particle-physics lessons from sn 1987a · 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 msw...

Georg Raffelt, Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, München, Germany Twenty Years After SN 1987A, 23-25 February 2007, Hilton Waikola, HawaiiGeorg Raffelt, MaxGeorg Raffelt, Max--PlanckPlanck--Institut für PhysikInstitut für Physik,, MünchenMünchen

Twenty Years After SN 1987A, 23Twenty Years After SN 1987A, 23--25 February 200725 February 2007Hilton Waikola, HawaiiHilton Waikola, Hawaii

ParticleParticle--physics lessons physics lessons from SN 1987Afrom SN 1987A

Georg Raffelt, Max-Planck-Institut für Physik, München, Germany Twenty Years After SN 1987A, 23-25 February 2007, Hilton Waikola, Hawaii

Neutrino Burst of Supernova 1987ANeutrino Burst of Supernova 1987A

Within clock uncertainties,Within clock uncertainties,signals are contemporaneoussignals are contemporaneous

KamiokandeKamiokande--II (Japan)II (Japan)Water Cherenkov detectorWater Cherenkov detector2140 tons2140 tonsClock uncertainty Clock uncertainty ±±1 min1 min

IrvineIrvine--MichiganMichigan--Brookhaven (US)Brookhaven (US)Water Cherenkov detectorWater Cherenkov detector6800 tons6800 tonsClock uncertainty Clock uncertainty ±±50 ms50 ms

Baksan Scintillator TelescopeBaksan Scintillator Telescope(Soviet Union), 200 tons(Soviet Union), 200 tonsRandom event cluster ~ 0.7/dayRandom event cluster ~ 0.7/dayClock uncertainty Clock uncertainty +2/+2/--54 s54 s


SN 1987A Signal in LSD (Mont Blanc)SN 1987A Signal in LSD (Mont Blanc) ??

LSD (Liquid Scintillator Detector)LSD (Liquid Scintillator Detector)in the Mont Blanc Tunnelin the Mont Blanc Tunnel(Oct. 1984 (Oct. 1984 -- March 1999)March 1999)Supernova monitor for our galaxySupernova monitor for our galaxy90 tons scintillator90 tons scintillator

200 tons iron (support structure)200 tons iron (support structure)

•• Observed a 5Observed a 5--event clusterevent cluster4.72 hours before IMB/Kam4.72 hours before IMB/Kam--IIII

•• Triggered autmatic SN alertTriggered autmatic SN alert•• Statistical fluctuation very unlikelyStatistical fluctuation very unlikely•• No significant signal in IMB/KamNo significant signal in IMB/Kam--IIII

at LSD timeat LSD time•• No significant LSD signal at IMB timeNo significant LSD signal at IMB time

•• Interpretation as “double bang”:Interpretation as “double bang”:Huge Huge ννee flux (~ 40 MeV) at LSD timeflux (~ 40 MeV) at LSD time

•• LSD signal caused by interactionsLSD signal caused by interactionsin iron of support structurein iron of support structure

•• Second bang ordinary multiSecond bang ordinary multi--flavorflavorsignalsignal

(Imshennik & Ryazhskaya,(Imshennik & Ryazhskaya,“A rotating collapsar and possible“A rotating collapsar and possibleinterpretation of the LSD neutrinointerpretation of the LSD neutrinosignal from SN 1987A”, signal from SN 1987A”, astroastro--ph/0401613) ph/0401613)


SN 1987A Burst of PapersSN 1987A Burst of Papers

Annual citations in SPIRES of the papers reporting theAnnual citations in SPIRES of the papers reporting theKII, IMB, BST & LSD neutrino observations KII, IMB, BST & LSD neutrino observations (total of 804 citations 1987(total of 804 citations 1987--2006)2006)

0102030405060708090

100

1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005


Community Interest in NeutrinosCommunity Interest in Neutrinos

Research and conference papers with “neutrino” in title Research and conference papers with “neutrino” in title (SPIRES data base, 22270 “neutrino” papers 1968(SPIRES data base, 22270 “neutrino” papers 1968--2006)2006)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004

MSW effectMSW effectSN 1987ASN 1987A

KII & IMBKII & IMBatmosphericatmosphericanomalyanomaly

SuperSuper--K (atmospheric)K (atmospheric)CHOOZCHOOZ

SNO, K2KSNO, K2KKamLandKamLand

LSNDLSNDCHOOZCHOOZ


HighestHighest--Impact SN 1987A PapersImpact SN 1987A Papers

Topcite 100+ papers (and a few closely related ones) in SPIRES dTopcite 100+ papers (and a few closely related ones) in SPIRES data base thatata base thatrefer directly to SN 1987A refer directly to SN 1987A νν burst, excluding reviews and papers that mentionburst, excluding reviews and papers that mentionSN 1987A only peripherally (citation count as of 27 January 2007SN 1987A only peripherally (citation count as of 27 January 2007))

Large extraLarge extradimensionsdimensions

Cullen & Perelstein:Cullen & Perelstein:SN 1987A constraints on large compact dimensionsSN 1987A constraints on large compact dimensionsPRL 83:268, 1999 [hepPRL 83:268, 1999 [hep--ph/9903422 ]ph/9903422 ]

270270

AxionsAxions

Raffelt & Seckel:Raffelt & Seckel:Bounds on exotic particle interactions from SN 1987ABounds on exotic particle interactions from SN 1987APRL 60:1793, 1988PRL 60:1793, 1988

209209

Turner:Turner:Axions from SN 1987AAxions from SN 1987APRL 60:1797, 1988PRL 60:1797, 1988

144144

MayleMayle, , WilsonWilson, , EllisEllis, , OliveOlive, , SchrammSchramm & & SteigmanSteigman::Constraints on axions from SN 1987AConstraints on axions from SN 1987APLB 203:188, 1988PLB 203:188, 1988

9696

EllisEllis & & OliveOlive::Constraints on light particles from supernova SN 1987AConstraints on light particles from supernova SN 1987APLB 203:188, 1988PLB 203:188, 1988

8888



Topcite 100+ papers (and a few closely related ones) in SPIRES dTopcite 100+ papers (and a few closely related ones) in SPIRES data base thatata base thatrefer directly to SN 1987A refer directly to SN 1987A νν burst, excluding reviews and papers that mentionburst, excluding reviews and papers that mentionSN 1987A only peripherally (citation count as of 27 January 2007SN 1987A only peripherally (citation count as of 27 January 2007))

Large extraLarge extradimensionsdimensions

Cullen & Perelstein:Cullen & Perelstein:SN 1987A constraints on large compact dimensionsSN 1987A constraints on large compact dimensionsPRL 83:268, 1999 [hepPRL 83:268, 1999 [hep--ph/9903422 ]ph/9903422 ]

270270

AxionsAxions

Raffelt & Seckel:Raffelt & Seckel:Bounds on exotic particle interactions from SN 1987ABounds on exotic particle interactions from SN 1987APRL 60:1793, 1988PRL 60:1793, 1988

209209

Turner:Turner:Axions from SN 1987AAxions from SN 1987APRL 60:1797, 1988PRL 60:1797, 1988

144144

MayleMayle, , WilsonWilson, , EllisEllis, , OliveOlive, , SchrammSchramm & & SteigmanSteigman::Constraints on axions from SN 1987AConstraints on axions from SN 1987APLB 203:188, 1988PLB 203:188, 1988

9696

EllisEllis & & OliveOlive::Constraints on light particles from supernova SN 1987AConstraints on light particles from supernova SN 1987APLB 203:188, 1988PLB 203:188, 1988

8888

307307


David Schramm putting people to work …David Schramm putting people to work …

David SchrammDavid Schramm(Editor Physics Reports)(Editor Physics Reports)

“Why don’t you write a “Why don’t you write a review on astrophysicalreview on astrophysicalaxion limits?”axion limits?”




David Schramm putting people to work …David Schramm putting people to work …







SterileSterileneutrinosneutrinos

Abazajian, Fuller & Patel:Abazajian, Fuller & Patel:Sterile neutrino hot, warm, and cold dark matter Sterile neutrino hot, warm, and cold dark matter PRD 64:023501, 2001 [astroPRD 64:023501, 2001 [astro--ph/0101524] ph/0101524]

9999

NeutrinoNeutrinooscillationsoscillations

Smirnov, Spergel & Bahcall:Smirnov, Spergel & Bahcall:Is large lepton mixing excluded?Is large lepton mixing excluded?PRD 49:1389, 1994 [hepPRD 49:1389, 1994 [hep--ph/9305204] ph/9305204]

115115

Dighe & Smirnov: Identifying the neutrino massDighe & Smirnov: Identifying the neutrino massspectrum from the neutrino burst from a supernovaspectrum from the neutrino burst from a supernovaPRD 62:033007, 2000 [hepPRD 62:033007, 2000 [hep--ph/9907423]ph/9907423]

178178

Jegerlehner, Neubig & Raffelt:Jegerlehner, Neubig & Raffelt:Neutrino oscillations and the supernova SN 1987A signal Neutrino oscillations and the supernova SN 1987A signal PRD 54:1194, 1996 [astroPRD 54:1194, 1996 [astro--ph/9601111]ph/9601111]

9292

NeutrinoNeutrinodipoledipolemomentsmoments

Barbieri & Mohapatra: Limit on the magnetic momentBarbieri & Mohapatra: Limit on the magnetic momentof the neutrino from supernova SN 1987A observations of the neutrino from supernova SN 1987A observations PRL 61:27, 1988PRL 61:27, 1988

185185

NNöötzold: New bounds on neutrino magnetic momentstzold: New bounds on neutrino magnetic momentsfrom stellar collapse from stellar collapse PRD 38:1658, 1988PRD 38:1658, 1988

9191



NucleoNucleo--synthesissynthesis

Woosley, Hartmann, Hoffman & Haxton:Woosley, Hartmann, Hoffman & Haxton:The neutrino processThe neutrino processApJ 356:272, 1990ApJ 356:272, 1990

137137

SupernovaSupernovaneutrinoneutrinodetectiondetection

Vogel & Beacom:Vogel & Beacom:Angular distribution of neutron inverse beta decayAngular distribution of neutron inverse beta decayPRD 60:053003,1999 [hepPRD 60:053003,1999 [hep--ph/9903554]ph/9903554]

196196

Burrows, Klein & Gandhi:Burrows, Klein & Gandhi:The future of supernova neutrino detectionThe future of supernova neutrino detectionPRD 45:3361, 1992 PRD 45:3361, 1992

111111

Haxton: The nuclear response of water CherenkovHaxton: The nuclear response of water Cherenkovdetectors to supernova and solar neutrinos detectors to supernova and solar neutrinos PRD 36:2283, 1987 PRD 36:2283, 1987

103103

TotaniTotani, , SatoSato, , DalhedDalhed & & WilsonWilson: Future detection of: Future detection ofsupernova neutrino burst and explosion mechanism supernova neutrino burst and explosion mechanism ApJ 496:216,1998 [astroApJ 496:216,1998 [astro--ph/9710203] ph/9710203]

102102

NeutronNeutron--starstarcoolingcooling

Pons, Reddy, Prakash, Lattimer & Miralles:Pons, Reddy, Prakash, Lattimer & Miralles:Evolution of protoneutron starsEvolution of protoneutron starsApJ 513:780, 1999 [astroApJ 513:780, 1999 [astro--ph/9807040]ph/9807040]

122122


Signal Dispersionand Neutrino Masses

Signal Dispersionand Neutrino Masses



Some Neutrino Questions in the Late 1980sSome Neutrino Questions in the Late 1980s

FlavorFlavoroscillationsoscillations

•• Solar nu deficit (Homestake)Solar nu deficit (Homestake)•• Not taken very seriously until MSW (~1986)Not taken very seriously until MSW (~1986)

and gallium experiments (~1990)and gallium experiments (~1990)

Now confirmedNow confirmedby manyby manyexperimentsexperiments

MagneticMagneticmomentsmoments

•• Solar flux variation (advocated by R.Davis)Solar flux variation (advocated by R.Davis)Okun, Voloshin & Vysotsky (1986), 580 cit.Okun, Voloshin & Vysotsky (1986), 580 cit.

•• SpinSpin--flavor oscillations flavor oscillations Lim & Marciano (1988), 440 citationsLim & Marciano (1988), 440 citations

•• Akhmedov (1988), 357 citationsAkhmedov (1988), 357 citations

Not dominantNot dominantfor solar nusfor solar nus(KamLAND 2002)(KamLAND 2002)

Are neutrinosAre neutrinosdark matter?dark matter?

•• Dark matter problem widely acknowledgedDark matter problem widely acknowledged•• Nus only candidates among known particlesNus only candidates among known particles•• StructureStructure--formation problemsformation problems•• Nu mass detected in Moscow (17Nu mass detected in Moscow (17−−40 eV)40 eV)

Long sinceLong sinceexcludedexcluded

17 keV17 keVneutrinoneutrino

•• Deformation of Deformation of ββ spectrum in tritium andspectrum in tritium andother isotopes (Simpson 1986 and others)other isotopes (Simpson 1986 and others)

•• About 275 citations, dedicated searchesAbout 275 citations, dedicated searches

InstrumentalInstrumentalerrorerror(A.Hime 1992)(A.Hime 1992)

SecretSecretinteractionsinteractions

Small neutrino masses explained in modelsSmall neutrino masses explained in modelswith a rather strongly coupledwith a rather strongly coupledNambuNambu--Goldstone boson (Majoron)Goldstone boson (Majoron)

Triplet MajoronTriplet Majoronmodel excludedmodel excludedby LEP (~1990)by LEP (~1990)


Neutrino Mass Limits circa 1987Neutrino Mass Limits circa 1987

Review of particle properties 1988Review of particle properties 1988PLB 204 (1988) 1PLB 204 (1988) 195% CL limits95% CL limits

m(m(ννee) < 18 eV) < 18 eVm(m(ννµµ) < 250 keV) < 250 keVm(m(ννττ) < 35 MeV) < 35 MeV


Hot dark matter ruled out in 1983Hot dark matter ruled out in 1983

1000 particle simulation [Frenk, White & Davis,1000 particle simulation [Frenk, White & Davis, ApJApJ 271 (1983) 417]271 (1983) 417]

The coherence length of the neutrino distribution […] is too larThe coherence length of the neutrino distribution […] is too largegeto be consistent with the observed clustering scale of galaxies to be consistent with the observed clustering scale of galaxies […][…]The conventional neutrinoThe conventional neutrino--dominated picture appears to be ruleddominated picture appears to be ruledout. White,out. White, FrenkFrenk & Davis,& Davis, ApJApJ 274 (1983) L1.274 (1983) L1.


Nomad and Chorus at CERN (shown at Neutrino 2002)Nomad and Chorus at CERN (shown at Neutrino 2002)


Neutrino Limits by Intrinsic Signal DispersionNeutrino Limits by Intrinsic Signal Dispersion

Time of flight delay by neutrino massTime of flight delay by neutrino mass(G. Zatsepin, JETP Lett. 8:205, 1968)(G. Zatsepin, JETP Lett. 8:205, 1968)

mmννee ≲≲ 20 eV20 eV

•• At the time of SN 1987A At the time of SN 1987A competitive with tritium endcompetitive with tritium end--pointpoint

•• Today mToday mνν << 2.2 eV from tritium2.2 eV from tritium•• Cosmological limit today mCosmological limit today mνν ≲≲ 0.2 eV0.2 eV

22

eV10m

EMeV10

kpc50D

s57.2t ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=∆ ν

ν

22

eV10m

EMeV10

kpc50D

s57.2t ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=∆ ν

ν

For “milli charged” For “milli charged” neutrinos, neutrinos, pathpath bent by galactic magnetic field, bent by galactic magnetic field, inducing a time delayinducing a time delay

Assuming charge conservation inAssuming charge conservation inneutron decay yields a moreneutron decay yields a morerestrictive limit of about 3restrictive limit of about 3××1010−−2121 ee

122

2B

2103

E6

)dB(ett −

ν

⊥ν ×<=∆ 12

2

2B

2103

E6

)dB(ett −

ν

⊥ν ×<=∆

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛ µ×<

⊥

−ν

B

17dkpc1

BG1

103e

e⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛ µ×<

⊥

−ν

B

17dkpc1

BG1

103e

e

•• Barbiellini & Cocconi,Barbiellini & Cocconi,Nature 329 (1987) 21Nature 329 (1987) 21

•• Bahcall, Neutrino Astrophysics (1989)Bahcall, Neutrino Astrophysics (1989)

Loredo & LambLoredo & LambAnn N.Y. Acad. Sci. 571 (1989) 601Ann N.Y. Acad. Sci. 571 (1989) 601find 23 eV (95% CL limit) from detailedfind 23 eV (95% CL limit) from detailedmaximummaximum--likelihood analysislikelihood analysis


Some Papers on SN 1987A Neutrino Mass LimitsSome Papers on SN 1987A Neutrino Mass Limits


Evidence for Cosmologically Interesting Masses?Evidence for Cosmologically Interesting Masses?

If all neutrinos left theIf all neutrinos left theSN at the same time,SN at the same time,evidence for the twoevidence for the twomass values 4 and 22 eVmass values 4 and 22 eV


Neutrino Mass Sensitivity by Signal DispersionNeutrino Mass Sensitivity by Signal Dispersion

TimeTime--ofof--flight delayflight delayof massive neutrinosof massive neutrinos

22

eV1m

EMeV10

kpc10D

ms1.5t ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=∆ ν

ν

22

eV1m

EMeV10

kpc10D

ms1.5t ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=∆ ν

ν

SN 1987ASN 1987A(50 kpc)(50 kpc) mmνν ≲≲ 20 eV20 eV

E E ≈≈ 20 MeV, 20 MeV, ∆∆t t ≈≈ 10 s10 sSimple estimate or detailed maximumSimple estimate or detailed maximumlikelihood analysis give similar resultslikelihood analysis give similar results

Future Future Galactic SNGalactic SNat 10 kpcat 10 kpc(Super(Super--K)K)

mmνν ~ 3 eV~ 3 eVRiseRise--time of signal ~ 10 mstime of signal ~ 10 ms(Totani, PRL 80:2040, 1998)(Totani, PRL 80:2040, 1998)

mmνν ~ 1 eV~ 1 eVFull signalFull signal(Nardi & Zuluaga, NPB 731:140, 2005)(Nardi & Zuluaga, NPB 731:140, 2005)

With lateWith lateblackblack--holeholeformationformation

mmνν ~ 2 eV~ 2 eVCutoff “infinitely” fastCutoff “infinitely” fast(Beacom et al., PRD 63:073011, 2001)(Beacom et al., PRD 63:073011, 2001)

mmνν ~ 1~ 1−−2 eV2 eVD D ≈≈ 750750 kpc, kpc, ∆∆t t ≈≈ 10 s10 sfew tens of eventsfew tens of events

Future SN inFuture SN inAndromedaAndromeda(Megatonne)(Megatonne)


Sensitivity to Time Dependence of SignalSensitivity to Time Dependence of Signal

Maximum neutrinoMaximum neutrino--massmassdispersion for cosmologicaldispersion for cosmologicalmass limit of ~ 0.2 eVmass limit of ~ 0.2 eV

22

eV2.0m

EMeV10

kpc10D

ms2.0t ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=∆ ν

ν

22

eV2.0m

EMeV10

kpc10D

ms2.0t ⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=∆ ν

ν

Example:Example:Supernova at Supernova at D = 10 kpcD = 10 kpcAccretionAccretion--phase luminosityphase luminosityTimeTime--bins bins bin = 10 msbin = 10 ms

152e serg103)(L −×=ν 152e serg103)(L −×=ν

binms10

%16Signal

nsFluctuatio≈

binms10

%16Signal

nsFluctuatio≈

ms10bin

40bin

Neutrinos≈

ms10bin

40bin

Neutrinos≈

ms10bin

3.6bin

nsFluctuatio≈

ms10bin

3.6bin

nsFluctuatio≈

ms10bin

101.1bin

Photons 4×≈ms10

bin101.1

binPhotons 4×≈

ms10bin

104.2bin

Background 4×≈ms10

bin104.2

binBackground 4×≈

binms10

%6.1Signal

nsFluctuatio≈

binms10

%6.1Signal

nsFluctuatio≈


IceCube as a Supernova Neutrino DetectorIceCube as a Supernova Neutrino Detector

Each optical module (OM) picks upEach optical module (OM) picks upCherenkov light from its neighborhood.Cherenkov light from its neighborhood.SN appears as “correlated noise”.SN appears as “correlated noise”.

•• About 300About 300CherenkovCherenkovphotons photons per OMper OMfrom a SNfrom a SNat 10 kpcat 10 kpc

•• NoiseNoiseper OMper OM< 500 Hz< 500 Hz

•• Total ofTotal of4800 OMs4800 OMsin IceCubein IceCube

IceCube SN signal at 10 kpc, basedIceCube SN signal at 10 kpc, basedon a numerical Livermore modelon a numerical Livermore model[Dighe, Keil & Raffelt, hep[Dighe, Keil & Raffelt, hep--ph/0303210]ph/0303210]

Method first discussed byMethod first discussed by•• Pryor, Roos & Webster,Pryor, Roos & Webster,

ApJ 329:355 (1988)ApJ 329:355 (1988)•• HalzenHalzen, , JacobsenJacobsen & & ZasZas

astroastro--ph/9512080ph/9512080


Dispersion between Neutrinos and PhotonsDispersion between Neutrinos and Photons

Neutrinos arrive a few hours earlier than photons Neutrinos arrive a few hours earlier than photons →→ Early warning (SNEWS)Early warning (SNEWS)SN 1987A: Transit time for photons and neutrinos equal to withinSN 1987A: Transit time for photons and neutrinos equal to within ~ 3h~ 3h

Equal within ~ 1 Equal within ~ 1 −− 4 4 ××1010−−33

Shapiro time delay for particles moving in a Shapiro time delay for particles moving in a gravitational potential gravitational potential

Longo, PRL 60:173,1988Longo, PRL 60:173,1988Krauss & Tremaine, PRL 60:176,1988Krauss & Tremaine, PRL 60:176,1988

•• Proves directly that neutrinos respond to gravity in the usual Proves directly that neutrinos respond to gravity in the usual waywaybecause for photons gravitational lensing already proves thisbecause for photons gravitational lensing already proves this pointpoint

•• Cosmological limits Cosmological limits ∆∆NNνν ≲≲ 1 much worse test of neutrino gravitation,1 much worse test of neutrino gravitation,i.e. SN 1987A proves that neutrinos in cosmology gravitate asi.e. SN 1987A proves that neutrinos in cosmology gravitate as they shouldthey should

•• Provides limits on parameters of certain nonProvides limits on parameters of certain non--GR theories of gravitationGR theories of gravitation•• Photons likely obscured for next galactic SN, so this result prPhotons likely obscured for next galactic SN, so this result probablyobably

unique to SN 1987A unique to SN 1987A

∫ months51dt)]t(r[U2t BAShapiro −≈−=∆ ∫ months51dt)]t(r[U2t BAShapiro −≈−=∆


GammaGamma--Ray Observations of SMM SatelliteRay Observations of SMM Satellite

Counts in the GRS instrument on the Solar Maximum Mission SatellCounts in the GRS instrument on the Solar Maximum Mission Satelliteite

SN 1987ASN 1987A 10s fluence10s fluencelimitslimits

0.4 cm0.4 cm−−22

0.6 cm0.6 cm−−22

SN 1987A neutrino fluence ~ 10SN 1987A neutrino fluence ~ 101010 cmcm−−22 << 1010−−1010 of neutrinos haveof neutrinos havedecayed between SN and Earthdecayed between SN and Earth

0.9 cm0.9 cm−−22


Neutrino Radiative Lifetime LimitsNeutrino Radiative Lifetime Limits

PlasmondecayPlasmondecay

RadiativedecayRadiativedecay

′ν → ν + γ′ν → ν + γ

For lowFor low--massmassneutrinos,neutrinos,plasmon decayplasmon decayin globularin globularcluster starscluster starsyields mostyields mostrestrictive limitsrestrictive limits

32eff m8 νγν′→ν π

µ=Γ 3

2eff m8 νγν′→ν π

µ=Γ

3pl

2eff

24ω

π

µ=Γ νν→γ

3pl

2eff

24ω

π

µ=Γ νν→γ

ν+ν→γpl ν+ν→γpl

RaffeltRaffelt, PRL 81:4020,1998 [astro, PRL 81:4020,1998 [astro--ph/9808299] ph/9808299]


Energy-loss limits onneutrinos and axionsEnergy-loss limits onneutrinos and axions



LateLate--time signal most sensitive observabletime signal most sensitive observable

The EnergyThe Energy--Loss ArgumentLoss Argument

NeutrinoNeutrinospheresphere

NeutrinoNeutrinodiffusiondiffusion

Emission of very weakly interactingEmission of very weakly interactingparticles would “steal” energy from theparticles would “steal” energy from theneutrino burst and shorten it.neutrino burst and shorten it.(Early neutrino burst powered by accretion,(Early neutrino burst powered by accretion,not sensitive to volume energy loss.)not sensitive to volume energy loss.)

Volume emissionVolume emissionof novel particlesof novel particles

SN 1987A neutrino signalSN 1987A neutrino signal

εεxx << 10101919 erg gerg g−−11 ss−−11

Assuming that the neutrino burst was notAssuming that the neutrino burst was notshortened by more than ~ ½ leads to anshortened by more than ~ ½ leads to anapproximate requirement on a novelapproximate requirement on a novelenergyenergy--loss rate ofloss rate of

for for ρρ ≈≈ 3 3 ×× 10101414 g cmg cm−−33 and T and T ≈≈ 30 MeV30 MeV


Dirac NeutrinosDirac Neutrinos

•• If neutrinos are Dirac particles, rightIf neutrinos are Dirac particles, right--handed states existhanded states existthat do not interact by ordinary weak interactionsthat do not interact by ordinary weak interactions

•• Couplings are constrained by SN 1987A energyCouplings are constrained by SN 1987A energy--loss argumentloss argument

eRνeRνee

ppRWRWRightRight--handedhanded

currentscurrentsnn

GGRR ≲≲ 1010−−55 GGFF

0Z0ZLνLν RνRν

Dirac massDirac massNN NN

mmDD ≲≲ 30 keV30 keV

γγLνLν RνRν

pp

DipoleDipolemomentsmoments pp

µµνν ≲≲ 1010−−1212 µµBB

RνRν

RνRν

γγMilli chargeMilli charge eeνν ≲≲ 1010−−99 ee


RightRight--Handed Neutrinos in the Early UniverseHanded Neutrinos in the Early Universe

•• If neutrinos are Dirac particles, will the rightIf neutrinos are Dirac particles, will the right--handed componentshanded componentsachieve thermal equilibrium in the early universe before bigachieve thermal equilibrium in the early universe before big--bangbangnucleosythesis?nucleosythesis?

•• This would modify the lightThis would modify the light--element abundances in significant ways,element abundances in significant ways,notably increase the helium abundancenotably increase the helium abundance

Required strengthRequired strength SN 1987A limitSN 1987A limit

RightRight--handedhandedcharged currentcharged current GGRR ~ 10~ 10−−33 GGFF GGRR ≲≲ 1010−−55 GGFF

Dirac massDirac mass few 100 keVfew 100 keV 30 keV30 keV

Dipole momentDipole moment ~ 0.5 x 10~ 0.5 x 10−−1010 µµBB 1010−−1212 µµBB


Sterile NeutrinosSterile Neutrinos

To avoid complete energy loss in ~ 1 sTo avoid complete energy loss in ~ 1 s

sinsin22(2(2ΘΘeses) ) ≲≲ 3 3 ×× 1010−−1010

Average scattering rate in SN coreAverage scattering rate in SN coreinvolving ordinary leftinvolving ordinary left--handed neutrinoshanded neutrinos

110L s10 −≈Γ 110L s10 −≈Γ

Electron neutrino appears as sterile neutrinoElectron neutrino appears as sterile neutrinoin ½ sinin ½ sin22(2(2ΘΘeses) of all cases) of all cases

Les2

21

s )2(sin ΓΘ≈Γ Les2

21

s )2(sin ΓΘ≈Γ

1110es

221 s1s10)2(sin −− <Θ 1110

es2

21 s1s10)2(sin −− <Θ

ActiveActive--sterilesterilemixingmixing

sνsνee

ppWW

nn


Sterile Neutrino LimitsSterile Neutrino Limits

See also:See also:

MaalampiMaalampi & & PeltoniemiPeltoniemi::Effects of the 17Effects of the 17--keVkeVneutrino in supernovae neutrino in supernovae PLB 269:357,1991PLB 269:357,1991

HidakaHidaka & & FullerFuller::Dark matter sterileDark matter sterileneutrinos in stellarneutrinos in stellarcollapse: alteration ofcollapse: alteration ofenergy/lepton numberenergy/lepton numbertransport and atransport and amechanism formechanism forsupernova explosionsupernova explosionenhancementenhancementPRD 74:125015,2006 PRD 74:125015,2006


Axion Emission from a Nuclear MediumAxion Emission from a Nuclear Medium

AxionAxion--nucleon interactionnucleon interactionis of currentis of current--current form:current form:

aJf2

Ca

f2C

L A

a

NN5N

a

Nint

µµ

µµ ∂=∂ΨγγΨ= aJ

f2C

af2

CL A

a

NN5N

a

Nint

µµ

µµ ∂=∂ΨγγΨ=

Difficulties include:Difficulties include:•• Realistic nucleonRealistic nucleon--nucleon interaction potential (even in vacuum) nucleon interaction potential (even in vacuum) •• ManyMany--body effects (effective mass, spinbody effects (effective mass, spin--spin correlations ...)spin correlations ...)•• Axion couplings in the nuclear mediumAxion couplings in the nuclear medium•• MultipleMultiple--scattering effects: scattering effects: Frequency of NN collisions exceeds typical axion energyFrequency of NN collisions exceeds typical axion energyττcollcoll << ωω−−11

Expect LPMExpect LPM--type destructive interference effectstype destructive interference effects

NN

NN

NN

NNVV

NucleonNucleon--NucleonNucleonBremsstrahlungBremsstrahlung

+ ...+ ...

aa Energy loss rate (erg cmEnergy loss rate (erg cm−−33 ss−−11)) AxionAxionenergyenergy

DynamicalDynamicalstructurestructurefunctionfunction∫

∫∫∞

ω−ωωπ⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

ωΓΓ=

0

42

B2

a

N

2Nucleonsa

)(Sd4

nf2

C

MddQ

∫

∫∫∞

ω−ωωπ⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

ωΓΓ=

0

42

B2

a

N

2Nucleonsa

)(Sd4

nf2

C

MddQ


Axion Emission from a Nuclear MediumAxion Emission from a Nuclear Medium

AxionAxion--nucleon interactionnucleon interactionis of currentis of current--current form:current form:

aJf2

Ca

f2C

L A

a

NN5N

a

Nint

µµ

µµ ∂=∂ΨγγΨ= aJ

f2C

af2

CL A

a

NN5N

a

Nint

µµ

µµ ∂=∂ΨγγΨ=

Difficulties include:Difficulties include:•• Realistic nucleonRealistic nucleon--nucleon interaction potential (even in vacuum) nucleon interaction potential (even in vacuum) •• ManyMany--body effects (effective mass, spinbody effects (effective mass, spin--spin correlations ...)spin correlations ...)•• Axion couplings in the nuclear mediumAxion couplings in the nuclear medium•• MultipleMultiple--scattering effects: scattering effects: Frequency of NN collisions exceeds typical axion energyFrequency of NN collisions exceeds typical axion energyττcollcoll << ωω−−11

Expect LPMExpect LPM--type destructive interference effectstype destructive interference effects

NN

NN

NN

NNVV


+ ...+ ...

aa Energy loss rate (erg cmEnergy loss rate (erg cm−−33 ss−−11)) AxionAxionenergyenergy

DynamicalDynamicalstructurestructurefunctionfunction∫

∫∫∞

ω−ωωπ⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

ωΓΓ=

0

42

B2

a

N

2Nucleonsa

)(Sd4

nf2

C

MddQ

∫

∫∫∞

ω−ωωπ⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

ωΓΓ=

0

42

B2

a

N

2Nucleonsa

)(Sd4

nf2

C

MddQ

•• Fundamentally the dynamical structure function isFundamentally the dynamical structure function isa correlator of the nucleon axial currenta correlator of the nucleon axial current

•• NonNon--relativistic nucleons: ~ nucleon spin density operator relativistic nucleons: ~ nucleon spin density operator σσ

•• Example for the fluctuation and dissipation theoremExample for the fluctuation and dissipation theoremof linearof linear--response theory: Axion emission determined byresponse theory: Axion emission determined byspontaneous nucleon spin fluctuationsspontaneous nucleon spin fluctuations

)k,0()k,t(edtn34

)k,(S ti

B−σ⋅σ=ω ω

∞+

∞−∫

rr )k,0()k,t(edtn34

)k,(S ti

B−σ⋅σ=ω ω

∞+

∞−∫

rr


Properties of the Dynamical Structure FunctionProperties of the Dynamical Structure Function

Nucleon spinNucleon spin--density density autocorrelation functionautocorrelation function

Normalization, ignoringNormalization, ignoringmanymany--body correlationsbody correlations

LongLong--wavelength limitwavelength limit(k (k →→ 0)0)

Is Fourier transform ofIs Fourier transform ofsinglesingle--nucleonnucleonspin correlation functionspin correlation function

Symmetric formSymmetric form

Detailed balancingDetailed balancingconsequence ofconsequence ofnonnon--commuting commuting σσ(t) (t) at different times at different times

∫∞+

∞−

ω −σ⋅σ=ω )k,0()k,t(edtn34

)k,(S ti

B

rr∫∞+

∞−

ω −σ⋅σ=ω )k,0()k,t(edtn34

)k,(S ti

B

rr

∫∫ +∞+

∞−−

π=ω

πω

)f1(f)2(

pd2n1

)k,(S2d

kpp3

3

B∫∫ +

∞+

∞−−

π=ω

πω

)f1(f)2(

pd2n1

)k,(S2d

kpp3

3

B

)k,(Se)k,(S T/ ω=ω− ω− )k,(Se)k,(S T/ ω=ω− ω−

2)k,(S)k,(S

)k,(Sω+ω−

=ω2

)k,(S)k,(S)k,(S

ω+ω−=ω T/e1

)k,(S2)k,(S ω−+

ω=ω T/e1

)k,(S2)k,(S ω−+

ω=ω

2)t(s)0(s)0(s)t(s

edt34

)(S tirrrr

⋅+⋅=ω ∫

∞+

∞−

ω2

)t(s)0(s)0(s)t(sedt

34

)(S tirrrr

⋅+⋅=ω ∫

∞+

∞−

ω

2)t(s)0(s)0(s)t(s

34

)t(Rrrrr

⋅+⋅=

2)t(s)0(s)0(s)t(s

34

)t(Rrrrr

⋅+⋅=


Spin Relaxation RateSpin Relaxation Rate

Identify coefficient Identify coefficient Γ Γ fromfrombremsstrahlung calculationbremsstrahlung calculationwith spin relaxation ratewith spin relaxation rate

Generic form for singleGeneric form for singlecollisions & small energiescollisions & small energies

22)(S ωΓ=ω 22)(S ωΓ=ω

NN

NN

NN

NNVV


+ ...+ ...

aa

A spin immersed in a bath of scatterers with spinA spin immersed in a bath of scatterers with spin--dependent forces dependent forces relaxes exponentially for uncorrelated kicks (Markov chain)relaxes exponentially for uncorrelated kicks (Markov chain)

with with ΓΓ the “spin relaxation rate”, leading to the Fourier transformthe “spin relaxation rate”, leading to the Fourier transformLorentzian structure function,Lorentzian structure function,includes multiple scattering effectsincludes multiple scattering effects

te)t(R Γ−= te)t(R Γ−=

222

)(SΓ+ω

Γ=ω 22

2)(S

Γ+ω

Γ=ω


Standard behavior:Standard behavior:Bremsstrahlung rate Bremsstrahlung rate ∝∝ ρρ22

Including LPM effectIncluding LPM effect

Axion Emission RateAxion Emission Rate

for small densityfor small density

for large densityfor large density

Axionic volume energy loss rate ofAxionic volume energy loss rate ofnuclear mediumnuclear medium

⎪⎩

⎪⎨⎧

∝+Γ+ω

Γωω

π⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

ω−ωωπ⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

−ω

∞

∞

∫

∫

1B

2B

T/0

224

2B

2

a

N

0

42

B2

a

N

n

n

e1

22d

4

nf2

C

)(Sd4

nf2

CQ

⎪⎩

⎪⎨⎧

∝+Γ+ω

Γωω

π⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

ω−ωωπ⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=

−ω

∞

∞

∫

∫

1B

2B

T/0

224

2B

2

a

N

0

42

B2

a

N

n

n

e1

22d

4

nf2

C

)(Sd4

nf2

CQ

OneOne--pion exchange potential in pion exchange potential in Born approximation:Born approximation:

TMeV30

cmg1025.1

T 314 −ρ

≈Γ

TMeV30

cmg1025.1

T 314 −ρ

≈Γ

Using phase shifts fromUsing phase shifts fromnuclear scattering data nuclear scattering data (Hanhart, Phillips & Reddy,(Hanhart, Phillips & Reddy,astroastro--ph/0003445)ph/0003445)


SN 1987A Axion LimitsSN 1987A Axion Limits

ExcludedExcluded

SN coreSN coreSN coreSN core



TrappingTrapping

Burrows, RessellBurrows, Ressell& Turner,& Turner,PRD 42:3297,1990PRD 42:3297,1990

AxionAxiondiffusiondiffusion

Free streamingFree streaming

Burrows, TurnerBurrows, Turner& Brinkmann,& Brinkmann,PRD 39:1020,1989PRD 39:1020,1989

Volume emissionVolume emissionof axionsof axions


DirectDirectsearchsearch

Cold Dark MatterCold Dark Matter

TeleTelescopescopeExperimentsExperiments

Globular clustersGlobular clusters(a(a--γγ--coupling)coupling)

Too manyToo manyeventsevents

Too muchToo muchenergy lossenergy loss

SN 1987A (aSN 1987A (a--NN--coupling)coupling)

Astrophysical Axion BoundsAstrophysical Axion Bounds

101033 101066 101099 10101212 [[GeVGeV]] ffaa

eVeVkeVkeV meVmeV µµeVeVmmaa

Hot dark matter limitsHot dark matter limits(a(a--ππ--coupling)coupling)

CASTCAST ADMXADMX


Improving EnergyImproving Energy--Loss Limits with Next Supernova?Loss Limits with Next Supernova?

•• Even a relatively lowEven a relatively low--statistics new measurment could confirmstatistics new measurment could confirmgeneral validity of SN 1987A energygeneral validity of SN 1987A energy--loss limitsloss limits(i.e. make sure that we were not fooled by sparse data)(i.e. make sure that we were not fooled by sparse data)

•• A galactic SN even in a small detector orA galactic SN even in a small detector ora SN in Andromeda with a megatonne detectora SN in Andromeda with a megatonne detectorwould be extremely usefulwould be extremely useful

•• Granted this, the main uncertainties are theoreticalGranted this, the main uncertainties are theoretical(conditions and processes in hot and dense nuclear medium)(conditions and processes in hot and dense nuclear medium)


Signatures forNeutrino Oscillations?

Signatures forNeutrino Oscillations?



LevelLevel--Crossing Diagram in a SN EnvelopeCrossing Diagram in a SN Envelope

Dighe & Smirnov, Identifying the neutrino mass spectrum from a sDighe & Smirnov, Identifying the neutrino mass spectrum from a supernovaupernovaneutrino burst, astroneutrino burst, astro--ph/9907423ph/9907423

Normal mass hierarchyNormal mass hierarchy Inverted mass hierarchyInverted mass hierarchy


Spectra Emerging from SupernovaeSpectra Emerging from Supernovae

Primary fluxesPrimary fluxes

for for

for for

for for

0eF0eF0eF0eF0xF0xF

eνeν

eνeν

ττµµ νννν ,,, ττµµ νννν ,,,

After leaving theAfter leaving thesupernova envelope,supernova envelope,the fluxes arethe fluxes arepartially swappedpartially swapped

0x

0e

0e F)p1(FpF −+= 0

x0e

0e F)p1(FpF −+=

0x

0e

0e F)p1(FpF −+= 0

x0e

0e F)p1(FpF −+=

0e

0e

0xx4

1 F4

p1F

4p1

F4

pp2F

−+

−+

++=∑ 0

e0e

0xx4

1 F4

p1F

4p1

F4

pp2F

−+

−+

++=∑

NormalNormal

InvertedInverted

sinsin22(2(2ΘΘ1313))

≲≲ 1010−−55

≳≳ 1010−−33

AnyAny

Mass orderingMass ordering

sinsin22((ΘΘ1212)) ≈≈ 0.30.3

00 coscos22((ΘΘ1212)) ≈≈ 0.70.7

sinsin22((ΘΘ1212)) ≈≈ 0.30.3 coscos22((ΘΘ1212)) ≈≈ 0.70.7

00

CaseCase

AA

BB

CC

Survival probabilitySurvival probability

)for(p eν )for(p eν )for(p eν )for(p eν


Interpreting SN 1987A NeutrinosInterpreting SN 1987A Neutrinos

Tota

l Bin

ding

Ene

rgy

Tota

l Bin

ding

Ene

rgy

95 % CLContours

Jegerlehner, Jegerlehner, Neubig & Raffelt,Neubig & Raffelt,PRD 54 (1996) 1194PRD 54 (1996) 1194

Assume thermalAssume thermalspectra andspectra andequipartition ofequipartition ofenergy between energy between the six degrees the six degrees of freedom of freedom ννee,, ννµµ,, ννττ and theirand theirantiparticlesantiparticlesSpectral Spectral ννee TemperatureTemperature

__

TheoryTheory


SN 1987A, Earth matter effect and LMASN 1987A, Earth matter effect and LMA

From C. Lunardini’s From C. Lunardini’s Talk in LA (Feb 01) Talk in LA (Feb 01)


SN 1987A and Earth Matter EffectSN 1987A and Earth Matter Effect

KamiokandeKamiokande

IMBIMB

Lunardini & SmirnovLunardini & Smirnovhephep--ph/0009356ph/0009356

Oscillation onlyOscillation onlyin supernovain supernova

Include EarthInclude Eartheffecteffect

5.0)2cos( =θ 5.0)2cos( =θ252 eV1075.2m −×=∆ 252 eV1075.2m −×=∆

MeV5.3)(T e =ν MeV5.3)(T e =ν

MeV0.7)(T =νµ MeV0.7)(T =νµ

Only events up 6.5 sOnly events up 6.5 s


SN 1987A and Earth Matter EffectSN 1987A and Earth Matter Effect

Lunardini & SmirnovLunardini & Smirnovhephep--ph/0009356ph/0009356

TheoryTheory


FlavorFlavor--Dependent Fluxes and SpectraDependent Fluxes and Spectra

Broad characteristicsBroad characteristics•• Duration a few secondsDuration a few seconds•• ⟨⟨EEνν⟩⟩ ~ ~ 1010−−20 MeV20 MeV•• ⟨⟨EEνν⟩⟩ increases with timeincreases with time•• Hierarchy of energiesHierarchy of energies

•• Approximate equipartitionApproximate equipartitionof energy between flavorsof energy between flavors

xee EEE ννν << xee EEE ννν <<

Livermore numerical modelLivermore numerical modelApJ 496 (1998) 216ApJ 496 (1998) 216

Prompt Prompt ννeedeleptonizationdeleptonizationburstburst

ννee

ννee

ννxx__

However, in traditionalHowever, in traditionalsimulations transport simulations transport of of ννµµ and and ννττ schematicschematic

•• Incomplete microphysicsIncomplete microphysics

•• Crude numerics to coupleCrude numerics to coupleneutrino transport withneutrino transport withhydro codehydro code


Supernova Neutrino Spectra FormationSupernova Neutrino Spectra Formation

Electron flavorElectron flavor (( ))ee,νν ee,νν

Free Free streamingstreaming−↔ν epne

−↔ν epne

+↔ν enpe+↔ν enpe

Thermal Equilibrium

Neutrino sphere (TNeutrino sphere (TNSNS))

Other flavorsOther flavors (( ))τµτµ νννν ,,, τµτµ νννν ,,,

DiffusionDiffusionThermal Equilibrium

Scattering AtmosphereScattering Atmosphere

ν↔ν NN ν↔ν NN

ν↔ν NN ν↔ν NN

νν↔ NNNN νν↔ NNNNνν↔−+ee νν↔−+ee

ee ν↔ν ee ν↔ν

Free Free streamingstreaming

µνµν↔νν ee µνµν↔νν ee

Transport sphereTransport sphereEnergy sphere (TEnergy sphere (TESES))

Raffelt (astroRaffelt (astro--ph/0105250), Keil, Raffelt & Janka (astroph/0105250), Keil, Raffelt & Janka (astro--ph/0208035)ph/0208035)

TTfluxflux~~ TTNSNS

TTfluxflux~0.6T~0.6TESES


Literature Scan of FlavorLiterature Scan of Flavor--Dependent Neutrino SpectraDependent Neutrino Spectra

Keil, Janka & Raffelt, astroKeil, Janka & Raffelt, astro--ph/0208035ph/0208035


FlavorFlavor--Dependent Neutrino Fluxes vs. Equation of StateDependent Neutrino Fluxes vs. Equation of State

Kitaura, Janka & Hillebrandt, “Explosions of OKitaura, Janka & Hillebrandt, “Explosions of O--NeNe--Mg cores, the CrabMg cores, the Crabsupernova, and subluminous Type IIsupernova, and subluminous Type II--P supernovae”, astroP supernovae”, astro--ph/0512065ph/0512065

Wolff & Hillebrandt nuclear EoS (stiff)

eνeν

τµτµ νν ,, ,

Lattimer & Swesty nuclear EoS (soft)

eνeν

τµτµ νν ,, ,


So what have we learnt? What can we learn?So what have we learnt? What can we learn?

No unexpected energyNo unexpected energy--loss channel:loss channel:Restrictive limits on axions, large extraRestrictive limits on axions, large extradimensions, rightdimensions, right--handed neutrinoshanded neutrinos(couplings, mixings, dipole moments),(couplings, mixings, dipole moments),Majorons, light SUSY particles, …Majorons, light SUSY particles, …

Should be generally confirmedShould be generally confirmed(low(low--statistics signal enough),statistics signal enough),but uncertainty dominated by theorybut uncertainty dominated by theory(processes in a dense nuclear medium)(processes in a dense nuclear medium)

Neutrinos gravitate as expectedNeutrinos gravitate as expected(Shapiro(Shapiro timetime delaydelay relativerelative toto photons)photons)

Requires photon observations (IR ifRequires photon observations (IR ifobscured) and depends on distanceobscured) and depends on distance

Nothing useful about absolute mNothing useful about absolute mνν Time variation of signal in IceCube?Time variation of signal in IceCube?

•• Nothing useful about oscillationsNothing useful about oscillations•• Hints that flavor dependence ofHints that flavor dependence of

spectra indeed is not largespectra indeed is not large

Neutrino mass hierarchy and/orNeutrino mass hierarchy and/orinformation on information on ΘΘ13 13 (with luck)(with luck)

General confirmation of coreGeneral confirmation of core--collapsecollapseparadigm paradigm (total energy, spectra, time scale)(total energy, spectra, time scale)

•• Detailed test by highDetailed test by high--statistics signalstatistics signal•• Detection of unexpected featuresDetection of unexpected features

SN 1987ASN 1987A Future supernovaFuture supernova


SN 1006SN 1006

Looking forward to the lessons from theLooking forward to the lessons from thenext galactic supernovanext galactic supernova

http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060430.htmlhttp://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060430.html

particle-physics lessons from sn 1987a · 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 msw...

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