THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Module 7Participatory Research Tools

Objectives

By the end of this module participants will:1. Understand the origins of participatory approaches and the differences between conventional research approaches and participatory approaches2. Be able to list and apply key principles of participatory approaches3. Ensure that in any PRA of their choice triangulation will be used4. Be familiar with a basket of PRA tools and the context in which they should be applied5. Have been encouraged to practise selected tools

Content

7.1 Origins of Participatory Rural Approaches7.1.1 The emergence of Rapid Rural Appraisal7.1.2 The emergence of Participatory Rural Approaches7.1.3 PRA versus other research methods7.1.4 Criteria for trustworthiness in PRA7.2 Key principles in Participatory Rural Approaches7.3 Possible dangers of PRA7.4 PRA tool box7.4.1 Introduction7.4.2 Direct observations7.4.3 Semi-structured interviews7.4.4 Types of interviews7.5 Mapping and modelling7.5.1 Introduction7.5.2 Transect walk7.5.3 Venn or "chapati" diagram7.5.4 Mobility mapping7.5.5 Livelihood analysis7.6 Calendars7.7 Ranking7.7.1 Preference or pairwise ranking7.7.2 Matrix ranking7.7.3 Wealth ranking and well-being grouping7.8 Trends7.8.1 Time trends7.8.2 Historical profile7.9 Gender analysis7.9.1 Introduction7.9.2 The Harvard Analytical Framework7.9.3 Gender Analysis Matrix7.9.4 Gender sensitive reporting7.9.5 Key terminology

Formal/Verification/Structured Survey A questionnaire based survey of a sample of respondents who are representative of a particular population, from which statistical inferences can be drawn.

Informal/Exploratory/Unstructured SurveyThis is a data collection strategy (survey) based on informal interviews using a checklist aimed at describing farmer circumstances, understanding what they do, and reviewing possible improvements base on farmers own views. Much of the data collected is qualitative and has the capacity of generating information that can not be collected by formal surveys. In most cases statistical inferences are hard to use (See Mettrick, 1993, UNDP, 1994; Matata et al., 2001; Meena, et al., 2001). The fact that it is called informal does not make it less useful. This is a mere way of differentiating it from the formal surveys that we are used to. Sometimes this kind of survey has no formal and hard methods that one must adhere to. Different approaches and data collection tools can be used depending on the field situation.

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)This is one type of informal survey. Sometimes called Sondeo, Rapid Relaxed, Rapid Reconnaissance survey. It is rapid, yet more cost effective than formal, data collection method in the rural setting. Usually taken with individual respondents although occasionally a number of respondents might be interviewed at the same time.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)The PRA is another method for data collection when conducting an informal survey. This is a survey usually done with a group of respondents and involves a diversity of approaches that are used to collect data. The rural people themselves in partnership with the researchers and extension agents carry it out at all stages.

7.1Some origins of Participatory Rural Approaches

7.1.1The emergence of Rapid Rural Appraisal

In the 1950s and 1960s it was widely believed that all it took to improve the economic situation of developing countries was financial inputs and modern technology. The Green Revolution is a typical example of such a transfer of technology from the modern industrialised countries to the poorer nations. In the 1970s, however, it became clear that the transfer of technology did not solve the problems of most people in developing countries. Development workers and researchers began to understand the complex relationship between environment, economy, culture, and politics in rural societies, and began to view and tackle the various aspects of rural life as part of an integrated system. It was realised that a system e.g. the complex agricultural systems found in most sub-Saharan countries, develops through adaptive change rather than by linear progress, that it is dynamic and its parts interact by influencing each other. It is not possible to effect change in one element of the system in isolation without affecting the other parts. Consequently, the system as a whole has to be understood in order to identify and help bring about desired changes.

Along with the emergence of this new development model, new research techniques were developed to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the complexities of rapidly changing and highly uncertain societies and communities. One of these new research methods was Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). RRA methods have adopted a number of features from ethnographic research techniques, such as an emphasis on understanding a peoples own point of view. RRA embodies the principle that different people perceive and understand reality in different ways. Thus, community members, development workers, and researchers often see and interpret environments in ways that are very different, but equally important. RRA is characterised by an applied, holistic, and flexible approach of progressive learning, conducted by multidisciplinary teams, emphasising community participation. Having been developed alongside Farming Systems Research, RRA methods have been applied mainly in agricultural development. However, RRA methods by now have found widespread application in many different fields, including research on urban housing problems, impact assessments of natural disasters, and studies of attitudes to health practices.

During an RRA participation and involvement of local people was recognised but restricted to providing information. Professionals went to rural areas and obtained data from local people, took it away and processed it, sometimes to find out what they (the outsiders) thought would be good for them (the local people). The expert was still the main actor. The knowledge of the villagers counted but only for the outsiders to use. They were the ones who provided the solution.

7.1.2The emergence of Participatory Rural Approaches

Participatory Rural Approaches were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by researchers in international development as an alternative to conventional sample surveys. Its an intensive, systematic, but semi-structured learning experience carried out in a community by a multi-disciplinary team which includes community members. Its not a single event, it needs a follow-up. PRA is a way of learning from, and with, community members to investigate, analyse, and evaluate constraints and opportunities, and make informed and timely decisions regarding development projects. PRA are facilitated by outsiders but more than RRA it involves rural people themselves in investigation, in the diagramming, presentation, analysis and ownership of information, in the identification of preferences and priorities, and in planning, action, monitoring and evaluation. Unlike in RRA it shifts the initiative and the action from outsider to insider, from the training professional to the rural people themselves.The approaches of PRA owe more to anthropology and ethnographic research methods than to sociology and sample survey research. In other words, its purpose is more to gain an understanding of the complexities of a topic rather than highly accurate statistics on a list of variables. Moreover, in PRA understanding qualitative nuances within a topic is just as important as finding general averages. For example, a study on the health status of a community could use sample survey methodology to obtain accurate statistics on a small number of carefully chosen demographic variables, but PRA methods would be used to obtain a differentiated understanding of the populations attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour towards disease and health care. PRA is applied most effectively in relatively homogeneous rural communities which share common knowledge, values, and belief, although it has also been used in more complex urban environments. Its short duration and low cost also make it possible to carry out a series of PRAs rather than having to rely on the results of one large survey.

It is a method by which a research team can quickly and systematically collect information for:

General analysis of a specific topic, question, or problem Needs assessments Feasibility studies Identifying and prioritising projects Project or program monitoring and/or evaluation Implementing development activities where new information needs to be collected

Participatory approaches require attitudes that favour: Participation Respect for community members Interest in what they know, say, show and do Patience, not rushing, and not interrupting Listening, not lecturing Humility Methods which empower community members to express, share, enhance, and analyse their knowledge

Participatory Rural Approaches are especially well-suited for application in community development as it involves the field team and community members in all aspects of the study, the design of the research tools, the collection of information, and the analysis of the findings. Only data which will actually be used by development workers and community members in their work is collected, and a high degree of community participation in the study guarantees that the collected information is relevant. On-the-spot analysis ensures that gaps in the knowledge acquired can be filled immediately, before leaving the field. In conventional survey research the different steps (design of questionnaire, data collection, data analysis, writing of report) are segregated hierarchically and done by different individuals or groups. In a quantitative survey every interview has equal weight, whereas in PRA every interview or observation is more important than the previous one, as the multidisciplinary team continuously builds on its previously accumulated learning experience. PRA raises peoples self-awareness, suggests viable solutions, and helps people analyse complex issues and problems.

7.1.3PRA versus other research methods

Survey research is still a very popular social research method, and is commonly used by universities and research institutions, as well as government and non-governmental organisations. It derives much of its popularity from its formal and standardised research techniques, which produce quantifiable, representative, verifiable and comparable data, which can be statistically analysed. Survey enumerators do not have to make any independent decisions and, if well trained, can collect the data without requiring the primary researcher to take part in the data collection in the field.

While data collection by sample surveys may require less time, data analysis always takes more time. Data must be coded, entered into a computer, and then analysed in separate steps at a location away from the research site. Once data collection is completed it is very difficult and costly to collect missed or wrongly recorded information, as this would require sending the team back into the field. The costs of obtaining information contained in formal surveys often exceed the values of the data. Survey research also suffers from the disadvantages of its inflexibility and potential data collection in the field, and makes it difficult to gain a deep understanding of social progress. Its pre-designed and fixed questionnaires do not allow progressive learning during formal surveys. PRA techniques complement, and in many cases substitute, other research methods, but they do not make more formal and detailed surveys and analyses redundant. PRA methods and quantitative methods do not exclude each other and can be used simultaneously. The choice of methods depends on the kind of information required and the availability of resources (staff, time, fund, vehicles). Particularly when accurate quantitative data is needed, as in a demographic census or a family enrolment, or when sophisticated statistical analysis is required, PRA methods cannot replace more formal survey techniques. On the other hand, if the main objective is to learn about community members attitudes and opinions, PRA would be the method of choice.

Ethnographic research methods were developed during the first decades of this century. In classic ethnographic fieldwork an individual anthropologist lives in a community for one or more years and learns about all aspects of the communitys life (e.g. language, agriculture, religion, policies) through participant observation. The researcher becomes an insider for a limited period. This method is particularly well suited for gaining an intimate understanding of a communitys self-perception (an insiders perspective). PRA has used some of the elements of ethnographic research and shares its holistic approach but it differs in other ways (multidisciplinary team, short duration, community participation) from ethnographic research. In most cases PRA will not be able to uncover deep insights into a communitys more sensitive aspects.

Table 7.1PRA versus other research methods

PRASurvey researchEthnographic research

DurationShortLongLong

CostLow to mediumMedium to highMedium

DepthPreliminaryExhaustiveExhaustive

ScopeWideLimitedWide

IntegrationMultidisciplinaryWeakWeak

StructureFlexible, InformalFixed, formalFlexible, informal

DirectionBottom-upTop-downNot applicable

ParticipationHighLowMedium to high

MethodsBasket of toolsStandardizedBasket of tools

Major research toolSemi-structured interviewFormal questionnaireParticipant observation

SamplingSmall sample size based on variationRandom sampling, representativeNone

Statistical analysisLittle or noneMajor partLittle or none

Individual caseImportant, weighedNot important, not weighedImportant, weighed

Formal questionnairesAvoidedMajor partAvoided

OrganizationNon-hierarchicalHierarchicalNot applicable

Qualitative descriptionsVery importantNot as important as hard dataVery important

MeasurementsQualitative or indicators usedDetailed, accurateDetailed, accurate

Analysis/learningIn the field and on the spotAt officeIn the field and on the spot

Source: Theis and Grady, 1991

7.1.4Criteria for trustworthiness in PRA

"But how does it compare with the real data?"

Many people assert that participatory methods are "undisciplined", and that their subjective nature means that it can respond to selected members of communities only. Terms like "informal" and "qualitative" are used to imply poor quality work. Conventional research prefers rigour and accuracy and it is assumed that this is contradictory to participatory approaches. This means that researchers who use participatory approaches have to prove the value of their approach, not the conventional researcher. Conventional researchers use four criteria to persuade their audience that the findings of their research can be trusted (Pretty et al., 1995):

1. Internal validity: confidence about the 'truth of findings'2. External validity: possibility to apply findings to another context or another group of people3. Reliability: will the findings be repeated if the inquiry is replicated with the same or similar subjects in the same or similar context?4. Objectivity: how can we be certain that the findings have been determined by the subjects and context of the inquiry, and not by the biases, motivations and perspectives of the investigators?

Trustworthiness criteria were developed to judge whether or not any given research was methodologically sound. For PRA criteria were suggested like judging the impact of research on people's lives, have people been changed by the process, to what extend did the investigation prompt action. Drawing on these, a set of 12 criteria were developed (see Box 7.2). These criteria can be used to judge information from PRA, just as statistical analyses provide the ground for judgement in conventional science. Use of participatory methods, without for example triangulation of sources, methods and investigators should be judged as untrustworthy.

Box 7.12A framework for judging trustworthiness

12 criteria for PRA information:Prolonged and/or intense engagement between the various groups of peoplePersistent and parallel observationTriangulation by multiple sources, methods, investigators and timeDifferent actor perspectives and analysis of actor differencesNegative case analysis or sequential revision of hypothesesPeer and colleague checking, periodical reviewsParticipant checkingReports with working hypotheses, contextual descriptions and visualisationsParallel investigations and team communicationReflexive journalsInquiry auditImpact on stakeholders capacity to know and act

Source: Pretty et al., 1995: 597.2Key principles of Participatory Rural Appraisals

Key principles that are shared by all approaches of PRA are:

1. TriangulationThis is an essential methodological concept in PRA. A form of cross-checking. Accuracy is achieved through diverse information and different kinds of sources of information, not through statistical replication. Triangulation is done in relation to: Composition of the team and background of team members Sources of information (people, places, etc.): The PRA should include a wide range of view points from different sources of information such as women and men, elders and youths, various ethnic groups, diverse wealth groups and different professions Methods: The PRA techniques are taken from a wide range of possible tools which are tailored to the specific requirements of the study. Time: ensure to visit a community in both the wet season and the dry season.

2. Multidisciplinary team and group learning processThe members of the PRA team should have different skills and backgrounds. This could imply members from different disciplines, different sectors or a mixture of outsiders and insiders. The different viewpoint of team members will complement each other and will provide a more comprehensive picture. In this way the team will approach the topic of the appraisal from different viewpoints, which gives new and deeper insights. All members of the PRA team are involved in all aspects of the study: design, data collection, and analysis (not just in data collection as in a conventional survey). The PRA is a learning experience in which the participants also learn from each other.

3. Flexibility and informalityPlans and research methods are semi-structured and are revised, adapted, and modified as the PRA fieldwork proceeds and when they are used in a different context.

4. In the community The main aspect of the PRA is learning from, with, and by members of the community PARTICIPATION! The team should sympathise with the community members and be able to see their lives and their problems through the eyes of the community members. Most of the activities are done jointly with community members or by them on their own (e.g. planning, mapping, and analysis). PRAs are generally too short for outsiders to become insider s. Therefore it is important to have community members (insiders) participate in the appraisal. Involving community members can greatly facilitate interpretation, understanding, and analysis of collected data.

5. Optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecisionThe PRA team avoids unnecessary detail, accuracy, and over collection of data (as in sample survey) which is not really needed for the purpose of the PRA (this is decided through on-the-spot analysis). The team asks itself: What kind of information is required, for what purposes, and how accurate does it have to be?

6. On-the-spot analysis Learning takes place in the field and the analysis of the information gathered is an integral part of the fieldwork itself. The team constantly reviews and analyses its findings in order to determine in which direction to proceed. It builds up understanding and narrows the focus of the PRA as it accumulates knowledge.

7. Off-setting biases and being self-criticalThe PRA team actively seeks out the poorest, women, and disadvantaged groups in remote areas, during the worst time of the year, at any time of day, and avoids talking only to the well-off, the better-educated, the articulate, and the men. The team also has to be careful to analyse its own biases in order to prevent the PRA from turning into development tourism and collection of rumours. The team reflects on what is said and not seen, who is met and not met, and tries to identify possible sources of error and how they influence the interpretation of the gathered information. The team must also try to avoid value judgements about others.

8. Shift ing attitudes and behaviour . The use of PRA implies role reversals/shifts . For both outsiders and local people

WE THEY: Establish rapport. Map and model Converse, catalyze, facilitate, Enquire. Draw Suggest, improvise methods. Rank, score, quantify Watch, listen, learn. Discuss and analyse Hand over stick. Inform and explain Probe. Demonstrate, identify and choose priorities Assist. Plan, present, take action

7.3Possible dangers of PRA

Although the potential applications of PRA are numerous and wide ranging, certain considerations should be taken into account in deciding whether or not PRA is appropriate for particular situations and projects. Perhaps the most important considerations are:

The availability of appropriate people to conduct the study, The degree to which project structure and decision-making are sufficiently flexible to make use of new information, and The intended use of the findings

Experience, qualifications, teamwork, and varied disciplinary perspectives are critical to the success of a PRA. If these attributes are not available, participatory appraisal may be counterproductive and result in questionable findings.

When flexibility is abused it may allow individuals to do anything and call it PRA. If done in a hurry and constrained too much by circumstances, PRA becomes development tourism which relies largely on initial findings and merely confirms biases, preconceptions, and stereotypes. Carelessly-done PRAs not only of questionable accuracy and value, they will also tarnish the reputation of participatory appraisal in general. The key to successful PRA is not to avoid superficiality and error completely, but to control them and achieve cost effectiveness through optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision. Good PRA skills can only be developed through practice and through an accumulation of experience in the field. Problems that occur can be any of the following (Theis and Grady, 1991):

Difficulty of finding the right team Going too quickly may lead to superficiality Desire for statistics and quantitative data Desire for the security of a fixed questionnaire Difficulty of finding the right questions to ask Difficult of finding the poorest and least educated, especially women Failure to involve community members Lack of rapport with the community Failure to listen and lack of humility and respect Seeing only part of a situation or problem and not getting the full picture Making value judgements about others Being misled by myth and gossip Generalising based on too little information or too few informants Overlooking the invisible Lecturing instead of listening and learning Raising expectations in the community where the PRA is carried out Imposing our ideas, categories and values without realising it. This makes it difficult to learn from them, makes them appear ignorant. When they are all male teams and neglect of women. If the approach is wrong, PRA will not work. The right attitudes and behaviour are key to the success of PRA.

Some myths about PRA:

1. That it is quick: While many of the techniques associated with PRA may be relatively cost effective methods of encouraging dialogue, joint analysis and learning, the processes of participatory development that PRA and similar approaches encourage are slow, laborious and complex.2. That it is easy: PRA methods are appealingly simple. This is partly why they have attracted so much attention. They are accessible to a wide range of actors, from villagers to field practitioners to academics. However, as any experienced PRA practitioner will note the successful application of PRA requires more skills, especially communication, facilitation and conflict negotiation skills.3. That anyone can do it: Anyone can carry out a matrix ranking, transect walk or mapping exercise but this does not mean that open learning, leading to action will result. 4. That it is just fancy techniques: The popular and visible image of PRA is the range of techniques that have emerged in the past 15 to 20 years. These prove effective and widely applicable. However, these methods are only part of a wider shift being seen within development agencies.5. That it is based on a particular disciplinary perspective: PRA has not grown out of universities, it has grown from responses to practical experiences in the field. This lack of disciplinary background is sometimes seen as threatening (not rigorous, unpublishable). As a result universities have been the last to take up PRA.6. That it has no theoretical base: PRA is based on action research approach, one where theory and practice are constantly challenged through experience, reflection and learning7. That it is a new invention: PRA has evolved and continues to do so. It is not a magical package that has suddenly emerged from nowhere. Its lineage can be traced to early anthropological work, qualitative research approach before the dominance of statistics and quantification.

Source: Pretty et al., 1995

7.4PRA tool box

7.4.1 Introduction

Participatory Rural Appraisal makes use of a wide range of technique. The choice of a specific technique is determined by: the objectives of the study and the kind of information that needs to be collected the size and complexity of the area to be covered the available time and resources.

PRA tools can be used for: exploration: when not much information is available on a certain topic needs assessment feasibility studies identification of priorities for research and development activities monitoring and evaluation of research and development activities

Researchers are facilitators in the PRA process. There are seven key-points that make a good facilitator: be an active listener be observant ask questions be flexible be organised be knowledgeable but clear be assertive but not controlling

A large number of PRA tools have been developed over time. None of these tools were documented initially and there is a wide variation even within one specific technique. All tools need to be adapted to the specific conditions and objectives of the PRA. The following chapters discuss a range of PRA tools as indicated in Table 7.3.

Table 7.3PRA tool kit

CategoryToolPurpose

Direct observationsMeasurementsIndicatorsRecordingTo support and cross-check information

Review of secondary dataTo get a general understanding of the target area

Semi-structured interviewsIndividual interviewKey-informant interviewGroup interviewFocus group interviewTo collect a wide range of qualitative and quantitative information

Mapping and modellingVillage mapResource mapSocial mapRetrospective mapFarm mapTransect walkVenn diagramMobility mapLivelihood analysisTo construct and visualise reality and simplify complicated information

CalendarsSeasonal calendarActivity profileFood calendarSeasonal variations and timing and/or importance of events

RankingPreference rankingPair-wise rankingMatrix rankingWealth rankingPrioritisation of preferences and priorities

TrendsTime trendHistorical profileChanges over time

Gender analysisAccess and control profileActivity profileContext profileGender Analysis MatrixTo understand gender differentiation at household and community level

7.4.2Direct observations

One danger with a PRA is that you are misled by myth, rumours and gossip. People often have beliefs about their values and activities that do not correspond with reality. It is common to be told about a custom, but probing for the last occasion when it was practised reveals that it has either lapsed or perhaps was never practised at all. As a consequence, direct observations of important indicators to support and crosscheck findings are essential. A direct observation is a systematic observation of objects, events, processes, relationships, or people. Direct observations have to be recorded.

Methods for direct observations: Measurement: scales, tape etc. to measure things in the field like field size, weight of harvests, volume of firewood. Indicators: should be valid, specific, reliable, and relevant, e.g. house-type as an indicator for wealth. Recording: notebooks, record sheets, photographs, collection of samples (e.g. pest infested crops). Use all your senses: listen, smell, taste, touch. Observe variations in clothes.

7.4.3Semi-structured interviews

A semi-structured interview (SSI) is a guided and informal interview where only some of the questions are predetermined in the form of checklist (list of topics), and other relevant ones arise during the interview based upon observations, responses, topics the farmer wishes to discuss, interviewer background and experience, the use of other tools (village map, ranking, calendars.....). The purpose of a SSI is to collect a wide range of qualitative and quantitative information while allowing respondents and interviewers the flexibility to pursue topics of interest. There are seven core components in interviewing that you need to address (Pretty et al., 1995):

1. Team preparation:Team preparation should focus on developing and refining an interview guide or checklist and assigning team responsibilities. Although checklists are meant to guide interviews only, they are of great importance for the quality of the output, since they are reminders of major topics to be discussed with the farmers or key-informants. The purpose of a checklist is to suggest starting points for discussions. It is not a list of questions to be asked, although some of its' items may be phrased in the form of questions.

General guidelines for checklists:-The establishment of a checklist requires a lot of brainstorming. Following questions need to be taken into account when writing the checklist:-What are the objectives of the interview, what do we want to find out?-What are the key issues and questions. What is the relevance for the objective?-The guiding principle of a checklist is that it should allow as much flexibility as possible during the interview.-The topics should follow each other in a logical order.-The sequence of the topics to be addressed is important, sensitive topics for instance will be discussed at the end of the interview, etc.-It is important in interviewing with a checklist not to 'jump' between the different topics. Finish one topic before going to the next one.

Annex 1 gives a sample checklist of topics for general discussions on household. These topics are not exhaustive and are not to be phrased as questions. For each topic listed, the interviewer should always try to probe the farmer as to why or why not, certain data are observed. Be aware of the separate or complementary role of men and women in each topic area.

2. Interview context:Issues to be considered here are setting, timing, seating arrangements, non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication can indicate dominance, submissiveness, friendliness, etc. Show an interest in what people are telling you. Do not start a discussion with another group member. The seating arrangement also has an important impact on what information is being discussed. If it is an individual interview, can other people hear what is being discussed?

The context:TimePlaceOther persons

The interviewer:Social skillsInterview skillsMotivationThe interviewee:Social skillsCapacity to answer

The content:SensitivityLevel of difficultyLevel of interest

Figure 7.1 Factors influencing an interview

3. Sensitive listening:During an interview you need to have an open attitude and listen carefully to what is being said by all participants. In an interview you may encounter people who dominate the discussion, who interrupt, who joke and are not serious, who are rude, or those who are silent. Try to establish strategies to deal with these situations. Encourage people to participate in a discussion but do not help them finish their sentences. Make sure you do not lecture or advise.

4. Sensitive questioning:The way in which questions are asked and the extent to which one probes largely influence the quality of research results. It is very difficult to ask open-ended and non-directive questions, and to probe responses carefully. Examples are given in Table 7.4.

Use adapted language. This means that you should use words, which the person you interview understands; If possible, questions should be phrased in such a way that they require explanation (open-ended-questions) rather than allowing the person you interview to answer with 'yes' or 'no'; Do not ask leading questions which suggest that a particular answer is the correct one; Formulate questions clearly, do not ask vague questions; Do not ask more than one question at a time; Avoid value judgements, keep neutrality about the opinion of the person interviewed;

5. Judging responses:It is very important to judge the information that is created through discussions, and not to accept the first answer you hear immediately. You need to cross-check information carefully and verify it. The following can help:

Probe, ask for more details. Questions starting with 'why', 'who', 'where', 'what', 'when', 'which, 'how', ... (i.e. the six helpers) are good probing questions; Verify answers through triangulation Judge the responses, are they facts, rumours or opinions

6. Recording the interview:Recording the details of interviews is vital. In most PRA fieldwork a great deal of valuable information is lost due to the failure to take good notes and an excess focus on the diagrams only. Diagrams as they are used in a PRA are a discussion tool and never an end in itself. The richness of a discussion can never be conveyed in a diagram only. Try to remember the following (Pretty et al., 1995): Ask permission to record the discussion Use a discreet notebook Record the detail of what is said, and whenever possible, what is not said but sensed (such as a hesitation to answer or tension) Record the detail of what is observed and how the interview developed Record who said it (female/male, young/old, worse off/better off) Make follow up notes after the interview Record personal impressions of the interview

7. Self-critical review:After an interview is over it is important to assess critically which questions were effective and which were not, how some questions could have been phrased differently, how the context influenced the flow of information.

National FSA TrainingModule7: Participatory research tools

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Table 7.4Guidelines with examples how NOT to do it and how it could be done.

GuidelineExample of how NOT to do itExample of how it could be done

Use adapted language. This means that you should use words which the person you interview understands.

If possible, questions should be phrased in such a way that they require explanation (Open-ended questions) rather than allowing the person you interview to answer with 'yes' or 'no'.

Do not ask leading questions which suggest that a particular answer is the correct one.

Formulate questions clearly, do not ask vague questions.

Do not ask more than one question at a time.

What is the percentage of yield loss due to drought?

Do you cultivate maize?

You prefer this variety, don't you?

What do you think about fertiliser use in maize?

How many cows do you have, do you take them for grazing. If so, where and who takes them there?

What is the yield you usually get on this field? [answer]What is the yield you will get this year? [answer] Can you explain this difference (if there is any!)? [answer]

Which crops do you cultivate?

Which variety do you prefer?

Do you use fertiliser in maize? [answer]Can you tell me why (not)? [answer]

Do you have any cows? [answer]How many? [answer]How do you feed them? [answer]...

GuidelineExample of how NOT to do itExample of how it could be done

Probe, ask for more details. Questions starting with 'why', 'who', 'where', 'what', 'when', 'which', 'how, ... are good probing questions.

Avoid value judgements, keep neutrality about the opinion of the person interviewed.

Avoid helping the interviewee finish his or her sentences.

Avoid lecturing and advising.

It is important to listen, show interest. Non-verbal communication is important.

[Answer to a question: This variety is easier to grow].Not asking further.

I think what you said is right/wrong.

You should add fertiliser after the second weeding!

Staring in the distance while the farmer is explaining, picking your fingernails, looking all the time at your notebook, sitting on a chair if farmer is sitting on the floor, starting a conversation with somebody not involved in the interview, ...

[Answer to a question: This variety is easier to grow].How can you tell it is easier? [answer]What makes it easier to grow? [answer]...

Be patient

How do you think you could improve the yields?

Look at the farmer while he or she is talking, nodding your head; ...

Source: Grobben and Schouten, 19967.4.4Types of interviews

Individual interview: In an individual interview you ask for representative information. Information from this interview is more personal than from group interviews, and is more likely to reveal conflicts within the community since respondents may feel they can speak more freely. Interviews are conducted with an opportunity sample of purposely selected individual respondents. An opportunity sample would include farmer leaders, innovative farmers, women farmers who are both members of and heads of households, farmers who represent major cropping systems in the area, poor farmers, and traditional farmers who have resisted new technologies. Many communities have at least one "trouble-maker" who disagrees with everything. Responses from these people can provide valuable cross-checks.

Key-informant interview: This interview will ask for specialist information. A key informant is anyone who has special knowledge on a particular topic (e.g. a trader on credit). Key informants are expected to be able to answer questions about the knowledge and behaviour of others and especially about functioning of broader systems. Valuable key informants are outsiders who live in the community (e.g. school teachers) or people from neighbouring communities, including people who have married into the community.

Examples of key-informants are: an old farmer who knows about the history of the village a leader who has control over land and water allocation a poor person who depends on tree products during the hungry season a woman who participates in the new livestock project a local trader

Group interview: This interview is especially useful for community level information. The advantage of a group interview is that its provides access to a larger body of knowledge, and can provide an immediate cross-check on information. When groups become too large (more than 20-25) however, management becomes difficult as the group tends to break into smaller groups. Group interviews are not useful for sensitive information. They can also be seriously misleading when the interviewer is believed to have the power to control benefits or sanctions. Group interviews may reveal people's ideals rather than what actually exists, but triangulation of methods will reveal the whole picture.

7.5Mapping and modelling

7.5.1Introduction

Maps and models are devices that present information in a condensed and readily understandable form. They are simplified models of reality and are useful in a PRA as they: simplify complicated information thereby making it easier to communicate and analyse construct reality and are an analytical procedure involve community members

Mapping and modelling are a shift from verbally oriented methods to visually oriented ones. Everyone has an inherent ability for visual literacy. These methods allow non-literate and literate people to participate in the process as equals. Maps do not only show the location but also the dimension and scope of issues to be investigated. Maps can be made at different scales: the region, the village, the farm and even the field, dependent on the objective of the study. Also, the subject of the map can differ: natural resources, infrastructure, health and so on. Maps do not necessarily need to present the present situation, they can also show the situation of several years or even decades ago. We distinguish five maps and models (see Table 7.5).

Table 7.5Factors to differentiate maps and models

ConceptType of map or model

SpaceMaps, transects

TimeSeasonal calendar, activity profile, time trend, historical profile

RelationFlow diagram

DecisionDecision tree, Venn diagram

ConstraintsProblem tree

Maps or models can be prepared by using colour powders, stones, small sticks, leaves, seeds, droppings or any other local materials available in the village itself. It can be a new interesting experience for the villagers. Dependent on the subject and objective of the study, maps can be made with groups of people or individuals. The maps can be made in the field where it is easy to ask for referral points, for instance on the top of a hill from which the area can be seen, or can be made inside the house. It is important to keep in mind that the selection of people who are to draw the map influences largely the information gathered. According to the status villagers have, or the tasks different household members have to carry out, the maps will look differently. For instance, people responsible for fetching water may indicate water sources, cow-herders will include grazing areas in the map and so on. In that sense, it can be interesting to make a map on the same subject with different people.

Some examples of sketch maps are presented below. The subject of the map is indicated as well as which persons in the village could be good key-informants. This list of examples is not exhaustive and many other types of maps can be drawn.

Village map:Subject:no subject is stated, the villager/community representative draws what he or she (or they) means by 'village';Key-informants:all villagers

Village resource map:Subject:natural resources in the village: type, distribution, use, usersKey-informants:different resource users: women, men, cattle herders, children, ...Specific resource maps can be a soil map (local soil names), or agro-ecological zones.

Village social map: Subject:social infrastructure (schools, clinic, water sources, religious buildings, ...), houses of different households, ... Key-informants:women, village health worker, village leaders

Retrospective village/regional land use map:Subject:land use in the village/region several years or even decades agoKey-informants:village elderly

Farm map:Subject:location of fields, farm, natural resources, cropping patterns, grazing, storage, ...Key-informants:individual farmers

The different steps to follow in making a map with villagers or community representatives are presented below. 1.Decide upon the subject of the map.2.Make a checklist on this subject with the points you want to be covered in the discussion with the key-informant(s).3.Select appropriate key-informants.4.Explain these people the purpose of the exercise, ask if they are willing to participate.5.Decide together with the key-informant upon symbols to use.6.The key-informant starts drawing eventually with some help of the team if he/she is not familiar with drawing. The map can be drawn on the ground or on a piece of paper. If drawn on the floor, look for materials to visualise different aspects of the village/farm.Ask for referral points, the north may not be the top of the drawing.Leave it as much as possible to the resource persons although his or her way of seeing the spatial location of different items may be different than the team's but his or her view is most important because it explains his or her rationale. If you find others eager to participate in mapping, yet feeling hesitant to join, go to them and encourage them to participate. There could be 5-6 villagers preparing the map of the village at the time When the group or individuals who drew the map on the ground finishes, the group or individuals which stand around and look may start interacting and sometimes suggest changes or additions. 7. Ask questions about the different items represented in the drawing. Triangulate the information indicated in the map. Ask some of the villagers to point out his/her house, field, orchards, school etc. on the map/model. The discussion is determined by the objective of the exercise. The checklist serves as a reminder of topics not to be left out from the discussion. Respect the guidelines on asking questions and probing. 8. Copy the map drawn on paper and note the discussion. If possible, take a couple of photos of the map/model drawn on the ground.

7.5.2Transect walk

A transect is a cross-section or straight cut through a survey area or village territory to capture the greatest diversity of, for example, land use. Observed land use, soils, slopes, vegetation, crops, cultural practices, physical and social infrastructure, water availability, erosion and special features are written down. Constraints and problems related to different topics and related solutions are discussed while making the transect. A transect may be used to get a general impression of an area or may focus on very specific topics, such as livestock, forestry or health and sanitation conditions. The laying out of transects is a process which may help reduce bias in making observations in the survey area. The observations and initial discussions will help focus the survey exercises that follow.

Selection of transect walksThere are various ways to select transect lines: remote sensing (very technical), random sampling of routes, reviewing maps to estimate lines of greatest diversity (e.g. after initial zonation) or asking villagers to take the team through most of the different land use types distinguished by the villagers. Transects can be chosen based on village resource maps. Local soil classification as a basis for the selection of transects may be very helpful. The final selection of the transect line depends on the objective of the walk and its' subject, e.g. health and sanitation conditions, maize cultivation, need for and use of physical infrastructure, catchment area. Transects may be loops or a trail leading up and down into the forest area above the village. A transect may be identified from north to south, high to low, or any other direction as long as it covers all major ecological and production zones and assures representation of maximum topographical, resource and socio-economic variation of the villages. Through discussions a logical starting point for the walk has to be identified. This may be the highest point of the area or the boundary of a village. Several walks may be undertaken depending on the variation in the terrain. Each walk should cover as much diversity as possible.

Selection of villagersThe number of villagers who accompany the team should exceed the number of outsiders. A ratio of 2 to 1 is preferable. If there is a group of e.g. 5 outsiders it is preferable to split the group and have them walk separate transects. Outsiders may include some semi-outsiders, such as agricultural extension agents, veterinary supervisors or health workers, who have been in regular contact with the villagers for at least half a year to one year.

To select villagers to accompany the team:- Ask key-informants about persons who know the village territory very well.- Ask key-informants for persons who know a lot about e.g. various soils in the area.- Ask for villagers who are willing to assist in the transect.

You may also ask the village to select a representative group of resource users. If the transect concerns a specific topic, one can ask the villagers to indicate their own specialists from the different groups concerned with this topic. One should avoid having a non-representative group of villagers such as only rich farmers, only male farmers, only tenants. The villagers who accompany the transect walk not necessarily have to be heads of their households.

WhenWalks should be carried out at a time convenient to villagers who will accompany the team. Walking a transect may take several hours depending on the length of the transect walk. However care should be taken that the walking of the transect does not take a whole day as the actual transect walking should be followed by analysis and discussions the same day.

Task divisionVarious responsibilities for observations, note taking and discussions have to be assigned to group members. A forester could note down natural vegetation, effects of wildlife, wildlife habitat, an economist could note down land ownership, land use rules and regulations, and so on. Everybody who joins in the transect is allowed to ask questions and lead into discussions. However one of the group should be appointed as the facilitator who may need to ask questions to make sure that all necessary points are discussed. The facilitator should also critically observe the way the team is introduced along the transect, the way questions are asked, notes are taken. This facilitator should not have any other tasks. One of the villagers may be selected to fill in several transect characteristics. If this proves difficult an outsider may take on this task. People encountered along the route should be casually interviewed to give meaning and context to issues identified. However you have to make sure that the people you meet are not in a hurry.

Precautions-If altitude is recorded this should be done in ranges, eg. 1350 m - 1425 m, and not as 1275 m.-In a transect, spatial data may be gathered with the objective of getting initial ideas on the distribution of resources. Detailed information on prices, labour-input, yields etc. are only relevant if eg. they are a problem or constraint related to the different land use systems.-Do not make the transect longer than is necessary to cover the diversity of the area in relation to the topic at hand.

Steps1.Make a checklist with points of observation during the transect walk.Divide the points of observation among the team members. 2.Prepare sheets of paper divided into columns and rows, leaving space for a diagram at the top. Topics to be addressed can be indicated in the first column, leaving room for other topics to be added by the group.3.Select villagers to accompany the team:- Ask a key-informant for individuals who know the village territory very well;- Try and select old villagers as they know more about changes which have occurred;- Select both men and women. Ask the villagers if they are willing to participate. Inform them about the timing, meeting point, length of the walk.4.Explain the objective of the transect to the villagers who join the team;5.Select the transect walks. The transect should lead the team through as divers an area as possible.6. Start walking. Group members pay special attention to their points of observation. Observations on other topics can be noted down as well. Discussions with the accompanying villagers should centre around the constraints of the different land-use categories together with tried-out solutions, their results and other possible solutions (this should be noted down in the diagram). This needs to get a lot of emphasis. It may be helpful to ask for problems, opportunities and solutions per area that you go through. 7. Make notes of all vital information you gather and draw sketches wherever necessary. Collect specimens of any new plants, weeds, seeds, grass or crops, which you might have not seen before. Look for elderly villagers who know about these matters. In case you come across any indigenous practices of farmers like soil conservation, irrigation, land use technique etc. collect information about them. Photo's can be taken of important features.8. You do not need to adhere to the original route of the transect. Deviate from the route from time to time to observe the surrounding area and gather any relevant and useful information. Travel slowly and patiently and try to understand the physical features in the village from different perspectives. Proper observations are not possible if you walk fast.9. It is always easy to make more useful observations if you travel on foot paths and across the agricultural lands rather than walking along the main road in the village.10. Upon return in the village compile the information. Produce a diagram indicating different resources, characteristics, management, constraints and solutions. Symbols should be used as much as possible to make the diagram as understandable as possible for all group members.11. Present the findings in a format easily comprehensible for outsiders (researchers as well as villagers). For villagers who did not join on in the transect walk other villagers who accompanied the team should explain how it was done. Discuss the findings in a larger group.12. Give the transect maps to the villagers.

7.5.3Venn or "chapati" diagram

This PRA technique helps outsiders to understand the importance villagers give to different organisations inside and outside the village. It reveals the impact of these organisations, the extent of overlap and the influence exerted in the villager as perceived by the villagers. While using this simple technique villagers allot different size of paper discs for different organisations. The size of the circle indicates the importance or scope of an institution. The distance of the paper discs from the village depends upon its relative influence or closeness to the villagers.

During the preparation of the Venn diagram the villagers often find it easier to concentrate on a particular type of organisation at a time, such as, all credit organisations, all agricultural organisations or all service organisations. In programmes where a particular group is involved, for example, a womens programme, it is better to get the Venn diagram prepared by women. Often women and mens view of the relevance and importance of institutions differ considerably. It might therefore be useful to have diagramming done separately by women and men.

Steps to make a Venn-diagram

Before: Cut paper discs of different sizes and keep them ready Carry large sheets and sketch pens etc. Select a suitable place and set the climate for a frank discussion Invite people from all sections of the village to participate in the discussion Decide the entry topic before starting the discussion, e.g. credit organisation or service organisations etc. Initiate a discussion on the particular topic.

During:1. Ask the villagers to make a list of all the institutions functioning in the area including government and non-government organisations and village organisations (groups).2. Ask the villagers to choose a large disc for an important and a smaller one for a less important institution (as they feel) and write names of the institution on the paper circles.3. Then ask them to draw a circle on the large paper sheet denoting their village and position the paper discs (name of institutions written on them) around that. The paper circles may or may not overlap. The distance of the paper circle from the centre will denote the intensity of involvement of that particular institution in the village.4. Allow them to change the positions of the paper discs if they want to (after second round of discussion). 5. At the end of the participatory exercise ask the villagers to paste the discs on the paper sheet.

Note: Distance of a chapati from the village does not mean geographical distance.

After: Try to understand the relationship of these organisations with the villagers from the diagram (for example, a bigger paper circle marked electricity placed at a distance from the village would mean that the villagers are aware how useful electricity would be in their life, but it was not available in the village). Record the findings. Record differences of views between men women, rich and poor people of the village. Thank all participating villagers for sharing information.

7.5.4 Mobility mapping

This tool can be used for data collection and as a tool for analysis. This tool is mainly concerned with the contacts between an individual or group and the outside world. Contacts and decision-making within a community are closely linked. Spatial mobility can be used as an indicator for a person's contact with, and knowledge of, the outside world and her/his authority in the community. It may also indicate freedom, wealth, empowerment, education or consciousness. The mobility map allows you to record, compare, and analyse the mobility of different groups of people in a community (e.g. old men, women, children, educated people).

Steps

Before: Select a suitable location for the discussion Decide beforehand with the group for whom the mobility map is being prepared. Remember that the mobility pattern of different groups in a community might differ greatly.

During: Ask the group to write on small pieces of papers or on the floor with chalk, names of different places they visit frequently (daily/weekly). Ask them to place those pieces of paper at different distances from their village (name of village is written on another piece of paper and placed centrally). Now ask them for the various reasons for which they visit that particular place. Ask them to connect these places with the village with the different seeds or colours or symbols. Ask them the frequency of the visit and the distance of the place from the village as well as their mode of travel.

Take a detailed record of mobility pattern of different groups and compare. Relate this information with other already available information such as seasonal variations in mobility, mobility of poor women and livelihood, changing trend in forests and present mobility pattern etc.

After:Organise the presentations by the villagers for triangulation, record the information and thank everyone for the participation.

7.5.5Livelihood analysis

Livelihood diagrams are used to help interpret the behaviour, decisions and coping-strategies of households with different socio-economic characteristics. For example, a female-headed household with irregular income is likely to have different problems and needs, or spending patters, than the household of a rich trader or a government employee, and may adopt different strategies in the case of crisis. The tool focuses on the economic profile of households. Variables can include: Household size and composition Livestock ownership Number of labour migrants in the household Proportion of income by source Crops Livestock Trade and craft Remittances Expenditures Seasonality Relative income Credit and debt

The situation of the different wealth groups can be understood much better. It can be a next step after wealth-ranking/well-being grouping.

Steps1. Define a household in that particular community2. Choose variables to be recorded (household size, livestock etc.)3. Decide from which different economic groups you want information and select a representative household of each group.4. Design a data collection table5. Meet the members of the household and organise the discussion6. Ask the family members about different source and proportions of their income, for example agriculture, small business, remittance from outside, pension, livestock etc.7. Ask them to explain the different sources and proportion of income, through diagrams in the form of chapatis or bars on the floor on paper using seeds or colours. Ask them to draw a pie-chart or a circle using various coloured seeds, and fill in the circle in different proportions.8. Initiate discussion on the diagram and obtain information from the members of the household9. Interview a number of households (at least 5-6 in a village) from different socio-economic groups or based on gender and compare data.10. Cross check information with direct observation.11. Prepare the livelihood analysis diagrams

Precautions Take a detailed record of the diagrams developed by the villagers or socio-economic groups or gender groups and any other special information that emerges out of the discussion The final diagram could be used to discuss if there exists any deficit in the family budget or if the income from any particular source could be further increased

7.6Calendars

Calendars are diagrams showing the timing and/or importance of events over a period of time, year, production season or day. The seasonal analysis enables the PRA team to understand the villagers perceptions of seasonal variations of a wide range of topics like availability of fodder, food supplies, work load, labour demand, credit demand, incidences of livestock diseases in a village in a given year. The team would understand very clearly how villagers would interpret this data in their own style. Information of the existing cropping calendar would also help to understand the changes that would take place when interventions are introduced to improve crop/livestock production and land use. The workload of women throughout the year can also be known from the calendars.

A seasonal calendar attempts to establish regular cycles or patterns of activities and incidents within a community over 12 or 18 months. One calendar usually covers one topic. However different calendars can be used when interpreting the drawings to try and clarify linkages. The final calendars can be important in determining labour availability, times of diseases and food shortages or variations in cash flow.

Data are collected from various groups in the village. This depends on the objective of the exercise. If a village has distinct agro-ecological zones, groups can be selected from these so that differences in cycles based on agro-ecological potential are reflected in the calendars. One can also make an effort to make the calendars with groups from different wealth groups or according to gender so that these differences are reflected as well.

The themes of seasonal calendars will vary from village to village. Themes also vary depending on the objective of the survey. One has to identify priority issues. One should focus on themes that show variability within the year and that are relevant to the survey. The choice of the factors also depends on possible follow-up activities. Commonly used topics include:- annual rainfall, water availability, temperature;- cash and food crops in the field, agricultural production;- cattle milking, availability of animal fodder;- demand for agricultural and non-agricultural labour;- food availability;- human, crop and animal diseases;- collection of water, firewood;- household work;- cash flow.

Steps

The following steps are a guideline for making a seasonal calendar with farmers or key-informants:1. Make a checklist of what should be discussed in the exercise.2. Decide on how to organise the data. There are several ways to organise the data. Large sheets of paper may be used or sketches may be made on the ground on loose sand.3. Select villagers or key-informants. The seasonal calendar can be made for each wealth class separately with men and women. Ask if the selected people are willing to participate.4. Introduce yourself and briefly explain the exercise.5. Prepare the calendar on the ground or on a large sheet of paper. Make sure that all participants in the exercise can see the calendar easily. Make 19 columns. The first one is to indicate the crop or any other subject, the 18 others are for the months. The calendar starts at the beginning of an agreed season, e.g. February. Ask the villagers to indicate important social or religious festivities on the calendar. This serves as a control to check if villagers and outsiders are using the same time reference. While most calendars start with the first month of the year there may be compelling reasons to start with the advent of rain, planting time, or some other significant event in the yearly cycle of the community.6. Start with the cropping calendar. Ask the participants what the first crop is they sow. Fill this out in the first column on the first line.7. Ask when the first farmer sows his or her crop. Indicate this on the calendar. 8. Ask when the last farmer sows his or her crop. Indicate this on the calendar as well and draw a line between the two points.9. Ask the same questions about all the following cultural practices for this crop and indicate in the same way.10. Repeat this for all the crops cultivated in the village.11. The same can be done for any other topic, e.g. all the major activities in animal husbandry, food availability or off-farm labour activities.12. After all the activities are indicated, ask the participants which is the month with the heaviest workload, the next busiest month, the least busiest month, the second last busiest,... This can be visualised by a number of stones under each month (12 for the busiest, 1 for the least busy).13. Discuss the number of stones that have been put and why. Respect the interviewing guidelines.14. Request the group to indicate the constraints felt during the different months of the year, and discuss solutions tried, their results and possible other solutions.15. Copy the calendar on paper and note down the discussion carefully.

7.7Ranking

Ranking or scoring means placing something in order. Analytical tools such as ranking complement semi-structured interviews by generating basic information that leads to more direct questioning. They may be used as part of an interview or separately. Ranking is particularly useful for sensitive information, especially for income or wealth. Informants are generally more willing to provide relative values regarding their wealth than absolute figures (e.g. "Rank your income sources by importance", rather than "How much do you earn?").

7.7.1Preference or pairwise ranking

This tool is used to determine the main preferences and priorities of individuals or groups for a set of items (such as tree species, government services, seed varieties, soil and water conservation measures). The priorities of different groups can be compared against one another (men and women, young and old, rich and poor). This ranking allows us to determine the main problems or preferences of individual community members, identifying their ranking criteria, and easily compare the priorities of different individuals. Individuals compare two activities or problems at any given time. The total number of appearance in the table reflects the relative preference.

Steps:1. Choose a set of problems, or preferences to be prioritised.2. Choose with the help of the interviewee, six or less of the most important items in this set.3. Note each of them down on a separate card.4. Put two cards in front of the interviewee and ask her/him to choose the biggest problem, most preferred option, and to give reasons for this choice. The question that forces the respondent to make the choice is important. Question might be: "Which of these two do you prefer to grow" Mark the response in the appropriate box in the matrix.5. The informant should then be asked why he or she made the choice. In other words: "What is good about the winner?" You continue to probe until nothing further arises. Then you ask: "What is bad about the loser" to find out all the negative qualities. Do not ask leading questions. Write down all the reasons.6. Present a different pair and repeat the comparison until all possible combinations have been considered (all boxes of the matrix have to be filled). To keep the informant interested pick different pairs each time. Rather than comparing item A against B, item A against C, item A against D, compare A and B, then C and D, then E and F, then C and A, etc. 7. List the problems or preferences in the order which the interviewee has ranked them. The frequency of occurrence of each item indicates the rank, i.e. the highest frequency is the most preferred. List favourable and unfavourable criteria by each item.8. Repeat the exercise for a number of individuals and tabulate their responses.

7.7.2Matrix scoring and ranking

Matrix scoring and ranking allows a team to rank items based on criteria. Criteria common to all individuals participating in the exercise are identified. These criteria may vary from group to group. Matrix scoring gives an opportunity to the outsiders in understating clearly the priorities of villagers in selecting any crop variety, vegetables, tree species, breed of livestock, selecting a particular soil conservation method or even identifying the more suitable source of credit for men. This exercise not only provides an opportunity to outsiders to learn, but also to the villagers in understanding their own reasons for selecting any particular item, source etc.

Steps:1. Choose, or ask people to choose, a class of objects that is important to them (e.g. tree species, fruit).2. List the 5 or 6 most important items.3. From each item you elicit criteria by asking: "What is good about each item? What else?" (continue until there are no more replies); "What is bad about each item? What else" Continue until you have 10-20 criteria or until there are no more replies.4. List all criteria. Turn all negative criteria into positive ones by using the opposite, e.g. "vulnerable to pests" becomes "resists pests", "expensive" into "cheap".5. Draw up a matrix with the items across the top and the criteria down the side. 6. For each criterion ask which object is the best. "Which is best, then next best?", "Which is worst, then next worst". Of the two that are remaining ask "Which is better". If you do a scoring then discuss with the informant(s) how many counters (stones, seeds, leaves) to allocate as a maximum per cell or per row. They must then fill each box with the relative value of the item. Rank or score directly into the matrix.7. Ask: "Which criterion is the most important"8. Force a choice: "If you could have only one of these, which would you choose?" This can lead to new criteria. 9. Calculate total score and rank.10. Repeat for a number of interviewees.

This methods works well with groups and individuals. Doing it with a group has some advantages: a wider range of experiences is used responses tend to be faster if one person gets tired another can take over you will get more criteria disagreements will be revealing issues for further investigation

Limitations of matrix scoring are that: it does not handle weighting of the criteria it is only useful for comparing fairly similar items that are readily interchangeable

7.7.3Wealth ranking and well-being grouping

In every community there are differences in wealth. These differences influence people's behaviour and coping strategies, including the adoption of technology. Wealth ranking is based on the assumption that community members have a good sense of who among them is more or less well off. The main idea is that villagers use their own knowledge and criteria to do the ranking and outsiders learn to understand the way the villagers interpret the economic status of each family living in the villager. Wealth ranking allows a PRA team to: investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in the community discover local indicators and criteria of wealth and well-being establish the relative position of households in a community (social stratification)

The information about the different socio-economic groups is extremely important. Once different groups are known it is much easier for the facilitators to get them involved in the planning process. This is especially true for poor people who often are not so vocal or are suppressed by gatekeepers to articulate their problem and their needs. It is only by these means that it can be prevented. The rich people in a village may manipulate development projects in such a manner that future benefits of the projects would go only to them and not to the real target groups of the projects.

Precautions: Assure that this exercise is done in confidence and does not cause bad feelings within the community. Wealth ranking does not work well in heavily populated areas. Scores between villagers cannot be compared.

Method 1: Wealth ranking using the social or village map

Before: Gather a group of villagers from different parts of the village in a quite place. Hand-over and display the social/participatory map that has already been prepared by the villagers. This map may be useful in the exercise. Have the markers, paper etc. ready.

During:1. Begin the discussion with the villagers. Ask the villagers to rank the families in the village according to their wealth in any manner they like. Perhaps it may be easy to begin the exercise by asking villagers to mark the richest family in the village on the village social map.2. Then ask the villagers to mark the second richest, third richest and the fourth and so on, on the social map. Ask the villagers to explain why those households are categorised as rich by them and record their criteria. Criteria could be for example types of roofs, landholding size, ownership of resources, access to resources, etc.3. Then in the same manner start from the poorest, which household is the poorest persons house, then little better off and so on.4. Ask the villagers to prepare a list of households starting with the richest household at the top of the list and the poorest household appearing at the bottom. Once the list is completed, start with well-being grouping.5. Request the participants to group the households in accordance with their wealth or well-being.

Precautions: When villagers rank the families according to criteria do not disturb them by intervening with instructions/questions. Villagers criteria could be quite different from the PRA team expectation. Discuss the information with other villagers for cross-checking/triangulation. But take care not to do this in public because wealth and personal/family possessions could be sensitive issues, which may not be liked by villagers to be discussed openly, especially, with outsiders. Thank the villagers for their help and participation.

Method 2: Wealth ranking using cards

Steps:1. Make a list of all the households in the village. Do this together with village leaders and check later on with the Village Extension Officer. Write all the names on a card and number the cards;2. Select 3 people in the village who know all the households. The exercise is carried out by them individually and in private. Explain the exercise and its purpose. 3. Each person can decide himself or herself how many piles of cards he or she wants to make. They have to divide their fellow villagers according to wealth. The card of the person itself is taken out of the pile.4. Ask the person who has divided the pile of cards on what criteria he or she has made the selection.5. Bring these results together and make calculations as described below.

Precautions: stress the secrecy of the information which is obtained. make sure the informant knows everybody in the village and is not forgetting anybody. do not give any hints about the criteria on which to stratify the households. do not forget a pocket calculator.

7.8 Trends

7.8.1Time trends

Time trends show quantitative changes over time and can be used for a large number of variables: Yields Area under cultivation Livestock population Prices Interest rates Migration Population size and number of households Birth and death rates Malnutrition rates Rainfall

Steps:1. Use paper or other materials.2. Try to obtain data for the last 10 years.3. Plot the interaction of two or more variables on the same sheet.4. Obtain information from secondary sources and interviews.5. Ask villagers to draw their own time trend diagrams.6. Where numbers are not available, show trends qualitatively.

When all the information on changes and trends have been collected and recorded get all other villagers to comment on in so that triangulation of data could be done.

7.8.2Historical profile

A historical profile reveals information for understanding the present situation in the community. It provides a summary of key historical events in a community and their importance for the present situation. They generally focus on incidents such as outbreaks of epidemics, droughts and famine, and changes in land tenure. But events may also include: building of infrastructure introduction of new crops changes in administration and organisation major political events

Information is collected from secondary sources (books, reports, archives) and from interviews with key-informants.

8.9 Gender analysis

7.9.1Introduction

Gender analysis is relevant in all phases of agricultural research and development, be it planning, experimentation, evaluation, dissemination, or adoption/impact assessment. Major tools for analysing gender relations are: Needs assessment Labour division by gender and age Assessment of types of work Access to and control over resources needed for the various agricultural activities and the benefits generated by that activity Explanation of differences between women and men in labour division and access to and control of resources and benefits Assessment of the potential effects of a technology on women and men

In the following paragraphs we will introduce 3 different tools for doing a gender analysis:1. Harvard Analytical Framework2. Gender Analysis Matrix3. Gender disaggregation of data

7.9.2The Harvard Analytical Framework

This is one of the first gender analysis models (developed in 1985 by Overholt et al.) that identifies and organises information about the gender division of labour in a given community according to three levels of analysis: 1. an activity profile or role profile2. an access and control profile3. a influencing factor or context profile

Ad 1. The activity profile

An activity profile presents the division of labour between various groups based on age and gender. It answers the question: Who is doing what? The labour activities are split into three roles: productive, reproductive and community. The profile may also contain the location of activities and the amount of time spent by individuals in accomplishing them. Difficulties are often related to labour shortages usually at particular times of the year and often for particular tasks. This profile enables you to identify the right target group for your activity and check whose needs are addressed. Through this profile you will be able to foresee the consequences of the activity for the labour division and total workload by gender. Results of an activity profile are presented in a tabular form.

When can you make an activity profile?You can make this profile: as part of a survey that focuses on a sector (agriculture, livestock, forestry, income generating activities), or a specific activity (e.g. a diagnostic survey for goats, an adoption survey for bean varieties). at the beginning of an on-farm trial or training before you identify trial participants or trainees. during an on-farm trial that you already started to identify participants for trial assessments.

How long does it take to make one activity profile?In general you should be able to finish an interview in about 45 minutes.How do you make an activity profile? Select a group of farmers or individuals. Divide the group into male and female farmers or interview individual farmers talking separately to men and women. If relevant you can divide groups further according to age and marital status. The group or individual list their own activities depending on the objective and theme of the study. You ask the following key questions: Who does what? Be specific: men, women, male child, female child, male hired labour, female hired labour. When is it done? This can be on a seasonal or daily basis. How much time is spent on these activities? Optional: Where does the activity take place? What is the total workload by gender? Why do certain groups have specific tasks, why is the labour division the way it is? This will clarify if and how certain inequities or constraints can be addressed. To make this easier you can restrict the determinants (i.e. why) to: legal, religion, culture, education, economics or politics. Compare the different activity profiles and discuss the differences between them with the group or several individuals. Summarise the data in a table. Present the profiles in a report and discuss similarities, differences and factors explaining these.

How many activity profiles do you need to make?The number of profiles depends on the anticipated diversity of households. Start with an initial number of 10 activity profiles (10 households). If after these 10 profiles you do not get new information anymore you stop. If all profiles are different you add another 5-10 profiles until you capture all the diversity.

Beware of the following when you make an activity profile: Avoid going into the field with a pre-established list of activities in table format. The interviewees should list the activities themselves and the interview should be a conversation, not just filling the data on a form. You should check if no activities are missing. Try to follow a chronological order of activities. Be precise in note taking and reporting. Certain activities may be done by both men and women, sometimes one of them taking the lead, the other assisting. Reflect this in your report by using different codes: M/F, done by both men and women, but men more important MF, done by both men and women

Table 7.6Activity profile for cabbage for male headed household in Kibirigwe irrigation scheme

ActivityWhoWhen

1.Land preparationF/HLDecember

2.PlantingF/HLMid-January

3.First weeding Second weedingF/HLF/HLEarly FebruaryMid-March

4.Top dressing FMid-March

5.SprayingMEvery week for one month

6.IrrigationM/HLOnce a week when dry

7.HarvestingF/HLMid-April

8.MarketingF/HLMid-April

9.Nursery preparation and seed plantingF/HLMid-April

Legend: F=Female, HL=Hired Labour, M=MaleSource: Joldersma and Musyoki, 1999

Ad 2. The access and control profile

The profile indicates differences in access to and control over resources required to undertake an activity, and benefits from a certain activity by various groups (Box 7.1). Access means that you can get or use a resource or benefit, while control means that you can decide and have the ultimate authority about the use of a resource or benefit.

Box 7.1Resources and benefits

Resources are:economic or productive resources such as land, seed, water, knowledge, labour, tools, skillstime which is a particularly critical and scarce resource for womeneducation and informationBenefits are: basic needs such as the products harvested (e.g. food), clothes and sheltermoney earned asset ownershipstatus, political power

Source: CCIC et al., 1991

If you do not address the question of who controls resources and benefits within a household, you ignore household members relative bargaining power and presume equality in the household. Women may have access to land, but no control over its long-term use or ownership. This may reduce womens motivation to plant trees. Household members may have access to food, but no control over its allocation within the household. Household members may have access to income through food production, but no control over how it can be spent. The latter may reduce a persons motivation to e.g. provide extra labour for a new activity.

Through an access and control profile you can identify barriers to womens and mens access to and control over resources required for a certain research activity. You will also be able to identify possible benefits for women and men as a result of the specific activity. Analysis of access to and control over resources and benefits can create a framework for studying production constraints and proposed solutions.

When can you make an access and control profile?An access and control profile is specifically useful in diagnosis, but also useful in evaluating adoption and impact assessment.

How long does it take to make one access and control profile?In general you should be able to finish an interview in about 45 minutes.

How do you make an access and control profile? Select a group of farmers or individuals. Divide the group into male and female farmers or interview individual farmers talking separately to men and women. If relevant you can divide groups further according to age and marital status. The group or individual list resources and benefits. For each resource and benefit you specify access and control by gender. Ask the following key questions: What resources do men and women require for their work? Who has access to these resources? Who has control over these resources? What benefits do women and men obtain from their work? Who controls these benefits? What explains the situation as it is? Compare the different profiles and discuss the differences between them with the group or several individuals. Summarise the data in a table. Present the profiles in a report and discuss similarities, differences and factors explaining these.

How many access and control profiles do you need to make?The number of profiles depends on the anticipated diversity of households. Start with an initial number of 10 activity profiles (10 households). If after these 10 profiles you do not get new information anymore you stop. If all profiles are different you add another 5-10 profiles until you capture all the diversity.

Beware of the following when you make an access and control profile:Find a proper translation of the terms access and control in the required language. In Kiswahili the following expressions might be used (Joldersma and Musyoki, 1999): access: ruhusa ya kutumia au uwezo control: uamuzi na umilikaji au udhibiti

Table 7.5Access and control profile of dual cattle of a male-headed household

Resources/benefitsAccessControl

Resources:LandDrugsCattleLabourBoma structureFarm equipmentSupplementary feedPastureTimeF/MM/FF/MF/MF/MF/MF/MF/MF/MMF/MMMFFFFF

Benefits:Milk consumptionCattleMilk salesPloughingHidesManureGheeF/M/CF/MF/MF/MFFF/M/CFMFFFFF

Source: Joldersma and Musyoki, 1999

Ad 3. A context profile

The context profile focuses on policies, cultural factors and social factors, and analyses factors that influence the prevailing division of labour and access to resources and benefits. Examples are legal rights, macro-economic processes, education, health, community norms, social hierarchy, migration, birth rate, scarcity of land, and social networks. The analysis can look at both international and national conditions, as well as regional and local context

7.9.3Gender Analysis matrix

The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) is a tool to determine the impact of interventions, considering factors as time, labour, resources and culture. It presents the expected effects of an activity on the gender related position of different categories of the target group in the form of a matrix.

The four categories of analysis (rows in the matrix) are women, men, the household and the community. The target groups can be changed though to fit the specific activity: Women refers to women of all ages who are in the target group, or to all women in the community. If appropriate you can make a sub-category based on age or marital status or position, e.g. women in male-headed households or women in female-headed households. Men refers to men of all ages who are in the target group, or to all men in the community. If appropriate you can make a sub-category based on age or marital status or position, e.g. elders and youngsters. Ho