typically, the suppressed sod willregrow more rapidly than newseedlings. Thus, the renovated areashould be grazed at a high stockingdensity—enough animals to grazeplants to 4 inches tall in 24 to 48hours—when the soil is not wet tokeep the regrowing sod from overtop-ping the developing seedlings.

Frost seeding. Frost seeding allowsnature to assist the planting. Seed isbroadcast onto pasture in late winteror early spring during or just aftersnowmelt. Soil heaving due to frostshelps bury the seed. Frost seedingworks best on soils that shrink andswell with freezing and thawing.Moving animals across the seedingarea immediately after thaw mayhelp to incorporate the seed andimprove establishment. Frost seedingis a relatively cheap method that willincrease the percentage of the desiredspecies but may produce non-uniform stands. Red clover, whiteclover, ryegrass, and orchardgrass canbe successfully frost seeded onexisting sod. These and most otherspecies can be frost seeded on oldalfalfa fields that are being convertedto pasture. As with no-till andreduced till seeding, it is essential toreduce competition from the existingsod by grazing it heavily the previousfall and/or using limited tillage.

Grazing management andpatience. Some graziers improve thespecies composition of pasture simplyby improving grazing management.Many fields have a seed bank ofdesirable pasture forage species thathave not had an opportunity to ger-minate and survive under croppingor continuous grazing. Rotationalgrazing provides the rest needed forthese species to establish.Disadvantages of this method of“passive” renovation include the timerequired to observe a significantchange in species composition (oftenseveral years) and the fact that alfalfararely appears naturally.

Conventional seeding. Completepasture renovation through conven-tional seeding is rarely needed.However, if you are creating newpasture from cropland, the bestoption may be conventional seedbedpreparation and planting. This worksbest in spring when soil moisture isadequate for germination and whenplants have the entire summer toestablish. Seeding can also occur inlate summer if moisture is adequate.

Conventional seeding can also beused for pastures in very poor condi-tion. To renovate by conventionalseeding, pastures are plowed orchiseled, worked up to reduce clods,and seeded. The advantages of tillageare that it eliminates competitionfrom existing plants, it producesuniform pasture stands of the desiredspecies, and it allows for incorpora-tion of lime and fertilizer at planting.While conventional seeding is highlyeffective, it is costly, reduces produc-tion the year of seeding, reduces sodstability for several years, and opensthe potential for significant soil loss,especially on slopes that are fall-plowed and spring-planted. Toreduce erosion and minimize pasturedisruption, conventional seedingshould be done in strips over 2 to 3years.

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Livestock seeding. Using livestockto do the seeding is appropriate interrain not accessible by equipment orwhere animals can graze pasture orbe fed hay with seed and then be con-veniently moved to pastures wherethe desired legume is wanted.Livestock digest much of the legumeseed and all of the grass seed theyeat, so little seed is available inmanure for germination. Since live-stock do not distribute manure uni-formly, using them as seeders willproduce less uniform stands than thepreviously mentioned methods. Itmay take several years to producegood stands by this method.

There are a couple of approaches:One to two days before movinganimals into the pasture, add forageseed to the mineral mix (about 5 lbseed to 50 lb mineral) or let theanimals graze a pasture of establishedlegumes (e.g., birdsfoot trefoil) thathas been allowed to go to seed justbefore moving them to the pasture tobe reseeded.

Winter grazing can be a useful toolfor improving pastures, especially interrain not readily accessible to equip-ment. The idea is to place supplemen-tary forage in areas where the pastureneeds to be improved so that wastefeed and manure provide both seedand fertilizer. The success of thisapproach requires the ability toprovide winter supplements at manysites in the pasture, and to moveanimals rapidly from site to site oreven out of the pasture duringmuddy times when existing plantsare vulnerable.

Mixing seed with manure beforespreading. For areas that are accessi-ble by equipment, seed can be mixeddirectly with manure before it’sspread on pastures. This works bestwhen manure is spread in March orearly April just after snow is gone.Calculate the area covered by oneload of manure and add red or whiteclover at a rate of 6 lb/acre.

Selecting appropriateforagesIt is most beneficial to grow a mixtureof different forages in different fieldson the farm. Every forage has its ownsusceptibilities and resistances.Planting your entire farm to a singlespecies is a risky venture since asingle type of insect, disease, or envi-ronmental condition could easilywipe out the entire pasture.Generally, planting one or two long-lived grass species plus a legume in apasture simplifies management.

Tailor the selection of the foragespecies to the needs of your grazingsystem (i.e., climate, soil type,moisture level, grazing intensity,desired length of grazing season,etc.). Table 1 identifies forage charac-teristics which are important tocompare when planning a grazingsystem. All of the forages listed intable 1 have some place in pasturesbut no single forage is best suited toall situations.

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Table 1. Characteristics of forage grasses and legumes

Regrowth Legume Winter Ease of Drought Flooding SpeciesGrasses potential compatibility hardinessa establishment tolerance tolerance persistence

Cool-season

Italian ryegrass excellent fair poor excellent fair fair poor

Kentucky bluegrass good poor excellent good fair fair good

Orchardgrass excellent poor good good fair fair good

Perennial ryegrass excellent fair poor excellent fair fair poor

Quackgrass excellent good excellent n/a* good fair excellent

Reed canarygrass good poor excellent poor good excellent excellent

Smooth bromegrass fair good excellent good fair fair good

Tall fescue excellent good fair excellent fair fair fair

Timothy fair good excellent good poor poor poor

Warm-season

Indiangrass good poor good poor excellent good excellent

Big bluestem good poor good poor excellent poor good

Sorghum/sudan good poor n/a excellent excellent fair n/a

Switchgrass good poor good poor excellent poor good

Regrowth Bloat Winter Ease of Drought Flooding SpeciesLegumes potential problem hardinessa establishment tolerance tolerance persistence

Alfalfa good yes excellent good good poor good

Alsike poor yes good excellent poor good poor

Birdsfoot trefoil fair no excellent poor poor fair excellent

Kura clover excellent yes excellent poor good fair excellent

Ladino poor yes good excellent poor good poor

Red clover fair yes good excellent poor fair fair

White clover good yes excellent excellent good fair excellent

N/A=not applicable aWinter hardiness assumes use of adapted varieties *No seed available

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Grasses

Italian ryegrass is a rapidly estab-lishing grass that has high foragequality but low winterhardiness.

Kentucky bluegrass easily surviveson infertile, overgrazed pastures insouthern regions and the predomi-nant pasture forage of northernregions. A good choice for horsepastures because it combines lowmaintenance and high quality.

Orchardgrass is higher yielding thantimothy and smooth bromegrass,and it recovers more rapidly aftergrazing. Orchardgrass is extremelycompetitive, so grow a competitivelegume (such as red clover) with it.

Perennial ryegrass is an excellentchoice if you want to include tempo-rary pasture in your crop rotation. Itis easy to establish, high yielding,and of high quality, but lack of win-terhardiness shortens persistenceto two years.

Quackgrass is often overlooked as aforage because it has become sucha serious weed problem in rowcrops. It is an excellent forage,offering high yields of good qualityforage.

Reed canarygrass may be the onlyforage option if flooding is a seriousproblem. Though difficult to estab-lish, it is extremely persistent. Plantnew, alkaloid-free varieties toimprove animal intake. Be aware,though, that reed canarygrass isextremely aggressive and mayinvade and displace native plantcommunities, especially in dis-turbed areas.

Tall fescue is not recommended forpastures because of poor palatabil-ity and persistence. However, it hassuperior fall growth and works wellin heavily trafficked areas. It iscommonly used in grass waterwayssince it establishes rapidly. Usefungus-free seed if intending tograze.

Timothy and smooth bromegrassare the recommended pastureforages for northern and southernregions, respectively, because oftheir high yield potential, highquality, and good legume compati-bility. For optimal performance, theyshould be grown with other forages,since neither produces high yieldsof regrowth when grown alone.Timothy has poor tolerance for heatand drought and lacks persistencein southern regions.

Switchgrass and big bluestem arenative warm-season grasses thatnicely complement cool-seasongrasses. They are slow to establishand poor competitors with weeds,but once established are persistentand vigorous. Switchgrass is easierto establish and seed is less expen-sive than big bluestem, but it issomewhat lower in quality.

Legumes

Alfalfa is the highest yielding legumewith excellent summer regrowth,persistence, and drought tolerance.However, alfalfa doesn’t tolerateflooding or overgrazing, and bloatcan be a problem in pure stands.

Birdsfoot trefoil maintains its qualitybetter than any other legume orgrass, making it a good choice forstockpiling. It is the only commonlygrown pasture legume that doesn’tcause bloat. Birdsfoot trefoil growswell on poor soils and is extremelypersistent, with stands lasting morethan 80 years! However, it is difficultto establish, relatively low yielding,easy to overgraze, and does nottolerate drought.

Kura clover is an extremely persist-ent legume that is well adapted topasture. It spreads by rhizomes(underground stems) to form a sod.This leafy plant produces high-quality forage that can induce bloat.It does not tolerate competitionduring establishment because oflow seedling vigor, but is very com-petitive once established. Reedcanarygrass and orchardgrass arecompatible grasses.

Ladino and alsike clovers are lesspersistent than red clover butperform well in heavily grazedpastures. They are high quality,lower-yielding forages that aretolerant of overgrazing. Alsike isespecially well suited for poorlydrained areas.

Red clover is a good choice forpastures. It persists for three to fouryears, is high yielding, and is theeasiest and fastest legume to establish.

White clover is a good choice forheavily grazed pastures. It is easyto establish and very persistent.

Common grasses and legumes

Combining forages formaximum productivityEach forage species has a distinctseasonal growth pattern (figure 6).For uniform yields throughout thegrazing season, plant several forageswhose growth patterns complement

each other. Forages may be mixedwithin a pasture if growth patternsare compatible (e.g., cool-season grassand legume) or grown in separatepastures (e.g., cool-season andwarm-season grasses).

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April May JulyJune Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.Species

Quackgrass

Reed canarygrass

Smooth bromegrass

Tall fescue

Timothy

Orchardgrass

Kentucky bluegrass

Cool-season grasses

Warm-season grasses

Legumes

Alternative forages

Winter rye

Oat

Corn stalks

Alfalfa

Red clover

Birdsfoot trefoil

Sweet clover

Alsike

Ladino

Big bluestem

Sorghum/sudan

Switchgrass

Figure 6. Seasonal growth patterns of forages

Stockpiling forageThe length of your grazing seasonneed not be restricted to the length ofyour growing season. One Wisconsinsheep farmer leaves 250 ewes onpasture all winter, giving them littlesupplemental feed until just beforespring lambing. This is possible bystockpiling forage.

Stockpiling means allowing an accu-mulation of forage for later use. It ismost commonly done in the latesummer to provide forage for grazingafter the killing frosts. The approachis to defer grazing on a portion of thepasture beginning August 1. Thisforage is allowed to accumulate andis grazed throughout the fall andwinter after pasture growth hasceased. Spring pasture growth ofbirdsfoot trefoil can be stockpiled forsummer grazing because it maintainsleaves and quality at maturity. Thispractice can provide grazing duringthe summer slump.

The greatest limitation to late-summer forage growth is lack ofnitrogen. An application of 50 lb/acreof nitrogen on August 1 will doubleor triple yields of deferred forages.Another way to increase stockpiledforage is to use orchardgrass, whichgrows more in the fall. Tall fescuealso has good fall growth, but it is notvery palatable for most of thegrowing season. Avoid stockpilingsmooth bromegrass and quackgrassas they produce relatively little fallgrowth.

If you’re short on pasture, stockpilingforage for fall and winter grazing isprobably not a good option sinceyou’ll have to take some of your landout of production in the early fallwhen forage is already in shortsupply. Keep in mind, however, thatyou can also stockpile crop residue.

Estimating forage yieldTables 2 and 3 give average forageyields for Midwestern states. Thisinformation gives an idea of relativecomparisons and preliminaryplanning. You’ll need to estimateyields for your own pastures as theymay be considerably different fromthose listed due to differences in soiltype, fertility, and management. Toestimate your own yields, keep arecord of hay yields from any of thepastures to be grazed or calculateanimal grazing days and observinganimal performance on the pastures.Refer to “Estimating PastureProductivity” on page 19 for step-by-step details.

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Forage growth patternsCool-season grasses such as

timothy and Kentucky bluegrass,prefer cool temperatures. They aremost productive in the spring andfall but go through a “midsummerslump” in production.

Legumes start growing a bit later inthe spring than cool-seasongrasses but have fairly uniformgrowth patterns throughout thegrazing season. Many withstandheat and drought better thancool-season grasses.

Warm-season grasses need warmsoils for germination and thrive onthe midsummer heat that slowsthe growth of most other species.Both annuals (such as sudan-grass) and perennials (such asswitchgrass and bluestem) tend tobe very drought tolerant.

Other alternative forages such asannual grains (oats, winter rye,and winter wheat) and cropresidue (e.g., corn stalks) can begrazed in the early spring and/orlate fall. When grazing cropresidue, leave enough residue toreduce soil erosion.

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Table 2. Average forage yields for southern Midwest region

Yield ________________% Available by month _________________

Species Qualitya (lb/a DM) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.

Cool-season perennial grasses

Kentucky bluegrass Good 5680 30 30 10 10 15 5

Poor 1900 10 40 10 15 15 10

Orchardgrass Good 6440 20 35 15 10 15 5

Poor 2260 10 30 10 20 20 10

Reed canarygrass Good 6180 20 30 25 10 10 5

Poor 2720 20 30 20 10 15 5

Smooth bromegrass Good 6080 30 30 15 10 10 5

Poor 2620 25 35 10 10 15 5

Tall fescue Good 7940 20 30 20 10 15 5

Poor 2740 15 40 10 10 15 10

Timothy Good 6260 25 35 10 10 15 5

Poor 2340 10 45 10 15 15 5

Warm-season grasses

Big bluestem Good 5000 0 10 40 35 15 0

Poor 2520 0 15 40 35 10 0

Switchgrass Good 5000 0 15 35 35 15 0

Poor 2500 0 15 45 35 5 0

Sorghum/Sudangrass Good 5500 0 0 20 30 30 20

Poor 3000 0 0 40 45 15 0

Legumes

Alfalfa/grass Good 5820 20 25 35 20 0 0

Poor 3000 20 25 35 20 0 0

Birdsfoot trefoil Good 5120 10 50 30 10 0 0

Poor 2500 10 50 30 10 0 0

Red clover/grass Good 5500 25 40 20 10 5 0

Poor 2750 25 40 20 10 5 0

Alternative forages (cool-season annual grasses)

Oat Good 3000 55 35 10 0 0 0

Poor 1600 60 40 0 0 0 0

Winter rye Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15

Poor 1200 65 25 0 0 5 5

Winter wheat Good 2800 55 25 0 0 5 15

Poor 1200 60 30 0 0 5 5

aQuality: Good = Lime and fertilizer have been applied. Rotational grazing. Poor = No fertilizer added. Continuous grazing.

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Table 3. Average forage yields for northern Midwest region

Yield ________________% Available by month _________________

Species Qualitya (lb/a DM) May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.

Cool-season perennial grasses

Kentucky bluegrass Good 4700 30 20 20 10 15 5

Poor 1240 15 45 15 10 10 5

Orchardgrass Good 5580 25 20 20 15 15 5

Poor 1520 20 35 20 10 10 5

Reed canarygrass Good 5460 25 20 30 10 10 5

Poor 1940 25 30 20 10 10 5

Smooth bromegrass Good 4900 35 20 20 10 10 5

Poor 1780 30 30 15 10 10 5

Tall fescue Good 6000 15 25 20 15 15 10

Poor 1740 20 45 15 5 10 5

Timothy Good 4800 25 30 15 10 15 5

Poor 1600 15 50 10 10 10 5

Warm-season grasses

Big bluestem Good 3500 0 0 25 50 25 0

Poor 2520 0 0 30 45 25 0

Switchgrass Good 4830 0 0 35 50 15 0

Poor 2170 0 0 30 45 25 0

Sorghum/Sudangrass Good 5500 0 0 20 30 30 20

Poor 3000 0 0 40 45 15 0

Legumes

Alfalfa/grass Good 5540 20 30 30 20 0 0

Poor 3000 20 30 30 20 0 0

Birdsfoot trefoil Good 4320 10 40 35 15 0 0

Poor 2500 10 40 35 15 0 0

Red clover/grass Good 5500 20 30 30 20 0 0

Poor 2750 20 30 30 20 0 0

Alternative forages (cool-season annual grasses)

Oat Good 2500 55 35 10 0 0 0

Poor 1600 60 40 0 0 0 0

Oat + rape Good 2410 30 45 25 0 0 0

Poor 1600 30 45 25 0 0 0

Winter rye Good 2300 55 25 0 0 5 15

Poor 1200 65 25 0 0 5 5

aQuality: Good = Lime and fertilizer have been applied. Rotational grazing. Poor = No fertilizer added. Continuous grazing.

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Estimating pasture productivity—two methods Direct estimate methodExample weights are given for each step and are used in the final calculations.

1. Clip and collect the forage in 1 square yard of pasture. Clip at the intended grazing height; this will vary withspecies.

2. Weigh and record the forage. Take all measurements in pounds (example: 2.07 lb/sq yd).

3. Dry a sample:

a. Record the weight of an empty paper plate (example: 1 oz).

b. Take a half pound (approximately) sample of the forage. Place it on the plate and weigh it accurately(example: 9 oz).

c. Place the sample in a microwave oven along with a cup of water. Microwave on high for 3 minutes, then weigh thesample. Note: It is extremely important to leave water in the microwave throughout the drying process. Waterreduces the chance of ruining the microwave or possibly starting a fire.

d. Microwave the sample for another minute, then reweigh the sample. Repeat this step until the weight remains the same.

e. Record the final sample weight (example: 3 oz).

4. Calculate percent forage dry matter (DM):

% forage dry matter =(final weight of sample) – (weight of plate)

(original weight of sample) – (weight of plate)

Example: 3 oz – 1 oz = 0.25 (25% forage dry matter)9 oz – 1 oz

5. Determine pasture yield:

Pasture yield (lb/acre) = [total weight of forage (step 2)] x [% forage DM (step 4)] x (43,560 sq ft/acre)(9 sq ft/sq yd)

Example: 2.07 lb/sq yd x 0.25 x 43,560 sq ft/acre = 2505 lb/acre9 sq ft/sq yd

Pasture plate methodA much faster way to estimate yield is through use of a pasture plate.You can make your own plate using the following directions:

Materials: An 18-inch square sheet of acrylic (0.22-inch thick), a yard-stick, and a 2-inch bolt.

Assembly: Drill a 1.5-inch hole in the center of the plate. To make iteasy to lift and carry the plate and yardstick together, insert a largebolt through the bottom of the yardstick.

Procedure: Place the yardstick on the ground. Hold the plate (on theyardstick) 1 foot above the standing forage and let it drop. Recordthe plate’s height (in inches) off the ground. Take measurements in5 to 10 locations in the pasture and use the average height. To cal-culate dry matter yield (lb/acre), multiply the height by 390. Foraccurate results, the plants must be dry when taking measurements.

Pasture yield (lb/acre) = 390 x height (inches)

Example: 390 x 6 inches = 2340 lb/acre

acrylic plate .22" thick (5.6 mm)

2" bolt

1.5" hole

18"

18"

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Animal digestion and nutrient requirements

Ruminants, such as cattle, sheep,and goats, are “natural grazers”having a rumen full of microbes

that break down most plant fibers.Because of their efficient digestivesystem, ruminants can usually obtainmost of the nutrients and energyneeded for growth and productionfrom good quality pasture alone.

Horses are “pseudo-ruminants.” Theydon’t have a rumen, but do havemicrobes in an enlarged cecum whichdigest some plant fiber. Therefore,horses must graze longer than trueruminants to get adequate nutrition.

Pigs and poultry are non-ruminantswith smaller digestive tracts in whichrelatively little fiber digestion occurs.They get nutrition from nonfibrousportion of plants and from seeds. Inaddition to pasture forage, they mustbe fed high-energy supplements toget the nutrition needed for growth.

High-producing dairy cows requiresupplementary feeds to fulfill theirability to produce milk. Table 4 showsthat high-quality pastures largelymeet the requirements for protein, buteven legume pastures will notprovide for adequate intake of energy.Supplements should be formulated tocomplement the grass or legumegrowing in the pasture. Generallygrass pasture requires a supplementhigh in energy with moderate proteinlevels. Legumes come closer tomeeting the requirement of high pro-duction, so less supplement isneeded.

Animal needs

Table 4. Nutrient needs for cows in early lactation and what pastures supply

Nutrient Recommendation Grass Grass-legume Legume

Net energy of lactation (NEL), Mcal/lb 0.78 0.65–0.70 0.66–0.72 0.68–0.74

Crude protein (CP), % of DM 19 18–22 21–23 23–25

Escape protein 7.2 4.6–4.3 4.2–5.7 4.6–5.0

Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), % of DM (min) 28 50 44 38

Nonfibrous carbohydrate (NFC), % of DM 36–40 15–20 15–20 20–25

Adapted from Cherney, D.J.R., and J.H. Cherney. 1999. Feeding forages for optimum performanceand pasture sustainability. Cornell Nutrition Conference for Feed Manufacturers

Figure 7 shows energy requirementsof livestock in relation to the qualityof various forage types. Quality, inthis case, is represented in terms oftotal digestible nutrient (TDN) levels.As shown, each forage type has a dif-ferent range of total digestiblenutrient levels and each animalspecies and breed has a differentrange of nutrient requirements.Nutrient requirements vary with theanimal species, sex, maturity, size,and whether or not the animal is lac-tating. To maximize production, youmust match livestock nutrientrequirements with forage TDN levels.High-producing dairy cows, forexample, could probably not getenough nutrients from cool-seasonannual grasses alone but must begiven a high percentage of legumesand be fed supplement. Most animalscan be maintained at TDN levels of 45to 50%.

Most of the mineral needs of livestockcan be met by the pasture alone. Theexception would be if you are grazingcrop residue, such as corn stubble.Salt, however, should always beprovided to animals “free choice.”When selecting a salt, it is a good ideato buy a trace mineralized salt just tomake sure mineral requirements arebeing met.

Animal water needsAlthough livestock can get themajority of their water from lushforage which is 70 to 90% water, agood supply of clean water is essen-tial in a grazing system, especially onwarm and sunny days. Livestockwater requirements are shown intable 5. Remember, though, that ananimal’s water needs vary with tem-perature, humidity, animal size, milkproduction, and diet. For example,dry stock grazing lush grass in earlyspring or grazing snow-coveredpastures in winter may not needadditional water while milking dairycows in the same conditions wouldneed water.

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A n i m a l n e e d s ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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40 55 65 75 85

total digestible nutrients (%)

warm-season grasses

cool-season perennial grasses

cool-season annual grasses

legumes

Figure 7. Ruminant nutrient requirements

Table 5. Daily water requirements of grazing animalsa

Animal Gallons per day

Beef cows 15–20

Dairy cows 20–30

Yearling cattle 10–15

Sheep 2–3

Horses 10–15

a These are average figures. Water needs will be greateron hot, dry days and/or when grazing on dry forage.Needs will be less on cool, rainy days and/or whengrazing on lush forage.

Low nutrient requirements. Most dry or mainte-nance stock fit into this category. For example, a dry eweor dry cow.

Medium nutrient requirements. Lactatingsheep, goats, and horses, or fattening lambs. Forexample, a ewe and nursing lamb or a lactacting horse.

High nutrient requirements. Any beef steer orheifers or cow/calf pairs. For example, a stocker with anaverage daily gain of 2 pounds.

Very high nutrient requirements. Only high-producing dairy cattle are included in this class. Forexample, a milking cow giving 60 pounds of milk per day.

Access to waterIdeally, water should be availablewithin about 800 feet of themaximum distance from which cattlemight have to travel in a grazingsystem. Missouri research indicatesthat animals will not graze muchfarther from water than this.Performance per animal is generallyreduced when cattle are forced totravel more than a quarter mile toaccess water.

Some farmers use lanes to access acentral watering site, but the idealsystem is to have water availablewithin every paddock. This reducesthe distance livestock must travel todrink, discourages livestock fromcongregating around a central watersource, and requires less fencing.Often, pasture is severely trampledand eroded near central wateringsites, wasting forage and compactingthe soil.

If you choose to use a natural watersource, consider siphoning water toyour livestock rather than bringingthem to the source. This reducesdisease and parasite problems andpreserves water quality. To makepumping easier, moveable solar orbattery powered pasture pumps areavailable.

Plastic tubing laid on the ground canbe used for carrying water. That wayit is movable and temporary. Tomaintain water pressure, it worksbest to use larger diameter tubing totransport water to the pasture (e.g.1-inch diameter) and smallerdiameter tubing (e.g. 5⁄8-inchdiameter) to give water to thepaddocks.

Size of watererThe size waterer you’ll need dependson the distance between the waterand your animals. Any time there isconsiderable distance between theherd and the water source, getting adrink involves travel and thusbecomes a social function involvingthe movement of large animalgroups. Under these conditions, use aseparate water trough for each 50 to60 head or have it large enough for10% of the head to drink at one time.The tank must also hold enoughwater for the entire herd to drinkonce (e.g. 50 cows x 10 gallons/cow =500 gallons) since minimal refillingcan occur from the well in onedrinking session.

Under intensive grazing (paddockssmaller than 10 acres), where water isprovided in every paddock, going towater is an individual function.Under these conditions, a portable50-gallon tank (with a demand valveattached to a float to regulate waterlevel) can easily water 100 head ofcattle. Or, a 100-gallon container canserve two paddocks when locatedbetween them. A 10-gallon containerwith a demand valve will be largeenough to water 100 smaller livestocksuch as sheep and goats. Portablewaterers need not be fancy; 55-gallondrums cut in half will work. Tankscan be put on wheels or skids to easemovement. Lightweight plastic orfiberglass containers are available invarious sizes.

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Figure 8. Movable 55-gallon drum fedby garden hose with float

Figure 9. Single tank watering two pastures

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Grazing patterns

Most livestock prefer not to grazeduring the hottest part of theday, so the heaviest grazing

period occurs after sunrise for two orthree hours. Grazing increases againas temperatures drop towardsevening. A third grazing period mayoccur around midnight. On average,60% of grazing occurs during the dayand 40% occurs during the night withlivestock spending more time grazingat night following hot days. Duringvery hot weather, animals needabundant water and may benefit bybeing moved to shade during thehottest hours of the day.

Time spent grazing differs withspecies. Generally, cattle graze about8 hours per day, sheep 7 hours or less,goats no more than 6 hours, andhorses 12 to 16 hours per day.

The time spent grazing each day isroughly the same regardless ofpasture quality or yield. Animals willquit grazing after the normal grazingtime, whether or not they have gottenall the energy and nutrients they needfor weight gain or milk production.To maximize production, livestockmust receive a sufficient amount ofhigh quality forage during theirgrazing period.

Selective grazingLivestock are naturally selective inwhat they eat. They will always selectthe most nutritious, best tasting, andeasiest-to-eat forage. Livestock favorcertain forage types over others(forage favorites may change duringthe season).

Selective grazing can be a problemwhen the stocking density is too low.Some spots are grazed down whileother areas are allowed to go to seed.As soon as a preferred forage plantbegins to regrow after having beengrazed, it will most likely be eatenagain since it tastes better (and itsquality is higher) than older forage inthe pasture. This is called spot grazing.

Spot grazing causes yield losses intwo ways: First, the areas that matureare lost because forage quality dropstoo low. Second, the regrazed spotsnever have a chance to reach a heightthat allows rapid growth. Forage pro-duction in the heavily grazed spots istherefore reduced.

Spot grazing also favors poor foragecomposition in pastures. High-qualityforage species die out from overgraz-ing, while unpalatable types flourish.Legumes are usually the first plantsto be lost.

Rotational grazing, particularly man-agement intensive rotational grazing,reduces spot grazing. Higher stockingdensities in rotational grazing systemscause livestock to graze more uni-formly and completely. High-qualityforages, such as desirable grasses andlegumes, thrive because they aregiven a rest period. Well-managed,rotationally grazed pastures usuallyhave few weed problems.

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Animal grazing

Livestock selectively graze certainplant parts over others. Animals eatfrom the top down, taking theyoungest, most nutritious leaves first,leaving less nutritious fibrous stemsfor later. Because of their smallmouths, sheep and goats can grazemore selectively than cattle. For thisreason, sheep need to graze moreclosely than cattle to get an evengraze. If livestock are forced to grazea pasture down to the stems,however, they will perform poorly(gain less weight or produce lessmilk) because they get lesshigh-quality forage per bite. To bestuse your pasture, let high-producinglivestock graze first followed by a“clean-up crew” of animals withlower nutritional needs.

Amount of available forageThe amount of forage on offer alsoinfluences consumption. The tallerand denser the forage, the moreforage an animal will get per bite.However, when forage is tall (over 10inches), large amounts are wastedbecause of trampling. If forage isshort, animals waste energy trying toget enough to eat with little bites. Ifground can be seen when lookingdown through the forage, the stand islikely too thin and stand density willlimit forage intake. When forage istoo short or thin, animal intake willdecline and animal performance willsuffer. Keep these factors in mindwhen deciding at what height tograze. Each forage species has a dif-ferent height at which it does bestwhen grazed. For more information,see the section on length of restperiods in “Setting Up a RotationalGrazing System.”

Grazing habits of different animalsDifferent animal species have differ-ent grazing behaviors. In addition,the animals eat different foragespecies in different ways. Theirdietary preferences are shown in table6. If grazing more than one species oflivestock, it is best to graze the pickygrazers first and follow with the lesspicky eaters (e.g., horses or cattlefollowed by sheep or goats).

Cattle typically tear off large mouth-fuls of forage. Older cows are spottyeaters. They avoid zones near manuredrops and eat other areas very closeto the ground. With proper grazingsupply management, yearlings grazequite uniformly, often to the base ofleaves.

Horses are spotty eaters and tend tobite off forage close to the ground.They are extremely picky grazers andrarely touch weeds and woodyspecies.

Sheep and goats bite off plants closeto the ground, which may lead toovergrazing when forages are scarce.Close grazing by sheep and goatscoupled with their sharp hoof actionmay lead to erosion problems, espe-cially on overgrazed slopes. Goatsprefer the leaves and stems of woodyplants over grass and can be used toclear land. Sheep will eat moreweeds.

Pigs, natural rooters, may eat entireplants, root and all, which they digand pull out of the ground with theirsnouts; this is very disruptive to apasture. They are excellent grazers,however, when snout rings deterthem from rooting.

Fowl will strip the soil bare if allowedto, eating everything including rootsand soil insects. They can be used toweed and fertilize land for small-scaleplanting.

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Table 6. Diet selection of livestock

Cattle and Goats and Type of diet Horses red-tailed deer Sheep white-tailed deer

__________________ % of diet __________________

Forages (grasses 90 70 60 20and legumes)

Weeds 4 20 30 20

Woody material 6 10 10 60

Animal impact on pastureLivestock impact pastures in a varietyof ways besides simply harvestingforage. They tread on the soil,trample the forage, and dispersemanure.

Treading and compactionSome animal treading breaks up thesoil surface allowing better waterpenetration and is not harmful topasture plants. However, excessivetreading (as seen in cow paths or live-stock lanes) can compact soil.Rotational grazing minimizes com-paction since the soil is given time torecover after grazing. Keepinganimals off of a pasture when it isvery wet will reduce both soil com-paction and plant damage.

Erosion, which can be a problem incontinuously grazed pastures whereanimals walk or in camp areas (nearshade, feed, water, gates, etc.), is min-imized in a rotational system sincelivestock are prevented from treadingon the same area day after day.

Sod-forming grasses like smoothbromegrass, reed canarygrass, andKentucky bluegrass are very tolerantof heavy traffic. Adding any of thesespecies to a pasture mix will greatlyincrease the treading tolerance of thepasture. Paddocks with only bunch orcrown-forming plants like alfalfa,orchardgrass, and timothy are nottolerant and should not be grazedwhen the soil is wet.

ManureManure is a very important source ofrecycled nutrients and should bemanaged to the benefit of the pasture.With continuous grazing, manure isnot effective as a fertilizer becausegrazing animals concentrate manurein areas where they congregate, notwhere they graze. As a result, someareas of the pasture receive few nutri-ents while other favorite areasbecome overloaded. Rotationalgrazing greatly improves manure dis-tribution across growing pastures andreduces maintenance fertilizer costs.

Grazing lush vegetative growth alsohelps distribute manure more uni-formly and accelerates the breakdownand recycling of manure nutrientsbecause manure is more liquid thanwhen coarse, overmature forage isconsumed.

Manure is an important contributionto a pasture providing both nutrientsand organic matter. One cow canexcrete 50 pounds or more of manurein a day! Animals will usually avoideating near manure of their ownspecies but will eat right up tomanure of a different species. Cattle,for example, will avoid eating near afresh cow pie. At first, this avoidanceis most likely due to odor whichleaves after two to three weeks. Bythe time the odor is gone, theungrazed forage has become moremature and less palatable than thesurrounding forage and will conse-quently be avoided. You can takeadvantage of this behavior by spread-ing manure in an area of the pastureto keep livestock off.

Rejection of forage surroundingmanure cannot be avoided but it canbe lessened. Higher stocking rateswill decrease the “zone of distaste,”but animals should never be forced toeat right up to manure of the samespecies since it often contains harmfulparasites. High stocking rates willalso help break up manure (throughhoof action), speeding decomposition.Following one species of animal withanother will promote more uniformforage consumption and can help tobreak up parasite cycles. To obtainadditional nutrients, some animals(such as pigs) will actually eat themanure of another species!

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A n i m a l g r a z i n g ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Setting goals andassessing resources

The first step in starting a grazingsystem on your farm is settingmanagement goals. Well-defined

goals and an assessment of yourpasture resources will determine howyou design your system. Goalsshould be written to plan for profit,responsible land stewardship, and thegrazier’s personal needs and wishes.The following questions may helpyou get started:

Goals■ Are you grazing to maintain a

herd, to achieve maximum pro-duction, or to clear land?

■ If grazing to achieve maximumproduction, do you want tomaximize production per animalor per acre?

■ How intensive do you want yourmanagement to be?

■ Are you willing to fertilize?

■ Are you willing to feed supple-mental grain or hay or do youwant to avoid running out offorage?

■ Do you want productive pasturesright away or can you graduallywork up to higher yields?

■ Do you have severe weedproblems such as thistle and brushwhich must be taken care ofbefore you intensify your system?

Resources■ How much capital is available to

invest for starting a grazingsystem?

■ Do you have a shortage or anabundance of pasture?

■ What forage species are currentlyin the pastures?

■ What is the condition of thepastures? Fencing?

Length of restperiodsHow does a person determine theappropriate rest period to give apaddock? For optimum production,pastures should be grazed about aweek before the grass heads out (goesto seed) or when the legume is in theearly or mid bud stage. Table 7outlines the average heights at whichto begin grazing grasses and legumes.At these heights, pasture quality ishigh, forage is easy to eat, and plantshave recovered sufficiently from theprevious grazing.

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Setting up a rotationalgrazing system

The rest period required is closelyrelated to seasonal forage growth (seefigure 6).

■ Legumes such as alfalfa, birdsfoottrefoil, and red clover need restperiods of about 3 to 4 weeksthroughout the season.

■ Cool-season grasses such asKentucky bluegrass, ryegrass,orchardgrass, or timothy need aslittle as 2 weeks of rest duringcool weather and 5 to 7 weeksduring hot weather.

■ Grass-legume mixes should begrazed when the grass reaches theideal height.

■ Warm-season grasses, such assorghum/sudan or big bluestem,need to rest for 5 to 6 weeksduring cool weather and about 3weeks during hot weather.

Plants under stress (drought, coldweather, poor soil fertility, etc.) willrequire longer rest periods. Optimalgrowing conditions, on the otherhand, decrease the rest periodneeded. If you must abuse a pasture(by overgrazing and/or using shortrest periods), do it when growingconditions are optimal such as in thespring.

The above guidelines provide astarting point for deciding when tograze and how long of a rest period isneeded, but they must be fine-tunedto fit your system. It is crucial thatyou move your animals according tothe forage, not the calendar. If yougraze too early, the pasture will be setback, desirable plants may die out,and weeds may take hold. If yougraze too late, the grass becomesbunchy, loses palatability, and yourproduction might suffer. There aretimes when you’ll want to purposelyuse shorter rest periods to weaken apasture (say for interseedinglegumes) or keep up with unusuallyfast growth. There are also timeswhen you’ll need to use longer restperiods to let forage reseed itself,renew its root reserves, or be stock-piled.

Length of grazing periodsControlling the amount of time apaddock is grazed is just as importantas leaving adequate rest periodsbetween grazing. If the grazingperiod is too long, newly grazedplants may grow back tall enough tobe regrazed again within the same

grazing period and can be damaged.Regrowth occurs after about fourdays during May and June and 10days during August and September,so the maximum grazing periodshould never be longer than theseaverages.

Use short grazing periods. Since live-stock graze selectively, they will eathighest quality forage when firstturned out onto a paddock and beforced to eat lower quality forageeach day they remain in the samepaddock. They also tend to eat morewhen first turned out onto a freshpaddock. Therefore, shorter grazingperiods will provide for moreuniform forage intake. This is espe-cially important for dairy farmerssince change in forage quality showsup in milk yields. Many dairyfarmers use one-day grazing periods;some move livestock after everymilking. With other types of livestock,rapid moves are less beneficial andanimals may be moved to newpasture every 2 to 6 days dependingon the level of nutrition required.

Do not overgraze pastures. The closeryou graze a pasture, the longer therest period required for foragerecovery. The higher the stubble, themore quickly the plant will be able torecover after grazing. A good rule ofthumb is to leave 4 inches of stubblefor cool-season grasses and legumesand 4 to 8 inches of stubble forwarm-season grasses. Try to adjustthe length of your grazing period toallow for these stubble heights. If youcan’t leave these stubble heights, yourforage will probably do all right ifyou give it adequate rest betweengrazing. A sure way to kill desirablespecies is to graze close and thengraze the regrowth without allowingadequate rest.

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S e t t i n g u p a r o t a t i o n a l g r a z i n g s y s t e m ________________________________________________________________________

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Table 7. Average heights to begin and end grazing

Plant height (inches)Species Start grazing Stop grazing

Tall-growing cool-season grasses 8–10 4orchardgrass, quackgrass, reed canarygrass,smooth bromegrass, tall fescue, and timothy

Tall-growing legumes 8–10 4alfalfa, alsike clover, birdsfoot trefoil, kura clover, ladino clover, and red clover

Ryegrasses Italian and perennial 6–8 2

Short-growing cool-season grasses 4–6 2and legumesKentucky bluegrass and white clover

Warm-season grasses 12–14 4–6big bluestem, indiangrass, sorghum/sudangrass, and switchgrass

If cattle are leaving excessive forage,you may wish to decrease yourpaddock size instead of lengtheningthe grazing period. You may have tolengthen the grazing period and/orincrease the size of your paddocksmidseason to correspond to decreas-ing forage growth rates.

Grazing groupsTo make the most out of yourpasture, it is often beneficial to dividelivestock into different groups basedon nutritional requirements fordesired performance levels. This way,you can allow the animals requiringthe highest level of nutrition to getthe highest quality forage whilesaving the lowest quality forage forthe animals with lower nutritionalrequirements. There are several possi-bilities which should be modified toyour own situation. A herd can bedivided into two or three groups.Table 8 shows examples of this.

There are two ways to best use forageto meet animal needs:

1) Graze more than one group on thesame paddock sequentially. Highproducers should be grazed first(to consume the highest qualityforage), animals with lower nutri-tional needs should graze second,followed by animals with onlymaintenance requirements (dairycows followed by heifers and drycows, or lambs followed by ewes).

2) Graze different groups in separatepaddocks. If you have some poorquality pastures, let the animalswith lower nutritional needs grazethem.

Note: Animals with only mainte-nance requirements can be used toclear land if used at high stockingrates (approximately 170,000lb/acre). Goats are especially goodfor this since they prefer woodyforage. When using animals toclear land, don’t leave them on solong that they’re forced to eat poi-sonous plants.

Spring start-up There are two problems that youmust deal with when getting startedin the spring. The first is getting youranimals used to consuming fresh feedafter a winter of eating stored feed.Make the transition gradually toallow the rumen microbes to adjust.Don’t turn hungry livestock ontopasture to start out with, as they mayeat too much and bloat. To guardagainst bloat, see bloat in “AnimalHealth on Pastures.”

The second problem has to do withthe pasture. The entire pasture will begrowing at about the same rate butyou will be grazing small sections at atime. This means that the paddocksyou leave for last probably willover-mature unless you compensatesomehow. You can try one of threealternatives:

1) Spread spring green-up by stag-gering the last grazing in the fall.

2) Graze a large paddock or theentire pasture when the plants areonly 2 to 3 inches tall and gradu-ally reduce the size of thepaddock as the forage gets aheadof the animals. Reduce paddocksize by about 30 to 50% as grassheight reaches 6 inches. This willhelp stagger pasture growththroughout the season.

3) Make hay or mow pastures thatget ahead. For instance, plan tomake hay from about half of yourpasture (make sure it is not toosteep, rocky, or wooded to behayed) during the first grazingcycle.

During wet springs, avoid mudproblems by grazing paddockslocated on high, dry land.

Seasonal fluctuations inpasture growth rateThere are a number of ways toprovide high yielding, quality foragethroughout the grazing season.

1) Reduce the number of paddocksgrazed in the spring by usingthem to make hay. Put thosepaddocks back into the rotation inthe middle of the summer and, ifnecessary, supplement yourgrazing animals with the haymade in the spring.

2) Plant portions of pasture to differ-ent species to stagger heading.

3) Plant legumes in cool-season grasspastures to provide more evensummer growth (see figure 6).

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Table 8. Grazing groups based on nutritional needs

High ModerateLivestock performance performance Maintenance

Dairy dairy cows heifers dry cows

Beef steers and heifers cows with calves dry cowsfor meat production and growing heifers

Goats milking does does with kids dry does

Sheep weaned lambs ewes with lambs dry ewes

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Determining stocking rate and acreage neededHow many animals should be put in a pasture? The answer to this question about stocking rates depends on your goals. If you have a limited amount ofpasture land but a flexible herd size, you’ll probably benefit from going to a more intensive system. If youdon’t plan on feeding supplement and/or are more concerned about individual animal gain than gain peracre, you may wish to stock at a lower level.

The calculations below will give a rough estimate of the maximum number of animals that can be grazed onyour land.

1) Determine total pasture acreage for the season (example: 20 acres).

2) Estimate average pasture yield per acre. For average yields of various forage mixtures see tables 2 or 3 or use your own figures if you have them (example: 4000 lb/acre).

3) Estimate the length of your grazing season in days (example: May 15 through October 15 or 153 days).

4) Estimate the average weight of one of your animals for the season

Average weight = (beginning weight + predicted final weight)2

Some average weights:dairy cow (Holstein) = 1300 lb horse = 1250 lbbeef cow = 1000 lb goat = 170 lbbeef bull = 1250 lb ewe and lamb = 200 lb

5) Estimate the maximum animal numbers that can be grazed on your pastures during an entire season:

Number of animals = (total acreage) x (average yield/acre)0.04* x (average weight/animal) x (total days grazed)

For example, for a ewe and a lamb:

Number of animals = 20 acres x 4000 lb/acre = 65 ewes with lambs0.04 x 200 lb x 153 days

How many acres do my animals need?If you have a lot of pasture and a fixed number of livestock, you might want to use a less-intensive systemto maximize production per head rather than per acre. The calculations below will tell you the minimumamount of land required to pasture your herd. Remember, you can always use more than the minimum.

The minimum amount of land needed to pasture your herd:

Pasture acreage needed = (number of animals) x (average weight/animal) x 0.04* x (total days grazed)(average yield/acre)

For example, if you have 25 Holstein cows:

Pasture acreage needed = 25 cows x 1300 lb/cow x 0.04 x 153 days = 49 acres4000 lb/acre

*The 0.04 figure is used because livestock need to have daily access to approximately 4% of their live weight inforage (2.5% intake, 0.5% trampling loss, and 1% buffer). This figure may be decreased if you are willing tofeed supplemental hay or grain during periods of low production.

These calculations should be used only as guides to help you get started. Actual numbers will vary fromsite to site and from year to year because of variations in the weather, soil type, and pasture condition.

DroughtDuring periods of drought, greaterintensity of management will result inforage lasting longer into the drought.The key is to recognize that a droughtis occurring and take appropriateaction before forage reserves havefallen too low. Rest between grazingbecomes more and more crucial asdrought stress increases. As a generalrule, during drought periods, morestubble should be left after grazing.This can most readily be done byfeeding energy from a supplementalsource along with the pasture. Thesupplement might be hay, corn silage,or corn.

Some farmers have set land aside tobe grazed only during a drought.This should be extremely droughttolerant forage such as warm seasongrasses.

Early weaning of beef calves (at 3months of age) is an appropriatepasture management techniqueduring drought. Calves should beturned onto good quality pasture andbe supplemented with severalpounds of grain. Dams or ewes canthen be maintained at a lower level offeed intake.

Moving livestockMoving livestock needn’t be trau-matic or time consuming for eitheryou or your animals; an experiencedrotational grazer can move 50 to 250head of livestock in 15 minutes.Animals rapidly develop herdingbehavior when they are managed onpasture. Using principles of animalbehavior, you can readily move largegroups of animals from pasture topasture with little difficulty.

The key to fast moves lies in minimiz-ing animal stress. Avoid forcing youranimals to go somewhere they don’twant to go, especially by hitting oryelling at them. Instead, make youranimals want to move. Move themwhen they’re hungry and during theday when they can see where they’regoing. Livestock are very habitualcreatures. If you move them at thesame time each day, they will antici-pate this, stop grazing, congregatenear the gate, and wait for you tocome. As soon as you open the gate,they’ll move themselves, anticipatingfresh pasture.

If you have difficulty moving them,don’t make any quick movementsand don’t try to push them directlyfrom behind. Instead, stand slightlyto the side of them, walk towardsthem and they should start walkingaway from you. Alternately, leave thegate open and go away and they’llmove themselves painlessly!

Paddocks: Howmany and how big?There is no “best” number of paddocks.Any number of paddocks is better thangrazing a single pasture continuously.Initially, the number of paddocks inyour rotational system may be deter-mined by current fences, topography,access to water or access to a centralcollection corral or yard (as discussedin the next section). This may lead to atwo- to eight-paddock system and willgreatly increase both pasture conditionand animal performance.

The next step is to move into anintensive grazing system and let thelength of grazing and rest periodsdetermine the number of paddocks.Dividing a pasture into morepaddocks increases the length of therest period and decreases the lengthof time an area is grazed (figure 10).More paddocks are usually betterthan fewer for both the animals andthe plants. But paddock numbersdon’t need to be rigid; they may befenced with portable electric wire sothat size and number may bechanged as needed.

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Figure 10. Relationship between number of paddock and rest period per acre

100-acre undivided Two 50-acre Four 25-acre Sixteen 6.25-acre Sixty-four 1.57-acre pasture paddocks paddocks paddocks paddocks

graze—100% graze—50% graze—25% graze—6% graze—2%rest—0% rest—50% rest—75% rest—94% rest—98%

To determine the ideal number ofpaddocks for a management intensiverotational grazing system, estimatethe length of your longest rest period(during the slowest period of foragegrowth), the length of your grazingperiod, and the number of animalgroups which will be grazing thesame pasture sequentially. Paddocknumbers can then be calculated fromthe equation below:

Number of paddocks = (rest period) + (number of

(grazing period) animal groups)

For example, a pasture with 30-dayrest periods and 3-day grazingperiods that is grazed by one animalgroup should be divided into 11paddocks ((30 ÷ 3) + 1).

To figure out the approximate size ofeach paddock, divide total pastureacreage needed by the number ofpaddocks. The actual size of eachpaddock will need to be tailored tothe site. Paddocks should be largeenough to provide the optimum high-quality forage for each grazing period(calculate daily forage intake andfence off enough area in the paddockto meet animal needs). If paddocknumber and paddock size exceedyour total acreage (for example,during summer or drought), plan onsupplementing the animals’ diet toreduce forage needs.

Paddock layoutMost farmers have traditionally onlypastured land that is not suitable forcultivation. But pasture needn’t berelegated to your roughest land. Infact, after making good profits frompastures, many experienced rotationalgraziers have converted some of theirbest land to pasture. Just about anyland can be pastured except exces-sively steep hillsides and densewoodlands. Fencing livestock out ofwoodlands allows young trees tosurvive and results in more mar-ketable, higher-value timber.

After deciding how much of yourland you want to pasture, you mustdetermine how much of it cannot beharvested due to steepness of slope,rockiness, trees or brush. If pastureforage is to be your only source offeed for the summer, you’ll probablywant about half of your pasture to beland that can be mechanically har-vested so you can put up hay in thespring to compensate for high springproductivity while having sufficientpasture for the summer.

The easiest way to lay out fencing isto make square or rectangularpaddocks of uniform size (figure 11).This way, paddocks can easily be sub-divided with mobile electric fenceand calculations are easier because ofuniform paddock areas. Squarepaddocks will use the least amount offence for the greatest area. Anotheroption is to make rectangularpastures and strip graze as shown infigure 12.

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1 2 3 4 5 6

12 11 10 9 8 7

lane

livestock gate

shared water tank

mobile or permanent fencing

perimeter fence

grazed pasture

ungrazed pasture

direction of animal movement

permanent perimeter fence

back wire

front wire

Figure 11. Square or rectangular paddock layout uses a centrallane with shared waterers. Paddocks are separated by mobile orpermanent fencing.

Figure 12. Strip grazing uses two wires that are moved along two per-manent fences. Move the front wire according to pasture production andanimal need. Follow with the back wire to prevent grazing of regrowth.

Unfortunately, using square or rectan-gular paddocks is not possible onmost farms due to variations within apasture and irregular pasture shapes.Paddocks should always be fenced sothat the grazing environment withinthem is uniform. If a pasture has vari-ations (in slope, shade, soil type,forage quality, etc.), both foragegrowth and grazing will be uneven.The rougher the terrain, the morecomplicated the fencing system mustbe to ensure even grazing. In unevenpastures, proper paddock placementis important in a rotational grazingsystem and essential in intensive rota-tional systems.

You may wish to use a couple of toolsavailable from your county NaturalResources Conservation Service(NRCS) office to help you determinehow to divide your pastures: a landuse capability chart, a soils type map,a topographic map, and an aerialphotograph of your pasture. To startout with, use the aerial photographand maps to draw (or photocopy) ascaled map of your pasture land indi-cating the location of existing fencing,relevant buildings, roads, watersources, woodlands, and hills.

When separating pasture intopaddocks, it is not necessary to com-pletely change your current fencingsystem. As a general rule, it is best touse permanent perimeter fences andtemporary internal fences. Fencepaddocks with the following princi-ples in mind:

Topography■ Separate different slopes into dif-

ferent paddocks. Because asouth-facing slope gets more sun,it may be ready to graze as muchas 2 to 3 weeks before anorth-facing slope on the otherside of the same hill. South-facingslopes usually dry out faster inmidsummer.

■ Lay paddocks out across the slope(on the contour) rather than con-structing a paddock running fromtop to bottom of a hill becausepasture growth will be differenton the top and bottom of a hill.

■ Fence hill crests and valleys sepa-rately from slopes. Livestock oftenprefer to graze on level ground; ifallowed, they will graze it moreheavily than sloping land withinthe same paddock.

Forage type■ Different forages will begin spring

growth at different times and willproduce different amounts ofsummer growth (figure 6).

■ Grazing may hurt certain foragesat certain times of the year andreduce persistence. For example,avoid grazing legumes betweenSeptember 1 and October 15.

Soil type■ Try to separate different soil types

as much as possible. They willhave different levels of productiv-ity. For example, paddocks withgood soils can often be grazedmore frequently than those withdroughty soils.

■ Make sure appropriate foragespecies are planted in areas proneto flooding or drought.

Shade and water availability ■ Fence shady and sunny areas sep-

arately. This will prevent cattlefrom grazing the sunny areas andresting and leaving manure in theshade.

■ Water should be accessible fromeach paddock.

Other considerations■ Square or rectangular paddocks,

while generally desired, areusually a bad choice for hillyand/or non-uniform land.

■ Livestock lanes are more impor-tant the more frequently used.Dairy farms, for example, needmore and better lanes than farmswith other animals. Lanes shouldbe located on high ground andshould be as short as possible.

■ Gates should be located in thecorner of the paddock nearest tothe barn.

■ Stream banks may need to befenced so they’re not grazed whenthe ground is soft. Otherwise live-stock will damage the embank-ment.

■ Setting aside large open areas forhay-making during spring whenexcess pasture occurs will enhancenesting for grassland birds.

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FencingGood fencing is a must in rotationalgrazing systems. The fencing systemused for rotational grazing includes apermanent perimeter fence as well aspermanent or movable fencing toseparate paddocks. For more infor-mation about the fencing optionsdescribed below, contact your localfencing distributor.

Permanent fencingMost farmers use permanent fencingfor perimeter fences and movablefencing for individual paddocks.Other farmers have chosen to con-struct permanent paddocks for all orpart of their pastures. The advantageof permanent paddocks is that, oncethey are established, fences do nothave to be moved. If your livestocknumbers are fairly stable and you areexperienced in rotational grazing, thismay be a viable option.

Before buying new fencing, deter-mine what permanent fencing youalready have on your farm. Existingwooden or barbed wire fencing willwork fine for the perimeter fence aslong as it provides an effective barrierfor the animals. To separate individ-ual paddocks, you’ll probably want touse temporary electric fencing asdescribed in the next section. Don’tlet your current fencing arrangementlimit you. Fence in a way that makesthe best use of your land.

Consider the state of repair of thecurrent fence. An old fence can beimproved by adding a single electricwire on a strut that protrudes into thepasture (offset fence). Never electrifybarbed wire since animals can cutthemselves badly on the barbs whenrecoiling from a shock.

When constructing new perimeterfence, most farmers choose smooth,high-tensile wire since it is relativelycheap, long-lasting (about 30 years),fairly easy to move (if necessary), andhighly effective. These fences can beconstructed so that some or all of thestrands can be electrified.

Lightweight movable fencingWith movable fencing you can easilyalter paddock size to meet changingconditions of forage growth or herdsize. Pasture divided into temporarypaddocks is easily accessed bymachinery, or can easily be taken outof pasture all together.

Portable wires and tapes are made ofpolyethylene imbedded with stainlesssteel strands (the greater the numberof metal strands, the longer it willlast). Polywire is a braided wire andis available in a variety of colors andlengths. Brightly colored tape is moreeasily seen by livestock and thereforeis good for training animals new torotational grazing. Both kinds offencing come on light-weight reelswhich can be easily moved andhooked on to perimeter fences. Asingle strand is all that is neededbetween temporary paddocks sinceelectric fencing is a fear barrier ratherthan a physical barrier. (A secondstrand may be needed when veryyoung animals are kept with matureanimals.)

Lightweight plastic or fiberglass postscan be used to hold up the polywire.They are so light that 20 or 30 stakescan be carried at a time. Their narrowends are easily inserted into the soilby stepping on a side lip with yourfoot, or pushing down from the top.Beware of splinters if you use fiber-glass.

If you choose to use polyethylenewire or tape, you’ll need to carefullyselect your fencer since ordinary,weed-burning chargers will melt theplastic. The best type of energizer onthe market today is the New Zealandtype, low impedance pulsating highenergy charger. These give extremelyshort (0.0003 second), high-energy DCelectrical pulses. Since the pulse is sofast and short, energy can’t bedrained off by weeds or by a sectionof fence that has fallen onto the soil.There is less need to trim weeds fromunderneath fences energized withNew Zealand type energizers sincethey rarely short out.

Lanes and lanewaysLanes allow for livestock movementfrom one paddock to any otherpaddock or to the barn withoutmoving back through a previouslygrazed paddock or through an inade-quately rested paddock. The need forlanes depends on the length of occu-pation of a paddock and the fre-quency of livestock movement.Animals can generally walk througha wet area once with minimal damageto the area but not twice. Thus, stablelanes are critical on a dairy operationwhere cattle need to move back andforth from the pasture to a milkingfacility at least twice daily; they areless important for other animals thatare moved less frequently.

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Lanes must be properly planned,located and built. The width shouldbe kept as narrow as possible, 6 to 8feet wide for cattle or 14 to 18 feet forcattle and machinery. Lanes can beformed by two parallel single strandelectric fences with gates. If high-tensile wire is used, gates are not nec-essary. The wire can be unclippedfrom the post and held to the groundby a nail driven into the post atground level. Another technique is toraise the wire in the air with anotherpost for the livestock to walk under.

Lanes should be centrally positionedto access the field or paddocks to begrazed, including crop or hay fieldsthat will be grazed temporarily. Whenlanes serve rotational pastures, theyshould be positioned to createpaddocks that are as nearly square aspossible. Also, placing lanes directlyup and down steep slopes should beavoided if at all possible. If this is notpossible, the lane should be rein-forced with weatherproof surfacing.Equip any lane having long, continu-ous gradients with water diverters tobreak up waterflows directed downthe lane.

Avoid driving equipment up anddown non-surfaced lanes when wet.Livestock use the slightest wheel rutas a preferred trail. Continual usekills the vegetation and causeserosion to begin where water canchannel and gather velocity in thetrail.

In situations with frequent traffic,lanes should be surfaced. Inadequatelanes that are wet and muddy cancause animal health problems besideslengthening livestock travel time.Mastitis, high somatic cell counts,lameness, and reduced feed intake aresome problems that can be attributedto poor lane design. For a dairy oper-ation you should reinforce at least1000 feet of lane closest to the milkingfacility and all areas that are unstabledue to wetness or slope. There aremany types of surfacing materialsincluding concrete, asphalt, and rockwith limestone screenings on top. Formore information contact your localConservation District, LandConservation Department, ExtensionService, or USDA-Natural ResourcesConservation Service office.

All lanes should be crowned at least 6inches to 12 inches in the center toprovide drainage. Constructed fords,culvert crossings, or bridges shouldbe used for stream crossings. Culvertcrossings or bridges should be usedsparingly. They should not be used atall if the stream is prone to flooding.Maintenance of crossings and bridgesis high. Debris can easily plug theentrance. Damage to downstreamareas caused by successive washoutsof either abutment can also be exces-sive. If flooding occurs, it is generallysafer to have a constructed ford withrock along the streambed. The rocksshould be large enough to avoidbecoming lodged in hooves, usually4 inches or more. Crossings should beperpendicular to waterways andstreams.

Designing a pasture systemTailor paddock layout to your ownfarm. The most important part insetting up a grazing system is puttingwhat you know about your farm towork. Figure 13 is an example of howa “typical” farm might graduallymove from continuous to rotationalgrazing. This farm has a 5-acre fieldat the top of a hill south of the build-ings. There is a slope to the north andsouth of this pasture, a low areanorthwest of the buildings, and asouth slope along the northernproperty line.

The land with buildings and existingperimeter fence is shown in the firstdrawing. The first step in switchingto rotational grazing is to divide theland into four paddocks (drawing 2).To maintain water quality, the pondhas been fenced off. Water will bepumped to a waterer in the barnyard.Each paddock has a gate at thebarnyard. This avoids the need tocreate lanes and simplifies handlinganimals; it also allows a single watersource to provide water for allpaddocks. This setup is not necessaryfor most pasturing systems but essen-tial for milking herds, which return tothe barn daily. The paddock northeastof the buildings was fenced sepa-rately because it is reasonably flat andcould be left for hay making whenthere is surplus forage. Differentslopes were not fenced separately, butwith just four divisions there arelimits to how much fine tuning can bedone. This fencing division to fourpaddocks will greatly improve pro-duction compared to the two-paddock system. The fencing can beeither permanent or temporary andmay be the final stage of setting up a4-paddock system or the first step toestablishing an intensive grazingsystem.

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The third illustration in figure 13shows the next set of divisions thatshould be made to go to an intensivegrazing system. Each of the fourpaddocks has been further dividedusing portable fencing which caneasily be moved, increased, ordecreased in number. In this fencingrefinement, the south-facing slopeswere all fenced separately from otherareas because they can be grazedearlier than other paddocks in thespring. The low area northwest of thepond was fenced into a separatepaddock because production wouldbe much higher than other areasduring dry spells. Note that thepaddocks are not all the same size. Itis more important that the paddocksyield roughly equal amounts offorage than that they have equalareas.

When deciding how to divide yourpasture, think about what you haveto work with: existing fencing, per-manent buildings, water sources, etc.Use these resources as much aspossible.

Deciding when to move livestockFor rotational grazing to be successfulyou must be flexible! Don’t get into arut of grazing every paddock in the“proper” sequence for the “proper”number of days and then follow yourestimated rest period. The number ofpaddocks grazed and the lengths ofthe grazing and rest periods shouldvary as pasture growth rates changewith the weather. The faster thepasture grows, the fewer paddocksyou’ll need and the shorter grazingand rest periods you’ll need to take.During times of slow pasture growth,you’ll need more paddocks andlonger rest periods.

Example 1. Suppose you estimatethe longest rest period of the seasonto be 32 days. If you allow 2 days ineach paddock you’ll need 17paddocks in all [(rest period ÷grazing period) + number of animalgroups]. Anticipating faster growthrates in the spring, you estimate thatthe rest period will need to be onlyabout 16 days to start out with. Youdecide to split the pasture in half inthe spring, harvest half for hay andgraze the other half. You begingrazing paddock #1 moving sequen-tially through all eight paddocks. Butit has been a dry spring. By the timeyou’ve finished grazing paddock #8,paddock #1 isn’t ready to be grazedyet. What do you do? Graze some ofthe land you were setting aside tomake hay until paddock #1 is readyto be grazed (or feed stored feed)? Abetter solution would be to anticipatethis slow growth in time to slowdown the rotation.

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Figure 13. Example of how a farm might gradually implement rotational grazing

Source: University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service publication Planning Fencing Systems for Intensive GrazingManagement (ID-74)

1. Add a division fence 2. Subdivide the land into fourpaddocks using permanent (x—x—x)and temporary (— —) fencing

3. To move to intensive rotationalgrazing, subdivide the land into eightpaddocks using portable fence

Example 2. On the other extreme, itis midsummer, the weather has beenrainy and cooler than usual. You areon paddock #10 in a 16-paddockrotation when you notice thatpaddock #1 is ready to be grazedagain. If you follow your plannedrotation, paddock #1 will beover-mature by the time you get to it.What do you do? Graze paddock #1out of sequence. You can mow or haythe paddocks that you didn’t get to inthis round so they’ll be ready later inthe season.

What if you don’t want to (or can’t)make hay during periods of rapidforage growth? Move the animalsfaster from one paddock to the next.The animals will “top” the paddocks,grazing the most nutritious forage,leaving the rest. Under this system,forage is wasted but only the lowerquality forage will be lost. The less-desirable alternative is to use thesame grazing period length youwould have used under “normal”growing conditions. Because of rapidgrowth, the paddocks yet to begrazed would become over-matureand even more forage would be lostas well as animal productivity.

Evaluating andimproving yourgrazing systemIf you are interested in intensifyingyour current grazing system ormaking a transition from confinementfeeding to pasturing, do so gradually.It takes a while to attain good standsand pasture forage yields. Rotationalgrazing requires new forage manage-ment skills, which take time todevelop.

In order to evaluate and improveyour rotational grazing system, itmay be helpful to draw up a “pasturecalendar.” This calendar should spanthe entire year and be subdividedinto monthly and weekly sections.Leave enough space to record timelyobservations of your pasture andanimals, management plans, and newideas.

1. Animal observationsTry to match animal needs withforage production.

■ Record animal health problemsyou think might be related tograzing.

■ Keep track of stocking rates.Are the rates high enough toprevent spot grazing?

■ Are your livestock developing“camp” areas? How can this beavoided?

■ Are your livestock gettingenough feed from pasture?Why or why not? Is there sig-nificant trampling loss? Areyou feeding them too muchnon-pasture feed in the barn?

■ Is production at desired levels?Do you need to feed supple-ment or renovate yourpastures?

2. Pasture observations

■ Keep track of rest and grazingperiods. How is your pastureresponding to these? Do yourpastures recover slowly (a signof overgrazing)? Are theygetting ahead of you? How doyou respond?

■ Keep track of which pasturesyou grazed so you know howmuch rest they need.

■ Keep track of the growth stageof your forages. How longdoes it take to reach theoptimal stage for grazing?

■ How much stubble are youleaving? Is pasture recoveryfast enough?

■ How do you plan to deal withthe midsummer slump?

■ How will you extend thegrazing season?

■ If you plan to stockpile forage,how much forage do youneed?

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Parasites

Grazing livestock (especiallygrazing intensively) can lead toincreased parasite infestation.

Since early signs of an infested herdare not always obvious, producersoften fail to treat animals until theysee visible symptoms such asdiarrhea, sunken flanks, or “bottlejaw.” By this time, significant herdproduction losses have alreadyoccurred. Infected animals showgreater susceptibility to disease,general lack of vigor, slow growth,low milk production, and low weightgains. Although parasites affectyoung animals most severely, all live-stock are detrimentally affected.

Understanding the general parasitelife cycle aids in being able to controlor prevent infections. Infectedanimals spread parasites quickly andeffectively, putting an entire herd atrisk. One cow can shed up to 400,000worm eggs per day in its manure.Under warm and moist conditions,these eggs hatch into infective, mobilelarvae, which move out onto pastureforage. After being eaten by livestock,the ingested larvae becomeegg-laying adults in about 3 weeks,eventually releasing thousands moreeggs which come out with manure.Though hot, dry weather kills mostlarvae, some survive in soil, inmanure pats, or under vegetation.Surviving larvae overwinter beneaththe snow to reinfect livestock the fol-lowing spring.

The key to parasite control is preven-tion. It is best to de-worm livestockbefore they are put to pasture in thespring to kill any adult worms still intheir bodies. (Check product label forrestrictions before de-wormingpregnant stock.) Since livestock willprobably ingest overwintering larvaein the pasture while grazing, wormthem again 3 to 4 weeks later whenlarvae have matured but before theyrelease more eggs. A follow-upworming in another 3 to 4 weeks isalso advisable. Try to treat immedi-ately before livestock are moved to anew paddock to prevent contamina-tion of new paddocks.

De-worming is simpler than it usedto be due to de-wormer blocks, feedpremixes, and medicated mineralsalts which eliminate the need toround up livestock separately fortreatment. Make sure to use the newbroad-spectrum de-wormers whichare effective against all larval andadult stages of worms.

Bloat Bloat is most often a problem whengrazing high-quality, lush legumepastures (except birdsfoot trefoil),lush young grasses, or brassicas.Foam-producing compounds in theimmature plants cause stable foamformation in the rumen of susceptibleanimals, prohibiting them frombelching rumen gas. This condition, ifnot treated immediately, can lead todeath. Individual animals differ intheir susceptibility to bloat.

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Animal health on pasture

Bloat can be a serious problem ifhungry livestock are turned out onyoung, lush legume pasture (greaterthan 50% legumes). Listed below aresome ways to prevent bloat:

1) Don’t graze hungry livestock onpure legume pastures (exceptbirdsfoot trefoil). Play it safe byplanting grass with your legume.Also, feed them with hay beforeturning out and let them grazeonly 2 to 3 hours for the first 2 to 4days of the grazing season. Andfinally, once on pasture leave live-stock there continuously so theydon’t gorge themselves.

2) Moving cattle frequently (every 1to 4 days) to new pasture willkeep animals from getting hungrytowards the end of grazing onepaddock and gorging themselveswhen placed in a fresh pasture.

3) Feed poloxalene, an anti-foamingagent. Give to cattle beforeturning onto pasture and continuethroughout the season. The effec-tiveness of poloxalene depends ondaily consumption. Mix with adaily feed supplement. Avoid sup-plying it as a block or mineral mixas this allows non-uniform dailyfeeding and is less effective.

4) Don’t graze legumes or brassicaswith lots of rain or dew on them,especially in autumn.

5) Don’t graze grass or legumepastures at immature stages,before they have regrown.

6) Plant birdsfoot trefoil, anon-bloating legume.

Bloat can “sneak up on you.” Onefarmer, in his first year of rotationalgrazing, complained of having bloatproblems on a pasture that nevergave any problems when grazed con-tinuously. It turns out that he wasleaving his cattle on one paddock solong that in the last days beforemoving, they were grazing extremelypoor-quality forage and were veryhungry. When turned onto a freshpaddock, they gorged themselves onlush legume/grass forage and bloatbecame a problem.

Nitrate poisoningand poisonousplantsNitrate poisoning acts very quicklyand symptoms may not be observeduntil an animal drops dead. Primarilyolder and very young animals areaffected. Certain plants, such as lambs-quarters, pigweed, and annual grains,tend to have a greater concentrationof nitrates than others. Nitrate accu-mulation is especially a problemduring periods of slow growth initi-ated by drought, shade, or herbicideapplication. Application of manureand/or nitrogen fertilizer alsoincreases nitrate content of forage.Nitrates can also be high in wellwater the animals drink.

If you suspect a potential for nitratepoisoning, have your forage tested.Levels above 0.1% may affect animalproduction (depending on animalage, nutritional requirements, andwhether or not pregnant). Levelsabove 0.35% nitrate-nitrogen may belethal.

There are a few steps you can take tohelp decrease the risk of chronicnitrate toxicity. Supplement foragesthat have potentially toxic nitratelevels with low-nitrate forages. Avoidunnecessary fertilization. And do notgraze pastures with high numbers oflambsquarters and pigweed duringperiods of drought.

Poisonous plants are seldom aproblem in the Midwest because theygenerally taste bitter and will beavoided as long as other forage isavailable.

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© 2002 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. Send inquiries about copyright permissions toCooperative Extension Publishing, Rm. 103, 432 N. Lake St., Madison, WI 53706.

Authors: Dan Undersander is a forage agronomist with the College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University ofWisconsin-Madison and University of Wisconsin-Extension; Beth Albert is a technical writer, formerly with theUniversity of Wisconsin-Madison; Dennis Cosgrove is a forage agronomist with the University of Wisconsin-RiverFalls and University of Wisconsin-Extension; Dennis Johnson is a dairy scientist with the University of Minnesota-Morris; and Paul Peterson is a forage agronomist with the University of Minnesota. The authors wish to thank NealMartin and Pamela Porter for their contributions to earlier versions of this publication.

Produced by Cooperative Extension Publishing, University of Wisconsin-Extension. Edited by Linda Deith anddesigned by Susan Anderson.

University of Wisconsin–Extension, Cooperative Extension, and Minnesota Extension Service, in cooperation with theU.S. Department of Agriculture, provide this information to further the pupose of the May 8 and June 30, 1914 Acts ofCongress; and provide equal opportunities in employment and programming, including Title IX and ADA. If youneed this material in another format, contact the Office of Equal Opportunity and Diversity Programs or call ExtensionPublishing at 608/262-2655.

You can get copies of this publication from your Wisconsin or Minnesota county Extension office or from Cooperative Extension Publications, 45 N. Charter St., Madison, WI 53715, 608/262-3346. Outside Madison, call tollfree: 1-877/WIS-PUBS (947-7827).

For more Cooperative Extension information, visit our web site: www1.uwex.edu/ces/pubs/

Pastures for Profit: A Guide to Rotational Grazing (A3529) R-10-02-5.5M-500

BooksGrass Productivity by Andre Voisin.1993. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.353 pages.

Grazing Management: Science intoPractice by John Hodgson. 1990. NewYork: Longman Scientific & Technical.203 pages.

Greener Pastures on Your Side of theFence: Better Farming with VoisinGrazing Management by Bill Murphy.1999. Colchester, Vermont: ArribaPublishing. 379 pages.

Holistic Resource Management by AllanSavory. 1988. Washington, D.C.:IslandPress. 558 pages.

How to Plan, Implement, and PracticeControlled Grazing on Your Place byBob Kingsbury. 1989. Woodinville,Washington: KingsburyCommunications. 57 pages.

Intensive Grazing Management. Forage,Animals, Men, Profits by Burt Smith,Pingsun Leung and George Love.1986. Kamuela, Hawaii: The GraziersHui. 350 pages.

Web sitesUniversity of Wisconsin-Extension Team Forage: www.uwex.edu/ces/crops/uwforage/uwforage.htm

Great Lakes Grazing Network:www.glgn.org

Additional reading AcknowledgmentsThe following agencies and organizations cooperated in the devel-opment and publication of this pamphlet:

■ Department of Agriculture, Tradeand Consumer Protection,Sustainable Agriculture Program;

■ Department of Natural Resources,Bureau of Wildlife Management;

■ Wisconsin Nutrient and PestManagement program with the Center for IntegratedAgricultural Systems, University ofWisconsin, College of Agriculturaland Life Sciences;

■ University of Wisconsin-Extension,Cooperative Extension; and

■ University of Minnesota-Extension.

Thanks also to the farmers whoseexperiences and expertise in usingrotational grazing on their farmsadded greatly to the production of thispublication.

pastures for profit: a guide to rotational grazing (a3529)

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