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Participant Observation:

Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative

research paradigm. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural

anthropology, less so in sociology, communication studies, human geography and social

psychology. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals

(such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their

practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually

over an extended period of time. The method originated in the field research of social

anthropologists, especially Bronisaw Malinowski in Britain, the students of Franz Boas in the

United States, and in the later urban research of the Chicago School of sociology.

In participant observation,a researcher's discipline based interests and commitments shape

which events he or she considers are important and relevant to the research inquiry. According

to Howell (1972), the four stages that most participant observation research studies are

establishing rapport or getting to know the people, immersing oneself in the field, recording dataand observations, and consolidating the information gathered.

Howell's

(1972)Participant

Observation Phases

Description

Establishing Rapport

Get to know the members, visit the scene before study. Howell states

that it is important to become friends, or at least be accepted in the

community, in order to obtain quality data.

In the Field

Do as the locals do: It is important for the researcher to connect or

show a connection with the population in order to be accepted as a

member of the community. DeWalt & DeWalt (2011)]call this form of

rapport establishment as talking the talk and walking the walk. Also

mentioned by Howell, DeWalt & DeWalt state that the researcher must

strive to fit in with the population of study through moderation of

language and participation. This sets the stage for how well the

researcher blends in with the field and the quality of observable events

he or she experiences.

Recording

Observations and Data

field notes

interviews

reflexivity journals: Researchers are encouraged to record their

personal thoughts and feelings about the subject of study. They

are prompted to think about how their experiences, ethnicity, race,

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gender, sex, sexual orientation, and other factors might influence

their research, in this case what the researcher decides to record

and observe (Ambert et al., 1995). Researchers must be aware of

these biases and enter the study with no misconceptions about not

bringing in any subjectivities into the data collection process(Ambert et al., 1995; DeWalt & DeWalt, 2011; Richardson, 2000).

Analyzing Data

Thematic Analysis:organizing data according to recurrent themes

found in interviews or other types of qualitative data collection

and narrative analysis:categorizing information gathered through

interviews, finding common themes, and constructing a coherent story

from data.

Types of participant observation

Participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down. On the

contrary, participant observation is a complex method that has many components. One of thefirst things that a researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant

observations to gather data is decide what kind of participant observer he or she will be

Spradley provides five different types of participant observations summarised below.

Participant Observation Type Chart.

Type of

Participant

Observation

Level of Involvement Limitations

Non-

Participatory

No contact with population or field

of study

unable to build rapport or ask questions as

new information comes up.

Passive

Participation

Researcher is only in the

bystander role

limits ability to establish rapport and

immersing oneself in the field.

Moderate

Participation

Researcher maintains a balance

between "insider" and "outsider"

roles

this allows a good combination of

involvement and necessary detachment to

remain objective.

Active

Participation

Researcher becomes a member of

the group by fully embracing skills

and customs for the sake ofcomplete comprehension

This method permits the researcher to

become more involved in the population.

There is a risk of "going native" as the

researcher strives for an in-depth

understanding of the population studied.

Complete

Participation

Researcher is completely

integrated in population of study

beforehand (i.e. he or she is

already a member of particular

There is the risk of losing all levels of

objectivity, thus risking what is analyzed

and presented to the public.

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population studied).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Participant Observation:

Advantages:

Participants behave as they normally do, so evidence is valid

It takes the viewpoint of the participants rather than the researcherIt can dig deep into social interaction

The researcher is open to new insights (the questions are not fixed in advance)

Disadvantages:

It studies small groups so may not be representative

It cannot be checked or repeated for reliability

It is time-consuming in relation to the amount of data collected

The researcher's presence may change the behaviour of the grouo

The researcher may be biased

If the research is covert there are more potential disadvantages:

It can raise serious ethical issues as there is no consent

The researcher may be at risk

The researcher may not be able to ask the questions they would like to ask, as they may risk

uncovering who they actually are.

Non Participant Observation:

One of the most famous studies of non-participant observation led to what is known as the

Hawthorn effect. This was a factory where the managers were trying to increase the productivity

of their workers. They brought in experts to look at how they worked and to try different methodsto ultimately increase profits such as increasing and decreasing heat in the factory. It was found

that whatever variables were controlled that productivity increased. It was concluded that just

the fact that the workers were being observed was enough to increase the work-rate.

Advantages of Non-Participant Observations include:

It is a simple and cheap method to use.

If people are unaware they are being observed they will act as they normally do.

It can be used to analyse social interaction in a wide variety of contexts.

It can be a very valid research method given the correct circumstances.

Disadvantages of Non-Participant Observations:

It relies heavily on the researchers interpretation of what is going on.

The researcher selects the actions they deem significant.

The researcher may interpret things from their own ethnic/gender/class standpoint which can

affect the validity of the research.

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If people know they are being observed they will act differently than usual.