PART ONE

Introduction to Philosophy

The Nature & Value of Philosophy

What is Philosophy? Love of Wisdom Subject Matter Questions Science Religion

Branches of Philosophy Introduction

The Nature & Value of Philosophy

Aesthetics Defined Problems Questions Aestheticians, Critics & Artists

Epistemology Defined Problems Questions

The Nature & Value of Philosophy

Ethics Morality

Descriptive Meta Normative Applied

Problems Questions

Logic Defined Varieties Questions

The Nature & Value of Philosophy

Metaphysics Defined

Ontology Problems Questions

Social Philosophy Defined Problems Questions

The Nature & Value of Philosophy

Other Branches Regional Gender/Ethnic Based

Feminism Hispanic African-America Native American

Other History of Philosophy Philosophy of Language Philosophy of Literature Philosophy of Mathematics Philosophy of Mind Philosophy of Religion Philosophy of Science

Popular Misconceptions Regarding Philosophy

Philosophy is Just a Matter of Opinion Opinions

Misconception Assumptions

Assumptions Opinions? Are all opinions equally good? Relativism & Subjectivism Plato’s Reply Conclusion

Popular Misconceptions Regarding Philosophy

Philosophy is Useless Useful or Useless?

Useless Useful

Contributions of Philosophy/Philosophers Science Logic & Math Society Ethics

Benefits of Philosophy Skills Broadens the Mind Side effects

Argument Basics

Argument Basics

Argument Concepts Defined General Assessment: Reasoning General Assessment: Are the Premises True?

Deductive Arguments

Introduction to Deductive Arguments Defined Use Assessment Valid/Invalid, Sound/Unsound

Some Common Valid Deductive ArgumentsReductio Ad Adsurdum

Defined Form #1/Form #2 Example

Inductive Arguments

Introduction to Inductive Arguments Defined Assessment Strong & Weak Arguments

Analogical Argument

Introduction Definition Uses

Form Informal Strict Form

Premise 1: X has properties P, Q, and R. Premise 2: Y has properties P, Q, and R. Premise 3: X has property Z as well. Conclusion: Y has property Z.

Analogical Argument

Assessment The strength of the argument depends on

The number of properties X & Y have in common. The relevance of the shared properties to Z. Whether X & Y have relevant dissimilarities.

Example

Argument from/by Example

Introduction Defined

Form Informal Form

Premise 1: Example 1 is an example that supports claim P.

Premise 2: Example 2 is an example that supports claim P.

Premise n: Example n is an example that supports claim C.

Conclusion: Claim P is true.

Argument from/by Example

Standards of Assessment Standards

The more examples, the stronger the argument. The examples must be relevant. The examples must be specific & clearly identified. Counter-examples must be considered.

Argument from Authority

Introduction Defined Use

Form Premise 1: Person A is an authority on subject S. Premises 2: Person A makes claim C about subject S. Premises 3: Therefore, C is true.

Argument from Authority

Assessment Standards

The person has sufficient expertise in the subject. The claim is within the expert’s area of expertise. There is an adequate degree of agreement among

experts. The expert is not significantly biased. The area of expertise is a legitimate area or discipline. The authority must be properly cited.

The Origin of Western Philosophy

The Origin of Western Philosophy

Greek Poets Poets Greek Gods

Homer & Other Poets Background The Natural Order Morality Four Concepts of Order

Purposeful Agents Random, purposeless events. The amoral fates Gods sometimes acting on the basis of objective moral principles.

Starting Point for Greek Science & Philosophy

The Origin of Western Philosophy

The Origin of Western Philosophy Introduction Thales Influences

Thales Background Problem of the One & The Many

Water The Problem of Permanence & Change Importance

Monism Materialism Theoretical understanding No appeal to tradition or authority.

The Sophists

Historical Background An Age of Gold An Age of Irony Causal Factors

Decline of traditional authority Relativism Democracy & individualism Skepticism Practical The masses

Rise of the Sophists Rise of the Sophists Skepticism, Relativism & Success Nomos vs. Physis

Importance of the Sophists Influence on Socrates & Plato Important contributions

Socrates

Background Life & Death (470-399 B.C.) Wisdom The Real Socrates? Socrates & the Sophists Ignorance

The Socratic Method: Questioning The Dialectic Stages

Philosophical conversation A key concept Ignorance & confusion Clarification A better definition & repetition Realization of ignorance

Socrates

The Socratic Method: Questioning Life & Death (470-399 B.C.)

The Socratic Method: Questioning Finding Flaws Finding a Structural Flaw

The definition is circular The definition takes a part to be the whole The definition is a list of examples

Reductio Ad Absurdum (Reducing to Absurdity) Assume P Derive Q from P Show that Q is absurd or contradictory Conclude P is false.

Socrates

The Method of Counterexample Too broad Too narrow

Reasoning & Definitions Introduction Inductive Reasoning

Generalization Universal Definitions

Natural categories

Metaphysics Introduction Greek accounts of the soul/psyche Socrates’ Account

Socrates

Ethical Theory Virtue Why be moral? Ethical Intellectualism Knowledge & Goodness, Ignorance & Evil

Social & Political Philosophy Distrust of Democracy Laws Social Contract Theory Natural Law Theory

Socrates’ Contributions Plato Ethical Theory Personality

Plato

Background The Death of Socrates Life 428/427-348/347 B.C. Comprehensive Philosophy

The Apology

Opening of the Trial Charges

Wisdom & Socrates’ Task Wisdom Politicians Poets Artisans Wisdom

The Charges The Youth A villainous misleader of the youth

Teaching Having no gods Making the worse appear the better cause.

The Apology

The Accusers Meletus-Poets Anytus-craftsmen & politicians Lycon-rhetoricians

Charges Meletus

Charges A doer of evil who corrupts the youth Does not believe in the gods of the state but has his own divinities

The Corrupter of the Youth Socrates will prove Meletus is

A doer of evil Pretending to be earnest Is eager to bring men to trial

Questioning Meletus Meletus claims to think a great deal about the youth Socrates asks Meletus to tell the judges who improves the youth Every Athenian, except the sole corrupter Socrates, improves the youth

The Apology

Socrates’ Horse Trainer Analogy One is able to do the horses good The trainer does the horses good Others injure the horses This is true of horses and any animals The youth would be happy with one corrupter and

everyone else improving them Meletus shows he has never thought about the young.

The Apology

The Unintentional Argument Meletus Agrees

It is better to live among good citizens than bad The good do their neighbors good, the evil do evil No one would rather be injured than benefited No on likes to be injured

Meletus accused Socrates of intentionally corrupting the youth. Meletus admitted the good do good and the evil do evil Socrates knows that if he corrupts a man he has to live with,

he is likely to be harmed Socrates either does not corrupt or corrupts unintentionally. Either way Meletus is lying If his offense is unintentional, Meletus should have corrected

him Meletus has no care about the matter.

The Apology

Religious Charges Against Socrates Socrates teaches new divinities Socrates asks if Meletus claims he

Believes in some gods and is not an atheist Or that they are not the gods the city recognizes

Meletus claims Socrates is an atheist and teacher of atheism Socrates’ Reply

Meletus contradicts himself Analogy

Human things and not human beings Horsemanship and not horses Flute playing and not flute players Spiritual and divine agencies and not spirits and

demigods.

The Apology

Meletus: Socrates teaches and believes in divine beings If Socrates believes in divine beings he must believe in

spirits or demigods. Meletus’s Facetious riddle: The demigods/spirits are

gods, but Meletus claims Socrates does not believe in gods

Meletus claims Socrates believes in gods-if he believes in demigods. If demigods are sons of gods, there must be gods. Otherwise, one might as well affirm the existence of

mules and deny that of horses and asses. Meletus cannot prove that one can believe in divine and

superhuman beings and not believe in gods, demigods and heroes.

The Apology

Wisdom Fear, Wisdom & Death

Fear of death is the pretense of wisdom Socrates knows If they offer him freedom if he stops being a philosophy,

he will obey god. The Gadfly

Socrates is the gadfly to the horse of the state Why He Did Not Advise the State

One who fights for the right, if he would live even briefly, must have a private and not public station.

The Vote Socrates is found guilty

The Apology

Penalties & Death Penalty

Prytaneum A fine

Life & Death He would rather die than speak in their manner and live The difficulty is not to avoid death, but to avoid

unrighteousness. Prophecy

By killing men they cannot prevent someone from censoring their evil lives

The easiest and noblest way is not disabling others, but improving yourself.

The Voice His internal oracle did not give him any sign

The Apology

Death is Nothing to Fear Death is a state of nothingness or a migration from this world. If death is a state of nothingness, it is an unspeakable gain. If death is a journey, no good can be greater. Death is nothing to fear.

No Evil Can Befall the Good No evil can happen to a good main, either in life or after death. The time has arrived So, the oracle gave no sign

Favor To trouble his sons as Socrates troubled others.

The End The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways-I to die

and you to live. Which is better, god only knows.