parts of the respiratory system and their function

8/18/2019 Parts of the Respiratory System and Their Function

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Parts of the Respiratory System and their Function

Introduction to parts of the respiratory system and their function

Respiratory system consists of the organs that help to breathe. Respiration also known as breathingis the process which delivers oxygen from the external atmosphere to the body and removes the

carbon dioxide from body and expels out. The main parts of the respiratory system and their

functions are as follows

• The nostrils

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Lungs

• Alveolus

• Diaphragm

Fig1:Parts of the respiratory system


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Main Parts of the Respiratory System and theirFunction

The nostrils: ostrils are involved in air intake! i.e. they bring air into the nose! where air is warmed

and humidified. The tiny hairs called cilia filters out dust and other particles present in the air and

protects the nasal passage and other regions of the respiratory tract.

Trachea: The trachea is also known as windpipe. The trachea filters the air we inhale and branches

into the bronchi.

Bronchi: The bronchi are the two air tubes that branch off of from the trachea and carry atmospheric

air directly into the lungs.

Lungs: The main organ of the respiratory system is lungs. Lungs are the site in body where oxygen

is taken into and carbon dioxide is expelled out. The red blood cells present in the blood picks up the

oxygen in the lungs and carry and distribute the oxygen to all body cells that need it. The red blood

cells donate the oxygen to the cells and picks up the carbon dioxide produced by the cells.

Aleolus: Alveolus is the tiny sac like structure present in the lungs which the gaseous exchange

takes place.

!iaphragm: Breathing begins with a dome"shaped muscle located at the bottom of the lungs which

is known as diaphragm. #hen we breathe in the diaphragm contracts and flatten out and pull

downward. Due to this movement the space in the lungs increases and pulls air into the lungs. #hen

we breathe out! the diaphragm expands and reduces the amount of space for the lungs and forces

air out.

!iseases Associated "ith Respiratory System

Diseases associated with respiratory system are asthma! bronchiolitis! chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease $%&'D(! cystic fibrosis! pneumonia! etc.


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The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is responsible for

the flow of blood! nutrients! hormones! oxygen and other gases to and from cells.

#ithout the circulatory system! the body would not be able to fight disease or maintain a

stable internal environment ) such as proper temperature and p* ) known as

homeostasis.

Description of the circulatory system

#hile many view the circulatory system! also known as the cardiovascular system! as

simply a highway for blood! it is made up of three independent systems that work

together+ the heart $cardiovascular(, lungs $pulmonary(, and arteries! veins! coronary

and portal vessels $systemic(! according to the -. ational Library of /edicine $L/(.

0n the average human! about 1!222 gallons $3!431 liters( of blood travel daily throughabout 52!222 miles $65!452 kilometers( of blood vessels! according to the Arkansas

*eart *ospital. An average adult has 4 to 5 7uarts $8.3 to 4.5 liters( of blood! which is

made up of plasma! red blood cells! white blood cells and platelets. 0n addition to blood!

the circulatory system moves lymph! which is a clear fluid that helps rid the body of

unwanted material.

The heart! blood! and blood vessels make up the cardiovascular component of the

circulatory system. 0t includes the pulmonary circulation! a 9loop9 through the lungs

where blood is oxygenated. 0t also incorporates the systemic circulation! which runs

through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood! according to L/.

#Top 1$ Ama%ing Facts A&out 'our (eart)

The pulmonary circulatory system sends oxygen"depleted blood away from the heart

through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and returns oxygenated blood to the heart

through the pulmonary veins! according to the /ayo %linic.

&xygen"deprived blood enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the

tricuspid valve $right atrioventricular valve( into the right ventricle. :rom there it is

pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery on its way to

the lungs. #hen it gets to the lungs! carbon dioxide is released from the blood and

oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein sends the oxygen"rich blood back to the heart!

according to L/.

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/index.htmlhttp://www.arheart.com/http://www.arheart.com/http://www.livescience.com/11351-top-10-amazing-facts-heart.htmlhttp://www.mayoclinic.com/http://www.arheart.com/http://www.arheart.com/http://www.livescience.com/11351-top-10-amazing-facts-heart.htmlhttp://www.mayoclinic.com/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/index.html


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The systemic circulation is the portion of the circulatory system is the network of veins!

arteries and blood vessels that transports blood from heart! services the body;s cells

and then re"enters the heart! the /ayo %linic noted.


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Diseases of the circulatory system

According to the American *eart Association! cardiovascular disease is the leading

cause of death in the -nited tates. Because of its vastness and critical nature! it is one

of the systems of the body most prone to disease.

%redit+ Blood pressure check photo via hutterstock

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condition of the circulatory system! according to /itchell #einberg of the orth hore"

L0? *ealth ystem. @Risk factors include smoking! diabetes and high cholesterol! he

noted.

Another circulatory disease! hypertension ) commonly called high blood pressure )

causes the heart to work harder and can lead to such complications as a heart attack! a

stroke! or kidney failure! the L/ noted.

An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aorta is damaged and starts to bulge or eventually

tear! which can cause severe internal bleeding. This weakness can be present at birth

or the result of atherosclerosis! obesity! high blood pressure or a combination of these

conditions! according to #einberg.

'eripheral arterial disease $also known as 'AD( typically involves areas of narrowing or

blockage within an artery! according to ?ay Radhakrishnan! an interventional radiologist

in *ouston! Texas. 0n addition! chronic venous insufficiency $also known as %


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'AD is diagnosed with noninvasive testing including ultrasound! %T scan! andor /R0.

-ltrasound is the least expensive of these methods! but also gives the least amount of

detail! as %T and /R0 show a much higher degree of anatomic detail when identifying

areas of narrowingblockage within an artery. %


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breathing! that work without conscious effort! according to /erck /anuals. The somatic

system consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord with muscles and

sensory receptors in the skin.

!escription of the nerous systemerves are cylindrical bundles of fibers that start at the brain and central cord and

branch out to every other part of the body! according to the -niversity of /ichigan

/edical chool.

eurons send signals to other cells through thin fibers called axons! which cause

chemicals known as neurotransmitters to be released at >unctions called synapses! the

0* noted. A synapse gives a command to the cell and the entire communication

process typically takes only a fraction of a millisecond.

ensory neurons react to physical stimuli such as light! sound and touch and send

feedback to the central nervous system about the bodyCs surrounding environment!

according to the American 'sychological Association. /otor neurons! located in the

central nervous system or in peripheral ganglia! transmit signals to activate the muscles

or glands.

lial cells! derived from the reek word for 9glue!9 are speciali=ed cells that support!

protect or nourish nerve cells! according to the ational 0nstitute on Aging. #Related: 1$

Things 'ou !idn/t 0no" A&out the Brain)

http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain_spinal_cord_and_nerve_disorders/autonomic_nervous_system_disorders/overview_of_the_autonomic_nervous_system.html?qt=nervous%20system&alt=shhttp://www.med.umich.edu/histology/cellstissue/nervous.htmlhttp://www.med.umich.edu/histology/cellstissue/nervous.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/18749-human-brain-cell-number.htmlhttp://www.apa.org/http://www.apa.org/http://www.nia.nih.gov/http://www.livescience.com/12916-10-facts-human-brain.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/12916-10-facts-human-brain.htmlhttp://www.merckmanuals.com/home/brain_spinal_cord_and_nerve_disorders/autonomic_nervous_system_disorders/overview_of_the_autonomic_nervous_system.html?qt=nervous%20system&alt=shhttp://www.med.umich.edu/histology/cellstissue/nervous.htmlhttp://www.med.umich.edu/histology/cellstissue/nervous.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/18749-human-brain-cell-number.htmlhttp://www.apa.org/http://www.nia.nih.gov/http://www.livescience.com/12916-10-facts-human-brain.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/12916-10-facts-human-brain.html


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:ind out about the workings of the brain and nerves.

%redit+ Ross Toro! Livescience.com contributor


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• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis $AL(! also known as Lou ehrig;s disease! is a

motor neuron disease which weakens the muscles and progressively hampers

physical function

• *untington;s disease! which is an inherited condition that cause the nerve cells in

the brain to degenerate

• Al=heimer;s disease! which covers a wide range of disorders that impacts mental

functions! particularly memory.

/ayo %linic also noted that the nervous system can also be affected by vascular

disorders such as+

• troke! which occurs when there is bleeding on the brain or the blow flow to the

brain is obstructed,

• Transient ischemic attack $T0A(! which are mini"type strokes that last a shorter

period of time but mimic stroke symptoms, and

• ubarachnoid hemorrhage! which is specifically bleeding in the space between

your brain and the surrounding membrane that can be the result of a trauma or

rupturing of a weak blood vessel,

0nfections such as meningitis! encephalitis! polio! and epidural abscess can also affect

the nervous system! the 0* noted.

Treatments vary from anti inflammatory medications and pain medications such as

opiates ! to implanted nerve stimulators and wearable devices! o=ani said. @/any

people also turn to herbal and holistic methods to reduce pain! such as acupuncture.

Study of the nerous system

The branch of medicine that studies and treats the nervous system is called neurology!

and doctors who practice in this field of medicine are called neurologists. &nce theyhave completed medical training! neurologists complete additional training for their

specialty and are certified by the American Board of 'sychiatry and eurology $AB'(.

There are also physiatrists! who are physicians who work to rehabilitate patients who

have experienced disease or in>ury to their nervous systems that impact their ability to

function! according to the AB'.

http://www.livescience.com/39583-als-lou-gehrigs-disease.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/18335-alzhimers-disease-criteria-mild-cognitive-impairment.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/34801-stroke-warning-signs.htmlhttp://www.abpn.com/http://www.livescience.com/39583-als-lou-gehrigs-disease.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/18335-alzhimers-disease-criteria-mild-cognitive-impairment.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/34801-stroke-warning-signs.htmlhttp://www.abpn.com/


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eurosurgeons perform surgeries involving the nervous system and are certified by

the American Association of eurological urgeons.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

#hile most people associate muscles with strength! they do more than assist in lifting

heavy ob>ects. The 542 muscles in the body not only support movement ) controllingwalking! talking! sitting! standing! eating and other daily functions that people

consciously perform ) but also help to maintain posture and circulate blood and other

substances throughout the body! among other functions.

/uscles are often associated with activities of the legs! arms and other appendages!

but muscles also produce more subtle movements! such as facial expressions! eye

movements and respiration! according to theational 0nstitutes of *ealth $0*(.

Three types of musclesThe muscular system can be broken down into three types of muscles+ skeletal! smooth

and cardiac! according to the 0*.

keletal muscles are the only voluntary muscle tissue in the human body and control

every action that a person consciously performs. /ost skeletal muscles are attached to

two bones across a >oint! so the muscle serves to move parts of those bones closer to

each other! according toThe /erck /anual.


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:ound only in the heart! cardiac muscle is an involuntary muscle responsible for

pumping blood throughout the body! according to The /erck /anual. The heart;s

natural pacemaker is made of cardiac muscle that signals other cardiac muscles to

contract. Like visceral muscles! cardiac muscle tissue is controlled involuntarily. #hile

hormones and signals from the brain ad>ust the rate of contraction! cardiac musclestimulates itself to contract.

/uscle shapes

/uscles are further classified by their shape! si=e and direction! according to the 0*.

The deltoids! or shoulder muscles! have a triangular shape. The serratus muscle! which

originates on the surface of the second to ninth ribs at the side of the chest! and runs

along the entire anterior length of the scapula $shoulder blades(! has a distinctive

sawlike shape. The rhomboid ma>or! which attaches the scapula to the spinal column! isa diamond shape.

i=e can be used to differentiate similar muscles in the same region. The gluteal region

$the buttocks( contains three muscles differentiated by si=e+ the gluteus maximus

$large(! gluteus medius $medium( and gluteus minimus $smallest(! the 0* noted.

The direction in which the muscle fibers run can be used to identify a muscle. 0n the

abdominal region! there are several sets of wide! flat muscles! according to the 0*.

The muscles whose fibers run straight up and down are the rectus abdominis! the ones

running transversely $left to right( are the transverse abdominis and the ones running at

an angle are the obli7ues. As any exercise enthusiast knows! obli7ues are among the

hardest muscles to develop to achieve 9six"pack9 abs.

/uscles also can be identified by their function. The flexor group of the forearm flexes

the wrist and the fingers. The supinator is a muscle that allows you to roll your wrist over

to face palm up. Adductor muscles in the legs adduct! or pull together! the limbs!

according to the 0*.

Diseases of the muscular systemThere is no single type of doctor that treats muscular diseases and disorders.

Rheumatologists! orthopedists and neurologists may all treat conditions that affect the

muscles! according to the American /edical Association.

http://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2/ama-assn.org:http://var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2/ama-assn.org:


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There are a number of common neuromuscular disorders! according to Dr. Robert

chabbing! chief of neurology at Haiser 'ermanente in Denver.

%ommon primary muscle disorders include inflammatory myopathies! including

polymyositis! which is characteri=ed by inflammation and progressive weakening of the

skeletal muscles, dermatomyositis! which is polymyositis accompanied by a skin rash,

and inclusion body myositis! which is characteri=ed by progressive muscle weakness

and wasting. &ther common disorders are muscular dystrophies and metabolic muscle

disorders! he said. /uscular dystrophy affects muscle fibers. /etabolic muscle

disorders interfere with chemical reactions involved in drawing energy from

food.euromuscular >unction disorders impair the transmission of nerve signals to

muscles! chabbing noted.

The most common neuromuscular >unction disorder is myasthenia gravis! which is

characteri=ed by varying degrees of weakness of the skeletal muscles. chabbing said.9There are many types of peripheral neuropathies that can be secondary to other

medical conditions! such as diabetes! or due to a variety of other causes! including

toxins! inflammation and hereditary causes!9 he said.

/otor neuron disorders affect the nerve cells that supply muscles! chabbing said. The

most recogni=able motor neuron disease is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis! or AL!

commonly known as Lou ehrig;s disease.

http://www.kp.org/http://www.kp.org/


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Learn about the muscles that move your body and keep you alive.

%redit+ by Ross Toro! 0nfographics Artist


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which fuse together as the body develops. By the time we reach adulthood! we have

125 bones! according to Ari=ona tate -niversityCs chool of Life ciences.

https://askabiologist.asu.edu/bone-anatomyhttps://askabiologist.asu.edu/bone-anatomy


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The skeletons of adult males and females have some variation! primarily to

accommodate childbirth. The female pelvis is flatter! more rounded and proportionally

larger. A male;s pelvis is about 62 degrees or less of angle! whereas a female;s is G22

degrees or more.

#hile they become brittle when outside of the body! bones are very much alive inside

the body! being fed by a network of blood vessels from the circulatory system and

nerves from the nervous system! according to *ealthline.

A typical bone has a dense and tough outer layer. ext is a layer of spongy bone! which

lighter and slightly flexible. 0n the middle of some bones is >elly"like bone marrow! where

new cells are constantly being produced for blood! the /erck /anuals noted.

Teeth are considered part of the skeletal system but they are not counted as bones.

Teeth are made of dentin and enamel! which is strongest substance in your body. Teethalso play a key role in thedigestive system.

The skeletal system has two distinctive parts+ the axial skeleton and the appendicular

skeleton! according to the -. ational Library of /edicine$L/(.

The axial skeleton! with a total of J2 bones! consists of the vertebral column! the rib

cage and the skull. The axial skeleton transmits the weight from the head! the trunk and

the upper extremities down to the lower extremities at the hip >oints! which help humans

maintain our upright posture! the L/ noted.

The appendicular skeleton has a total of G15 bones! and is formed by the pectoral

girdles! the upper limbs! the pelvic girdle and the lower limbs! according to the L/.

Their functions are to make walking! running and other movement possible and to

protect the ma>or organs responsible for digestion! excretion and reproduction.

Diseases of the skeletal system

E"rays! /R0s! bone density tests and arthroscopy are some of the primary diagnostic

tools used to detect diseases and deformities of the skeletal system. Bone scans and

bone marrow biopsies are used to diagnose cancer! according to the /erck /anuals.

The primary skeletal conditions are metabolic bone diseases such as osteoporosis!

osteomalacia! and a few other rarer conditions! said Dr. athan #ei of the Arthritis

Treatment %enter .

http://www.livescience.com/22486-circulatory-system.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.htmlhttp://www.healthline.com/http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/bone-joint-and-muscle-disorders/biology-of-the-musculoskeletal-system/boneshttp://www.livescience.com/22367-digestive-system.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/22367-digestive-system.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/index.htmlhttp://arthritistreatmentcenter.com/http://arthritistreatmentcenter.com/http://www.livescience.com/22486-circulatory-system.htmlhttp://www.livescience.com/22665-nervous-system.htmlhttp://www.healthline.com/http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/bone-joint-and-muscle-disorders/biology-of-the-musculoskeletal-system/boneshttp://www.livescience.com/22367-digestive-system.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/index.htmlhttp://arthritistreatmentcenter.com/http://arthritistreatmentcenter.com/


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&steoporosis is a prevalent disease! particularly among the elderly! resulting in the loss

of bone tissue. 0n osteoporosis! bone loses calcium! becomes thinner and may

disappear completely! according to #ei.&steomalacia is a softening of the bones!

according to the /ayo %linic. 0t is often caused by a vitamin D deficiency and results

from a defect in the bone"building process. &steoporosis! on the other hand! developsin previously constructed bones.

Arthritis is a group of more than G22 inflammatory diseases that damage >oints and their

surrounding structures. Arthritis can attack >oints! >oint capsules! the surrounding tissue!

or throughout the body. 0t usually affects the >oints of the neck! shoulders! hands! lower

back! hips! or knees. @The diagnosis is suspected by a careful history and physical

exam and confirmed through laboratory and imaging studies. Treatment depends on the

type of arthritis! #ei said.

Also common is scoliosis! a side"to"side curve in the back or spine! often creating apronounced 9%9 or 99 shape when viewed on an x"ray of the spine. This condition is

typically becomes evident during adolescence! the /erck /anuals noted.

About 62 percent of people will experience lower back pain at some point in their lives!

according to Dr. ?ames ace of LifeBridge *ealth. @'atients can often be helped with

things such as anti"inflammatory medications! but in some cases may need treatments

such as topical medications! patches or electrical stimulation.

&ne of the much rarer diseases of the skeletal system is bone cancer. 0t may originate

in the bones or spread there from another part of the body. 0n the -nited tates! primary

bone cancers accounts for less than G percent of all cancer cases! according to

the American %ancer ociety. %ancers that metastasi=e ) originate from other parts of

the body and then spread to the bones ) are much more common than primary bone

cancer.

Bone cancer is a malignancy arising in the bones and supporting structures such as

cartilage! according to Dr. Robert %hristie! medical oncologist and hematologist

at


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Bursitis is a disorder that most commonly affects the shoulder and hip >oints! ace said.

0t is caused by an inflammation of the bursa! small fluid"filled bags that act as lubricating

surfaces for muscles to move over bones.

The skeletal system is also susceptible to breaks! strains and fractures. #hile bones

are meant to protect the bodyCs vital organs! it takes about G2 to G5 pounds of pressure

to break an average bone. Bones such as the skull and femur are much tougher to

break.

tudy of the skeletal system

&rthopedics is the medical specialty responsible for treating entire skeletal system. 0n

the -nited tates! orthopedic surgeons have typically completed four years of

undergraduate education and four years of medical school. They then undergoresidency training in orthopedic surgery. The American Board of &rthopaedic urgery

oversees the certification process for this specialty. /any go on to further speciali=e in

specific areas! such as the spine! hand or sports in>uries.

*umans have been dealing with in>uries and disease from the beginning of time. ome

important milestones in the history of orthopedics include+

• *ippocrates! the ancient reek father of medicine! develops splints for fractures

of the tibia.

• During the Roman era! alen $G66"G16 B.%.( describes the skeletal system and

the surrounding muscles. /edical experts of the time also develop the first

artificial prostheses.

• Ambroise 'are $G4G2"G462(! the father of :rench surgery! develops techni7ues

for amputations and artificial limbs.

• Antonius /athysen $GJ24"GJ3J(! a Dutch military surgeon! in GJ4G invents the

plaster of 'aris $'&'( bandage. A '&' cast remains the primary method of

fracture immobili=ation today.

• 0n GJ64! #ilhelm %onrad Roentgen accidentally discovers an image cast from his

cathode ray generator! pro>ected far beyond the possible range of the cathode

rays. *e wins the obel 'ri=e for 'hysics in G62G for his discovery of E"rays.


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• ir Reginald #atson"?ones $G621"G631( publishes @:ractures and ?oint 0n>uries

in G682! which remains a standard reference for several decades.

• 0n G686! *. Lowry Rush $GJ36"G654( uses stainless steel pins to treat long bone

fractures.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate

metabolism! growth and development! tissue function! sexual function! reproduction!

sleep! and mood! among other things.

The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland! thyroid gland! parathyroid

glands! adrenal glands! pancreas! ovaries $in females( and testicles $in males(! the

/ayo %linic notes.

The word endocrine derives from the reek words 9endo!9 meaning within! and 9crinis!9

meaning to secrete! according to *ealth /entor &nline. 0n general! a gland selects and

removes materials from the blood! processes them and secretes the finished chemical

product for use somewhere in the body. The endocrine system affects almost every

organ and cell in the body! according to the /erck /anual.

Although the hormones circulate throughout the body! each type of hormone is targeted

toward certain organs and tissues! the /erck /anual notes. The endocrine system gets

some help from organs such as the kidney! liver! heart and gonads! which have

secondary endocrine functions. The kidney! for example! secretes hormones such as

erythropoietin and renin.

Diseases of the endocrine system

*ormone levels that are too high or too low indicate a problem with the endocrine

system. *ormone diseases also occur if your body does not respond to hormones in the

appropriate ways. tress! infection! and changes in the blood;s fluid and electrolyte

balance can also influence hormone levels! according to the ational 0nstitutes of

*ealth.

http://www.healthmentoronline.com/http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine_and_metabolic_disorders/principles_of_endocrinology/endocrine_disorders.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinediseases.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinediseases.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinediseases.htmlhttp://www.healthmentoronline.com/http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/endocrine_and_metabolic_disorders/principles_of_endocrinology/endocrine_disorders.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinediseases.htmlhttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinediseases.html


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The most common endocrine disease in the -nited tates is diabetes! a condition in

which the body does not properly process glucose! a simple sugar. This is due to the

lack of insulin or! if the body is producing insulin! because the body is not working

effectively! according to Dr. ?ennifer Loh! chief of the department of endocrinology

for Haiser 'ermanente in *awaii.

*ormone imbalances can have a significant impact on the reproductive system!

particularly in women! Loh explained.

Another disorder! hypothyroidism! occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce

enough thyroid hormone to meet the bodyCs needs. Loh noted that insufficient thyroid

hormone can cause many of the body;s functions to slow or shut down completely.

Thyroid cancer begins in the thyroid gland and starts when the cells in the thyroid begin

to change! grow uncontrollably and eventually form a tumor! according to Loh.

*ypoglycemia! also called low blood glucose or low blood sugar! occurs when blood

glucose drops below normal levels. This typically happens as a result of treatment for

diabetes when too much insulin is taken. #hile Loh noted that the condition can occur

in people not undergoing treatment for diabetes! such an occurrence is fairly rare.

%auses and treatment of endocrine diseases

Diabetes! the most common disease of the endocrine system! can be linked to obesity!diet and family history! according to Dr. Alyson /yers of orth hore"L0? *ealth ystem.

9To diagnose diabetes! we do an oral glucose tolerance test with fasting.9

0t is also important to understand the patient;s health history as well as the family

history! /yers noted.

Tumors ) both benign and cancerous ) can also disrupt the functions of the endocrine

system! /yers explained. 0nfections and medications such as blood thinners can also

cause adrenal deficiencies.

Diabetes is treated with pills or insulin in>ections. /anaging other endocrine disorders

typically involves stabili=ing hormone levels with medication or! if a tumor is causing an

overproduction of a hormone! by removing the tumor. Treating endocrine disorders

takes a very careful and personali=ed approach! /yers said! as ad>usting the levels of

one hormone can impact the balance of other hormones.

http://www.livescience.com/43477-diabetes-symptoms-types.htmlhttp://www.kp.org/http://www.northshorelij.com/http://www.livescience.com/43477-diabetes-symptoms-types.htmlhttp://www.kp.org/http://www.northshorelij.com/


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#hat is an endocrinologist

After completing four years of medical school! people who want to be endocrinologists

then spend three or four years in an internship and residency program. These specialty

programs cover internal medicine! pediatrics! or obstetrics and gynecology! according to

the American Board of 0nternal /edicine.

Fndocrinologists"in"training then spend two or three more years learning how to

diagnose and treat hormone conditions. &verall! an endocrinologist;s training will take

more than G2 years after the undergraduate degree. They are certified by the American

Board of 0nternal /edicine. Fndocrinologists typically speciali=e in one or two areas of

endocrinology! such as diabetes or infertility. These specialists treat patients with fertility

issues and also assess and treat patients with health concerns surrounding

menstruation and menopause! Loh noted.

The Fndocrine ystem

%redit+ Alila ao /ai M hutterstock


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/ilestones in the study of the endocrine

system

$$ B232+ The %hinese begin isolating sex and pituitary hormones from human urineand using them for medicinal purposes

1$4+ 0n medieval 'ersia! the writer Avicenna $6J2"G2K3( provides a detailed account

on diabetes mellitus in 9The %anon of /edicine9 $c. G214(! describing the abnormal

appetite! the collapse of sexual functions and the sweet taste of diabetic urine.

1564+ 0rish doctor Robert ?ames raves describes a case of goiter with bulging eyes

$exophthalmos(. The thyroid condition 9raves; disease9 was later named after the

doctor.

17$+ #illiam Bayliss and Frnest tarling perform an experiment in which they observe

that acid instilled into the duodenum $part of the small intestine( causes the pancreas to

begin secretion! even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two

organs.

1557+ ?oseph von /ering and &skar /inkowski observe that surgically removing the

pancreas results in an increase of blood sugar! followed by a coma and eventual death.

171+ &tto Loewi in G61G discovers neurohormones by incubating a frog;s heart in a

saline bath.

17+ Leonard Thompson! at age G8! is the first person with diabetes to receive insulin.

Drugmaker Fli Lilly soon starts mass production of insulin.

URINARY SYSTEM


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The urinary system! also known as the renal system! produces! stores and eliminates

urine! the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering

wastes and extra water from blood. -rine travels from the kidneys through two thin

tubes called ureters and fills the bladder. #hen the bladder is full! a person urinates

through the urethra to eliminate the waste.

The urinary system is susceptible to a variety of infections and other problems! including

blockages and in>uries. These can be treated by a urologist or another health care

professional who speciali=es in the renal system.

Description of the urinary system

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The urinary system works with the lungs! skin and intestines to maintain the balance of

chemicals and water in the body. Adults eliminate about 13 to 5J fluid ounces $J22 to

1!222 milliliters( per day based on typical daily fluid intake of 5J ounces $1

liters(! ational 0nstitutes of *ealth$0*(. &ther factors in urinary system function

include fluid lost through perspiring and breathing. 0n addition! certain types ofmedications! such as diuretics that are sometimes used to treat high blood pressure!

can also affect the amount of urine a person produces and eliminates. ome

beverages! such as coffee and alcohol! can also cause increased urination in some

people.

The primary organs of the urinary system are the kidneys! which are bean"shaped

organs that are located >ust below the rib cage in the middle of the back. The kidneys

remove urea ) waste product formed by the breakdown of proteins ) from the blood

through small filtering units called nephrons! according to the %leveland %linic. Fach

nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries! called a glomerulus! and a

small tube called a renal tubule. -rea! together with water and other waste substances!

forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the

kidney.

:rom the kidneys! urine travels down two thin tubes! called ureters! to the bladder. The

ureters are about J to G2 inches long $12 to 14 centimeters(! according to the %leveland

%linic.

/uscles in the ureter walls continuously tighten and relax to force urine away from thekidneys! according to the 0*. A backup of urine can cause a kidney infection. mall

amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every G2 to G4

seconds.

The bladder is a hollow! balloon"shaped organ that is located in the pelvis. 0t is held in

place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones! according to

the Hidney N -rology :oundation of America. The bladder stores urine until the brain

signals the bladder that the person is ready to empty it. A normal! healthy bladder can

hold up to G5 ounces $almost half a liter( of urine comfortably for two to five hours.

To prevent leakage! circular muscles called sphincters close tightly around the opening

of the bladder into the urethra! the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The

only difference between the female and male urinary system is the length of the urethra!

according to /erck /anuals. 0n females! the urethra is about G.4 inches $K.J cm( to 1

inches $4.G cm( long and sits between the clitoris and the vagina. 0n males! it runs the

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length of the penis! is about J inches $12 cm( long and opens at the end of the penis.

The male urethra is used to eliminate urine as well as semen during e>aculation.

Diseases of the urinary system

Different specialists treat urinary system ailments. ephrologists treatkidney diseases!

while urologists treat problems with the urinary tract! including the kidneys! adrenal

glands! ureters! bladder and urethra! according to the American -rological

Association $A-A(. -rologists also treat the male reproductive organs! while

gynecologists often treat urinary diseases or disorders in females! including yeast

infections. ephrologists and urologists often work with endocrinologists or oncologists!

depending on the disease.

-rinary tract infections $-T0s( occur when bacteria enters the urinary tract and canaffect the urethra! bladder or even the kidneys. #hile -T0s are more common in

women! they can occur in men. -T0s are typically treated with antibiotics! according

to Dr. &scar Aguirre! a urogynecologist in Denver.

0ncontinence is another common disease of the urinary system. 0t can come in the form

of a pelvic prolapse! which can result in leakage and can be the result of a vaginal

delivery. Then there is the overactive bladder! @which we see a lot and is not related to

having children or trauma! Aguirre said. A third condition involves overflow! in which the

bladder does not completely empty.

ome common treatments involve medications! physical therapy and pelvic mesh

surgery! Aguirre noted.


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Hidney stones are clumps of calcium oxalate that can be found anywhere in the urinary

tract. Hidney stones form when chemicals in the urine become concentrated enough to

form a solid mass! according to the %leveland %linic. They can cause pain in the back

and sides! as well as blood in the urine. /any kidney stones can be treated with

minimally invasive therapy! such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy! whichdisintegrates the kidney stones with shock waves.

Hidney failure! also called renal failure and chronic kidney disease! can be a temporary

$often acute( condition or can become a chronic condition resulting in the inability of the

kidneys to filter waste from the blood. &ther conditions! such as diabetes and

hypertension! can cause chronic kidney disease! according to the /ayo %linic. Acute

cases may be caused by trauma or other damage! and may improve over time with

treatment. *owever! renal disease may lead to chronic kidney failure! which may re7uire

dialysis treatments or even a kidney transplant.

Bladder cancer is diagnosed in about 34!222 Americans each year and is more fre7uent

in men and the elderly according to the American %ancer ociety. The symptoms!

including back or pelvic pain! difficulty urinating and urgentand or fre7uent urination!

mimic other diseases or disorders of the urinary system

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

An illustration of a sperm cell penetrating an egg.

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The reproductive system is a collection of internal and external organs ) in both males

and females ) that work together for the purpose of procreating! according to

the %leveland %linic. Due to its vital role in the survival of the species! many scientists

argue that the reproductive system is among the most important systems in the entire

body.

The male reproductive system

%redit+ ational 0nstitute of *ealth

or parts+ the testes! where sperm are

produced! and the penis! according to /erck /anuals. The penis and urethra belong to

both the urinary and reproductive systems in males. The testes are carried in an

external pouch known as the scrotum! where they normally remain slightly cooler than

body temperature to facilitate sperm production.

The external structures of the female reproductive system include the clitoris! labia

minora! labia ma>ora and BartholinCs glands! according to the %leveland %linic. The

ma>or internal organs of the female reproductive system include the vagina and uterus

) which act as the receptacle for semen ) and the ovaries! which produce the

female;s ova. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix! while the fallopian

tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. 0n response to hormonal changes! one ovum!

or egg ) or more in the case of multiple births ) is released and sent down the

fallopian tube during ovulation. 0f not fertili=ed! this egg is eliminated as a result ofmenstruation.

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The female reproductive system.

%redit+ ational 0nstitute of *ealth


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Tests to detect ovarian cancer! as well as cancer of the fallopian tube! and primary

peritoneal cancer are currently being studied! according to the ational %ancer

0nstitute.

There are two tests used to screen for cervical cancer. The 'ap test screens for cellular

changes in the cervix called cytology! while the genital human papillomavirus $*'

improvement in the cancer detection rate of co"testing compared to *'< only.

%urrent guidelines recommend that women first start getting the 'ap test alone whenthey turn 1G and repeat every three years if the test is normal until age K2. A 'ap"plus"

*'< test! or co"testing! is recommended for women ages K2 to 54! and if both are

negative repeated every five years! regardless of whether they have received *'<

vaccination. @*owever! there is compelling scientific evidence that co"testing every three

years misses less cases of cancer and pre"cancer than every five year co"testing!

Dubin noted.

#hile genital *'< is typically associated with females! it is the most common sexually

transmitted infection. The ma>ority of sexually active people in the -nited tates ) male

and female ) will have *'< at some time in their lives! but most will not experience

any symptoms. 0n a small portion of women it can result in cervical cancer and genital

warts and in men it can cause penile and anal cancer and genital warts! according to

the 0*.

Both genders can develop sexually transmitted diseases! including genital herpes!

gonorrhea and syphilis! according to the ational 0nstitutes of *ealth $0*(. *0


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@evere pain before or during your period can last anywhere from one to seven days

and disrupt your normal day"to"day routines at school! work and socially! Ross noted.

Diagnosis is made by the patientCs medical history and a pelvic exam. The best

treatment includes medications that block the effects of prostaglandins and include

ibuprofen and naproxen. The birth control pill also works well in treating dysmenorrheaby decreasing the blood flow! Ross noted.

Another common disorder of the female reproductive system is a vaginal yeast

infection! which is caused by a yeast fungus in the vagina. /ost can be successfully

treated with over"the"counter medications! according to #eb/D.

Fndometriosis is a condition where that normally lines the inside of your uterus ) the

endometrium ) ends up outside of uterus! most commonly in the ovaries! bowel or the

tissue lining your pelvis. The endometrial tissue becomes trapped! causing pain!

according to the /ayo %linic.

'elvic inflammatory disease can involve an infection of any of the female reproductive

organs! including the uterus and ovaries. exually transmitted diseases! such as

gonorrhea and chlamydia! are typical causes of pelvic inflammatory disease! according

to the 0*. @Any of these T0s can cause serious and potentially long term reproductive

problems that include chronic pelvic pain and infertility! Ross said.

!iseases of the male reproductie system

&f male"specific diseases of the reproductive system! prostate cancer is the most

common! but men can also suffer from testicular and penile cancer! according to the

American %ancer ociety.

Treatment for prostate cancer depends on the age! severity of the disease and other

health conditions of the patient. The usual treatments for prostate cancer are surgery!

radiation therapy! watchful waiting! and hormonal treatment! according to the %leveland

%linic.

Frectile dysfunction is a common condition that affects about one in G2 males on a long"

term basis! the %leveland %linic noted. 0t can be linked to vascular disease! neurological

disorders such as /ultiple clerosis! trauma and psychological episodes.

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'rostatitis typically involves swelling or inflammation of the prostate gland! according to

the /ayo %linic! and can cause painful or difficult urination and e>aculation. early half

of all men experience symptoms of prostatitis at some point during their lives.

!efining and treating infertility0nfertility is defined as a couple;s inability to conceive after one year of unprotected

intercourse. 0t can be caused by a condition in one partner or a combination of

circumstances! according to the /ayo %linic.

0n males! infertility is a condition in which they produce no sperm cells $a=oospermia( or

too few sperm cells $oligospermia(! or their sperm cells are abnormal or die before they

can reach the egg. %auses range from chromosomal defects to hormonal imbalance to

tumors. Lifestyle factors! such as drug and alcohol use! can also play role. 0n rarecases! infertility in men is caused by an inherited condition! such as cystic fibrosis!

according to the /ayo %linic.

0n women! infertility is defined as a disorder of the reproductive system that hinders the

body;s ability to ovulate! conceive! or carry an infant to term.

Reproductive conditions are treated by a variety of specialists. 0n women! many issues

are treated by obstetriciansgynecologists and for males urologists handle many

disorders of their reproductive systems. There are also infertility experts that treat

couples who are unable to conceive and endocrinologists who treat hormonal disorders.

parts of the respiratory system and their function

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